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JOHNSON'S 
UNIVERSAL    CYCLOPEDIA 


Dr.  Johns.  r.aVn^s^, 
•     U.  S.  Hrrn'j. 
A  NEW  EDITION 

PREPARED   BY  A   CORPS   OF  THIRTY-SIX   EDITORS,   ASSISTED   BY 
EMINENT   EUROPEAN   AND   AMERICAN   SPECIALISTS 


OHAELES   KENDALL   ADAMS,    LL.D. 


EDITOE-ra-CHIEP 


ILLVSTRATED  WITH  MAPS,  PLANS.  AND  ENORAVINOS 


COMPLETE  IN  EIGHT  VOLUMES 

VOL.  in 


NEW   YORK 
J.    JOHNSON     COMPANY 
1894 


THE  NEW 


YORK 
PUBLIC    LIBRARY 

596522 

AfToH.  LENOX  AND 
TILO   N  FOUMOATIONa. 

R       i^ia       ■ 


Copyright,  1874,  1877, 
Bt  ALVIN  J.  JOHNSON. 

CopTRiGHT,  1886,  1889, 
By  a.  J.  JOHNSON  AND   COMPANY. 

Copyright,  1898, 
By  a.  J.  JOHNSON  COMPANY. 


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#  •• 


Note. — The  puiilish4rt«ifetrbf  J3b  record  the  death  of  Dr.  Philip  Schaflf,  the  senior  associate  editor  in  the  department  of 
General  Church  Ifistdf^  aftti  *Biblical  Literature.  His  name  has  been  retained  in  the  list  of  associate  editors  because  the 
articles  and  thShS^feio^i^d^pl^tljd  \)j  him  are  found  in  every  volume.  Full  charge  of  the  department  now  devolves  on 
his  colleague,  Itr.  'Samuel  ^facauley  Jackson. 


EBlTOK-l.V-  CHIEF. 

CHARLES  KENDALL  ADAMS,  LL.  D., 

Hlrtoiy,  PoUU«,  and  EducMJon. 
ASSOCTATS  EDITORS. 


K  and  Literature, 


LItRTY    H.    BilLBT,    M.  S., 

Profanor  at  Honlcullurv.  Cornell  UnlTenlty. 
ABiioolture.  Hortlcultiire.  ForMtrr,  eM. 

iLLi»  J.  Beeches,  D.  I).. 

Proleacor  or  Hebrew  LanicusKt 

Auburo  TbeoUiEical  S«inuiar>'. 

PmbTtsiisn  Chnrcli  Ulstor;,  Doctrine.  «t«. 

:nrv  a.  Beers,  A.  M., 

ProraiBor  of  EDjcllah  Literature,  Yale  Uniierelt;. 
Engllvh  Utermtore,  ete- 
IHLES  E.  BesseT,  Ph.D., 

Protenor  of  Bolanr,  Rtale  Unfrerslly  of  Nebnukk. 
Botuir.  TeBOtuble  PhjiloIoBT,  eta. 

Composer  and  Organist,  Brooklyn.  N.  Y. 
Mnalo,  Tliearj  of  Hkruiaii)',  Maaleal  Term*,  eto. 
oR.iE  P.  Fisher.  D.  D..  LU  D., 

professor  of  Church  Hlatorj,  Yalo  Dniversilr- 
CoDKrCKaUoil*'  Clmnili  Hlatorj,  Doctrine,  eto. 

i.vE  K.  Gilbert.  A.M., 

Geologist.  U.  S.  Geological  Surre;. 
Phjalenl  Oeogntphj',  G«o1an'.  and  FaUeontologr. 

-I[.    L.    GUiDEBSLEEVE,    LL.  I>.. 

Profeasor  of  Oreek,  Johns  Hopklm  Univenltj-. 
Grecian  and  Konun  Utermtim. 

TiriR  T.  Haulev.  a.  M.. 

Professor  of  PoUtlcal  Economy,  Yale  Unlveniity. 
Political  Economy.  Flnanoe,  and  Tranaportatlon. 
>HK  W.  tURaiNUTtJs,  A.M.,  P.  L.S., 

Chief  of  the  U.  6.  Weather  Bureau. 
GeoKtapby,  Metearolacy.  CllnuktolOKT,  eto. 

ii,i.u«  T.  Harris,  LL.  D., 

U.  B.  Commliisianer  of  Education,  aod 

Makk  Baldwin,  Ph.D.. 

Profeaor  of  Experimental   Psychology,  CoUefe  oT 
PhUoaaptijF,  Paycbology,  Etblca,  etc. 
IIS  F.  HuBST.  D.D.,  LL.  D..  Bisimp  (M.  E.). 

Chancellor  American  University,  Waslilngton. 
MethofUat  fHinrch  HUtory.  Doctrine,  ete. 
yRY  E  Jacobs,  D.  D.,  LL.  [>., 

Professor  of  Sj-stematic  Theoloey.  Evangetfcal  Lu- 
theran Theological  Seminary,  PhiladplpTiia.  Pa. 
Lntheran  Chorcli  Hlatory,  Dftctrlne,  etc. 
mi  S.  Jordan.  LU  D.. 

ppestdenl  Lelaud  Stanford  Junior  University. 
ZonloKT,  Comparative  Anatomy,  and  Animal  Pbyal- 
olocy. 

IS  J.  Keane.  D.  n..  LL.  D.,  Bishop  (R.  C). 
Hwtor  of  the  Catholic  UniverBity  of  Ame 
Bvman  Catholic  Cbnreh  HUtory,  Doctrine 
.iRLES    KiRfHHOFF.    M.  E.. 

Editor  o(  the  Iron  Age,  New  York, 
MlnloB  EnElDoeiiuB,  MlDeralogy,  and  Met 
•■■HKN    R    Ll-c'B, 


Aktiiur  R.  Marsh,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Cotnparatlvo  literature.  Han 
Foreign  Literature,  etc. 
James  MnRcrR, 

Professor  of  Mil.  Engineering,  West  Point 
Bfllltary  EnglneeriDK,  Science  and  Mnnltlol 

MA.V-S1.-IEI.D    M 


CItU  GnglneerlnK.  < 

SmoM  Xewcomb,  LL.D.. 


Edward  L.  Nichols,  Ph.  1).. 

Professor  of  PhyKi.-s,  Cornell  DniTersfty, 
Pbyllca,  Electricity  and  tU  Applications. 

William  Pepper,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.. 

Medicine,  anr^ery,  and  Collateral  Sciences 
WiLUAii  S,  Perrt.  D,  D.  Oxon.,  LU  D.,  Bishop  (P.  E.), 

EpUoopal  Chorcb  SUtory.  Doctrine,  etc 
John  W.  Powell, 

liirwtor  of  the  U,  8,  GeolOEical  Survey. 

American  Arcli^4>lo^  and  Ethnology. 
IBA  Remsen,  M.  D..  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.. 

Professor  of  ChemLatry,  Johns  Hopkins  tTnlvenl^. 

Cbemlatry  and  Ita  Appllcatltma,  etc 

Henry  Wade  Rociers  LU  D., 

Piwiident  Northweirtfm  Un 
Hnnldpal.  Clrll,  and  Conatltut 

Philip  Sciufr,  S.  T.  D„  LL.  D., 

Profexsor  of  Church  History,  Union  Theological  Se 
inary.  Now  York,  and 
Samiel  Macaulev  Jackson.  D.D..  LL.D,. 

fieneral  CboTCb  History  and  Biblical  Llteratnrv. 
AlSSWORTH    H.    SptlKFORD.  LL.  D., 
Lihrarian  of  Congress. 
V.  8.  GAOKTaphy,  Statlstica,  etc 

HrssELL  Stl-rhis,  a.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  P.  A.  L  A., 

Ei  Pn^dent  Architectural  League  of  New  York, 
ArctUBoU^y  and  Art. 
Robert  II.  Tiicrstcis,  Dnp.  Ene„  LL.D.. 

lllrei-tor  of  Sibley  College,  CoroeU  Unlversfty, 
Mechanical  Hcleuea. 


t.  Evanston,  HL 


Benjamin  Iuk.  Wheklkb.  Ph.D.. 

Professor  of  Oreek  and  Com.  Philology.  Cornell  Univ. 
Comparative  Fhllolosy,  UngoUtlo,  etc. 

William  IL  Whitsitt.  D.  D.. 

-     "        r  of   Church   HiKtory.   Baptist  Theological 


e.  Ky, 


It  Chni 


Public  I«w,  Interei 


MAXAGiyO    EDITOR. 

ROBERT  LTLLEY.  M.  R.  A.S.. 


ASSISTANT   TO    THE   EniTOR-lS-CHIEF. 

CIIARLRS  H.  THURBKR.  A.M.. 


JOHNSON'S  UNIVERSAL  CYCLOPEDIA. 

VOL.  ra. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  REVISERS. 


Abbot,  Hbxbt  L.,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Colonel  U.  S.  Engineers;  brevet  brigadier-general  U.  S. 
army,  Willets  Point,  N.  Y. 

Abbott,  ALSXAyDBR  C^  M.  D., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Hyeiene,  Uniyersity  of  Pennsyl- 
yania,  Department  of  J^icine,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Adams,  Chablbs  Kendall,  LL.  D., 

President  of  the  Uniyersity  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

Adams,  Ctbus  C, 

Editorial  staff  of  New  York  Sun ;  President  of  Depart- 
ment of  Geography,  Brooklyn  Institute,  Brooklyn, 
X.  Y. 

Aldbx,  Edmuxd  Kimball,  A.  M^ 

Professor  of  History,  Packer  Collegiate  Institute, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Allbk,  Fbbdebic  Stubobs,  a.  B.,  LL  B., 

Member  of  the  New  York  Bar,  New  York. 

Amdbbson,  Hon.  Rasmus  B., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Scandinayian  Languages  and 
Literature^  Uniyersity  of  Wisconsin ;  ex-U.  S.  minis- 
ter to  Denmark ;  Maaison,  Wis. 

Badbau,  Brig.-Cren.  Adam, 

Author  of  Mililary  History  of  General  Oront, 

Bailet,  Libebtt  H.,  M.  S^ 

Profes^ior  of  General  and  Experimental  Horticulture, 
Cornell  UniTersity,  Ithaca,  N^.  Y. 

Baldwin,  Henbt,  A.  B^  New  York. 

Baldwin,  J.  Mabk,  Ph.  D., 

Stuart  Professor  of  Experimental  Psychology,  College 
of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  N.  J. 

*Babnabd,  Fbedbbick  a.  P.,  S.  T.  D.,  LL  D.,  etc.. 
President  of  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

*Babnabd«  John  G^  LL  D.,  M.  N.  \.  S., 

Brevet  major-general  U.  S.  army. 

Bean,  Tableton  H.,  • 

Assistant -in -Chanre,  Division  of  Fish  Culture,  U.  S. 
Fi<h  ronunission  antl  Honorary  Curator  of  the  U.  S. 
National  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Beech  EB,  Willis  J^  D.  D^ 

Pn»f«*^?sor  of  H»»l>ivw  Ijintruaffe  and  Literature,  Auburn 
ThtH»l«»jncal  St'iiiinary.  Aul»um,  N.  Y. 

Beers.  Henbt  A..  A.  M-. 

Pn»fessor  of  Enfirli-ih  Literature.  Yale  University,  New 
Haven.  Conn. 

Bemls,  Edwabd  W^ 

University  Exton^inn  A<5SO<'iate  Professor  of  Political 
E«^"»n«»niy  an«l  '!»H'i\'tar>'  of  the  Training  Department, 
University  of  Chicago,  Chicago.  ilL 


Bbssby,  Chables  E.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Botany  and  Horticulture,  Uniyersity  of 
Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

Brts.  Rev.  Beverlet  R.,  A.  M., 

Former  librarian  of  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Billings,  John  S.,  M.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Hygiene,  Johns  Hopkins  Universitjr,  Balti- 
more, Md. ;  Pepper  Professor  of  Hygiene,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  and  SuperiDtend- 
ent  of  Army  Medical  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Blake,  Wiluam  P.,  A.  M.,  Ph.  B., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  Collet' 
of  California;  geologist  and  mining  engineer,  Shulls- 
burg,  Wis. 

BoTBSEN,  Hjalmab  H.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  the  Germanic  Languages  and  Literatures, 
Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Bbabbook,  Edwabd  W.,  F.  S.  A., 

Chief  Registrar  of  Friendly  Societies,  London,  Eng- 
land. 

Bband,  Rev.  William  F.,  A.  M., 

Rector  of  St.  Mary*s  church,  Emmerton,  Md. 

Bbandt,  H.  C.  G.,  a.  M.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  the  German  and  French  Languages,  and 
Philology,  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y. 

Bbown,  Thomas  E.,  Jr., 

Consulting  engineer.  New  York. 

Buck,  Dudley, 

Composer  and  organist,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Buboess,  John  W.,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  LL  D., 

Professor  of  History,  Political  Science,  and  Constitu- 
tional Law,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

BuBB,  Chables  W.,*  M.  D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Canpield,  Abthub  G.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  French  Language  and  Literature,  Univer- 
sity of  Kansas,  Lawrence,  Kan. 

Chadwick,  Rev.  John  W.,  D.  D., 

Unitarian  clergyman,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Chandleb,  Chables  F.,  Ph.  D.,LL.  D.,  etc.. 

Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Medical  Jurisprudence,  Col- 
lege of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York ;  Profess<»r 
of  Chemistry  and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  the  Scho^^l 
of  Mines,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Chase,  George,  LL.  B., 

Dean  of  the  New  York  Law  School,  New  York. 

Chubch,  John  A.,  M.  E., 

Author  of  TU  Mining  Schools  of  the  United  States,  etc. 

(vi) 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  REVISERS 


VU 


Chi'rch,  William  Conant, 

Etiitx)r  of  T?ie  Army  and  Navy  Journal,  New  York. 

Churchill,  John  W.,  A.  M., 

Jones  Professor  of  Elocution,  Andover  Theological 
Seminary ;  associate  editor  of  The  Andover  Review, 
Andover,  Mass. 

(.'oFFiN,  William  A., 

Artist;  secretary  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists, 
New  York. 

t'oLBY,  Fbank  M.,  a.  M., 

Lecturer  in  History,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

CoLLiTZ,  HEBXAinr,  Ph.  D., 

Associate  Professor  of  German  and  Teutonic  Philology, 
Bryn  Mawr  College,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa. 

Com  STOCK,  John  Henry,  B.  S., 

Professor  of  Entomology  and  General  Invertebrate  Zo- 
ology, Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. ;  non-resident 
Professor  of  Entomology,  Leland  Stanford  Junior 
University,  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

(Vx)K,  Albert  S.,  Ph.  D.,  L.  H.  D., 

Professor  of  the  English  Language  and  Literature,  Yale 
University,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Cooke,  Josiah  P.,  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 

Erving  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Mineralo^,  and 
director  of  Chemical  Laboratory,  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Mass. 

Crane,  Thomas  P.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  the  Romance  Languages  and  Literatures, 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

CusHixQ,  Marshall, 

Journalist,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Davidson,  Thomas,  A.  M., 

Specialist  in  Literature  and  Medieval  Philosophy,  New 
York. 

♦Davis,  Charles  H., 

Keur-admiral  U.  S.  navy. 

Davis,  William  M.,  M.  E., 

Professor  of  Physical  Geography,  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Mass. 

Dawson,  Sir  John  William,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  G.  S., 

Emeritus  Principal,  McGill  College,  Montreal,  Canada. 

Day.  Edward  C.  H., 

Professor  of  Geology  and  Physiology,  New  York  Nor- 
mal College,  New  York. 

DiLLMAN,  Christian  Friedrich  August,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis  and  Semitic  Lan- 
guages, University  of  Berlin,  Germany. 

r>RisLER,  Henby,  a.  M.,  LL.  D., 

Jay  Professor  of  Greek,  and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of 
Art^s,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Drummond,  Hon.  Josiah  H.,  LL.  D.,  Portland,  Me. 

Dulles,  Charles  W.,  M.  D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Din-bar,  George  H., 

Manager,  Eagle  Iron  Works,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Dlrfee,  D.  C, 

Newspaper  correspondent  and  author,  Gloversville,  N.  Y. 

♦D WIGHT,  Theodore  W.,  LL.  D., 

Prnfessor  of  Municipal  Law,  Columbia  College,  New 
York. 

Kmerson,  Alfred,  Ph.  D., 

Associate  Professor  of  Classical  Archjwlogy  and  curator 
of  the  Museum  of  Casts,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca, 
N.  Y. 

Ernst,  Oswald  H., 

Major  U.  S.  Engineers:  Superintendent  of  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy,  West  Point,  N.  Y. 


♦Eve,  Paul  P.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Operative  and  Clinical  Surgery,  Medical 
Department,  University  of  Tennessee,  Nashville, 
Tenn- 

Fernow,  B.  E., 

Chief  of  Division  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Fisher,  Rev.  George  P.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Titus  Street  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  Yale 
University,  New  Haven,  Cono. 

Foster,  Frank  H.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  Pacific  Theological 
Seminary,  Oakland,  Cal. 

Fox,  George  Henrt,  M.  D., 

Clinical  Professor  of  Diseases  of  the  Skin,  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons  (Columbia  College),  New  York. 

Fbothingham,  Octavius  B.,  a.  M., 
Author  and  critic,  Boston,  Mass. 

Gage,  Simon  Henry,  B.  S., 

Associate  Professor  of  Anatomy,  Histology,  and  Em- 
bryology, Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Ga&rison,  Rev.  J.  H.,  D.  D., 

Editor  Christian  Evangelist,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

GiDDiNGS,  Franklin  H.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Political  Science,  Bryn  Mawr  College,  Bryn 
Mawr,  Pa. 

Gilbert,  Grove  K.,  A.  M.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Geologist,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Gildebsleeve,  Basil  L.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L., 

Professor  of  Greek,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Balti- 
more, Md. 

Gill,  Theodore,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  etc.. 

Professor  of  Zoology,  Columbian  University,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Gillett,  Rev.  Charles  R., 

Librarian,  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York. 

GoEBEL,  Julius.  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Germanic  Literature  and  Philology,  Leland 
Stanford  Junior  University,  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

Goessman,  Charles  A.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Chemistry,  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, Amherst,  Mass. 

♦Gray,  Asa,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Fisher  Professor  of  Natural  History,  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, Cambridge,  Mass. 

Greene,  Charles  W.,  M.  D.,  Merchantville,  N.  J. 

Groome,  F.  H., 

Author  and  editor,  London,  England. 

GUBEBNATIS,  AnOELO  DE, 

Professor  of  Sanskrit  and  Comparative  Literature,  In- 
stitute di  Studii  Superiorii  e  di  Perfezionaraento, 
Florence,  Italy. 

Gudeman,  Alfred,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Classical  Philology,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Gummere,  Francis  B.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  English  and  German,  Haverford  College, 
Haverford,  Pa. 

*GuYOT,  Arnold.  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Professor  of  Geology  and  Phvsical  Geography,  College 
of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  >«.  J. 

Hadley,  Arthur  T.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Dean  of  Courses  of 
Graduate  Instruction,  Yale  University,  New  Haven, 
Conn. 

Hagar,  George  J.,  Newark,  N.  J. 


Vlll 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  REVISERS 


Hamlin,  A.  D.  F.,  A.  M., 

Adiunct  Professor  of  Architecture,  Columbia  College, 
if  ew  York. 

Hare,  Hobart  A.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Materia  Medica,  Therapeutics,  and  Hy- 
giene, Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Harrington,  Mark  W.,  A.  M.,  F.  L.  S., 

Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Harris,  William  T.,  LL.  D.,  * 

U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Hendrickson,  George  L.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Latin,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison, 

Wis. 

*Hbnry,  Joseph,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Secretary  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Hervet,  Daniel  E., 

Organist,  Newark,  N.  J. 

HiGGiNsoN,  CoL  Thomas  W.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Hine,  C.  C, 

Editor  of  The  Insurance  Monitor,  New  York. 

Hitchcock,  Charles  H.,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., 

Hall  Professor  of  Geology  and  Mineralogy,  Dartmouth 
College,  Hanover,  N.  H. 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  Jr.,  A.  B.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Physical  Culture,  and  director 
of  the  Gymnasium,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

♦HrrcHcocK,  Roswell  Dwioht,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D., 

President  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York. 

*HoLLEY,  Alexander  L.,  C.  E.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Hodge,  F.  W., 

Ethnologist,  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Holmes,  Benjamin  Blake,  A.  B.,  New  York. 

Hughes,  Thomas,  Q.  C, 

Author  of  Tom  Broum's  School  Days,  London,  England. 

Humphreys,  Milton  W.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Greek,  University  of  Virginia,  Charlottes- 
ville, Va. 

Hurst,  John  F.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Bishop  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  American  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 

HuTTON,  Frederick  R.,  C.  E.,  Ph.  D., 

P^fessor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  School  of  Mines, 
Columbia  College,  New  York. 

HuTTON,  William  R.,  C.  E.,  New  York. 

♦Inglis,  David,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Pastor  of  Reformed  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Irvine,  R.  T.,  M.  D., 

Physician,  Sing  Sing  Prison,  Sing  Sing,  N.  Y. 

Jackson,  A.  V.  Williams,  A.  M.,  L.  H.  D.,  Ph.  D., 

Adjunct  Professor  of  the  English  Language  and  Litera- 
ture, and  instructor  in  the  Iranian  Languages,  Colum- 
bia College,  New  York. 

Jackson,  Samuel  Macauley,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Editor  of  A  Concise  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowledge^ 
and  associate  editor  of  the  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclo- 
poedia^  New  York. 

Jacobi,  Abraham,  M.  D., 

Clinical  Professor  of  the  Diseases  of  Children,  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  (Columbia  College),  New 
York.' 

Jacobs,  Henry  E.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Theological  Seminary,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Jennings,  John  E., 

Proof-reader,  New  York. 


Jewett,  James  R.,  Ph.  D., 

Associate  Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Huston-. 
Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  I. 

♦Johnson,  Oliver, 

Managing  editor  Christian  Union,  New  York, 

Jordan,  David  S.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University, 
Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

Keane,  John  J.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Bishop  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  rector  of  the 
CatnoUc  University  of  America,  Washington,  D.  C. 

*Kelton,  Col.  John  C, 

Adjutant-general,  U.  S.  army. 

Kern,  F.  L.,  A.  M., 

President,  Florida  Agricultural  College,  Lake  City,  Fla. 
KiNOSLEY,  J.  S.,  S.  D., 

Professor  of  Biology,  Tufts  College,  Massachusetts. 

EiRCHHOFF,  Charles,  M.  E., 

Editor  of  The  Iron  Age,  New  York. 

Ejttredoe,  George  Lyman,  A.  B., 

Assistant  Professor  of  English,  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Mass. 

♦Krauth,  Charles  P.,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Vice-provost  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

KuNZ,  George  F.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Gem  expert  with  Tiffany  &  Co.,  and  of  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey;  Mineralogist  in  charge  of  eleventh  L.  S. 
census ;  New  York. 

Lang,  Henry  R.,  Ph.  D., 

Instructor  in  the  Romance  Languages,  Yale  University, 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

Leland,  Charles  G., 

Author  of  The  Hams  Breitman  Ballads  and  The  Gyp- 
sies, London,  England. 

LiLLEY,  Robert,  M.  R.  A.  S., 

One  of  the  editors  of  the  Century  Dictionary,  New  York. 

Lucas,  Frederic  A., 

Curator  of  the  Department  of  Comparative  Anatomy, 
U.  S.  National  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Luce,  Stephen  B., 

Rear-admiral  U.  S.  Navy,  Newport,  R.  I. 

Macdonald,  Neil, 

Canadian  writer ;  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Marsh,  Arthur  R.,  A.  B., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Comparative  Literature,  Harvard 
University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

*Marsh,  George  P.,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 
Formerly  U.  S.  minister  to  Italy. 

Mason,  Otis  T., 

Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Maspero,  Gaston, 

Member  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  keeper  of  the 
Boulak  Museum,  Boulak,  Cairo,  Egypt. 

Mercur,  Lieut.-Col.  James,  U.  S.  A., 

Professor  of  Civil  and  Military  Engineering,  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy,  West  Point,  N.  Y. 

Merriman,  Mansfield,  C.  E.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Lehigh  University, 
South  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

Mooney,  James, 

Ethnologist.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Morton,  Henry,  Ph.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

President  of  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken, 
N.  J. 


re  of  the  Almanae/i 


i:nr.,>iR.  SiKOM,  LL.D^  M.N.A.S., 

l*id(fssorof  Mai  hematics  Hnd  Astronomy,  Johns  Hopkins 
[iiiviirsity,  Baltimore,  Md.,  ami  nupwrintendent  of  5^« 
Caited  Slater  Nautical  Almnnac,  WashiUBton,  D.  C. 
l.WKLL,  W.  W., 

Sfi  retary,  AmerieaD  Polk-loro  Socaetj,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
\'  iir.LS.  Edward  L.,  B.  S.,  Ph.  D., 

Profi-Bsor  of  Physics,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
I'rKMAS's,  Capl.  August, 

Kiiitor  for  Genealogy  and  Diplo 
dr  l/ollia,  Gotha,  Saxony. 
iHThlES-,  Hon.  WlLUAM  J.. 

(joviTnor  of  Georgia;  Atlanta,  Oa. 
(rnKiN.  Charles  Ledvard, 

Author  of  A  Handbook  of  Florida ;  New  York. 
-ihjhn,  Rev.  Albert,  B.  D., 

l{.'),'istrar,  American  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 
i(  R  ABH.  Alpbkus  S.,  Jr.,  M.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S.. 

l)iri'(:tor  of  tho  Peabody  Academy  of  Seience,  Salem. 
.Ma:^ 

E\-Command»r-in-chief,  Grand  Armyof  the  RepubUo; 
Albany,  N.  Y. 
IRK.  KoswEU,  A.  M.,  M.  D., 

I'rofpwsor  of  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Snrpery 
and  Clinical  Kursery,  University  of  BuSato,  Medical 
Department,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

'AnSKR,  POIHALL  A., 

.SiLifrintendeut  of  U,  S.  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis,  Md. 
'arker.  WiLLARD,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  LL.  D., 

i'rcjfessor  of  Surgery,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 
uos.  Lucy  A..  A.  M., 

Author  of  The  Character  of  Dante  (in  Seporfa  of  the 
A  merican  Danle  Saeiely) ;  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge. Mass. 
11 NE.  William  H.,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

(.'liBnecIlor  University  of  Nashville,  and  President  Pea- 
Ixfdy  Normal  College,  Nashville,  Tunn. 
:.iRiiDr.  Miss  Elizabeth  P., 

Author  of  Moral  Cullure  of  Infancy,  Letlert  to  Kin- 
dergarlneTB,  etc.;  Cambrid^.  ^Uass. 

•tXK.  WtLLIAM  0..  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.. 

Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy,  Columbia 
College,  New  York. 

E'  KHAM,  STEPUE»  P.,  A.M., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Chemistry.  University  of  Minne- 
.Mita;  Butlior  of  the  monoifraph  on  I'elroUum,  tenth 
I'.  S.  census ;  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
CPHER,  William.  M.D.,  LL.D., 
Pr. 

RRV.  WiLUAM  STBTEys,  D.  D.  Oxon.,  LL. D,.  D.C.L., 

Ui-ihop  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S 
"     7nport,  Iowa. 


POWEI 


,  JoHK  W.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 


:-EX,  Clemens,  A.  M., 

iithor  and  jonrnaliEit,  Kc 
KINO,  Edward  C,  B.  S.,  5 
lireetor  of  the  Observalor 
..U  Georoe  A.,  M.  D., 


'  York. 
.N.A.S., 

\  Cambridge, 


Survey;  and  director  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Prudent,  P.. 

Lieutenant-colonel,  French  Top.  Engineers  (retired), 
Paris,  France. 
Ravensteis,  Erhest  O.,  F.  R.  G.  S., 

Member  of  councils  of  Royal  Geographical  Society  and 
Royal  Statistical  Society,  London,  England. 
Reichert,  Edward  T„  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Physiology,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Department  of  Medicine,  Pluladelphia,  Pa. 
Reid,  John, 

President  of  St.  Andrew's  Golf  Club,  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 
Remsen,  Ira,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Pi-ofessor  of   Chemistry  and  director  of  the  chemical 
laboratory,  Johns  Uojjkiiis  University,  Medical  De- 
partment, Baltimore,  Aid. 
Riley,  Charles  V„  M,  D.,  Ph.  D., 

Entomologist  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Roberts,  Isaac  P.,  M,  Agr., 

Director  of  the  College  of  Agriculture.  Professor  of 
Agriculture,  and  director  of  the  Agricidtural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
Rogers,  Henrt  Wade,  LL.  D., 

President  Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  IlL 
Russell,  T  bo  has, 

Professor  of  Meteorology,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 
Ryan,  Harris  J.,  M.E., 

Associate  Professor  of  Electrical  Eniniieering,  Cornell 
University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
St.  John,  Samuel  B.,  M.  D.,  Ilartford,  Conn, 
ScHAEFFER,  Prof.  Edwabd  M.,  M.  D.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
•ScHAFF,  Rev.  Priup,  S.T.D.,  LU  D., 

Washburn  Profesiior  of  Church  History.  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York. 
'ScHMiBT,  Henry  I..  S.  T.  D., 

Professor  Emeritus  of  German  Languages  and  Litera- 
tures, Columbia  College  New  York. 

SCBWAB,  JOHM  C.  Ph.  D., 

Instructor  in  Political  F^conomy,  Yale  University,  New 
Uaven,  Conn.;  associate  editor,  Yalt  Redevi, 
ScHWEiN'mi,  Georoe  E.  de,  M.  D.,  Philadelphia,  Fa. 
Seelte.  Julius  H..  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Ex-President  of  Amherst  College,  Ainhcrsl,  Mass. 
Seelve.  L.  Clark.  D.  D., 

President  of  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass. 
Seouin,  Edward  C,  Jr.,  M.  D.,  New  York. 
Shaw,  Thomas, 

Professor  of  Aniinnl  TTusban'lrv,  Ontario  Agricultural 
College,  Guelph,  Ontario.  Cuiiuda. 

Shedd,  William  0.  T.,  S.  T.  D..  LL,  D., 

Emeritus    Professtir    of    Svslematie    Divinitv.    Union 
Theuiogieal  Meiniuary,  Ni^w  Yurk. 
SuELDoN,  Edward  S..  A.  B., 

Proffw^nr  of   Romance   Philology,   Har^'ard 


Li.sBi-RV.  Charles  A., 
JIanaging  director,   Pillsbury-Wuahburn    Floi 
Company,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 


Uni 


aty,  Cai 


ridge.  Ma.. 


Shields.  Cuari.es  W..  I).  D.,  LL.  D., 

Proft'Hsiir  of  the  llarmunv  of  Science  and  Revealed  Re- 
ligion, College  of  New  'Jersey,  Princeton,  N.  J. 


CONTRIBUTOBS  AND  REVISERS 


Cjtrk^  r.  S.  Boani  of  Engiueos,  New  York. 

Slowas^  J.  P^  Glasgov.  ScotlaiML 

Ssrra.  HnBSXT  H^  A.  M^ 

XAnszmliaC  Brooklrn,  X.  T. 

SrovTouk.  Adbwo«th  R,  LL.  D^ 

Lilrmnan  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 

STAOGl  A-  AL0520,  A-  K, 

AfK^ZAni  PTv«fes?«>r  and  director  of  the  Department  of 


F^jyx^  Cuiinre,  UniTeraty  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  IlL 

•SiACTTtM;.  WnxiAM,  S.  T.  D., 

Frcsder  and  fint  rector  of  St.  Peters  church.  Brook- 
Irn,  X.  Y. 

•STirHi55,  Ai.EtAyi>c«  H^  A-IL,  LL.D^ 

Vice-Presient  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  and  later 
G-:  Ten>3r  of  Georgia. 

SmtacTT.  J.  R-  S^  Ph.  D, 

Xewt.ro  Professor  of  the  Greek  Language  and  Litera- 
tant,  Amhrrst  College.  Amherst,  Mass. 

SH.H3*,  Abxu  A-  M^  LL.  D^ 

Fcrc-friy  e«iiior  of  The  MethodUi,  New  York. 

SrtLLJLkS,  WiLLlAJI  J^ 

Ar:i5t  and  critic ;  correspondent  of  the  London  Times ; 
^AL^  Icalr. 


Syr»GS.  Rr^5sini..  A-  M-,  Ph.  D^  F.  A.  L  A^ 

Ei-Prv>:  ient  of  the  Architectural  League  of  Xew  York ; 
Xew  Yi^rk. 


•Smxas.  Thcxas  O^  S.T.D^  LL.D., 

Prrff-a&i-kr  of  STjtematic  Theology,  Vanderbilt  UnlTer- 
sty.  XaahrilLe.  Tenn. 

Thtkbek.  Chakixs  H^  A.  M., 

Pr-'f-^rw^r  of  PeiAe»-*eT.  Col  gate  University,  and  princi- 
fAl  of  Ccl^ate  Acaiitrmy.  Hamilton,  X.  iT. 

THUiuaT*Ef,  RrDOLPH,  Ph.  D., 

Pr-f-jasor  *^t  C<:«c:i:AratiTe  Phflology,  University  of  Prei- 
b&rg.  B^irn.  GCrnzukoy. 

Thl  ayto5.  R*>bekt  H-.  LL.  D..  Dr.  Eng., 

D:r?c:r.r  of  Sitley  C«^"^se  and  Professor  of  Mechanical 
EE^.a«ncrinz.  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  X.  Y. 

ToaaA^rcK.  Snus  A., 

Corr.irli  Uaiversty.  Ithaca.  X.  Y. 

Tot.  CaAWFoao  H.,  LL.  D« 

Haixxck  Pr:fr-a?*>r  of  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  Lan- 
jTiajrv-s^  ar.  i  iKrirer  Lecturer  on  Biblical  Literature, 
HATTATi  Um verity,  Cambridge,  Mas& 

TrcKZT.  Miss  Jaxft, 

Bmish  Mu5eTim.  London.  Enfrland. 

TuayoL  FREi-Eai-rK  Ja«tl?ox.  Ph.  D.. 

Pr  f-^^s*  r  r.f  American  Hiatnry.  University  of  Wisconsin, 
M^L^  G.  Wis. 

•TryifxLU  JoH^c.  LL.  D^  F.  R.  S., 

Pr  *f^sr^T  "f  V-%t:iraI  Ph:!«*5«:'phy  and  Superintendent  of 
H>  vaI  iL.^itati.a,  Lc'r^don,  Ecgliind. 

Vail.  <  'HAai£?  D-, 

RrjKrar  ^-f  H:bar:  College.  Geneva.  X.  Y. 


VALLEXnXB,  B.  B., 

Dramatic  critic,  Xew  York. 

Wakfikld,  Rev.  Ben jamix  B.,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Didactic  and  Polemic  Theology,  Princt>tnn 
Theological  Seminary,  Princeton,  X.  J. 

Wakren,  MciToy,  A.  B.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Latin,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Balti- 
more, Md. 

•Weld,  Mason  C,  Ph.  B.,  Closter,  N.  J. 

Wells,  Hon.  Dayid  A.,  LL.  D., 

Late  U.  S.  Special  Revenue  Commissioner,  Norwich, 
Conn. 

Wheeler,  Benjamin  Ide,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Greek  and  ComparatiTe  Philology,  Cornell 
University,  Ithaca,  X.  Y. 

•White,  Richard  Grant, 

Author  and  Shakspearean  critic.  New  York. 

WnrrNET,  James  A..  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 

Counsellor  at  Law,  Xew  York ;  formerly  editor  of  Th^ 
American  Artisan,  and  first  President  of  the  New 
York  Society  of  Practical  Engineering. 

Whttsitt,  William  H.,  D.  D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Baptist  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Louisville,  Ky. 

Williams,  George  H.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Inorganic  Geology,  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, Baltimore,  Md. 

WiLUAMS,  Henrt  Shaler,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Geology,  Yale  UniTersity,  New  Haven. 
Conn. 

Wilson,  Gen.  James  Grant, 

Author  and  editor ;  President  of  the  Xew  York  Gene- 
alogical and  Biographical  Society,  Xew  York. 

WiNQ,  Henrt  H.,  M.  S., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Industry  and  Dairy 
Husbandry,  Cornell  University,  and  deputy  directcr 
and  secretary  of  the  Agricultunl  Experiment  StAtioii, 
Ithaca,  X.  Y. 

Wood,  Horatio  C,  M.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Materia  Metlica,  Pharmacy,  and  General 
Therapeutics,  and  Clinical  Professor  of  Nervous 
Diseajjps,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Department  vi 
Medicine,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

•Wooi^EY,  Theodore  D.,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Ex-President,  Yale  College. 

Woolset,  Tdeodore  S.,  LL.  B.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  International  Law,  Yale  University,  New 
Haven,  Conn. 

WoRMAN,  James  H.,  A.  M., 

EJtlitor  of  Outing;  formerly  Professor  of  Modern  Lan- 
guages, Danville  University,  Tena. 

Wright,  Hon.  Carroll  D., 

Superintendent  of  the  Eleventh  Census,  Washington. 
1).  C. 

♦Wyckoff,  Wiluam  C,  Xew  York. 

Z<Vkler,  Otto, 

Pnifessor  of  Ecclesiastical  History  and  Apol(\s.'oiit^ 
University  of  Greifswald,  Germany. 


♦  r.  r.T:'  .v.r?  to  VoL  IIL  of  former  editions,  now  deceased,  whose  articles  have  been  revised  and  retained  in  the 
prvs*::.:  tr'i.tin. 


MAPS   IN   VOL.   III. 


KNT.LAND  AND  WALES. 

El'ROPE 

FI-OKiDA 

KIIAXL'E 

'IKiiKGIA        . 

itKKMAS  EMPraB. 


HISTORICAL  AND  LINGUISTIC. 


GEOLOGICAL. 


rXITED  STATES:   SHOWING  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  GEOLOGIC  SYSTEMS    . 
IMTEl)  STATES:   SHOWING  THE  PLEISTOCENE   ICE-WORK  AND  WATER-WOEK   . 


FI..\GS  OP  VARIOUS  NATIONS 


PECULIAR  PHONETIC  SYMBOLS 

USED  IN  THE  WRITING  OR  TRANSLITERATION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  LANGUAGES. 


&,  e,  etc. :  long  vowels ;  in  the  ScandinaTian  languages  the 
accent  (d,  S,  etc.)  is  used  to  denote  length. 

% :  a  nasalized  a ;  so  used  in  the  transliteration  of  the  Ira- 
nian languages. 

& :    labialized  guttural  a  in  Swedish. 

fe :    open  a  of  Eng.  hat,  used  chiefly  in  0.  Eng. 

ai :  used  in  Gk)thic  to  denote  e  (open),  in  distinction  from 
di,  the  true  diphthong. 

ad :  used  in  GK>thic  to  denote  o  (open),  in  distinction  from 
dUf  the  true  diphthong. 

bh:  in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  labial  aspirate  (cf.  eh). 

b:  voiced  bilabial  (or  labio-dental  f)  spirant,  used  in  dis- 
cussions of  Teutonic  dialects. 

9 :  voiceless  palatal  sibilant,  similar  to  Eng.  ah,  used  espe- 
cially in  transliteration  of  Sanskrit. 

d :  frequently  used,  e.  g.  in  Slavonic  languages,  to  denote 
the  sound  of  Eng.  ch  in  cheek, 

c :  voiceless  palatal  explosive,  commonly  used  in  translit- 
eration of  Sanskrit  and  the  Iranian  languages. 

ch:  as  used  in  the  transliteration  of  Sanskrit,  a  voiceless 
palatal  aspirate,  an  aspirate  being  an  explosive  with 
excess  of  breath;  as  used  in  German  grammar,  the 
symbol  for  a  voiceless  palatal  or  guttural  spirant. 

dh :  voiced  dental  aspirate  (cf.  ch)  in  Sanskrit. 

d :  voiced  cerebral  explosive,  so  used  in  transliteration  of 
Sanskrit. 

dh :  voiced  cerebral  aspirate  (cf.  ch)  in  Sanskrit. 

d :  voiced  dental  (interdental)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Eng. 
th  in  then ;  so  used  in  the  Teutonic  and  Iranian  lan- 
guages and  in  phonetic  writing. 

6 :  a  short  open  «,  used  in  Teutonic  grammar,  particularly 
in  writing  0.  II.  G. 

9:  the  short  indefinite  or  "obscure"  vowel  of  Eng.  gar- 
dener ;  used  in  the  reconstruction  of  Indo-Eur.  forms, 
and  in  transliterating  the  Iranian  languages. 

gh :  in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  guttural  aspirate  (cf.  eh). 

g:  voiced  velar  (back-guttural)  explosive,  used  most  fre- 
quently in  Indo-Eur.  reconstructions. 

2 :  voiced  guttural  (or  palatal)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Mod. 
Greek  7,  and  used  in  transliteration  of  Iranian  lan- 
guages and  0.  Eng. 

h :    a  voiceless  breathing,  the  Sanskrit  visarga. 

Iv:  a  labialized  A,  similar  to  tch  in  Eng.  wJuU;  used  in 
transliteration  of  Gothic  and  the  Iranian  languages. 

\l :  voiceless  guttural  (or  palatal)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Ger- 
man ch,  and  used  in  transliteration  of  the  Iranian 
languages. 

i :  the  semi-vowel  y,  or  consonant  form  of  i ;  used  in  pho- 
netic writing  and  reconstructions  of  Indo-Eur.  forms. 


jh: 
kh! 
1: 

1: 


n: 


n: 

• 

fi: 
d: 

Q: 

6: 

Q: 
0: 

pk 


j :  in  the  transliteration  of  Sanskrit  and  the  Iranian  lan- 
guages a  voiced  palatal  explosive;  in  the  Teutonic 
languages  a  semi-vowel  (=  y),  for  which  in  Indo-Eur. 
reconstructions  %  is  generally  used. 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  palatal  aspirate  (cf.  eh). 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  guttural  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

the  guttural  ("  thick  "  or  "  deep  '*)  of  the  Slavonic  and 
some  of  the  Scandinavian  languages. 

vowel  I ;  used  in  transliterating  Sanskrit,  in  reconstruct- 
ing Indo-Eur.  forms,  and  in  other  phonetic  writing. 

nasal  vowel ;  used  in  reconstruction  of  Indo-Eur.  forms 
and  in  phonetic  writing. 

in  Sanskrit  the  cerebral  nasaL 

in  Sanskrit  the  guttural  nasal  (see  following). 

the  guttural  nasal,  equivalent  to  Eng.  n  in  longer;  used 
in  transliteration  of  Iranian  languages. 

palatal  nasal,  similar  to  gn  in  Fr.  regner ;  used  in  trans- 
literating Sanskrit  and  in  phonetic  writing. 

palatalized  0 ;  used  in  German  and  in  phonetic  writing. 

short  open  0  in  Scandinavian. 

short  palatalized  0  (5)  in  Scandinavian. 

in  Sanskrit,  voiceless  labial  aspirate  (cf.  eh). 

voiceless  velar  (back-guttural)  explosive ;  used  in  recon- 
structions of  Indo-Eur.  forms  and  in  other  phonetic 
writing. 

r :  vowel  r ;  used  in  transliterating  Sanskrit,  in  reconstruc- 
tions of  Indo-Eur.  forms,  and  in  other  phonetic  writ- 
ing. 

S :  voiceless  cerebral  sibilant,  equivalent  to  Eng.  sh ;  used 
in  transliterating  the  Iranian  languages  and  in  pho- 
netic writing. 

voiceless  cerebral  spirant ;  used  in  transliterating  San- 
skrit. 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  dental  aspirate  (cf .  eh). 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  cerebral  aspirate  (cf .  eh), 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  cerebral  explosive. 

a  form  of  dental  spirant  used  in  transliterating  the 
Iranian  languages  (represented  in  Justi's  transliter- 
ation by  t). 

voiceless  dental  (interdental)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Eng. 
th  in  thin ;  used  in  Teutonic  dialects  and  in  phonetic 
writing. 

consonant  form  of  u ;  used  in  phonetic  writing. 

voiced  cerebral  sibilant,  equivalent  to  s  in  Eng.  pleas- 
ure, and  toj  in  Fr.jardin;  used  in  Iranian,  Slavonic, 
and  in  phonetic  writing. 

^ :  a  symbol  frequently  used  in  the  writing  of  O.  H.  G.  to 
indicate  a  voiced  dental  sibilant  (Eng.  2),  in  distinc- 
tion from  z  as  sig^  of  the  affricata  (ta). 


s: 

th 
th 

• 

t: 


>: 


n: 
i: 


<,  descended  from. 

=,  borrowed  without  change  from. 

: ,  cognate  with. 

+  ,  a  sign  joining  the  constituent  elements  of  a  compound. 

* ,  ft  sign  appended  to  a  word  the  existence  of  which  is  inferred. 


*]]«;. 

adjectiTe 

udT. 

adverb 

cf. 

compare 

conjunc 

conjunction 

(ieriv.  of 

derivative  of 

dim  in. 

diminutive 

fem. 

feminine 

gonit- 

genitive 

imper. 

imperative 

impf. 

indie 

indicative 

iiifin. 

infinitive 

masc. 

nnmin. 

nominative 

partic. 

participle 

|*rf. 

perfect 

[ilur. 

plural 

prep. 

preposition 

pres. 

present 

pron. 

pronoun 

sc. 

scilicet,  supply 

sing. 

singular 

sutet 

substantive 

v.>tat. 

vocative 

Ang!<^Pr. 

Anglo-French 

Arab. 

Arabic 

AvcsL 

Avestan 

Dan. 

Danish 

Kng. 

English 

Fr. 

French 

Germ. 

German 

Goth. 

Gothic 

Qr. 

Greek 

Heb. 

Bobrcw 

Ici-1. 

Icelandic 

Ital. 

Italian 

Lat. 

Latin 

Litb. 

Medi»v.  Lat. 

Me-liieval  Latin 

Mod.  Lat. 

Modem  Ijatin 

M.  Eng. 

Middle  English 

M.  H.  Germ. 

Middle  High  German 

0.  Bulg. 

Old  BulgarJHn  (=  Church  Slavonic) 

0.  Eng. 

Old  English  {=  Anglo-Saxon) 

0.  Fr. 

Old  Frcn.h 

0.  Pria. 

Old  Frisian 

0.  B.  Germ. 

Old  High  German 

O.N. 

Old  Norse 

0.  Sax. 

Old  Saion 

Pers. 

Persian 

Portug. 

Portuguese 

Prov. 

Provencal 

Sanskr. 

Sanskrit 

Se. 

Scotch 

Span. 

Spanish 

Swed. 

Swedish 

Teuton. 

Teutonic 

KEY  TO  THE  PRONUNCIATION. 


aa as  a  in  fcUher,  and  in  the  second  syllable  of 

arfnada, 

A same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  the  initial  syllable 

of  armada,  Arditiy  etc. 

a as  final  a  in  armada,  peninsula,  etc 

ft as  a  in  fcU,  and  %  in  French  fin, 

ay  or  ft. .  as  ay  in  Hay,  or  as  a  in  fate, 

tHyor  a.,  same,  bat  less  prolonged. 

S as  a  in  welfare, 

aw as  a  in  fail,  ail, 

ee as  in  meet,  or  as  •  in  machine, 

e& same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  final  •  in  Arditi, 

e as  in  men,  pet, 

e obscure  e,  as  in  Bigelotc,  and  final  e  in  Heine, 

e as  in  h^,  and  eu  in  French  -eur, 

i as  in  »7,  sin, 

i as  in  five,  swine, 

I same,  but  less  prolonged. 

o as  in  mole,  sober, 

0 same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  sobriety, 

o as  in  on,  not,  pot, 

oo as  in  fool,  or  as  u  in  nUe, 

6b as  in  book,  or  as  u  in  put,  pull, 

oi as  in  noise,  and  oy  in  boy,  or  as  eu  in  Gbrman 

Beust. 

ow as  in  now,  and  as  au  in  German  Jumus, 


6 as  in  Odthe,  and  as  eu  in  French  neuf,  Chintreuil. 

ii as  in  but,  hub, 

a obscure  o,  as  final  o  in  Compton, 

fi as  in  German  sM,  and  as  u  in  French  Buzan- 

pais,  vu, 

J  or  I,,.,  see  /  or  y. 

yu as  i«  in  mule, 

yu same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  singular, 

eh as  in  German  ich, 

g as  in  get,  give  (never  as  in  gist,  congest). 

hw as  wh  in  which, 

kYi as  e^  in  German  nacht,  g  in  German  tag,  eh  in 

Scotch  loch,  undj  in  Spanish  Badajos,  etc. 

n nasal  n,  as  in  French  fi/n,  Bourbon,  and  nasal  m, 

as  in  French  nom,  Portuguese  Sam, 

S  or  n-y. .  Spanish  H,  as  in    cafUm,  pifton,    French    and 
Italian  gn,  etc.,  as  in  Boulogne, 

Z  or  y. . . .  French  /,  liquid  or  mouill^,  as  (-1)11-  in  French 
BaudrUlart,  and  (-«)/  in  Chintreuil, 

th as  in  thin, 

th as  in  though,  them,  mother, 

V as  10  in  German  zwei,  and  b  in  Spanish  Cordoba, 

sh as  in  shine, 

zh as  s  in  pleasure,  andy  in  French /our. 

All  other  letters  are  used  with  their  ordinary  English 
values. 


NOTE. 

The  values  of  most  of  the  signs  used  in  the  above  Key  are  plainly  shown  by  the  examples  given.  But  those  of 
5,  fi,  eh,  kli,  fi,  and  v,  which  have  no  equivalents  in  English,  can  not  be  sufficiently  indicated  without  a  brief  explanation, 
which  is  here  given. 

5.  The  sound  represented  by  this  symbol  is  approximately  that  of  -u-  in  hurt  or  -e-  in  her,  but  is  materially  different 
from  either.  It  is  properly  pronounced  with  the  tongue  in  the  position  it  has  when  &  is  uttered  and  with  the  lips  in 
the  position  assumed  in  uttering  5. 

11.  This  vowel  is  produced  with  the  lips  rounded  as  in  uttering  oo  and  with  the  tongue  in  the  position  required  in  utter- 
ing ee,  into  which  sound  it  is  most  naturally  corrupted. 

rh  and  kh.  These  are  both  rough  breathings  or  spirants  made  with  considerable  force,  eh  being  made  between  the  flat 
of  the  tongue  and  the  hard  palate,  and  k\i  between  the  tongue  and  the  soft  palate,  eh  approaches  in  sound  to  Eng- 
lish sh,  but  is  less  sibilant  and  is  made  further  back  in  the  mouth ;  A:h  is  a  guttural  and  has  a  hawking  sound. 

/  or  y.  These  are  both  used  to  represent  the  sound  of  French  1  mouille,  in  (-i)ll-  and  (-i)l,  which  resembles  English  -y- 
in  laufyer.  Final  /,  that  is,  (-i)l,  may  be  approximated  by  starting  to  pronounce  lawyer  and  stopping  abruptly  with 
the  -y-. 

ft  or  n-y.  The  consonants  represented  by  fi  (Spanish  ft,  French  and  Italian  gn,  etc.)  are  practically  equivalent  to  English 
-ni-  or  -ny-  in  bunion,  bunyon,  onion,  etc.,  and,  except  when  final,  are  represented  by  n-y.  Final  fi,  as  French  -gn(e), 
may  be  produced  by  omitting  the  sound  of  -on  in  the  pronunciation  of  onion, 

V,    This  may  be  pronounced  by  attempting  to  utter  English  v  with  the  Mse  of  the  lips  alone. 
See  Preface  (vol.  L,  p.  xxiv.)  and  the  article  Pronunciation  of  Foreign  Names. 


JOHNSON'S 
UNIVEESAL    CYCLOPEDIA. 


diet  [from  Lat.  edic'tum^  proclamation ;  e, 
fortn  +  di'cere^  speak]:  a  public  decree 
or  proclamation  issued  by  a  soverei^  or 
other  potentate  ;  an  instrument  sij^ed 
and  sealed  as  a  law.  In  ancient  Rome 
the  power  of  making  edicts  was  princi- 
pally exercised  by  the  prcetor  urbanus  and 
the  prcBtor  peregrinus,  who  on  entering 
office  published  rules  for  regulating  the  practice  of  their 
courts,  etc.  The  edicts  of  a  praetor  were  not  binding  on  his 
MKoes^ior,  but  if  confirmed  oy  the  latter  they  were  called 
tdicia  Vetera  (old  edicts),  as  distinguished  from  the  edicta 
nova  (new  edicts)  framed  by  himself.  A  digest  of  the  best 
(ieii^ions  of  the  praetors  was  made  under  the  Emperor  Ha- 
'irian  by  Sylvius  Julianus.  It  was  called  Edictum  Perpetii- 
um,  and  made  the  invariable  standard  of  civil  jurisprudence. 

Fldict  of  Nantes:  one  of  the  most  famous  edicts  of  his- 
tory ;  issued  by  Henry  IV.  of  France,  Apr.  13,  1598,  to  se- 
cure to  the  Protestants  a  legal  existence  within  the  French 
monarchy.  They  obtained  permission  to  celebrate  sen-ice 
wlierever  they  already  had  formed  communities,  and  to  es- 
tjir)lish  new  churches  wherever  they  cliose,  with  the  excep- 
Tion  of  Paris  and  the  royal  residences.  They  were  also  per- 
niirtt'd  to  found  universities  or  theological  seminaries,  and 
Tlie  s<"hools  of  Montpelier,  Montauban,  Saumur,  and  Sedan 
^>on  became  prominent  centers  of  learning.  Nor  should 
their  faith  be  any  impediment  to  their  promotion  to  any 
4'ivil  or  military  office,  etc.  The  restrictions  imposed  upon 
Mi»*m  were  few  and  lenient.  Though  the  act  was  solemnly 
on  tinned  by  Mary  of  Medici,  regent  after  the  assassination 
of  Henry  IV.,  by  Louis  XIII.,  and  even  by  Louis  XIV.,  it 
wii>  never  fully  carried  out.  The  Huguenots  were  always 
more  or  less  exposed  to  vexations,  especially  after  the  fall 
of  La  Koehelle  in  1628,  when  they  lost  nearly  all  political 
ini f>rirtance.  Nevertheless,  it  was  not  until  the  latter  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  under  the  reign  of  Louis  XlV., 
tiiat  the  vexations  assumed  the  character  of  open  perse- 
cution. The  Edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked  by  Louis  XIV. 
Uit.  17,  1685,  and  its  revocation  led  to  a  renewal  of  the 
hilotxly  scenes  which  before  the  issuing  of  this  edict  had 
l».f»n  enacted  among  the  Huguenots.  The  depopulation 
« aiised  by  the  sword  was  also  increased  by  emigration. 
The  Huguenots  were  very  generally  skilled  artieuns,  and 
ahout  half  a  million  of  her  most  useful  and  industrious  sub- 
lert.s  deserted  France,  and  exported,  together  with  immense 
^miis  of  monev,  those  arts  and  manufactures  which  had 
.'arj^^ely  tended  to  enrich  the  kingdom.  About  50,000  refu- 
^'^•t.s  passed  over  into  England,  and  many  more  into  Ger- 
jiiuny  and  America.  The  Huguenot  refugees  became  very 
ui)  j.x:)rtant  elements  in  the  industrial  development  of  Ger- 
rruiiiy,  Holland,  England,  and  the  U.  S. 

Revised  bv  C.  K.  Adams. 

Fdi'na:  town  (founded  in  1839);  capital  of  Knox  co., 
M'».  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  l-II) ; 
-ituated  on  railway,  47  miles  N.  W.  of  Quincy,  111.  It  has 
^\  'hurehes,  a  fine  public  school,  a  convent  school,  2  carriage 
;i:nl  wagon  factories,  a  flouring-mill,  a  creamerv,  water- 
A.^rks  and  electric  lights.  Pop.  (1880)  1,156;  (18i)0)  1,456; 
,ivj:i)  estimated,  1,500 

EorroR  of  "  Knox  County  Democrat." 
118 


Edinboro :  borough ;  Erie  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  1-A)  ;  18  miles  S.  of  Erie.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  Northwestern  State  Normal  School,  and 
has  manufacturer  of  lumber,  pumps,  sash  and  blinds.  Pop. 
(1880)  876 ;  (1890)  1,107. 

Edinbargr :  town ;  on  railway ;  Johnson  co.,  Ind.  (for  lo- 
cation of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  7-E) ;  situated  on 
the  Blue  river,  80  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Indianapolis.  It  has  5 
churches,  a  hiffh  school,  2  public  schools,  good  water-power, 
a  cereal-mill,  nouring-mills,  starch-works,  ice-plant,  foundry 
and  machine  shops,  cabinet-factx)rv,  carriage  and  wagon 
factory,  and  water-works.  Pop.  (1880)  1,814 ;  (1890)  2,031 ; 
(1893)  estimated,  2.500.  Editor  of  "  Courier." 

Edinburgh,  ed'in-biir-ru  [said  to  be  a  corruption  of  Ed- 
win's burgh,  the  castle  having  been  built  bv  Edwin,  King  of 
Northumbria  (61^-633)] :  capital  of  Scotland  and  of  Edin- 
burghshire or  Midlothian;  picturesquely  situated  about  a 
mile  S.  of  the  Firth  of  Forth ;  399  miles  ^.  N.  W.  of  London; 
lat.  55'^  57'  N.,  Ion.  3°  12'  W.  (see  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  11-H). 
It  is  divided  into  the  Old  and  New  Town,  the  former  of  whicn 
occupies  the  middle  and  highest  of  three  ridges  extending 
east  and  west.  The  Old  Town  is  separated  by  a  narrow  hol- 
low or  ravine  from  the  New  Town,  which  is  built  on  a 
broa<ler  ridge  with  more  gently  sloping  sides.  Edinburgh 
is  remarkable  for  the  elegance  and  solidity  of  its  buildings, 
which  are  all  of  stone.  The  adjacent  country  is  pleasantly 
diversified  with  hills  and  plains.  On  the  southeastern  bor- 
der of  the  city  a  hill  called  Arthur's  Seat  rises  to  the  height 
of  822  feet. 

The  principal  street  of  the  Old  Town  is  that  which  ex- 
tends along  tne  crest  of  the  ridge,  bearing  in  different  parts 
the  names  of  Canongate,  High  Street,  Lawn  Market,  and 
Castle  Hill.  It  is  more  than  a  mile  long,  and  rises  with  a 
regular  but  rather  steep  acclivity  from  the  palace  of  Holy- 
rood,  which  is  at  its  eastern  end,  to  the  huge  rock  on  which 
stands  Edinburgh  Castle,  443  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
This  street  is  lined  with  lofty  and  antique  residences,  many 
of  which  have  seven  or  more  stories.  The  houses  of  the 
New  Town  are  built  of  a  fine  white  freestone  quarried  in 
the  vicinity,  and  are  remarkably  handsome.  Here  are  three 
parallel  avenues  called  Queen  Street,  George  Street,  and 
rrinces  Street,  the  last  of  which  extends  along  the  south 
side  of  the  New  Town,  close  to  the  hollow  which  separates 
it  from  the  Old.  Princes  Street  is  the  most  agreeable  prom- 
enade in  the  city,  and,  as  it  is  lined  with  houses  only  along 
its  northern  side,  it  commands  a  fine  view  of  the  Old  Town 
with  its  lordly  castle  and  of  the  intervening  valley  adorned 
with  public  gardens.  At  the  eastern  end  of  this  street  is  a 
rocky  eminence  called  Calton  Hill,  the  broad  verdant  sum- 
mit of  which  commands  a  beautiful  view  of  the  Firth  of 
Forth,  here  about  6  miles  wide  Arthur's  Hill  and  another 
high  hill  called  Salisbury  Crags  afford  prospects  of  almost 
unrivaled  beauty  and  map:nificence. 

The  most  remarkable  public  edifices  and  monuments  are 
the  ciistle,  which  is  a  large  fortress  canable  of  accommodat- 
ing 2,(K)0  men,  and  is  one  of  the  oldest  stmctures  in  the 
city;  the  royal  palace  of  llolyrood,  or  Holyrood  House,  the 
oldest  part  of  which  was  built  about  1528 :  this  palace  is 
quadrangular  in  form,  with  a  central  court  94  feet  square, 
and  is  famous  as  the  residence  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots ;  the 

U) 


EDINBURGH 


EDISON 


cathedral  of  St.  Giles,  a  large  and  ancient  edifice  of  un- 
known date,  in  the  lat«r  Gothic  style;  Victoria  Hall,  or 
Assembly  Hall,  a  magnificent  structure,  which  stands  at  the 
head  of  High  Street,  has  a  spire  241  feet  high,  and  is  the 
place  where  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land annually  meets;  the  Parliament  House,  now  a  hall 
connected  with  the  courts  of  law ;  and  the  admirable  monu- 
ment erected  to  Sir  Walter  Scott,  which  stands  on  Princes 
Street,  is  200  feet  high,  and  is  unequaled  among  the  monu- 
ments of  this  metropolis  for  artistic  beauty.  Among  the 
other  objects  of  interest  are  the  old  Tron  church,  the  Free 
St.  George's  church,  the  Free  High  church,  the  university 
building,  the  observatory,  the  National  Gallery  of  Art,  the 
Royal  Institution,  a  beautiful  Grecian  edifice  containing 
the  apartments  of  the  Royal  Society,  a  chapel  belonging  to 
the  ruined  abbey  of  Holyrood,  founded  by  David  I.  about 
1128,  the  theater,  ^nd  the'  National  Monument  (an  uncom- 
pleted imitation  of  the  Parthenon)  on  Calton  Hill. 

Edinburgh  contains  over  one  hundred  churches  and 
chapels  belonging  to  various  denominations — the  Free 
Church,  Church  01  Scotland,  United  Presbyterian,  Presbyte- 
rian, Episcopal,  Baptist,  Congregational,  Roman  Catholic, 
Methodist,  Evangelical,  Unitarian,  etc.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Church  and  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
vicar-apostolic.  It  has  numerous  large  and  richl^r  endowed 
hospitals  and  charitable  institutions,  among  which  is  Heriot*s 
Hospital,  founded  for  the  education  and  maintenance  of 
poor  boys.  This  city  is  important  as  a  center  of  learning, 
and  is  distinguished  for  the  number  and  excellence  of  its 
literary,  scientific,  and  educational  institutions.  The  aristoc- 
racy, the  literati,  and  professional  men  form  an  unusually 
largo  proportion  of  its  population,  which  is  extensively 
engaged  in  the  business  of  printing  and  publishing  books. 
EkSnburgh  is  the  head(^uarters  of  the  book-trade  in  Scotland, 
and  as  a  literary  mart  is  second  only  to  London  among  the 
British  cities.  Here  is  the  celebrated  University  op  Edin- 
burgh {q.  v.).  The  other  chief  educational  institutions  are 
the  High  School,  which  occupies  a  handsome  Doric  edifice 
270  feet  long,  the  New  College,  or  Theological  Seminary  of 
the  Free  Church,  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  the  medi- 
cal school,  the  Royal  Acatlemy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  the  Royal 
Society.  The  Advocates'  Library  has  the  largest  and  most 
valuable  collection  of  books  in  Scotland — 300,000  volumes ; 
that  of  the  Writers  to  the  Signet  nearly  90,000  volumes. 
There  is  also  a  free  public  library. 

Edinbui'gh  is  the  seat  of  the  supreme  courts  of  Scotland, 
the  principal  of  which  is  the  court  of  session,  composed  of 
thirteen  judges.  This  court  tries  all  civil  causes,  and  de- 
cides not  only  on  the  law  of  the  case  but  also  in  questions  of 
equity.  This  city  returns  four  members  to  Parliament.  By 
virtue  of  ancient  charters  and  modem  acts  of  Parliament  it 
is  a  royal  burgh,  governed  by  a  town  council  elected  by 
popular  vote,  and  by  a  lord  f)rovost,  who  is  elected  by  this 
town  council.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  North  British,  the 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  and  the  Caledonian  railways.  This 
city  has  two  ports  on  the  Firth  of  Forth — Leith  and  Gran  ton. 
Pop.  (1881)  228,190;  (1891)  261,261. 

History, — Edinburgh  was  recognized  as  a  burgh  by  David 
I.  in  1128,  and  a  Parliament  was  held  here  in  1215.  David 
I.,  who  before  his  ascension  to  the  throne  of  Scotland  had 
been  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  and  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
military  and  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  the  Anglo- Nor- 
man kings,  built  the  abbey  of  Holyrood,  which  often  re- 
ceived the  Scottish  court  as  guests.  Edinburgh  became  the 
capital  of  Scotland  about  1456,  when  its  castle  was  selected 
as  the  only  place  of  safety  for  the  royal  household  and  the 
Parliament.  It  was  inclosed  by  walls  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  for  a  long  ixTiod  was  confined  to  the  central 
ridge.  The  hollow  between  this  and  the  northern  ridge  was 
filled  with  water,  culled  the  North  Loch.  The  New  Town 
origiimted  aUmt  176o,  when  a  bridge  was  erected  across  that 
loch  to  connect  the  Old  Town  with  the  New.  Here  occurred 
in  Mav,  1S4^J,  tlie  disruption  of  the  Established  Church, 
from  the  General  As>euil>ly  of  which  203  members  seceded 
and  organizetl  the  Free  Church. 

Edinbnrgh,  Alfred  Ernest  Albert,  Duke  of:  second 
sf)n  of  Victoria,  Queen  of  Great  Britain :  b.  at  Windsor 
Ctistle,  Aug.  6,  1K44.  He  was  educateil  chiefly  by  private 
tutors.  lie  entered  the  Briti-^h  navy  in  18.>8,  and  served 
chiefly  on  fon*ign  stations.  In  1862  he  was  offered  the 
crown  of  Greece,  but  declined  it.  In  1866  he  took  a  seat 
in  the  House  of  Peers  by  his  present  title.  In  1867  he  set 
sail  in  command  of  the  frigate  Gtilatea,  visiting  Australia, 


Japan,  China,  India,  etc.  At  a  picnic  at  Clontarf,  New 
South  Wales,  Mar.  12, 1868,  he  was  slightly  wounded  by  a 
pistol-shot  fired  by  a  Fenian  named  OTarrell,  who  was  soon 
afterward  executed.  On  Jan.  28,  1874,  he  married  the 
Grand  Duchess  Marie,  only  daughter  of  Alexander  II.  of 
Bussiik  In  Nov.,  1882,  he  was  promoted  to  the  ruik  of  vice- 
admiral,  and  in  1886  was  appointed  admind  in  command  of 
the  Mediterranean  squadron.  The  full  title  of  this  prince  is 
"  his  Royal  Highness  Prince  Alfred  Ernest  Albert,  Duke  of 
Edinburgh,  Earl  of  Kent,  and  Earl  of  Ulster,  K.  G.,  K.  P.** 
He  is  also  a  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  became  reigning  Duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  Aug.  22, 1893. 

Edinburgh  Review:  a  celebrated  critical  ma^zine 
founded  at  Edinburc^  in  1802,  the  oldest  of  the  great  British 
quarterly  reviews.  Francis  Jeffrey,  Svdney  Smith,  Henry 
Brougham,  and  Francis  Homer  were  tne  founders  and  first 
contributors  of  this  review,  which  was  a  strenuous  advocate 
of  Whig  principles.  Sydney  Smith  edited  the  first  numl>er, 
of  whicn750  copies  were  printed.  Mr.  Constable  was  the 
original  publisher.  Lord  Jeffrey  became  its  ^itor  in  1803, 
and  conducted  it  with  great  ability  and  success  for  twenty- 
six  years.  The  brilliant  wit,  the  critical  keenness,  the  eU>- 
quent  style,  and  the  extensive  knowled^  displaved  by  the 
contributors  produced  a  great  sensation  in  the  literary 
world.  Its  circulation  had  risen  to  9,000  in  1808.  and  12,000 
or  more  in  1813.  Among  the  eminent  men  who  contributiii 
largely  to  it  were  Macamay,  Carlyle,  Lord  Brougham,  Sir  J. 
Mackintosh,  and  Henry  Rogers.  Macvey  Napier  succee<U-<i 
Lord  Jeffrey  as  editor  in  1829.  The  price  paid  to  contribu- 
tors was  at  first  ten  guineas  a  sheet,  but  it  was  soon  raised  ti  * 
sixteen  guineas.    It  is  now  published  in  London. 

Edinburghshire,  or  Hidlothian:  a  countv  in  the  south- 
east part  of  Scotland ;  area,  363  sq.  miles.  It  is  bounded 
N.  by  the  Firth  of  Forth.  The  surface  is  diversifie<l  >»y 
plains  and  high  ridges,  among  which  are  theMoorfoot  Hi  IN 
and  the  Pentland  Hills,  composed  of  porphyry.  The  high- 
est point  of  the  Pentland  Hills  rises  1,839  feet.  The  nn  ks 
of  tnis  county  belong  mostly  to  the  Carboniferous  and  Silu- 
rian formations.  Valuable  coal  mines  are  worked  in  th»- 
valley  of  the  Esk.  The  soil  is  .generally  fertile  and  well 
cultivated.  Near  the  metropolis,  Edinburgh,  are  many 
nurseries,  dairy  pastures,  and  vegetable  gardens.  The  coun- 
ty is  traversed  by  five  great  railways.  Pop.  (1881)  389,164 : 
(1891)  444,055. 

Edinburgh,  Uniyersity  of:  an  institution  of  leamin-: 
in  Edinburgh,  Scotland.  It  was  founded  in  1582  by  a 
charter  granted  by  James  VI.,  of  Scotland,  and  in  16:^l'tht 
Scottish  Parliament  granted  to  it  all  the  privileges  enjoytil 
by  other  universities  in  the  kingdom.  This  grant  was  c^.n- 
flrmed  in  the  treaty  of  union  between  England  and  Scct- 
land,  and  again  in  the  act  of  security.  The  constituti>»ii 
was,  however,  modified  by  the  act  (1858)  relating  to  th< 
Scottish  universities,  and  the  University  of  Edinburgh  ^^♦'- 
came  a  corporation  consisting  of  a  chancellor,  rector,  prin- 
cipal, professors,  registered  students,  alumni,  and  matricu- 
lated student.s.  More  than  3,000  students  matriculate  each 
year.  The  essential  (qualification  for  graduation  at  Thi> 
as  at  other  Scottish  universities  is  attendance  at  certain  ^- 
ries  of  lectures  or  classes.  The  course  for  the  arts  decre** 
extends  over  four  winter  sessions,  each  lasting  from  t  he  Ik*- 
ginning  of  November  till  about  the  middle  of  April ;  and  t  h*- 
degree  of  M.  A.  is  conferred  on  all  who  have  completed  th»ir 
course  and  passed  the  ordinary  examinations  in  Latin  anl 
Greek, mathematics  and  natural  philosophy, logic  and  nuJ- 
aphysics,  moral  philosophy,  rhetoric,  and  English  literatun-. 
The  university  comprises  the  faculties  of  arts,  laws,  medicmr. 
divinity,  and  science.  The  buildings  were  for  many  years  wr} 
deficient  in  the  necessary  accommodation,  but  much  ha^^  Uiii 
done  in  the  way  of  improvement.  The  library  coniaii.^ 
nearly  140,000  volumes  and  700  MSS.,  and  there  is  alx»  a 
theological  library  of  10,000  volumes.  The  chancellor  i^ 
(181)8)  the  Rt.  Hon.  Arthur  J.  Balfour,  the  ConservH»i\»' 
leader.  The  universities  of  Edinburgh  and  of  St,  Andnvr% 
together  have  one  representative  in  Parliament.  See  Sir  A. 
Grant,  The  Story  of  the  Unit'ersity  of  Edinburgh  (2  vi.U.. 
London,  1883).  Revised  by  C.  H.  Thi'ebfr. 

Edison,  Thomas  Alva,  Ph.D.:  inventor;  b.  at  Milan,  ()., 

Feb.  11, 1847 ;  taught  to  read  by  his  mother,  a  Scotch  wo  in.iu 
of  some  intellectual  attainments;  began  life  as  a  train-U>\ 
on  the  (Jrand  Tnink  Railway  running  into  Detroit.  And-i- 
tious,  energetic,  eager  for  knowledge,  he  devoted  every  >\^\r\: 
moment  to  study.  Securing  a  press,  he  learned  print  in,. 
and  before  long  was  editing  and  printing  The  Orarui  Tru,.\ 


EDUCATION 


experiments  under  all  conceivable  conditions.  The  earliest 
pnase  was  doubtless  the  practiecU,  as  when  a  father  taught 
nis  son  how  to  construct  the  rude  instruments  needed  for 
fining  food.  Education  soon  became  prudential^  consist- 
mg  of  maxims  or  proverbs  embodying  the  net  results  of 
human  experience  concerning  good  conduct.  Another  early 
phase  was  the  religious,  inculcating  man's  duties  to  unseen 
powers.  Physical  education  and  education  for  the  contem- 
piative  life  were  products  of  Greek  thought.  The  Jews 
developed  a  system  of  indiiatricU  education,  while  the  Phce- 
nicians,  a  trading  people,  devoted  more  attention  to  corn- 
mercial  training.  Education  for  the  civil  service  has  been 
typicid  of  China  for  ages.  In  modem  times  manual  train- 
ing has  become  one  of  the  forms  of  industrial  education; 
and  moral  training,  which  now  receives  so  much  emphasis, 
finds  its  type  in  the  religious  education  of  the  Jews. 

Types  of  Education, — All  the  phases  of  education  that 
have  been  developed  through  the  experience  and  thought  of 
the  race  may  be  reduced  to  two  main  types — the  culture 
or  humane  type  and  the  industrial  or  professional  type. 
Starting  from  the  conception  that  the  man  is  superior  to 
the  instrument,  and  that  the  quality  of  the  instrument  de- 
pends on  the  quality  of  the  man,  thinkers  in  all  ages  have 
devised  schemes  of  education  aiming  at  the  perfection  of 
human  nature.  The  religious  and  ethical  systems  of  edu- 
cation in  vogue  among  ancient  peoples  were  based  on  the 
permanent  and  universal  needs  of  man,  and  not  on  his  inci- 
dental needs  as  a  workman  or  instrument.  The  culture 
tvpe  of  education  took  permanent  shape  in  Greece,  and 
Plato's  Republic  is  an  exposition  of  a  course  of  training  be- 
fitting the  ideal  man,  for  only  out  of  such  a  man  could  the 
ideal  citizen  be  produced.  Indeed,  the  serenity,  harmony, 
and  poise  of  the  Greek  ideal  presuppose  an  almost  entire 
exemption  from  industrial  pursuits,  and  seem  adapted  to 
beings  leading  a  purely  contemplative  life.  In  order  that 
arithmetic  may  serve  its  highest  purpose,  Plato  expressly 
states  that  it  must  not  be  taught  for  commercial  purposes, 
as  to  shopkeepers  and  merchants.  This  type  of  education 
has  persisted  through  the  ages,  and  has  a  clearly  marked 
place  in  the  schools  of  to-day.  The  classics,  tne  belles- 
lettres,  history,  music,  and  art  are  humane  studies,  and  the 
general  pursuit  of  the  sciences  is  best  defended  on  the 
ground  of  their  culture  value — they  interpret  nature  for 
purposes  of  contemplation. 

Roman  education  was  as  distinctively  practical  or  pro- 
fessional as  the  Greek  was  humane ;  it  provided  for  a  select 
few  a  career  in  the  army  or  in  the  forum.  All  schemes  for 
industrial,  commercial,  or  professional  education  belong  to 
this  type;  they  regard  man  chiefly  as  an  instrument,  and 
their  direct  purpose  is  the  narrow  one  fitting  him  to  earn  a 
livelihood.  This  may  be  called  the  popular  type  of  educa- 
tion, for  among  the  people  at  large  the  notion  is  thoroughly 
ingrained  that  the  chief  end  of  school  training  is  to  fit  the 
young  for  "getting  on  in  the  world."  Alexander  Bain 
speaks  of  the  difficulty  of  reconciling  the  whole  man  with 
himself,  that  is,  of  bnnging  the  instrument  into  harmony 
with  the  man,  and  this  is  doubtless  the  most  difficult  prob- 
lem of  modern  education.  The  ideal  is  to  make  all  eauca- 
tion,  high  and  low.  of  the  culture  or  lilK?ral  tyj)e,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  guard  the  child's  interests  as  a  wage-earner ; 
but  this  ideal  is  hard  to  realize. 

The  Patrons  of  Education, — The  earliest  education  was 
domestic,  and  the  best  type  of  this  home-school  existed 
among  the  ancient  Jews,  where  the  father  was  the  teacher 
and  the  law  of  Moses  the  text.  Later,  through  that  differ- 
entiution  of  function  which  is  common  to  all  peoples  ad- 
vancing toward  civilization,  the  teaching  otfice  was  rele- 
gated by  the  family  to  the  Church,  and  for  centuries  the 
Church  was  tiie  patron  of  the  school,  as  it  continues  to  be  in 
some  countries  at  the  present  day.  But  education  gradu- 
ally became  secularized,  especially  in  three  ways:  subjects 
not  essentially  religious,  as  history  and  science,  have  been 
given  a  i)hu*o  in  the  education  of  the  young ;  laymen  have 
bi^n  a<lmitteil  to  the  teaching  office;  and  the  state  has 
gradually  displaced  the  Church  in  the  patronage  of  the 
sch(M)l.  In  all  the  i)r«>gressive  nations  of  modem  times  ed- 
ucation hiis  become  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  a  function  of 
the  state.  The  secularizaticm  of  the  school  is  most  com- 
plete in  France,  where  ecclesiastics  are  excluded  by  law 
from  teaching ;  but  in  all  other  countries  in  which  education 
is  »wl ministered  by  the  state  the  Church  is  not  molested  in 
her  right  to  maintain  panx'hial  schools.  The  modern  state 
has  become  a  public  educator  on  the  ground  of  self-preser- 
vation, holding  that  ignorance  is  a  menace  to  the  naticmal 


life,  and  therefore  claiming  the  right  to  diffuse  enlighten- 
ment among  its  citizens.  The  secularization  of  the  scho«:>l 
is  the  logicS  outcome  of  the  rising  democratic  spirit  which 
characterizes  modern  nations.  An  ignorant  and  degradtnl 
people  may  be  governed,  but  only  an  enlightened  and  virtu- 
ous people  is  capable  of  self-government.  This  modem  doc- 
trine of  education  by  the  state  was  embodied  by  Plato  in  his 
Republic,  where  it  is  followed  out  to  the  extreme  of  giving 
the  state  complete  ownership  of  children,  and  even  sanction- 
ing the  destruction  of  the  sickly. 

The  Old  and  the  New, — Essential  changes  in  modes  of 
human  thought  have  always  been  followed  by  corresponding 
changes  in  education;  and  a  new  philosophy  which  pro- 
founaly  affects  the  religious  nature  necessarily  g^ves  rise  to 
a  new  education.  As  the  Reformation  wrought  a  radical 
change  in  men's  religious  philosophy  and  practice,  there  is 
eminent  propriety  in  speaking  of  tne  ^neral  system  of  edu- 
cation in  vogue  before  the  Reformation  as  the  Old,  and  of 
the  system  that  had  its  rise  at  that  period  as  the  New. 
There  was  not  an  abrupt  cessation  of  the  old  order  of  thini:>. 
for  what  was  essentially  good  and  true  necessarily  pass^-ii 
into  the  new  order  of  things.  The  old  education  was  basini 
essentially  on  authority;  the  child  was  mainly  a  passive 
recipient,  and  his  warrant  for  believing  the  truth  of  what 
he  was  taught  was  the  authority  of  the  lKK)k  or  of  the  mar«ter. 
The  one  great  principle  of  learning  was  to  believe  and  take 
for  granted,  to  assume  the  accuracy  of  authorized  statement > 
without  asking  questions  and  without  mental  unrest.  It  is 
not  difficult  to  see  how  such  a  conception  of  teaching  and 
learning  resulted  from  a  system  of  education  based  on  a  re- 
ligion in  which  dogma  played  a  very  large  part.  Again, 
the  older  system  of  education  was  addressed  almost  entinlv 
to  the  memory,  and  learning  was  but  little  more  than  niern- 
orizing  a  text  or  a  formula  verbatim.  In  this  particular 
the  infiuence  of  religious  training  is  also  manifest.  Not 
only  was  the  thought  or  content  of  a  text  held  sacred,  but 
so  also  was  the  form  of  words  in  which  it  was  emlxxlit'ti ; 
and  the  effectual  way  to  lodge  the  truth  in  the  soul  whs  to 
loflge  the  verbal  expression  of  it  in  the  memory. 

The  later  system  of  education  embodies  a  reaction  against 
the  abuses  of  authority  and  memory.  It  appeals  to  free  in- 
quiry, and  involves  the  exercise  of  the  learner's  own  powers 
of  thought  and  discovery.  A  thing  is  true,  not  beeaiiM- 
some  one  has  declared  it  to  be  true,  but  because  it  has  the 
sanction  of  one's  own  reason  and  experience.  The  motlem 
teacher  therefore  addresses  the  pupil's  powers  of  observa- 
tion, reflection,  and  reason,  rather  than  his  memory ;  and 
learning  becomes  a  process  of  discovery  rather  than  a  serv- 
ile following  of  authority.  The  product  of  the  teacher's  art 
is  not  to  be  a  disciple,  docile  and  reverent,  but  an  independ- 
ent thinker,  capable  of  reaching  his  own  conclusions.  The 
older  system  erred  by  exaggerating  the  importance  of  au- 
thority and  memory,  but  the  reaction  of  the  modem  systiin 
threatens  to  involve  education  in  errors  of  equal  gravity. 
A  distrust  of  authority  is  as  absurd  as  a  distmst  of  reason  : 
and  education  can  no  more  dispense  with  memory  than  it 
can  with  observation  and  free  inquiry.  The  ideal  system  f»f 
education  is  to  be  found  in  maintaining  the  just  equilibrium 
between  the  old  and  the  new  tendencies. 

Universality. — Generally  speaking,  ancient  education  af- 
fected only  a  select  number  of  minds,  while  the  masses  of 
the  people*  were  left  uninstracted  and  unenlightened.  His- 
torically, universities  preceded  common  schools.  The  Ref- 
ormation made  the  education  of  the  common  people  a  neet'>- 
sity,  but  it  was  left  to  the  genius  of  Comenius  to  devi^^  a 
system  of  graded  instruction  which  has  made  possible  the 
downward  diffusion  of  culture.  The  greatest  achievem«'n! 
of  modem  education  is  the  gradation  and  correlation  of 
schools,  whereby  the  ladder  of  learning  is  let  down  fmni 
the  university  to  secondary  schools,  and  from  the^  to  tiu 
schools  of  the  people. 

The  aim  of  modern  education,  as  administered  by  the 
state,  is  universality,  though  the  organization  for  effect  in i: 
it  from  above  downward  is  partial  and  incomplete.  Even 
with  the  conception  of  Comenius  generally  embodied  in  m 
working  organization,  as  it  is  in  Germany  and  in  some  <»f 
the  U.  S.,  two  subsidiarv  measures  are  stiU  necessary*  in  or- 
der  to  make  education  universal :  free  schools  should  K- 
provided,  and  school  attendance  should  be  made  compul- 
sory ;  without  the  first  the  second  will  often  work  hanlsiiip. 
In  the  U.  S.  the  public  schools  are  free,  but  in  some  Mic- 
tions illiteracy  exists  to  an  alarming  extent.  In  scnne  of 
the  States  there  has  been  a  resort  to  compulsion,  but  ir. 
most  cases  the  laws  on  this  subject  are  only  putiiUly  effect- 


EDWARD 


EDWARDS 


matrimonial  alliance  between  Mary  Stuart  and  Edward  VI. 
He  defeated  the  Scots  at  Pinkie  in  1547.  Somerset's  enemy, 
John  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick,  obtained  the  ascendency  in 
1550,  and  caused  him  to  be  executed.  Dudley  persuaded 
the  young  king  to  exclude  the  princesses  Mary  and  Eliza- 
beth from  the  throne,  and  to  appoint  Lady  Jane  Grev  as  his 
successor.  Edward  died  July  6,  1553.  See  Sharon  Turner, 
Hiatary  of  the  Reigns  of  £dward  V7.,  Mary,  and  Eliza- 
beth (1829) ;  Froude,  History  of  Engkmd. 

Edward:  Prince  of  Wales,  called  the  Black  Prince 

(from  the  color  of  his  armor) ;  b.  June  15, 1330 ;  the  eldest 
son  of  Edward  III.  of  England  and  Philippa ;  was  created 
Duke  of  Cornwall  in  1337  and  Prince  of  Wales  in  1343.  He 
commanded  a  nart  of  his  father's  army  at  the  battle  of 
Crecy  (1346),  ana  then  adopted  the  crest  of  ostrich  feathers 
and  the  motto  Ich  dien  (I  serve),  which  crest  and  motto 
had  been  borne  by  John,  King  of  Bohemia,  who  was  slain 
at  that  battle.  Ever  since,  it  has  been  borne  by  the  Princes 
of  Wales.  In  1355  Edward  commanded  the  princif>al  of 
the  three  armies  raised  by  the  English  for  the  invasion  of 
France.  Landing  at  Bordeaux  he  took  the  city,  and  in  1356 
gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  French  at  Poitiers,  where 
he  took  their  king.  John,  a  prisoner.  In  1361  he  married 
his  cousin  Joanna,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Kent,  and  re- 
ceived from  his  father  the  title  of  Prince  of  Aquitaine.  In 
his  new  possessions  he  lived  for  a  long  time  a  quiet  life, 
until  drawn  into  Spanish  politics.  He  defeated  Henri  de 
Transtamare  in  battle,  and  in  1367  restored  Henri's  rival, 
Peter  the  Cruel,  to  the  throne  of  Castile.  The  heavy  taxes 
caused  by  the  Spanish  campaign  brought  about  rebellion  in 
Aquitaine,  and  Limoges  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French 
by  treason.  Edward  retook  it  and  ordered  every  living  being 
in  the  city  to  be  killed,  closing  his  military  career  with  this 
act  of  unparalleled  cru^y.  He  shortly  after  returned  to 
England,  utterly  broken  in  health.  D.  June  8, 1376,  leaving 
a  son,  who  became  king  as  Richard  II.  The  Black  Prince 
was  a  splendid  example  of  the  virtues  and  vices  fostered  by 
the  spirit  of  chivalry.  See  Creighton,  Edward  the  Black 
Prince  (London,  1869). 

Edwards,  Amelia  Blandford,  L.  H.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  novelist 
and  Egyptologist ;  b.  in  London  in  1831.  Among  her  novels 
are  My  Brother's  Wife  (1855) ;  Barbara's  History  (1864) ; 
and  In  the  Days  of  My  Youth  (1872).  In  her  later  years 
she  devoted  her  attention  mainly  to  Egyptology  and  Egyp- 
tian exploration,  and  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Exploration  Fund.  She  published  A  Thousand  Mites 
up  the  Nile  (1877)  and  Pharaohs^  Fellahs,  and  Explorers 
(1892) ;  translated  Maspero's  Egyptian  Arch(eology  (1887) ; 
contributed  articles  on  Egyptology  to  the  Encyclopcedia 
Britannica;  and  was  secretary  of  the  Egypt  Exploration 
Fund  and  a  member  of  various  other  learned  societies.  D. 
Apr.  16,  1892.  H.  A.  Beers. 

Edwards,  Arthur  :  journalist ;  b.  in  Ohio  in  Nov.,  1834 ; 
graduated  at  Ohio  Wesleyan  University  in  1858;  entered 
the  Methodist  ministry  in  the  Detroit  conference  in  1858 ; 
during  the  civil  war  was  chaplain  in  the  army  for  two  years 
and  a  half,  and  served  for  some  years  as  assistant  editor  of 
the  Northwestern  Christian  Advocate,  the  official  organ  of 
his  denomination  in  that  part  of  the  country.  In  1872  he 
became  editor-in-chief. 

Edwards,  Bryan:  English  West  Indian  merchant  and 
historian ;  b.  at  Westbury,  Wiltshire,  May  21,  1743.  In 
1760  he  went  to  live  with  his  uncle,  a  merchant  in  Jamaica, 
who  gave  him  the  means  of  completing  his  education  and 
ultimately  took  him  into  partnersnip.  On  his  uncle's  death 
he  fell  heir  to  the  business.  In  1791  he  visited  the  revolted 
districts  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  in  1792  he  returned  finally 
to  England,  where  he  settled  at  Southampton  and  open«l  a 
bank.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1796,  and  in  that 
position  opposed  the  abolition  of  the  slave-tratle.  Mr.  Ed- 
wards is  list  known  for  his  History  of  the  British  Colonies 
in  the  WeM  TndieJt  (1793-94 ;  new  edition,  with  tulditions,  5 
vols.,  1819)  and  his  Historical  Survey  of  St.  Domingo  (1797; 
generallv  appended  to  later  editions  of  the  History).  Both 
are  works  oi  great  value.  As  secretary  of  the  Association 
for  Promoting  Disco verv  in  the  Interior  of  Africa,  he  wrote 
for  the  s<xjiety's  Proceedings  an  abstract  of  Mungo  Park's 
travels,  and  he  also  published  various  political  and  eco- 
nomical tracts  and  a  volume  of  poems.  D.  at  Southamp- 
ton, July  15,  1800.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Edwards,  Bela  Bates,  D. D. :  theologian;  b.  in  South- 
ampton, Mass.,  July  4,  1802 ;  graduated  at  Amherst  College 


in  1824,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  1830.  In 
1833  he  founded  the  American  Quarterly  Observer,  He  l)e- 
came  editor  of  the  Biblical  Repository  in  1835;  Professor 
of  Hebrew  at  Andover  in  1837 ;  and  editor  of  the  Bihlit^ 
theca  Sacra  in  1844.  In  1848  he  became  Professor  of  Bibli- 
cal Literature  at  Andover  Seminary.  He  was  equally  dis- 
tinguished for  the  exactness  of  his  scholarship  and  for  the 
modesty  and  beauty  of  his  character.  He  published  a  Lifr 
of  Elias  Cornelius  (1842),  a  work  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
(ralatians,  and  other  works.  Two  volumes  of  nis  sermons, 
addresses,  etc.,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life  by  Prof.  Edwanls 
A.  Park,  were  published  in  Boston  in  1853.  D.  at  Athens, 
Ga.,  Apr.  20,  1852. 

Edwards,  Henri  Milne  :  See  Milne-Edwards. 

Edwards,  James  T.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. :  minister  of  the  M.  E. 
Church;  b.  at  Barnegat,  N.  J.,  Jan.  6,  1838;  educated  at 
Pennington  Seminary  and  WesleyaQ  University  1860 ;  prin- 
cipal of  East  Greenwich  Seminary  1864-70,  during  which 
time  he  served  three  terms  in  the  Rhode  Island  Senate; 
president  Chamberlin  Institute,  Randolph,  N.  Y.,  1870-92 ; 
elected  to  the  New  York  State  Senate  as  an  Independent 
1891 ;  elected  principal  of  McDonogh  School,  Baltimore, 
1893 ;  author  of  The  Grass  Family  (1877) ;  The  Voi<^  Tree 
(1883) ;  The  Silva  of  Chautauqua  Lake  (1892).     C.  H.  T. 

Edwards,  Jonathan:  divine  and  metaphysician;  b.  at 
East  Windsor,  Conn.,  Oct.  5,  1708;  son  of  Timothy  E<1- 
wards,  a  man  of  uncommon  learning  for  those  times,  who 
was  minister  at  East  Windsor.  His  mother,  a  woman  of 
superior  intellect  and  attainments,  was  a  daughter  of  Rev. 
Solomon  Stoddard,  of  Northampton,  Mass.  Jonathan  is 
said  to  have  begun  the  study  of  Latin  when  only  six  years 
old.  When  he  was  ten  years  of  age  he  compost  an  essay 
in  which  he  ridiculed  the  idea,  which  some  one  had  reeently 
put  forth,  of  the  materiality  of  the  human  soul.  In  1716  he 
entered  Yale  College,  and  graduated  in  1720.  Strong  reli- 
gious impressions  appear  to  have  been  made  on  his  mind  in 
early  childhood,  but  ne  dated  his  *'  conversion  "  from  about 
his  seventeenth  year,  after  which  all  nature  seemed  changi?<l 
in  his  view,  everything  revealing  to  his  purified  understand- 
ing the  wisdom,  glory,  and  love  of  God.  In  1723  he  took  at 
Yale  the  degree  of  master  of  arts.  He  was  tutor  at  Yale 
1724-26.  In  the  early  part  of  1727  he  was  settled  as  f^astor 
of  the  church  at  Northampton,  Mass.  He  was  soon  after  mar- 
ried to  Sarah  Pierrepont,  the  dau^ter  of  Rev.  James  Pierre- 
pont,  of  New  Haven,  who  resembled  him  in  the  sweetness 
and  purity  of  her  spirit,  in  the  elevation  of  her  character, 
and  m  her  entire  devotion  to  duty.  After  many  years  of 
comparative  peace  and  happiness  a  difficulty  arose  in  his 
congregation  which  put  his  firmness  and  conscientiousness 
to  a  severe  test.  It  had  become  a  custom  in  the  church  to 
admit  to  the  communion-table  all  who  profe^ed  with  the 
congregation,  without  any  inquiry  as  to  whether  they  ha«l 
been  tnily  converted,  or  whetner  their  spirit  and  life'  were 
consistent  with  their  external  profession.  Jonathan  Ed- 
wards was  opposed  to  "  the  half-way  covenant,"  as  it  was 
called.  But  nis  attempted  reform  caused  great  dissatisfac- 
tion, and  he  was  at  length  driven  forth  from  his  congrega- 
tion, June  22, 1750,  not  knowing  whither  to  go  and  without 
any  means  of  support  for  his  family.  In  1751  he  became 
missionary  at  Stockbridge,  among  the  Housatonic  Indians, 
and  pastor  of  the  white  church  there.  About  this  time  he 
wrote  out  his  celebrated  treatise  on  the  Freedom  of  thr 
Will,  the  plan  of  which  had  been  matured,  it  is  said,  while 
he  was  still  a  student  at  college.    In  1757  he  was  appointed 

President  of  Princeton  College  in  New  Jersey,  where  ne  died 
[ar.  22,  1758. 

Among  his  various  writings  are  a  Treatise  concerning  the 
Religious  Affections  (1746),  and  An  Inquiry  into  the  Quali- 
fications for  Full  Communion  in  the  Church  (1749);  his 
great  work.  An  Inquiry  into  the  Modem  Prevailing  No- 
tions Respecting  that  Freedom  of  the  Will  which  is  Sup- 
posed to  oe  Essential  to  Moral  Agency  (1754) ;  The  Great 
Christian  Doctrine  of  Original  Sin  Defended  (1757):  and 
The  History  of  Redemption.  His  works  were  published  at 
Worcester,  Mass.,  in  1809,  in  eight  volumes ;  and  again,  in- 
cluding much  new  material,  in  New  York,  1830,  in  ten  vol- 
umes. A  work  of  his,  entitled  Charity  and  its  Fruits,  was? 
published  in  1852  for  the  first  time.  See  his  Liff,  h\ 
Sereno  Edwards  Dwight  (New  York,  1830),  Samuel  Ho^ 
kins,  and  in  Sparks's  American  Biography,  by  Samuel  Mu- 
ler,  and  by  A.  V.  Allen  (Boston,  1889). 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  D.  D.  :  theologian ;  son  of  Jonathan 
Edwards,  and   commonly  known   as   "the   younger   Ed- 


Hinlory  of  England  under  the  Anglo-Saxon  King*  (trans- 
Uted  hy  Thorpe.  1845.) 

E^ede,  ege-de,  Hins:  the  apnstle  ot  Greenland;  b.  at 
Harstad,  Norway,  Jan  31,  1686.  He  Iwaine  pastor  of  the 
church  at  Vaagen  in  1707.  After  lotig  enileavors  he  suc- 
ceeded in  interealing  the  Danish  authorities  in  his  project 
(or  the  conversion  of  the  Esquimaux,  aiul  in  1721,  accom- 

Knieil  t)j  bis  wife,  he  set  out  for  Greenland,  where  he  ta- 
red for  some  fifteen  years,  enduring  manv  hardships  but 
meeting  with  marked  success.  The  death  of  his  wife  (173S) 
and  his  own  failing  health  compelleil  his  return  to  Copen- 
hagen in  1730,  but  he  continued  to  work  for  the  cause,  and 
was  appointed  superintenitent,  or  missionary  bishop,  of 
Greenland  in  1740.  He  wrote  an  account  of  liis  missiouarj 
labors.  Rrtalion  angaaende.  den  grimlandiike  Mimiont  Be- 
^ndeUe  og  ForttrrlMse  (1738),  and  a  description  of  the 
island,  Del  gamle  (/ranlandg  nge  Perlu«iration  (1729 ;  2d 
and  enlarged  e.1.  1741).  D.  Nov.  5,  1758.  (See  Rudelbach, 
ChHMiche  Biographie,  i.,  284  ff.)— His  son  Poul,  b.  Sept. 
9,  1708.  went  with  his  parents  to  Greenland  in  1721,  where 
he  remained,  except  for  the  time  necessary  for  hLs  e<lucation 
(1728-34),  till  1740,  a.^L3ting  and  Hnally  succeedingi  his 
father.  In  1779  he  was  appointed  missionary  bishop  of 
Greenland.  His  publications  incluile  a  valuable  Esquimaux 
dictionary  (1750)  and  grammar  (1760),  an  Esquimaux  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  (1706).  and  an  Aeetyunt  of 
Oreenland  {Efterrelningen  om  ffrenland,  1788). 

G.  L.  KlTTBEDOE. 

Eger:  town  of  Bohemia;  situated  on  the  river  Eger 
(which  enters  the  Elbe  33  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Pr^niel,  93 
miles  W.  of  Prague;  at  the  Junction  of  six  railway  tines 
(see  map  of  Austria- Hungary,  ref.  3-C).  It  is  built  on  a 
rock,  and  was  an  important  fortress.  Here  are  the  ruins  of 
a  citadel  or  cuttle,  fonnerlv  the  residence  of  kings  and  em- 
perors. Eger  has  7  churches,  a  line  town-hall,  and  2  mon- 
asteries :  also  manufactures  of  broadcloth,  cotton  gtKids, 
chintz,  and  soan.  Wallenstein  was  assassinated  here  Feb, 
25, 1034.  Near  Egerislhe  watering-place  Franzensbad,  with 
five  springs.     Pop.  (1890)  18,658. 

E^'rta:  a  nymph  who. according  to  the  Roman  mythol- 
ogy, was  one  of  Ihe  Carnenn.  and  was  a  prophetic  divinity 
from  whom  Xuma  derived  religious  inspiratirm  and  direc- 
tions reiipecling  the  forms  of  worship.  The  poets  feigned 
that  Numa  had  inten'iews  with  her  in  a  grove,  and  that 
when  he  died  she  melted  away  in  tears,  which  became  a 
fountain.  An  asteroid  discovered  at  Naples  by  De  Gasparis 
in  Nov.,  1850.  bears  the  name  of  Bgeria. 
Eserton,  Prantib  Henri;  Sec  Bbidoewateb.  Earl  OP. 
Egerton,  ejcr-tiln,  Francis  Leveson  Gower,  Earl  of 
ElK'smere:  author  and  patron  of  art;  b.  in  Ixradon,  Jan.  1, 
1800.  He  wan  the  second  son  of  the  first  I>uke  of  Suther- 
land, and  his  original  name  was  Francis  licveson  Gower, 
but  he  assumed  the  name  of  Eecrioii  in  1833.  when  he  in- 
herited the  estate  of  the  last  Duke  of  Bridgewater.  lie 
enteroil  Ihe  Hou*e  of  Commons  in  1820.  bi'came  chief  seere- 
tary  for  Ireland  in  1828,  and  was  Secretarv  at  War  tor  sev- 
eral months  in  1830.  He  wrote  M'viTal  bookK,  incluilinK  a 
poem  call.-.!  The  Camp  of  Wnllfii^ein.  He  was  created 
Earl  of  Ellestnere  in  1846.     D.  Feb.  18,  1857. 

Egg  [loan-word  from  Norse  egg :  O.  Eng.  trg :  Germ.  Ei ; 
closely  connected  if  not  idenlical  with  Ijit.  drum.  Gr.  yrfr] : 
the  s[>ecialized  cell  in  the  female  of  all  animals  which  is  set 
apart  for  the  sexual  reprmluclinnof  thespi-cies.  In  its  typi- 
cal condition  it  Is  sui'h  a  i-ell  without  acce«^>rv  portions,  but 
usually  there  are  added  various  envelojies  and  su)>stances 
for  Ihe  protection  and  nourishment  of  the  germ  which  is 
to  fonn  laler.  In  the  egic  of  llie  biriis  these  secondary  en- 
vetopi-s,  etc..  reach  their  highest  development.  Here  jhere 
is  an  outer  calcareous  sliill  piTforaleil  by  minute  holes  for 
the  [wwHge  of  air,  which  later  is  needeil  for  respinitiim; 
next  within  this  is  a  louirh  (ilouble)  shell  ni<-nd<nine,  which 
contains  the  white  or  albumen.  In  the  while.  Mi]>|-nrted  by 
B  twisted  membrane  {chalHZii'a)  at  either  end.  floats  the  yolk, 
and  on  the  uii[K-rsirle  of  the  lalter  isaciri'ular.  liKhters[Hrt. 
the  germ.  The  bulk  of  the  v..|k  is  nouhshm.Til,  an.l  is  not 
directly,  but  as  ti>od.  converted  into  the  cliiik.  In  fune 
forms  ejK,™  are  ca|)uble  of  dcvclopmeni  without  tcrlili/Jition 
(see  PARTUKN-0(HiSE.-is).  S.nie  e^ifpi.  like  thiwe  (if  H.vdm.are 
wiihout  envi.'ln|a-s,  (ithers,like  insects,  have  bul  a  sint'le 
outer  coat.  The  lari.i-st  known  pl'b  is  llmt  of  ihc extinct 
-Epyomis  of  Mwliipi-^Hr.  the  shell  of  which  has  n  cai.ncity 
of  abi>ut  2  gal.,  or  about  »ix  limes  that  of  the  ostrlcn-egg. 


EGG-PLANT 

Aside  from  food,  birds'  eggs  find  considerable  use  in  the 
arts,  as  a  source  of  albumen  which  is  used  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  photographic  paper,  etc.  Egg  albumen  differs  con* 
siderably  chemically  frotn  that  derived  frotn  blood.  See 
Food,  EuBRVOLoaT.'and  Evolution  ;  also,  for  Ihe  egg  of  in- 


Egg,  or  El^ :  an  island  of  Scotland ;  8  miles  S.  W.  of 
Skye.  and  12  miles  from  the  west  coast  of  Invemess-shire. 
Length,4i  miles.  Here  are  some  remarkable  cliSi  of  tnp  or 
basalt,  and  columns  of  pitchstone  nearly  2  feet  in  diameter. 

^'gSD :  a  populous  town  of  Africa :  in  the  British  Ni^rer 
Territory;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Niger;  in  laL  8°  42'  N. 
and  Ion.  6°  20'  E.  (see  map  of  Africa,  ret.  4-C').  It  extends 
nearly  3  miles  along  the  river.  The  dwellings  are  mostly 
small  huts  of  clay.  Narrow  cotton  cloth  is  manufactured 
here  in  large  quantities.  E^an  has  an  active  trade  iu  com. 
yams,  calabashes,  dried  fish,  etc.     Pop.  12.000. 

E^-blrt,  or  Sctoty  Tern  [Sterna  fuliginosa)  ■  a  bird  1^ 
longmg  to  the  gull  family,  having  the  bauk  and  wings  sooty 
black  and  the  under  parts  white.     The  wings  and  tail  are 


Hence  Ihe 
name.  Revised  by  F.  A.  L. 

Eg'ger.  £iiiLE,  Dr.  Lit. ;  classical  scholar;  b.  of  German 
parents  in  Paris.  July  13, 1813 ;  received  his  degree  in  letters 
in  1833.  Held  various  professorships  of  ancient  languages, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  and  an  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  A  learned  and  prolific  author.  Among 
his  best-known  works  are  Mintoires  d'Hislotre  el  de  Phi- 
lologie(.\9m):  L'ffel{eHiiimeenFranee{2vo]a..ima);  Eiuini 
sitr  I'lTUtoire  de  la  Critique  ehez  lea  Green  (1890);  La  Lit- 
tfralure  (/reeque  (1890).     D.  at  Royat,  Aug.  31,  1885. 

Alfred  Qudenan. 

EgKlMton,  EnwABD :  novelist  and  historian;  b.  inVevar, 
Ind.,Dcc.  10,  1837;  joined  the  Methodist  ministry  in  his 
nineteenth  year,  and  preached  during  l«n  years  in  Minnesota. 
He  began  his  literary  career  in  1866  as  editor  of  The  LifllK 
Corporal  (Kvanston,  III.);  founded  in  1867  the  Sunday- 
srhool  Teacher  (in  Chicagft);  in  1870  went  to  New  York 
city  and  became  literary  editor  of  77ie  Independent;  was 
some  time  eAltnr  ot  Hearth  and  Home.  In  1871  appcare<l 
his  Jloonier  Sehoolmaaler,  a  novel  which  has  had  a  large 
sale  and  has  been  several  times  translated.  Among  hi.s 
other  books  are  Th'-Circiiil  Rider ^lii^4)■.  fiorj(1878);  Thf 
(irayxoii^  (1888);  The  Faith  /Joctor  (18i)l) ;  and  a  popular 
school  History  of  the  United  Stales  (1888). 

EEgle8toil,OEOROECART:  journalist;  brotherof Edward 
KgiTleston ;  b.  at  Vevay,  Ind.,  Nov.  26, 1838.  He  was  in  the 
Confederate  service  during  the  civil  war.  Since  1870  he  has 
been  connected  with  perimlicals  in  New  York ;  was  chief 
editor  of  The  Coninipr<-i'«f -4difr/iser  1880-89.  and  an  edi- 
torial writer  on  The  World  since  then.  Published  A  Reber-t 
Rrfolleetions  (1875);  AmeHi-an  War  Ballads  and  Lyrirv 
(1889);  e.\tA  Juggernaut  (imi). 

Egg-plant  {Sola'num  melon'gena,  var.  esculent  urn) :  a 
plant  of  the  nightshade  family,  of  the  same  genus  as  the 


ilo.  It  is  cultivated  for  its  large  fniits,  which  are  eaten 
n  co.ikiil  in  a  variety  of  ways.  It  has  been  cultivated 
n  the  earliest  times,  and  its  native  country  is  supposed 


10  ™ 

l«nd  sterile.  The  only  variety  olTeretl  to  the  eye  is  that  of  an- 
cient citjr  mounds  and  the  low  embankments  whivli  serve  as 
diims  ajjainst  the  Nile  floods.  Toward  the  N.  K.  the  level  is 
said  to  be  gradually  sinking  (i^ee  Mekzilkh),  while  at  Suez  a 
rising  has  occurred  within  historic  times.  It  is  almost  certain 
that  the  Red  Sea  ha.i  receded  from  it«  tormor  limits,  whieh 
must  hare  included  the  Bitter  Lakes  and  Lake  Timsah.  See 
_  BxODns.  F  • 

Divisions. — The  division  of  KkvpI  into  Upper  and  Lower 
is  prehistoric,  and  the  usual  royal  title  "  king  of  the  two 
lands"  (dual)  points  to  an  original  inde|>endc[irc,  whose 
termination  tradition  ascribes  to  Menes.  the  first  king.  Up- 
per Blgypt  always  had  precedence  and  was  mentioned  first 
in  the  roTal  nomenclature.  It  was  known  as  7b-re«,  or  with 
the  article  Po-ta-res.  "  the  south  land."  the  Pathros  (o.  »,) 
of  the  Hebrews.  The  Delta  was  Ta-meh,  '•  north  land,  the 
Hazor  of  the  Hebrews.  For  ail  minist  rati ve  reasons  the 
Ptolemies  and  Romans  maile  a  third  district,  Middle  EgypL 

Nomoi. — In  the  geographical  lists  from  the  times  of  Thoth- 
mes  III,  (eighteenth  drnasty)and  his  successors,  smaller  difi- 
sions  are  noteii.  twenty-two  in  Upper  and  twenty  in  Lower 
E|;ypt  (the  numbers  are  not  always  the  same).  These  dis- 
tricts, called  nomoi  by  the  Greeks,  had  each  its  own  partic- 
ular deity  or  deities,  worehip.  festivals,  and  sacred  animals. 

Although  DiodoruE  (i..  54)  ascribes  the  nomos-di vision  to 
Scsoosis  (."jEsosTBis.  q.  i:\  Ramses  II..  nineteenth  dynasty). 
that  of  Upper  Egypt  is  supposed  to  have  antedated  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  kingdom,  and  that  of  Lower  Egypt  to 
have  been  arranged  merely  by  way  of  imitation.  The  par- 
ticidar  names  ot  these  subdivisions  had  reference  to  the 
deity  worshiped,  the  chief  city,  local  characteristics,  or  geo- 
graphical position ;  Greek  designations  were  bWd  on  the 
first  two  grounds.  Complete  lists  ate  to  be  found  in  any 
good  history  of  the  land. 

Boundariea. — The  natural  southern  boundary  was  near 
SvENE  (9.  v.)  at  the  first  cataract,  though  under  Usertasen  III. 
(twelfth  dynasty) 
it     was    pushed 
forward  to  Sera-  1 
neh,  just  beyond 
the  second  cata-   , 
raet  (in  order  to 
gain    control   of 


"  wall  of  the  print 


9  applied.      It  was  by  n<i 


Sl  Petersburg  ascrilies  its  construction  t 

fourth  dyntu<ty  (see  below),  and  a  papyrus  of  the  twi'lrih 

dviiast^.  at  Kerlin,  recounts  the  difficulty  which  a  fULHuvi- 

t'gyptian  had  in  passing  the  sentries  set  to  watch  again^l 

maraudere. 

Citits. — The  cities  of  Eg vpt  rank  according  to  s  doilhh- 
standard — religious  and  political.  Each  nomos  had  its  chii'f 
city,  its  principal  deity  and  cult.  The  principal  plai'i?  in 
Upper  Egj'pt  were  the  following;  Syenc,  ^Hfi.  a  stnUvinr 
[Miint  on  the  southern  frontier ;  Elephantine,  ^frw,  a  plmv 
ot  trade ;  Ombos,  iV'uii,  devoted  to  the  peculiar  dual  wor- 
ship of  Scliek  and  Horns;  Silsilis,  Chtnu,  with  valiiiiMi' 
quarries;  Edfu,  'feb,  devoted  to  Bonis  and  an  impurtuui 
place  in  Egyptian  mythology ;  Esneh.  Sen,  Latopolis.  the 
relifrious  capital  of  the  third  nomos :  Elkab,  Ntehenl.  Eilei- 
thyia.  a  place  ot  pilgrimage,  devoted  to  Nechabt.  the  pro- 
tecting goddess  of  the  south;  Erment.  On.  Hermonthis.  the 
foreranner  of  Thebes.  Us.  JV'u.  Hu^Amon,  Heb.  No-Anion, 
the  most  powerful  city  ot  Egypt,  though  neither  the  lunst 
ancient  nor  most  sacred;  Koptos,  QiAti,  devoted  to  Min. 
the  Greek  Pan,  a  place  of  importance  in  the  Red  Sea  trade 
(sinc^  the  caravan  route  started  thence  for  Koser).  and  val- 
uable for  its  quarries  of  hard  dark  stone;  Chemmis.  Pan<il>- 
olis,  modem  Akhmim.  was  devoted  to  the  same  deity ;  I)en- 
derah  in  the  sixth  nomos  was  an  important  religious  center, 
devoted  to  Hathor.  and  contained  a  temple  whose  founda- 
tion is  ascribed  to  the  earliest  times ;  Abydos  (see  Menko- 
kium),  the  most  faolv  place  in  Egypt  on  account  ot  its  tomb 
of  Osiris;  Thinis,  ten,  the  native  place  of  Menes,  the  fttA 
king;  Kau  el-Kebir,  Du  Qau,  Anl«opolis,  the  capital  of  the 
—""'"•  SiUt,S(i«(.  I.ycopoliB.  devoted  to  Anul.is. 


the 


of 


Nubia),  and  lat- 
er still  under 
Thothmea  1.  the 
conq^uest  was 
continued  to  the 
third  cataract, 
andbyThothmes 
III.  to  the  Sudan. 
At  Syene  was  a 
place  of  bart«r 
with  the  Mublaos 
and  the  blacks  of 
the  south,  and 
from  one  of  the 

tirincipal  articles  ; 
ivory)  of  this 
trade  the  island  , 
of.Jfru,  Elephan-  : 
tin^,  got  its 
name.  At  Sem- 
neh  a  stele  was 
erected  by  User- 
tasen III. forbid- 
ding the  north- 
ward passage  of 
foreigners  in  oih- 
er  than  Egvptian 
boats.  At'  Abu- 
Simbel  (see  [p- 
SAMBUL)  Kamses 

II.  executed  two  wonderful  rock-hewn  temples.  Across  the 
isthmus  of  Suez,  marking  the  northeH.-^l>-ni  fMntier,  there 

with  thf  Plolfinu"  m»rB.c.,'in<-luilini  iheolJ  Kinedom  il'iyniutin 
I.-V1.1.  the  lll-ldlt  Kliiinloin  iXll.-XIII).  th-  New  Kiiiu-.lom  iXVIll.- 
XX. I.  ibe  TBi)i(t>.  Biihs-'iiie.  himI  Salt.-  ilynaRtien  iXXI.-XXlV.I,  the 
Etblaplau  doiiiinatlmi  i.\XV.i.  (br  mniiuA  fMitr  iXXVl.).  th.-  Pemian 
IXX\'1I.1,  goiil^mmrarv  in  purt  with  tli.-  third  Sail",  the  Mfnilesian 
and  SebeDDTte  i.XXVIIl.-XXX.i.  ud  flnslJy  Che  ptulemalc  period. 


Temple  of  Denderah, 

I  beyond  value:  ('hnmiiH.  moilcm  Aschmunen.  Greek  Ilir- 
niopoli*.  an  important  religious  center:  Tell  el-Ainama,ihf 
city  of  the  heretical  King  Amenophis  IV..  the  place  win^re 
many  euneifonn  tablets  were  dist-overed  in  1887;  Beni  \W- 
an  (set!  Hasan),  in  the  sixteenth  nomos.  containing  lonii-s 
from  the  twelfth  dvnasly,  and  the  Speos  Aktbhiihis  (9.  r.i : 
Ahnes.  dipnens'i.  IleracleoiKilis.  of  great  important^  im  «i-- 
cuunt  of   its   mythological   connections;   and   the    Favvv 

I  iq,  V.)  belonging  to  the  twentieth  nomos.    The  sites  of  th'"-<' 


12 


EGYPT 


"  Horus,  the  mighty  bull,  beloved  of  the  goddess  of  truth, 
lord  of  the  *  vulture  and  serpent*  diadems,  protector  of 
Egypt,  sub<luer  of  the  V)arbarian3,  the  golden  Horus,  rich  in 
years,  great  in  victory,  King  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt, 
*  Ra  strong  in  truth,  chosen  of  Ra,  son  of  Ra,  Kamses  be- 
loved of  Ra."  Similarly  the  queen  is  called  "  the  consort  of 
the  god,  mother  of  the  god,  the  g^reat  consort  of  the  king  " — 
god  and  king  being  interchangeable  terms.  She  was  usually 
of  royal  blood,  oft4tjn  own  sister  of  the  king,  his  equal  in 
birth  and  place — **  Mistress  of  the  House."  Crown  prince 
and  princes  came  next  in  order.  The  upper  classes  con- 
sisted of  "  the  nearest  friend  "  of  the  king,  and  friends  of 
various  grades,  generals,  high  priests,  officers,  physicians, 
overseers,  district  chiefs,  presiding  judges,  keepers  of  the 
seal,  master  builders,  treasurers,  fan-bearers,  scribes,  and 
many  others.  Offici^dom  ramified  in  numberless  class  gra- 
dations, whether  the  order  was  priestly,  military,  literary, 
,  architectural,  mechanical,  or  agricultural.  Advancement 
went  by  roval  or  other  favor.  (See  Bnigsch,  A^yptologie, 
p.  212  ff.)  "the  middle  class  of  the  kingdom  remained  in  the 
oackground,  and  is  less  known  because  its  members  could 
not,  nke  the  kings  and  nobles,  erect  those  enduring  tombs 
from  which  knowledge  of  the  times  is  obtained.  After  the 
removal  of  the  necropolis  from  Memphis  to  Abydos  during 
the  period  of  the  Middle  Kingdom,  and  owing  to  the  growth 
of  tne  practice  of  erecting  memorial  stelse,  tne  monuments 
of  untitled  persons  bepn  to  appear,  giving  a  conception  of 
their  number  and  position.  Tney  possessed  households  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  officials,  and  in  many  ways  appear  to  have 
been  their  equals.  They  were  merchants,  trailers,  artisans, 
free  workmen,  weavers,  potters,  carpenters,  joiners,  smiths, 
etc.  The  lowest  class  was  composed  of  the  slaves,  native  or 
taken  in  war,  who  were  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  wa- 
ter, performing  all  menial  offices.  They  were  mere  chattels, 
belonging  to  temple,  necropolis,  or  landed  estate,  and  were 
often  organized  as  a  part  of  the  military  establishment. 
Closely  allied  to  them  were  the  shepherds,  the  pariahs  of 
Egvptian  society. 

Employments. — Each  administrative  department  had  its 
own  **  troop  "  of  laborers  under  its  own  overseer,  who  kept 
minute  tally  of  work  performed,  rations  distributed,  and  of 
absentees.  The  troop,  not  the  individual,  was  the  unit.  All 
artisans  as  well  as  the  slaves  were  regarded  superciliously 
by  the  scribes  and  held  in  lower  repute  than  the  agricultur- 
ists, though  the  products  of  their  sKill  still  command  admi- 
nition.  Weavers,  working  with  papyrus  reeds  or  with  linen 
thread,  produced  baskets,  mats,  boats,  or  the  finest  Unen 
cloths;  joiners,  though  handicapped  bv  lack  of  good  raw 
material,  nevertheless  produced  creditable  work  by  the  use 
of  instruments  most  simple  in  their  character.  Potters 
through  all  periods  reproduced  patterns  tenaciously  and 
with  little  variation,  but  atoned  for  the  rudeness  of  miich  of 
their  work  by  the  fineness  of  their  products  in  faience,  the 
glazing  of  stone  objects  being  si>ecially  noteworthv.  Metal 
workers  used  gold,  silver,  bronze,  iron,  and  tin,  the  source 
whence  tin  was  derived  being  problematical.  A  bronze  is 
mentioned  which  was  an  alloy  of  six  met-als.  Objects  in 
bronze  and  iron  have  been  found  among  the  remains  of  the 
Old  Kingdom,  though  the  ctirliest  bronze  statue  is  one  of 
Ramses  II.  The  sources  of  most  metals  were  the  mines  of 
Nubia  and  Sinai.  In  value  silver  exceeded  gold,  afid  a  mix- 
ture of  the  two  is  frequently  mentioned.  The  processes  of 
agriculture  are  well  ix)rtrayed  on  the  walls  of  the  tombs. 
The  plow  was  simply  a  sharWned  stick  dragged  through  the 
ground  by  oxen;  the  hoe  abroiwl  blade  fastened  to  a  han- 
dle, a  second  cord  midway  of  each  preventing  too  great  a 
strain.  The  seed  once  scattered  was  trampled  in  by  ani- 
mals. Harvesting  was  done  by  a  short  sickle;  the  grain 
was  carried  in  sheaves  to  the  thresliing-fl(K)r,  wliere  the 
hoofs  of  cattle  j>erfornied  the  ro(iuiro(l  labor.  Winnowing 
was  done  with  shovel  and  wind,  and  the  grain  was  stored  in 
conical  rece[)taclos  ojn^n  at  tht*  top,  to  which  the  bearers 
mounted  on  ladders.  Suj)])lcinentary  irrii^ation  was  by  a 
well-sweep  similar  to  the  modern  shnduf.  These  lal)ors 
wert»  s<>  essential  a  fiart  of  P^tjyptian  life  that  the  future  life 
was  {M>rt rayed  umier  exactly  the  same  circumstances,  hapj)i- 
ness  consisting  essentially  in  the  degree  in  which  j)ersonal 
pt»rformunce  could  be  avoided.  Cattle  of  all  sorts,  asses, 
slieep,  piijs,  anil  goats  existed  in  immense  herds,  and  were 
tended  by  slaves  and  [K'asants  whose  wcupations  and  lives 
in  marshy  districts  so  far  removed  them  from  civilization 
that  they  were  regarde<l  with  detestation  (Gen.  xlvi.  34). 
Their  disrepute  is  the  more  remarkable  in  view  of  the  evident 
pride  with  which  landed  proprietors  enumerated  their  flocks. 


Education. — The  school,  "  book-house  "  or  "  house  of  in- 
struction," presided  over  by  a  scribe,  was  an  institution  of 
the  Old  Kingdom,  which  received  all  classes  alike,  and  pre- 
pared them  for  the  technical  education  of  the  special  bu- 
reau. In  the  New  Kingdom  both  branches  were  combined 
in  departmental  schools.  Orthography,  calligraphy,  style, 
and  tne  formulse  of  etiquett*  comprised  the  known  curricu- 
lum; the  rest  was  learned  by  practice.  Many  corre<»tt^l 
school  exercises  have  survived  containing  various  specimens 
of  literature ;  tales,  religious  and  magical  texts,  poems, 
codes  of  rules,  or  *' instruction "  of  ancient  sages  for  the 
pro{^r  regulation  of  daily  life,  and  ex-varte  statements  of 
the  unlovely  condition  of  soldiers  and  laoorers  as  contrasted 
with  the  beauty  of  the  scribe's  life,  at  once  inciting  to  in- 
dustry on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  and  to  profound  respect  for 
the  teacher.  These  papyri  are  of  great  value  in  affonling 
knowledge  of  orthography,  language,  and  literature. 

Landed  Property. — The  tombs  of  the  Old  and  Middle 
Kingdoms  represent  the  various  operations  of  large  landed 
estates  in  all  their  complexity.  Such  private  ownership  of 
the  soil,  of  large  tracts,  and  even  of  whole  villages,  seems  to 
have  been  a  survival  from  the  time  when  the  princes  of  the 
nomoi  were  at  the  head  of  the  independent  districts  which 
collectively  constituted  Egypt.  A  decided  change  is  seen 
in  the  New  Kingdom  when  the  title  to  all  land  except  that 
attached  to  the  temples  was  vested  in  the  king,  and  when  it 
was  worked  for  the  state  by  slaves  or  let  out  at  an  annual 
rate  per  cent.  The  change  came  about  durin|]^  the  Hyks^is 
pjeriod  or  in  the  transition  to  the  revived  native  dynasties. 
The  biblical  account  of  Joseph  is  of  interest  in  connection 
with  this. 

Houses. — The  dwellings  of  the  common  people  probably 
resembled  those  of  the  fellahin  of  to-day,  being  mud  hovels 
whose  destruction  accounts  for  the  formation  of  the  tells 
which  mark  city  sites.  The  dwellings  of  nobles  and  kinp» 
were  more  pretentious,  but  no  remains  have  survived.  The 
only  models  by  which  to  judge  are  some  ancient  sarcophagi 
of  house-like  torm,  and  some  mural  representations.  Rec- 
ord has  survived  of  a  palace  which  stood  300  ^cubits  square. 

Family. — The  position  occupied  by  woman  was  quite 
extraordinary.  In  the  household  there  was  usually  only  one 
tcife,,  though  there  might  be  several  concubines  or  female 
slaves.  Actual  polvgamy  was  infrequent,  though  the  royal 
harem  often  contained  200  women.  Private  persons  also 
maintained  harems,  the  number  of  inmates  de^>ending  on 
the  financial  ability  of  the  individual.  Inheritance  and 
genealogy  were  reckoned  by  the  mother,  not  the  father,  and 
while  a  man's  possessions  might  descend  to  his  sons,  the  line 
might  also  pass  through  the  daughter  to  her  sons.  St)nie- 
times  marriages  were  contracted  u{>on  these  consideration>. 
It  was  a  fathers  ambition  to  hand  dow^n  his  official  jwsition 
to  his  sons,  and  the  title  of  "hereditary  prince  "  is  often 
found.  The  practice  of  marriage  with  a  sister  is  met  in 
early  periods,  out  under  the  Ptolemies  it  was  quite  the  rule. 
and  tne  marriage  contracts  specified  the  amounts  which  the 
husband  engaged  to  give  annually  to  his  wife  for  family 
purposes. 

Costume. — There  is  a  constant  development  observable  in 
the  dress  of  the  upper  classes.  Royalty  set  the  fashions,  and 
thev  were  followed  at  intervals  by  those  standing  on  the 
various  social  levels.  There  was  a  distinction  between  kini: 
and  noble  and  between  noble  and  plel)eian.  The  sim[>le 
apron  bound  about  the  loins  was  always  the  essential  gwr- 
ment.  To  this  the  king  added  a  lion's  tail  and  the  noble  h 
panther's  skin  during  the  period  of  the  Old  Kingtiom.  In 
that  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  the  apron  took  a  pointed  tri- 
angular shape  in  front  and  became  longer.  Next  comes  a 
douhle  aj^ron,  a  short  one  beneath,  opacjue,  and  a  long  an4l 
transparent  one  outside.  The  priest  continued  to  wear  the 
short  apron,  however,  while  tlie  king  hatl  advanced  to  a 
mode  of  dress  which  covered  the  whole  body,  and  was  com- 
plex in  ari*an^ement  and  structure.  That  which  before  wii.-^ 
holiday  attire  Ixjcame  the  garb  of  every  day.  The  dn»ss  of 
women  was  more  uniform.  It  consisted  at  first  of  a  c1om»- 
fitting  garment  which  extended  from  the  breasts  to  the  an- 
kles, and  was  fastened  by  straps  over  the  shoulders.  Only 
in  the  latest  |)eriods  were  sleeved  or  sleeveless  mantles  wi»ni. 
Transj)arent  cloth  was  used  for  female  wear,  a^s  for  the  outer 
apron  of  males,  but  without  the  inner  garment.  The  dn*ss 
of  peasiints  consisted  simj)ly  of  the  apron,  which  in  s<»me 
cases  amounted  only  to  a  band  with  pendant  ends.  Tht^e 
simple  articles  were  made  of  papyrus  mats,  leather  or  ch^th. 
The  hair  was  worn  short,  but  the  shaving  of  the  head  din^s 
not  ap|)ear  to  have  been  practiced  daily.    Wigs  of  various 


u 


EGYPT 


nix  t$  |Hi^blT  deriTed  from  Bmim  of  Heliopolis,  which  ap- 
jHvirs  ^  A  h^»fv>n. 

(riM/,*  f>/  Saturn. — In  Twrioiis  periods  of  the  history  cer- 
tain iUntiW  «(>(v«r  ft$  doitications  of  the  powers  of  nature : 
Ka.  tho  $un«  tho  rtilerof  the  Wi>rld.  having  his  sanctaary  at 
Htshnx^iis*  was  e^vn  in  pr^^hisitoric  tinu's  ooni'eived  as  a 
ivri^m ;  Horus*  the  brins:^»^  of  livrht^  is  reprviJented  in  con- 
tticc  with  S^t«  the  ^xiof  darkn^nss;  Ra-Uarmaehis  was  the 
r(5i!iar  sutu  Ka^Tum  the  sun  at  evening.  Thoth  was  also 
wv^rshijxxi  as  the  miX^o, 

Tht»  ttumlvr  v>f  ^i^^f  v»/' viV«W  b^iiufx^  such  as  Nun  the  orig- 
iiiai  \xvan.  iHit  v^f  which  lui  priKve^ltHi.  is  beyond  number. 
Mat^  the  cvxitJt*!«i  of  iruih,  rer»res»;»nis  a  large  class  which 
sttoIxv.-'vnI  K%C'<ttr*>rt  n\^ion>.  IVitie*  are  alsti  portrayed  in 
fiunk  *uoh  as  ^^K  cvxi  of  earth,  and  Xut,  goildess  of 
Kr^axfn,  Si\u  ar.d  To  fuut.  Osiris  and  Isis*  Set-Tvphon  and 
N«^t^h:h>*^  In  :he?se  ^>airs  b  seen  also  the  /ami7y  triation 
wTxwTi  IS  v.'amixi  out  in  numenHis  wars^  not  without  g-reat 
HI.     lla:h^^.  Isis*  Nevhrhvs.  and  Xut  were  dausrhters 


''v/'-is;*^ 


of  Ka.  Hon5>  a::vi  S^t  were  :^>as  of  Isis.  Turn  was  lx?i:otten 
\}t  N-i  the  ^^lor^xt'k^iSs  litih^^ep  vi^reek,  Esculapias\the 
K-TM'vicia  cxl  v^f  '.uxHiivine*  was  s«.^n  ot  Sechmel,  who  was 
sk.;.'.v>d  m  tlv  55i-:ie  ktx^w  axI^^^.  0.>mi*i Miliums  are  very  fn^- 
\(\;«*r\:  lu  :.*v  lA:erix*n«xi>*  :r.vHi^  that  of  Ka-Tura  is  most 
a:v:v/T,  RA-blAr:*'Ac-.v.s  h*s  K?en  ment^^*^TxL  Uor-Xub  was 
the  ""c  V  l-^"-  H^ri<*  rerresentmc  the  hsiriif  sun.  Amon- 
Ka^  l^jk»"'-Svur~<.Vtr*s  are  firt.ier  eiaiu^  U^s;.  TVuk/*,  oon- 
s5<ivjc    '  fa:.*^r.  "ti'-ciier.  a::*i  s*.»q.  were  aiiruoroiLs :  such  as 

i\.  of  Thebes ;  l^ah.  Seeh- 


A'Ji^ji.  V  ;:.  ar.i  ev:iv'=2^  .nr  v^hoiis^ 
•v.€.  A'i  I'l.t  ^«H\of  Meiur^^i;  S:ix'i,  Hathv>r.  and  Khonsu 
ic:^.**  »**—S.^  r?,e  erLr^^ad  was  ihev^retioallv  a 
fcL  :i«'cri  i?-*;iv:i'lT  :he  number  fell  short,  in 
w  ♦  i  .'jfc*  i:  » AS  rvokr»k\i  st;ni?Iy  as  a  divine  court 
tM»;:cr=L-Ai  af:v*r  i.'^a;  .'^  t^ixr*^'::!.  As  ,**"»>>>  of  deities 
^w-o  yTAx  ;.v  -^^  ■•":«roL  ::ie  .'cv.;>k  of  Ra  aiid  Horus^  and 
:.**r  >^Tin»"  ^(  :^«'  *->vT^t  -vv'y.  K.Vivr.  For  ^particulars 
vXi:»  v-      .: '  "'X*   :  ."  •  >w  ■?*^  str^inre  ar::-*lesv 

y.  .^  1  , — Hi"x  f  :>.e  rv-,r  chas  its  explanation 
V c  "*  -*  >  c.ir:\  •:,'.■  Q  •::j.:i-  r^:.Lrv  !::>.  tS?e  Metuip^ycho- 
sTv  \k  >c  :r*  5iHi.  .*c  **  i- *ir.e  "  see  K_k»  left  :be  Ixxiy, 
:  *»,  ♦r-^r  «^jc  yorsvr*-^:  w*  •'Vrvr^e  oare  see  Mimwy^  and 
i  .•^'ssAi  1  4  ^v  ^7e  :  r*  ■-  ^x?  Hista^a^  f  ^r  the  pergonal 
ev>.w'iv'e  i.  :"»?  !:->*••' **\L>i  sr>~:  i  :x:n  i>i  uiv^  the  ab- 
s^.^.if  vc^-^o'i";  1  :*  :je  .:i^« -«^.  T'ji-e  f«:j.re  v*f  ;he  in- 
i.  vi:»i.  <r»6r.  ^f«.c'm.*i»xi  ."*  4  -  Lr=?eci:  w^^.\i  2s  rerretjectcrd 
«{>  4  v'  -r*-''-r  i"  "  >*  ivikr:  ?t  rl.r.iSw  wic^  v-^  uztcrisLarx-es  it 
•  •  "T  "v  s" ":  >  L  t  :*H  Tr*:.-^  Xvc.  tr.e  jr»i  of  tni'h, 
•^ >  *•  ^  :  ^v  vr  -4  ■  '  r^  i:v •  T""  f  ^  ?t  r. . e  ^C  :  ".^  ^xis.  revr>ter? 
.  r*  ^I'^H^".  r>  H.»-  C  .' .>r.«,v  4:1.1  :^r  f  ny--:*.^  ~as5?es- 
:!*.c^'  .lA-  4.*^  ^r  •!  %r:A^'  r«kr:.  "^»  '^-ta  :..c  w:i.,.e  :s  tvX" 
>.«*'  x^- •!  :  .V  •*''».Tir^*f»i  >  -Tf.  Sxr  rL.T'.'A^  .'r  rsr  I^kjld. 
T.  t...  s*f — '.T  "re  fAr-»:SC  7*-^.  »is -o^- Ic  rvlirfs  as  to 
**•  *'»*..'-.  :  .^  .-TN  4.7»i  ->  v-"^  '.  i>?c<:rv''i  a^**::  'he  in- 
i      .  .^fci.  i»     .' ^  r.i"  "  •• -^    !■:  r<  ."  >\'vc:e  a  tri-;  zi}rh'lv'cy 

,f  .  *»'  :*»..•  r»i.  ^:.«  c   •».     *e   i»  .•!•  ».     T'i»'   >.-.:: -"-1:0    w  :.v.'h 

T*-^*i  '  >:  w  u.  1  1^'  ^-^k.  "7  .»?«ki  ■    4~*.'rirrs  4;    rLAr^jioiT,  an-i 

».  •, *  ,^  w   i'-   •»  *  »>  «'^>  <*^  7i*^  *<<?  •"■k?- r-^*  n«-.. c^'^c-      Bit. 

*C      "•       •:♦>     *1    »    »         .  '      >    i"!      V"!     'i'  *  *»*    "  iN>    :t    t^.i?    TV- 


'i» 


1»- 


'nav  -^-1.:^ 


,  *   ~  ►. 


A      '-?  r 


1 


Vl^     1   A^«  iLI'l  Jl  ^Tsjrr  TVi^-Tl   12>  :«?XT- 


'♦  • 


•• 


I        -1 


r- 


i*T'  ▼^     »—• 


1*    1-    I,  -•  1«-  f 


*  ^  f 


1    •  .  - 


-  »  * 


--    r 


iwV'.-i*  :*  the 


.1. 


»  '«*•    "".^.l^    ¥"*•'"' 


as  extant  documents  show.  The  royal  papyrus  at  Turin 
might  have  furnished  a  valuable  guide  had  it  not  been  shat- 
tered beyond  repair.  The  lists  of  Manbtho  (9.  v.)  are  valu- 
able, but  they  have  been  preserved  in  such  fragmentary  and 
contradictory  shape  by  Etisebins,  Josephus,  .^Mcanus,  and 
others,  as  to  have  lost  much  of  their  usefulness.  They  f  urn  i^h. 
nevertheless,  the  only  practicable  way  of  locating  Listoncal 
events  by  dynasties^  In  terms  of  our  era  only  the  latest 
dates  can  be  fixed  accurately :  e.  g.  Necho,  6(^9-595  b.  r. ; 
Shishak  about  dSO  b.  c.  ;  Ramses  11.  in  the  thirteenth  c^^d- 
tury,  and  Thothmes  111.  possibly  in  the  fifteenth  oentun 
B.  c.  Amenemha  I.  is  variously  put  at  2130.  2360  and  2'4()6 : 
Khufu  (Cheopss.  Suphis)  at  2830  (Meyer),  3124  (Lepsius).  liim 
(Brugsch);  while  Menes  is  put  at  4400  (Bmgsch),  3892  (I^[k 
sins),  5613  (Vnger),  5004  (Mariette).  5867  (Champollion),  and 
5650  (Wiedemann).  Each  of  these  estimates  is  as  little 
capable  of  proof  as  the  others.  The  inunense  differences 
are  due  to  the  various  theories  touching  contemporary  dv- 
nasties,  a  problem  of  exceeding  difficulty.  It  seems  probaMV, 
however,  that  Manetbo  gives  in  his  list  only  the  iegitima:*- 
rulers,  and  has  passed  over  in  silence  those  whoee  claims 
were  ill  founded. 

General. — Of  the  development  of  the  Egyptian  kingdom 
and  of  the  conditions  which  preceded  the' reign  of  Men*-^, 
the  first  king,  the  inscriptions  tell  nothing.  Manetho  sp-aki 
of  gods,  demi-gods.  and  sovereigns  from  Thinis  and  ilt-m- 
phis,  while  the  n.»yal  papyrus  at  Turin  enumerates  beinr? 
called  "  F*>lk>wers  of  Horus."  as  the  precursors  of  Ment'^. 
These  beinsrs  of  course  were  mere  myths.  It  has  be«-ri 
claimeii  that  tTa<:-es  of  a  stone  age  are  found  in  EIgTi:>t,  \>u\ 
vTvot  is  still  lacking,  since  the  remains  thus  far  found  can 
w  assigned  to  historical  times^  At  the  opening  of  tht-ir 
histor}"  the  Egyptians  seem  to  have  st4X>d  on  about  the  sarrf 
level  as  the  present  inhaldtauts  of  the  Somali  coasts  so  far 
as  drvssi  was  concerned,  but  otherwise  they  were  pf»*se5<»^l 
of  an  ancient  culture  which  pnc>iipj^<ises  a  long  peric«j  "f 
development.  The  kingdom  of  Menes  was  alreaov  onrstn- 
ized  as  fuUy  as  that  of  the  later  kings,  the  main  differt>n«v 
UfiRiT  only  in  its  extent. 

The  data  of  the  early  history  of  Egypt  are  mainlv  isi»lar»?ti 
facts,  statements  of  the  expk-its  of  various  kings  and  pri\3i»* 
ixTs/ns.  A  conneotrd  history  of  native  origin  dc*-?«  ni'* 
exist.  The  Turin  papyrns  anii  Manetho  ai^  often  in  a  n- 
tradiction  with  thr  in-  cuiiirn:;5^  The  lists  of  kin^  at  A'rv- 
dv>s  .see  MuiNOMi «  ci^e  only  a  selection,  though  the  tat  .-• 
of  >eti  1-  ci^n tarns  76  i:an:es  and  that  of  Ramses  IL  18  nam—. 
The  list  of  Sa*; ;;arah  o:tr.r rises  42  names.  It  is  np<»n  siit.h 
a  t^sis  as  this  that  the  frarjitwork  of  Egyptian  history  .11  1 
ohr»  rolvcy  has  be^n  t  nrLrd.  surr-'.emented  by  manv  11.- 
s^riicL"  cs^  whivh  suiily  ac  imnec?*?  amount  of  bi>ml'a>*:c 
:»hr:ise  of  a  laitiat.  ry  character,  con: c iced  with  a  vani^h:^  c 
r.vxiuuKi  of  h:sJor::aI  m:  rmarivrL  The  gaps  in  the  1:< 
ar.  i  the  iVlental  rari:  of  c.'Xssini:  over  defeat  and  intcnu: 
•ijS5?<r-s:oa  have  left  lis  w::h  a  v^ry  fragmt-ntarr  noti^'U  "f 
:he  chrv  c  Iccy  v»f  the  txv  i  Ir  wbc-  f^cstt-jstrd  the  mo£t  ancitrLt 
kn  wn  ciiiturf  *.»'  th«  w  rli. 

IT.  rajv  l^  :s  a  list  ct  th^  E^rrxtiaa  dynasties,  compi^i 
irai!:>  fr.^m  W-.-xi-rraTin's  hist.  ry.  si:-  w— ^r  the  order  of  thr 
iT^.asr:-fSw  the  iiar/.-et?  '  v  w'—.  h  th-y  are  knowiu  the  nuniKr 
:t  iir.ii?i  :r.  ta^h  aitvvriirc  t*  v.ir--  us  acithorities,  the  it-iir:!: 
•^  :xi«r    :yr.asti-*s  a*.v^  -*;:--:  tv  Manet::*.,  and  the  names     f 

•  •':  A~  «•/•:•  *«. — No  fs* -'rcivr:?  ha're  survived  fr«tm  th*^ 
^T^  :hr*^  :vrast>.Sw  rS ':cti  the  - -refMryramid  ""  c»f  Sa-j- 
:arah  is  as.r.*r»i  t.    Uciirile^   Rjy.^  A'a.  the  fourth  Vin-z 

t  '.Zk  Irst  ':>:ascT,  ar-i  s«.'>^e  s-'a'.:-^  K.t  fjjLt-ri.-naries  v.f  the 
• —e  irarxf  Ixm  c  r»f!?erv^ekL     •.*t   X£X£>   ,•.•-.,  the  first   k:n^. 

:~>  2?  ir.v  w::  ex.vrc  tra:  h»*  haL»:^i  tr  jtl  Th.is  -Thixis.  •^.  r. . 
.-  V-  rer  r\r^-  '.  :ir- :  t  ■—  :  -i  Mr  y^s^  Tn-  List;-  of  kli\:> 
r  '-■•  *  y  Mi"  "'  '   A"^    *^  *  T  .♦:clr-~-:  hy  'hv  m.  nuiwt!.:- 

:"  :*.  V  w-^i-:  tir  tSw  VV'  -:.  -,>  i  .^-—  i'.rascy  octemt^KnirA 
r»if».'rLs  .x^'--  t.-  a: -.rar  :r.  "he  t.  =.  -s  :^-e  Ma^taba'  an  j 
^^?^-:r  .is  :z  vTirei  a:  i  ^u•: :  ATih.  efii.T  hy  >r..^ira  iMar.n'  h : . 
>  'i.-^  /  •■- .  K-  :t-.  .  ::-»  :-:  Mir-c::  .  S:-?his  q.v.x,  l'b>f- 
->-  ■  **rfc.  K.  .*'^.  AT-i  M-rTitr^  Xy  FXiM~k  y,  •  .^  f  r 
"  *-■■■•-*  .v::i  i*-  :  :'-..-  "..      :T?v     Ft  11  thr  t.~,l.«5  a  kn«  wlr»:::> 

:  :j«^  "_:-    :*  :'■.■•  ->  ^   l-r.v-i.  ^^.i  .-  i^sr  exevuiivn  •  i 

1"  ^^z.'<  >       :  'I  '      r:   ~js  rT-..i--'/e    :*  a  irv^lop^i  ai-t  :<*i 

"H"-'*-       7*-    .'"c  r*-  -r':>     f  '"--^e   i"- j^  w  rv  rn:r-*.'"'y.^i   :r. 

-     -    c**'-^  V  •!    •  ■   "  >'--  '"i-vi  '1  ill  r^irts  i-f'the  1.^  1. 

Ai  -^i-     .     -  •♦:  :.t      ---  1:   >v.  rr*e-vl  _r^  tc.ls  of   an  11  - 

».  ■'.  :  ■ '•  1*  ^  -•  A-a  •>  T  :.«r  tiz^e  .fSc.fro,  ip^hi^h 
'•1  :  "J.  ,  -  -  ^  ^:  :.:-  :  r.  ~  »:.  •->  j-  thie  bthxuus  a: 
-  *tf  A*. .-  ^tT>    ;  A.  •.  r*-*.  I.     S.T  >^£vi^  I'sssatT  or. 


""■ 

"■"■ 

M— >ta  AkM-.    T.«.    s.^™l..  I^"^; 

U^ 

F,<.«Jp^  »«(.,«.' 

Ueoes. 

II 

Memphne 
U«ri>pb.tr 

Uiruipliile 

8 

i 

1 

Spofni,  Khiifu.  Khafi*.  Ueokara. 

TBI*.  Fepi  (Phiosi.  PepI  (Phiop.).  Queen  Nib 

i« 

Herat  k..p(ait« 

4I'J' 

\ 

Huule'  polile 

\1 

Tbeban 

^Me 

7 

1 

xW 

s;k 

aeo 

■    1 

Dhhp<  lite 

Ahm(»  1.;  Ammophto  I,-IV.:  Tbolhrnea  l.-IV.:  lUUni. 

Xl-C 

I>io.foli^ 

Sell  1. -11.:  KsmiMfsII.:  Menepiab. 

DiBpoble 

Tanrie 

Bubaffiite 

S  1 

1*0 

Kamsea  III. 
tihiibalE  ;  Osorlion. 

vi 

ill" 

i'" 

FBtuomeUcliiuil.;Necho:  Hophra. 

Mil 

Salw'" 

6-e 

S«brnDfUi 

Necuuiebo  I.-U. 

Uar-edoDlui 

\1II 

' 

Si 

aoB.c.».i,.p. 

T  Buhastlte  1S3  yearH.  Id  another  v. 


septiiu  IT  kin 


r>'irinsthn  p*nod  and  the  fnllowinK  chants  occurred; 

it  li~t  its  pnmitne  himplKit)   and  [rcsliness  Inking  on  a 

ri  ••i\  ped  fi)riu  which  was  an  olottt  of  imilatinn  m  hitcr 

ni  t      Lnder  tho  liLst  kiDji;  of  the  hftli  d\niistt    LiiHs(Ma- 

ih  I  Obios  qv),tbe  practice  of  in^nhing  the  (hambers 

'   he  pvraiiiids  bej,«n  which  was  continued  undi  r  the  siith 

Mil  n   bTTeU(Uthoe9  of  Maiiethn)   Ptpi  1  (Phios)  and 

i    u  ll  (Phiop^)     Toward  the  end  o(  the  rcign  of  Pepi  I., 

ir  i  kiii^  of  the  si\th  dtnifti   a  most  notable  ruler  nhoM 

]  nuint  nts  extend  from  Taiiis  to  Denderah  a  decintraliza- 

I  II  »  ems  to   have  bc^n      Memphis  was  no  lon^ror  tlie 

r>|Hdi9  of  thi  whole  land  but  Abvdos  where  m\th  lo- 

I  1  Ilie  gravi  of  0~ina  sprang  into  prominence  neier  to 
li-plapwl     Many  other  reslinft-pliM-c^  for  the  dead  wore 

-.>  ~<iULht  out      Nearlr  all  that  1^  fcuuwn  of  thi8p«no(l  and 

II  ll  of  the  fi'iloning  two  kiiiBs  la  denieii  from  a  Ioiir  in- 
ri[  tinn  of  Una,  a  conteiiiporarr  noblo  already  mentioned, 

t--|ii   II,,  the  fifth  king  wa„ed  war  with  the  Bediiin  (>>ee 

1     le)  and  dtfendfd  the  mines  of  Sinai  which  had  been 

rr\ luu^lv  wiirkwl    (jueen  Nitixbis(5  ii)Uo»ed  the dv nasty. 

'    "lli-e  till  the  eleventh  ■Ivna.stv  tliere  is  a  long  period  u( 

irJin<--B  but  the  mterial  t^cems  to  have  bwn  iillc<l  uii  with 

n    _rarliial  development  of  ihe  power  of  the  uomarctis,  till 

1 1  h  in  the  eleventh   rhHies  '<toud  forth  in  the  leail      In 

p-riod  the  Muient  religion  ami  writing  undLrwt.iit 

iii_e  for  in  the  twelfth  dtiiiulv  manv  new  foniib  appear. 

If    Iks  became  the  ehiif  citv  ami  maintained  its  po^iiion 

'  r  i.i'-     It  was  from  Thelws  al«o  that  the  later  opposition 

I  lu   which  cniled  la  the  expuliion  of  the  Hyk^is  after  the 

\t  liiirk  perKKl  in  the  histiin     In  eat  h  case  tlic  country 

I  t   hatL  gone  throuffh  troublous  time^  and  while  the 

tii^-^  of  manv  kiiiga  are  known   they  are  incapable  of 

r  niil'.gical  arraii|!emeut.     Ihe  eleventh  diimsty    how- 

r   was  a  ptrnxl  of  ren'Usaance  though  it  was  rude  i.om- 

r>-d  with  what  preceded     Changes  are  wen  in  thestili' 

1  in  the  sarcophagi   white  tilt,  hierotrliph^  an.  clumsj. 

I  ll    pnnceflof  the  tune  wore  obscnte.  but  thtpowtr  of  rulers 

1     krowing  ami  in  the  following  dinast*  (twelfth)  it  was 

'(     ^.rttd  undtr  the  UsmTASEHsfn  ii)  and  Amcneinhas. 

iliit   from  bi inv  limited  to  the  Thibaid    thtse   kintnt 

r      lir  1  .Hit  to  blliionia  and  Svria  acquinng  the  former  by 

1  {iiLst    while  tra>k  opened  friuidly  relations  with  the 

til      Ihe  stale  was  renrgani^id  anil  placid  on  a  firmer 

tiEig  and  in  wider  relations  than  e\er  before      Fortlie 


"aym^Uus,  lUyeara. 
first  time  the  nation  entered  upon  foreign  conquest,  the 
territory  conquered  being  that  south  ol  the  first  cutiiract  aa 
far  as  s'l-nineli  and  Kumneh  (see  Halpa,  Wadi),  where  User- 
lascn  III.  placed  fortresses  to  guard  the  new  frontier.  At 
home  temples  were  erected  at  various  places,  and  tombs 
were  excavated  from  the  rock  at  Beni  Hasan  andSit;T(y,r), 
.Some  colossi  at  Tanis  and  Aliy<los  come  from  the  name 
^source.  From  Amciicmha  III.  'proceeiled  an  undertaking 
which  rcfiuired  great  engineering  skill,  the  construction  trf 
I.ake  MoERis  (q.  t:),  in  the  Favum,  excavated  as  a  reservoir 
for  surplus  water  to  be  used  for  irriiration  in  seasons  of  low 
Nile.  The  dynusty  lasted  16(1  years,  its  kings  were  regarded 
as  ideal  rnttl^i,  and  its  language  and  orthography  were  clas^ 
ical  niudels  for  after  ages. 

But  this  pcriiHl  was  as  an  oasis  in  the  deserL  In  times 
following,  till  the  elose  of  the  seventeenth  dynasty,  there 
must  have  been  great  commotion  and  Interna)  unrest.  The 
moiinments  are  few,  though  the  names  of  ruleis  who  must 
be  assigned  lo  this  interval  number  upward  of  150,  The 
state  was  in  a  weakened  condition,  oSedn^  itself  an  easy 

Brev  to  the  invading  HvKSOS  {g.  v.).  Concerning  these  people 
ttle  is  known ;  they  left  few  trat«s  of  themselves  in  oiiild- 
ings  and  monuments  to  tell  their  story.  The  lenglli  of  their 
stay  is  unknown,  only  that  they  were  worshipers  of  Sltech 
(?.('.),  and  that  their  stri'ngholdswere  Avaris(see  Peh'sii-s). 
San  (see  Tams),  and  Bubastis  (see  Pi-Beseth).  They  threw 
the  country  into  still  greater  eonfusion,  but  seem  lo  have 
been  content  for  the  niost  i>art.  to  remain  quietly  within 
their  strong  places  in  the  Ea^ternDelta,and  to  receive  Iribule 
from  the  vassal  Kgvplian  princes.  But  civilisation  was  not 
dead  even  under  llie  weight  of  this  barbarian  oppression, 
and  in  the  seventeenth  dynasty  it  began  again  to  apiiear. 
The  tomlis  at  Ui-rnah  (q.  r.)  testify  that  an  organized  state 
exisleiL  and  it  is  evident  that  the  native  kings  were  in  con- 
trol at  lenst  as  far  north  as  Thelics.  The  eniise  of  the  out- 
break which  ended  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Ilyksos  honles  was 
religious.  Apepi,  the  Ilyksos,  demanded  of  Ita-sekenen,  the 
"  prince  of  the  southern  citv,"  Thebes,  that  he  renounce  the 
worshipof  Amen-Ka  and  adopt  that  of  Siitech.  A  refusal  led 
hich  becniiie  aggressive  on  the  part  of  the  Thebans 


irought  to  a 
first  king  of  the  eighteenth  dyni 
jiaign  not  only  drove  the  Hylisu 


J  (or 

..  the 


trt 


VAiYVT 


AwmIn,  lull  immhihmI  IIumm  litln  INiloNliiut.     hi  «>  iXaUxn  \\t' 

llpt'hl'll  It   HOV^    l>|llM>lt,       NVllMlOIIM  hofolK    KKVpl    llfMJ   ShH'U  *wlf' 

iiinhdnt'il,  I'ltiiiiMtl  In  tvniiiin  silllilit  Mm  iinrflii«rli  bonhfrH, 
mill  ititiv  Miluiiii*liia  In  ooiii|itoM|  (nwiinl  IIh*  wiulh,  tiow  the 

)ii«ti|  III    \»lH  llOi'inilO  fllllllllHl,  llhll  lIlO  (IHlUlf  tMllMjIH'Mt    lH*|(lill. 

VSlIti  «uiiiil'>hi)^  lopiihl)  *>lio  ItiM'Hiiio  II  wurllkM  iiuMori,  urid 
n^\^\\\  «>hnf«M|  lii'i  rtiiii«  \\\  I  ho  KiiplimloH  iitiil  ti)  tli«  Siidiiri. 
MoiiiihloM  i\f  lhi>  i\«ulli\Mihl  nunoniiMil  iirt^  himui  lit  tlio  in- 
h>iilH«Moit  «>f  Hu*  N^of«liip  of  lUiil  aittl  AmIiu'Iis  ami  lit  tho 

Mm*  ^\{  \\\}\\\\   f«M*ol«U  Mrtn^o*. 

t\^Uo>M\»H  nil*  niMiwH>(  llh')Mh\ot)ml  oviMilH  of  tliiMlyniiNty. 
Sn\ot^«MOM^  1.  il««^  lhM^I  Vin)j«  Milvduotl  llio  liihyiuiH  At  Uio 
\\»»«1  \\\  \\w  K'lirt  Thoihiuiv*  I.,  hw  »\ii'00H*i«»r,  inart'lu'd 
xo^ithx>fMNl  ^>  H\oil\i^>l  oHtniMtt  \\\  lii«  tlrM  fuinniil^n,  and 
^  ^i*h  U'»'Hn»o  f^n  l«:».  X  pt  m^\  pt>n  \n«i>  \\\\\\%>Y  a  !«p«»oiiil  tfovorncir, 
who  \\H*  A  \s'>\'^^^\\  ol  |Mv-(\«v  M(  i>MtH,  His  mvona  oxpocii- 
\\y\\\  <o.s^  Imiu  ih^sM»^l\  l^AU'^tnu' Atut  Su'ia  tolho  KuphratoH, 
o^\  who'v  r^>ih,  \  iMMk  ho  »M>shsl  1*  «\onttimMt!  to  ivooixl  hiH 
^N\N«\N>  .%  Uo  xx/*»  i\slK\vv*l  l>>  Thothiut^^  U.,  lUTAsr  (</.«.), 
AtMi  \»u\>»«yiN  \\\  uv  nV  j^n  1\<H  oh>Khvtt.  hut  by  diflfcreitt 
\\>\>^*  \\w  \\v^\\w\  ot  Vhoihu\»v^  m.not  \viu^of  l>\Vrtl  blood, 
tUi^M>  »x  ^i,>i.^\\,s\.i)\\  fxM  \\\i>  *N\\MsJuuMi  xi^hioh  .sbo  lltt^jd 
H^..i  »,^  tM..\v  u«,vMv,v,  \^>svt  au\>\\f*K  MtoK  ♦V'*  tho  oytuHvph- 
^  .-s  ,M  ,i,v^  l.oi.Ksi  .^)s^  .M  K><l\vM\,  ot\\.  fivm  tho  land  of 
iS  \>  ,t*  ^  '«  ><  tvssNA^  IN  ^^^^>^  v\»>l  \u  Mom^  \\\  tho  tomplo 
\>^  N  t»'  ;V;^iN,  :>h;»hm  ^>^v  i\<vmNV  xx\ih  p»otu!>Ml  dotnils  of 
^  >v,.  •.   ,»>x%j      U«\i  w  ^1^  uo»iiM   rhxMhu\o>  III.  that  K;;Ypt 

^.  V  V  ,^  \x«»!.>vj  ,\.»>^v>,sn  ,M  xv^xw^r,  Klt'ttVU  o\|HHittion8 
^  ,  ^  ,  ^'^  ,M  >s.  iV  ;}«-,-N  \^,vv|  ,\f  tho  Kupht'HttVi  atid 
*  ,N  V  ^^  V  «^  *  !N  '.'^t  h*^  n^..'*r\  hisl  unr\*s\sttHi  to 
V,>v  .  \  »  s  v  "V  ,^N,.\^  >  X*  ^iN  ,ii.,:Ai  f^s^s.  III  hts  sixth 
K,  \..  \N,  V  ^,  ,,  ,  V  >ft  ^  ..  "^i  j^isvvAr  aur.uc  h\>  nncn. 
%  ^    >sv  ^     NX     K      ^'*  N  .  * .  >    K%.T»xh     h\;ho  Su.iHii  ho  was 

NH    *  N    '.    .V      /N   .'^  •    .»     ^    .V  K  \j>  h.ixi  ;ho\rown» 

>  •  »   »->     s   *•'     "vxi^  \  "^  ^  V    ,x*n»?*i"'  »n;  :v  >j*n>«\     Ho  \ii^ 
.    *  X    V*.  ••  .    •.%.  •'     »  ^  »  I  mifc.x  ,j^     ,\;  *.;.^,  :V  :i,vno 

V     s    V  ■•-    ^v   V»    V*   .X    «.      ^     y.^r  >^"'  .-^r  r\sV- r,5 


%'  • 


.   ?  r- 


Tk» 


»i 


'I* 


*  »-^ 


Hii\A\nt\  the  flittite  kingvlom  and  to  liave  advanced  by  bind 
and  wttt^T  atrainst  Egypt.  It  is  probable  that  these  weiv 
th<;  \n'ii\Ait  who  later  appt^ar  as  mercenaries,  and  who  finally 
^rew  to  U*  a  dangerfius  [)Ower  in  the  landL  The  remainutV 
of  t}ii»  liameshide  d^iiasty  (Ramses  IV.-XIIL)  was  weak : 
ih<i  wivonng^riM  were  the  tm>U  of  priests  and  mercenaries  by 
turn,  till  the  priest  dynasty  (twenty-first)  of  Herhor  {q.  v., 
Manetho,  Smendes)  and  Pinotem  (Manetho,  Psuskxxes,  q.  i\\ 
UHurfM'd  the  throne.  Our  main  indebtedness  to  those  sover- 
I'ijfnH  Ih  in  the  fact  that  they  hid  the  remains  of  their  pivat 
pr«<l<K,e»8or8  so  thoroughly  that  they  remained  in  a  rockr 
c'hamlKjr  at  Der  el-Bahan  undiscovered  till  1881.  During 
th(!Ht<  {Miriods  of  weakness  the  Libyan  power  was  develoj»in<j 
again,  and  under  Sheshonk  L  (feibl.,  Shishak,  q.  v.)  anil 
Ohorkon  {q,  V.)  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty,  fjx)ut  J^JO 
H.  c,  it  so  dominated  Egypt  that  even  the  governors  of 
citios  and  the  high  priests  at  Memphis  and  Thebes  were 
Libyans.  The  adherents  of  ^he  royal  priesthood  fle<i  t«» 
Kthiopia  and  there  founded  an  Egyptian  kingdom  with 
Napata  {q,  v.)  as  its  capital,  and  with  the  priests  of  Anum 
in  actual  power.  This  kingdom  continued  through  the  two 
following  dynasties,  twenty-third  and  twenty-fourth.  Dur- 
ing the  earlier  the  Ethiopian  Pianchi  conquered  Egy]^t  as 
far  as  Memphis;  the  later,  consisting  of  one  long,  the  B^h- 
choris  of  the  Greeks,  was  overthrown  to  make  room  fur  thv 
Ethiopian  (twenty-fifth)  dynasty  under  Sabaka  {q,  r.)  in  71  »> 
u.  c.  vVlth  Sabaka,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  '•  S.. " 
of  tho  Bible,  and  with  Taharka  (Bibl.,  Tirhakah,  a.  rX  rhv 
Hobrews  had  relations  of  confederation,  as  also  with  Xf«  h«» 
(V-  ♦*.)  »iid  A  pries  (Manetho,  Uaphris:  Bibl.,  Uophsla,  q.  ».. 
i»f  tho  following  (twenty-sixth)  dynasty  (see  below).  Tr.t- 
otTortii  at  foriMgn  conquest  put  forth  bv  those  kings  cam*r  :».» 
,  nothing  in  tho  face  of  superior  power,  but  at  home  there  w<i5 
|i*\»u*o  for  alHuit  188  years.  During  this  lime  Psemtik  1. 
^tirwk.  INammftiohos.^.  v.\  built  in  many  fjarts  of  the  lan.l : 
otTorts  won*  mado  to  establish  commerce  in  new  resrions.  aii.l 
undor  Noi'ho  a  fleet  oinumnavic^it^i  African.  The  e>ial»- 
lixluuont  of  Greek  c\>lonies  in  ihe  Delia  at  Xaucraiis  and 
Dnphnae  was  ai>o  promi^eii.  but  with  resuit>  which  in  the 
Ivmijt  nin  wore  dotriir.oniai  to  ihr  ancien:  oriierof  ihiniri>.  Id 
:ho  t\»rlior  i'^^n!o>t<  w::h  As^vria  :hr  ■.-:'r.fr^i'-ra:i«'n>  canif  to 
*.k*Ui:h:,  and  fir.HlW  Es?tt»rL:>-j:a .  n  o  i.  ijUrr-r^i  ihe  land  ti^  f:ir 
.vi  tiH'U^  Tv^akiiij:  EiP"j^<  as  Astorr.aD  pr^'viiioe  fn«m  6*i2- 
tVVI   B.  o.     W  i:h  the  a:ji  of  Grv^k  zr.-r'.-eLArtes 


V  hv><  L  exi>'.\>i  thru 

««0        A>*.        **V%  ^  m~    '^ 


:e    1 


Psamm.  Ti- 
.  *r>i  ei>'.rAT  rv-:  :.   tv-<"   tv  'h«*  *an'j  :«• 


>i>*s   :«  -viV>  K  r^  tttC   t  skn  ^n'Z'  i»'is^  ^. 


'    V 


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t- 1 


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18 


EGYPT 


East  as  well  as  from  the  West.  But  his  failure  at  Acre  de- 
feated this  purpose,  and  iiad  an  immeasurable  influence  on 
his  subsequent  career.  After  the  first  ^reat  battle  Bona- 
parte left  E^rypt  in  the  hands  of  Gren.  Kleber,  whose  early 
death  made  it  possible  for  the  united  forces  of  Turkey  and 
England  to  acquire  the  ascendency.  After  the  withdrawal 
of  the  French,  however,  in  1801,'the  several  military  ele- 
ments lost  their  cohesive  power,  and  the  control  was  gained 
by  Mehemet  Ali,  who  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Pasha  of 
Cairo  in  1804.  In  one  respect  an  important  service  was 
rendered  to  Egyptology  by  the  French  invasion.     Bona- 

Krte  took  into  Egypt  with  the  army  a  large  number  of 
eneh  savants,  who  were  directed  to  explore  the  topogra- 
phv.  natural  historv,  and  antiquities  of  the  country ;  and 
their  report,  published  in  1809-18  in  25  vols.  (2d  ed.  26 
volf^  18^1-^),  with  more  than  900  verv*elaborate  engrav- 
ings«  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  tne  advancement  of 
the  knowleiige  oi  ancient  Egvpt. 

Mehemet  Ali,  though  nominally  a  vassal  of  the  Turkish 
sultan,  ac<]uired  and  maintained  a  substantial  independ- 
ence. He  was  fully  imbued  with  the  European  spirit,  and 
founded  a  vast  number  of  schools  and  colleges.  Manu- 
factures were  encouraged  and  commerce  was  organized. 
The  full  extent  of  his  power  and  influence  was  not  confined, 
however,  to  internal  improvements.  In  18d0  he  invaded 
and  ci>nquered  Syria,  and  a  few  vears  later,  encouraged  by 
his  militarv  successes,  he  threw  bimself  into  revolt  against 
Turkey,  'the  Turkish  army  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Nizeeb  in  June,  1839.  Two  years  lat^r  the  great  powers  of 
Eun^pe  interfered  to  check  the  victorious  progress  of  Me- 
hemet Ali,  and  by  treaty  in  1841  established  Egypt  as  a 
Ticeroyaltv  of  Turkev,  hereditary  in  the  family*  of  the 
rii^p^y.  Yhis  most  celebratetl  of  modem  Egyptian  rulers, 
however,  became  imbecile  in  his  last  days,  and'tne  sultan,  in 
July.  IS48.  appointed  his  adopted  son  Ibrahim  regent.  Ibra- 
him lived,  however,  only  five  months,  and  at  his  death  was 
sB^-tvt^ied  by  Mehemet  Ali's  grandson.  Abbas  Pasha,  whose 
air.bi^:on  seeraeil  to  be  limited  to  the  restoration  of  Moham- 
•Etf'iAn  p^wer  and  the  overthrow  of  the  reforms  be^un  by 
hi>  grafiifAther.  On  his  death,  however,  in  1854,  ne  was 
su-  Ax?rdeu  by  Said  Pasha,  a  younger  son  of  Mehemet  Ali.  In 
l*^i  be  "was  sut-oeeded  by  Ismail  Pasha  (a  son  of  Ibra- 
•im-.  who  received  from  the  sultan  in  1867  the  title  of 
k±.-»i:veL  Ismail  Pasha  devoteii  himself  to  internal  im- 
f'Trvrzients  wi:h  gr^at  zeal,  though  not  with  equal  intelli- 
pei: -r-  By  vArious  mtrans  he  acquired  great  personal 
Wtm-'Ji  while  lie  was  nei^xialing  immense  foreign  loans  for 
tb*  irT:rr»-Tement  of  the  ci^untry.  Taxes  became  so  op- 
rr?sKv^  i^a:  tte  pe«.'ple  refuf^i  to  pay  them.  They  finally 
r-?^  in  nrv,.li.  ai>i  m  AiiiT^  18T9.  drove  the  khe<live  from 


t^ 


AS  5«^\:'er»it>i  by  his  son,  Mohamed  Tewfik, 
kn-edive  fc»aisd  the  financ^es  in  such  confusion 


t--I    lift   De 

ti^  iit  was  5a:*:n  oc*Ii^ed  to  invoke  the  aid  of  European 
r  v-r-j^--*^  ia  r^^ier  to  rai^  the  means  necessary  to  pay 
::!•*  ::L:-rrv<  •  c  :ne  p^iblic  debt.  The  British  and  Prencn 
•>:T-rn.z=^rrr.'-  w-!>r  pr:»..:ka:ly  given  control  of  all  the 
i«:«^r-=s  ;f  r-T-^n-e-  TJii?  e»  urse  was  so  repugnant  to  the 
r*r  *-_  -r  ti^'  _n  i-T  5^  rji^  of  1N!C2  a  rvvolt  brxike  out  headed 
:t^  Arkii  Pia-::.*.  tLr  Mini-;er  of  War.  The  party  cry  of 
•E^-c^frr  ""-•*  Ejryy  tiizis "  seemed  for  a  time  destined  to 
•A.— 7  L-  r«rf  :rr  rL  Bii  :h^  p'vemment  was  supportetl  and 
<-'''rr^i  tj  i:l-  amy  ar.i  navy  of  France  and  Great 
t-rr.»^^L^  Ax' rL'.^.y.  *ariy  in  July  the  insurgents  di- 
rv-'.<*i  an  arifc.£  -i^.n  ire  Se^  lyin^  near  Alexandria  for 
"Lir-  zr.r^ii -:.  'it  f  r-ijr:  intrrvsis.  On  the  11th  the  British 
f — •  :-  rr^LT::  *•  -^  ^ari-i  Alexandria,  and  two  days  later 
'.zr-  Br^:^!  *^^T  i-f-A-r^i  ArtiU  aX  Tell-el-Kebir,  and  rein- 
s't*^i    ^--r±^  m  t.  »-r-    Tir  ti»ntn»l  of  the  finances  now 

LLT'  Brli^h  hands,  and  for  the  protec- 
.  T  Br.tii^  tr»>  -p?  rvmained  in  practical  pos- 
Ti-y  Vrre  s«-»n  <-aUeil  into  active 
«*'-'— -vr,  t  r  k*  rr^'iA'le  r^v  It  •■*?  the  Mahdi  tq.  v.)  in  the 
>- -kL  '-r-iVi-i  z.  c  zlj  trr  j- ver  of  Eirypt  in  the 
fkT  '.  .'1^  '  j:  k^-  ::i.i^  Br.:-:^*:  a.-  w^ll  as  the  Ktryptian  in- 
'-r-?<  LiL  '.ir-  :?--!  <.  a' A.  T-je  Br.:>n-  however,  did  not 
r»-r^-T  a  v-_r  r  ::.*  r«  -  y.  Tl  ^.rn  txt-n.  G onion  with  a 
*  •-  - .  i  -.^-  ^--  »-  ^^^  >;.lftn  in  ls>*4.  he  was  in- 

t-^Wj  t«rf  re   T*\iA  cnuld    be 

r".  ^r^  III  Jjiu.  1SS5,     The 

r.  Ird  to  ihiir  with- 

A^  fr  d  '--r  '*•-  -AT.  a-  i  tr-r  A.'*ki. :  n-i,rnt  of  ihe  south- 

^<:    •:  r*f.  ^'f    the  e«»uaior 

-ir-^i  al.rirlang?  to 

*  Br^t^av-  xti<c  remaining 


,     v_  "■  ""  •   ^  --•  ^_     ^^ 


XIj"  ilH,— ..-Ve^     w  .!_  t^jc  5s..  ;• 


1^^    ^    iTjt 


years  of  Tewfik  were  free  from  turbulence.    He  died  in  Jan., 
1892,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Abbas  Pasha. 

Land. — The  limits  of  the  territory  which  is  now  subject 
to  the  Government  of  Egypt  can  be  only  approximately 
fixed,  for  the  reason  that  tfie  southern  and  western  bounda- 
ries are  not  exactly  defined.  An  expedition  under  Ismail 
Pasha,  third  son  of  Mehemet  Ali,  overran  and  occupied 
Nubia  in  1821-22,  and  since  that  time  other  expeditions 
have  pushed  the  frontiers  to  the  S.  as  far  as  Berbera  on  the 
Red  ^ea  and  up  the  Nile  valley  to  a  point  between  Khar- 
toum and  the  equator,  but  at  present  Egypt  proper  em- 
braces but  a  snudl  portion  of  the  territory  included  be- 
tween the  Me-diterranean  on  the  N.,  Wadi  Haifa  on  the  S., 
the  Red  Sea  on  the  E.,  and  the  Libyan  Desert  on  the  W. 
The  total  area  is  very  nearly  a  rectangular  parallelogram 
800  miles  long  and  550  miles* broad,  but  the  cultivated  por- 
tion covers  only  11,342  sq.  miles.  The  Egypt  of  politics  and 
trade  lies  between  the  mouths  of  the  Nile  and  the  first  cata- 
ract, in  lat.  24°  3'  N.,  and  consists  of  a  narrow  strip  averag- 
ing only  about  7  miles  in  width.  This  territory,  however, 
broadens  out  at  the  north  into  a  rich  and  prosperous  plain 
known  as  the  Delta.  The  fertility  of  this  narrow  belt  is  in 
striking  contrast  with  the  arid  and  desolate  re^on  lying  on 
either  side.  The  source  of  the  country's  fertility  is  its  great 
river,  the  Nile,  which,  having  its  sources  in  the  heart  of 
Africa,  pours  down  it«  volumes  of  fertility  and  annually 
distributes  them  over  the  surface  of  the  adjacent  country. 
Below  the  cataract  it  receives  no  tributaries,  but  the  rain- 
fall and  the  melting  snows  in  the  mountainous  regions  of 
the  south  are  enough  not  only  to  overcome  the  loss  from 
evaporation,  but  also  to  add  so  enormously  to  the  volume  of 
the  water  at  periodical  intervals  as  to  prove  a  source  of 
great  fertility  and  wealth.  For  8,000  years  the  average  an- 
nual rise  of  the  river  at  Thebes  has  been  about  36  feet,  an<l 
at  Cairo  about  25  feet,  while  near  the  mouths  of  the  river  it 
has  been  about  4  feet.  The  whole  of  the  level  country  in 
the  valley  is  inundated  every  autumn,  and  as  the  water  sub- 
sides the  soil  is  found  to  be  covered  with  a  thin  film  of  fer- 
tilizing material.  The  average  permanent  addition  to  the 
soil  by  the  inundations  amounts  to  about  4^  inches  in  a  cen- 
tury. The  river  discharges  itself  into  the  Mediterranean  at 
the  rate  of  more  than  150,000,000,000  cubic  meters  per  day 
during  the  low  period,  and  at  the  rate  of  more  than  700,000,- 
000,000  during  high  Nile.  Ordinarily  it  is  from  half  to 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  wide,  but  from  the  middle  of  July 
to  the  middle  of  December  it  formerly  gave  the  country  the 
appearance  of  a  "sea,"  as  the  Egyptians  themselves  de- 
scribed it.  The  ancient  nilometers  show  that  considerable 
changes  of  level  have  occurred  since  the  twelfth  dynasty ;  at 
Semneh,  near  the  se^x)nd  cataract,  the  lowering  has  amount- 
ed to  24  feet  As  the  Nile  is  the  only  water-supply  for  land, 
man,  and  beast,  it  was  found  necessary  to  provicie  means  for 
conserving  it.  To-day  a  very  elaborate  system  of  irrigation, 
especially  in  Lower  Egynt,  retains  a  considerable  part  of 
the  water  in  reservoirs  and  canals  for  subsequent  use. 

Products, — In  a  great  many  localities  the  soil  is  from  10 
to  15  feet  in  depth,  and  the  climate  is  such  that  the  agri- 
cultural year  includes  three  crops.  The  inundation  subsides 
in  November,  after  which  the  winter  crops,  including  nearly  all 
cereals,  are  sown,  and  are  ready  for  harvest  in  May  and  June. 
The  summer  cro{«,  including  cotton,  sugar,  and  rice,  are  sown 
in  July  and  harvested  just  before  the  autumn  floods  in 
September  and  October ;  while  the  autumn  crops,  consisting- 
of  vegetables,  maize,  sorghum,  and  rice,  are  sown  in  June 
and  July  and  gathered  in  September  and  October.  The 
most  important  protlucts  of  tiie  country  are  cotton  and 
wheat ;  of  the  former,  871,241  acres  were  planted  in  1891, 
and  of  the  latter  in  the  same  year  the  acreage  was  1,215,- 
841.  The  area  in  maize  (1891)  was  1,530.983  acres ;  that  in 
clover,  820,263 ;  in  U^ans,  643,751 ;  in  barley,  460^90 ;  and 
in  rice,  167,164. 

People, — The  Turks,  although  the  ruling  class,  constitute 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  population.  The  number  of  for- 
eiijners  residmg  in  Egvpt  was  estimated  in  1892  as  follows: 
Greeks,  37,301 ;  Italians,  18,665 ;  French,  15,716 ;  Austrians^ 
8.1^22 ;  English.  6,118 ;  Germans,  948 ;  other  foreign  nationali- 
ties, 4,1 16.  The  Aral>s  constitute  the  larger  part  of  the  popu- 
latiDU.  though  the  Copts,  who  are  supp<Ssed  to  be  deseenaed 
from  the  ancient  Egyptians,  number  over  500,000.  During- 
the  nineteenth  century  the  average  annual  increase  in  the 
nuniU^r  of  the  [H^pulation  has  been  1^  percent.  In  1800  the 
Freneh  Government  ostiinate<i  the  population  at  2,000,000. 
In  1846  the  first  census  showetl  a  population  of  4,463,244. 
In  1872  there  were  5,203,405,  and  in  1892  6,806,381.     Of  the 


20 


EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE 


EGYPTIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


history  see  the  works  of  Vogt  (1882) ;  Royle  (1886) ;  Plan- 
chett  (1889) ;  and  Maspero  (1B80).  C.  K.  Adams. 

Egyptian  Architecture:  the  architeeture  of  ancient 
Egypt;  characterized  by  the  grandeur  of  its  conceptions, 
the  simplicity  of  its  constructive  scheme,  the  massiveness  of 
its  forms,  and  its  masterful  use  of  carving  and  color  to 
enhance  the  splendor  of  its  architectural  details.  The 
Egyptians  in  all  their  important  structures  eschewed  the 
arch,  with  whose  form  and  principles  they  were  nevertheless 
perfectly  familiar,  but  produced  overwhelming  effects  of 
solemn  majesty  by  the  use  of  enormous  built-up  columns 
bearing  lintels  oi  prodigious  size.  Their  architecture,  so 
far  as  known  by  its  remains,  was  one  mainly  of  temples  and 
tombs,  having  bequeathed  to  us  no  important  vestiges  of 

Ealatial  or  domestic  edifices,  and  its  greatest  works  are 
uildin^  of  one  story,  but  of  vast  extent.  Symbolic  carv- 
ings, hieroglyphics,  and  paintings  play  a  large  part  in 
its  decorative  scheme,  but  are  never  allowed  to  disturb  the 
impressive  repose  of  the  architectural  forms  themselves. 
The  temples  of  Kamak,  Luxor,  Medinet-Abou,  Abydos, 
and  the  rtamesseum  are  the  grandest  examples  of  the  art 
of  the  Ramesside  epoch ;  Edfu,  Denderah,  and  Phila«,  of 
the  Ptolemaic;  while  the  temple-caverns  of  Abu-Sirabel 
and  the  innumerable  rock-cut  tombs  of  the  Nile  valley  ex- 
hibit another  phase  of  Egyptian  architecture,  unrivaled  un- 
less by  the  cave-temples  of  India.  The  pyramids  hardly 
rank  as  architecture,  but  evince  the  constructive  resources 
and  daring  of  the  Egyptians  in  the  time  of  the  fourth  dy- 
nasty, perhaps  3500  years  b.  c,  and  point  to  a  previously  ex- 
isting architecture,  of  which  no  traces  now  remain.  Lime- 
stone and  granite,  with  a  coarse  sandstone  for  the  rougher 
masses  of  masonry,  and  brick  dried  in  the  sun  for  exterior 
circuit  walls,  seem  to  have  been  the  materials  most  in  use. 
Further  particulars  may  be  found  in  the  article  Architec- 
ture. A.  D.  P.  Hamlin. 

Egyptian  Langrnage  and  Literature :  the  language  and 
literature  of  ancient  i^gypt ;  covering  the  same  period  which 
the  jM}litical  history  (given  under  Egypt)  included,  with  the 
addition  of  the  life  of  the  Coptic  language.  Altogether,  it 
must  be  reckoned  at  about  5,000  years,  extending  from  the 
fourth  millennium  b.  c.  to  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century  a.  d., 
having  the  antecedents  of  the  pyramid  texts  at  the  beginning 
and  the  latest  Coptic  writings  in  the  Boheiric  dialect  at  the 
end.  The  Coptic  was  the  only  key  to  the  elder  forms  of  the 
language,  and  yet  its  earliest  remains  were  separated  by  3,000 
years  from  the  beginnings  of  the  literature.  But  this  im- 
mense interval  was  not  the  main  difficulty.  The  language 
itself  had  undergone  a  development  from  a  simple  to  an  ag- 

Slutinative  character.  The  original  form  has  been  found  to 
iffer  widely  from  the  forms  which  characterize  the  Middle 
and  the  New  Kingdoms,  and  these  again  from  each  other. 
The  differences  are  so  great  that  each  period  has  to  be  pro- 
vided with  a  special  grammatical  treatment  of  its  peculiar 
features. 

Periods  of  the  Language. — Taking  a  broad  view,  there 
are  five  periods  in  the  development  of  the  tongue  of  Egypt, 
marked  off  more  or  less  distinctly  by  breaks  in  the  history 
of  the  land.  (See  historical  sketch  in  the  article  Egypt.) 
The  first  belongs  to  the  fifth  and  sixth  dynasties,  the  second 
is  that  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  dynasties,  the  third  in- 
cludes the  eighteenth  and  following  dynasties  till  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  fifth,  in  the  Demotic  character,  and  sixth 
the  C()ptic.  (See  C'OPTIC  Language  and  Literature.)  Each 
one  of  these  shows  features  unknown  to  the  preceding,  and 
in  these  altered  features  the  linguistic  development  con- 
sisted. 

Styles  of  Writing. — Similarly  there  were  three  styles  of 
writing,  exclusive  of  the  Coj)tic.  The  earliest  was  the  hiero- 
glyphic, but  of  its  origin  nothing  is  known,  since  in  its  first 
appearance  it  is  a  finished  product.  This  style  of  picture- 
writing  remained  unaltered  in  its  essential  features  through 
all  the  grammatical  changes  which  the  languaice  uinlerwent, 
and  was  always  the  othcial  s(!ript  used  for  stone  monuments. 
(See  Hieroglyphics.)  Out  of  it  was  developed,  for  more 
rapid  writing  on  iwipynis  and  similar  materials,  a  shortened 
form  known  as  tne  hieratic,  so  called  because  it  was  sup- 
posed to  be  the  script  used  by  the  priestly  scribes.  The 
third  style  was  the  demotic,  consisting  of  further  contrac- 
tions of  the  hieratic  forms  so  abbreviated  that  all  resem- 
blance to  the  hieroglyphic  entirely  tlisappeared.  The  litera- 
ture contained  in  this  script  forms  a  special  field  of  study 
by  itself.  Under  Greek  and  Christian  influence  it  was  re- 
placed by  the  Coptic  alphabet,  borrowed  from  the  Greek, 


which  retained  only  six  or  seven  letters  from  the  old  to  rep- 
resent sounds  foreign  to  the  Greek. 

Alphabet  and  Graphic  System, — The  basis  of  the  Egy]v- 
tian  writing  was  an  alphal)et  representing  twenty-four  ciin- 
sonants,  four  of  which  were  used  in  the  later  periods  as  vow- 
els or  semi-vowels.  (For  a  careful  statement  of  the  values 
of  the  primitive  alphabetic  signs,  illustrated  by  a  wealth  of 
special  learning,  see  Dr.  Georg  Steindorff's  article.  Das  alt- 
dgyptische  Alphabet  und  seine  Umschreibung,  in  the  Zeit- 
schrift  der  aeutschen  morge^Udndischen  Oesellschaft^  vol. 
xlvi.,  1892,  pp.  70ft-730.)  But  these  simple  alphabetic  signs 
were  far  from  exhausting  the  wealth  of  characters  poss<^ssi'<l 
by  the  Egyptians.  Syllabic  and  word  signs  were  emplov«<l 
in  large  numbers  and  in  an  increasing  proportion  as  time 
passed,  either  alone  or  in  connection  with  alphabetic  com- 
plements which  served  the  purpose  of  indicating  the  partic- 
ular value  attaching  to  a  sign  in  any  given  connection.  De- 
terminatives were  wso  employed  after  individual  words  to 
indicate  the  nature  or  quality  of  the  thing  or  act  men- 
tioned. 

Relation  to  Hebrew, — The  question  ot,  the  relations  be- 
tween the  Egyptian  and  other  languages  rose  early.  Lcp- 
sius  (Nubische  Grammatik,  Berlin,  1880)  investigated  the 
languages  to  the  south,  but  the  difficulty  exists  that  the 
comparisons  which  are  possible  are  between  phases  of  the 
languages  which  are  separated  by  lone  intervals  of  time, 
and  ^ve  no  reliable  results.  Benfey  {Ueber  das  Verhditniits 
des  Agyptischen  zum  semitisch^n  Sprachstamm,  Leir)zig, 
1844)  compared  the  Coptic  and  Hebrew,  but  with  mislead- 
ing results.  His  knowledge  did  not  extend  far  enough,  and 
leading  scholars  are  content  to  await  the  results  of  com- 
pleter investigation  before  expressing  a  conviction.  That 
there  was  some  connection  between  the  Semitic  and  Egyp- 
tian is  clear  from  considerations  deeper  than  the  mutual 
borrowing  of  individual  words.  In  fact  these  borrowed 
words  which  occur  in  the  periods  subsequent  to  the  Ilyks^js 
domination  are  to  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  unless*  they 
can  be  traced  back  to  a  period  anterior  to  the  thirteenth 
dynasty,  i.  e.  to  the  Middle  Kingdom.  A  large  number  of 
such  words  exist,  and  also  some  which  have  the  appearance 
of  a  common  origin.  But  the  signs  of  linguistic  relation- 
ship which  are  most  striking  are  those  which  relate  to 
grammar  and  syntax.  As  in  Hebrew,  the  signification  of  a 
word  depends  on  its  consonantal  constituents,  while  the 
modal  relation  depends  upon  the  vowels,  which  remained 
for  the  most  part  unwritten  in  both  the  Semitic  and  Egj^p- 
tian.  The  roots  in  both  were  formed  by  radicals  numberinir 
from  two  to  five,  the  higher  number  being  obtained  usually 
by  reduplication.  The  Ilebrew  status  construcius  is  a  sin- 
gle example  of  a  general  law  of  the  Egyptian  by  which  verb 
and  subject,  verb  and  object,  the  genitive  construction,  and 
even  the  verbal  clause  are  combined  as  in  a  single  word, 
with  the  accent  at  the  end.  The  use  of  pronomin^  suflRxi^ 
was  similar,  and  the  pyramid  texts  show  a  usage  analogous 
to  the  aieph  prostheticum  of  the  Hebrew.  See  Erman,  IVr- 
hdltniss  des  Agyptischen  zu  den  semitischen  Sprachtt* 
(Zeitsch.  d.  deutsch.  morgenl.  Oesellsch^  1892,  vol.  x\\i.,  pp. 
93-129);  Bondi,  Dem  hebrdisch-phoniziHchen  Sprachztrt  igt 
angehorige  Lehnw5rter in  hierogtyphischen  undhieratifichni 
Texten  (Leipzig,  1886);  Wiedemann,  ^/M^/)<t>c7i«  Worter 
wehhe  I'on  klaf<»ischen  Autoren  umachriehen  oder  uberst-tzt 
warden  sind  (Leipzig,  1883),  and  Die  dltesten  Beziehungen 
zwischen  Agypfen  und  Griechenland  (Leipzig,  1883). 

Grammar. — The  study  of  Egyptian  grammar  in  any 
proper  sense  is  a  work  of  recent  date.  Its  slow  progress  i:« 
due  to  the  peculiar  difficulties  which  b(»sf»t  it.  Tne  script  i*< 
confused,  liable  to  be  misunderstood,  and  defective  in  that 
it  leaves  the  vowels  unnoted  and  frequently  omits  even  eon- 
sonants.  The  texts  are  often  in  a  ruinous  condition,  and 
their  contents  are  of  a  nature  difficult  of  comprehensit»n. 
The  only  aid  outside  of  tlie  hieroglyphic  writing  itself  is 
that  supplied  by  the  Coptic,  which  is  not  only  widely  sejwi- 
rated  in  time,  but  has  retained  only  the  infinitive  and  a  S4>rt  of 
participle  from  the  many  forms  discovered  in  the  ancient  lan- 
guage. Nevertheless  it  has  been  found  possible  to  learn  muih 
concerning  tlie  grammatical  structure  of  the  ancient  languii  ir*' 
of  the  Old  Kingdom,  as  distinguished  from  the  Middle  ami 
New,  in  s[>ite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  largely  comiK>sed  of  ma>r- 
ical  contents,  and  is  written  in  a  peculiar  orthography  new 
to  Egyptologists. 

Each  word  had  a  single  accented  long  vowel,  the  others 
being  merely  serviles.  When  words  were  combined  to  form 
a  compound  expressi»m,  vowel  changes  occurre<l  as  in  C<>]>- 
tic,  and  the  accent  went  to  the  end.    Pronominal  relati<»ns 


EGYPTIAN  LAN'GCAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


tant  textH,  both  formal  and  material,  which  are  capable  of 
no  other  explanatioD.  The  extent  Ui  which  the  most  sacred 
reti^uua  text  was  changed  aad  amended  is  aeea  in  Narille'g 
monumental  edition  of  the  liitual  of  the  Dead  of  the  eigh- 
teenth dynasty  (Dae  AgyptiKhr.  Tudlenbtich  dtr  n-iii.  bin 
XX.  Dyna»tie,  2  vola.  fol.,  Berlin,  1»86).  The  corniplion  of 
the  text  has  proceeded  so  lar  thai  it  is  nol  in  the  power  of 
textual  eritieiam  to  restore  it  to  its  orifiiaal  (otm  so  that 
each  word  shall  appear  in  iU  proper  form. 

Rdigioua  ZrtVeroiu re.— Although  the  number  of  texts 
writt«n  in  the  hieroglyphic  and  allied  characters  is  im- 
mense, the  bulk 
nf  them  is  of  a 
religious  nature, 
conjjisting  large- 
ly of  copies  of 
the  Ritual  of 
the  Dead,  com- 
plete or  partial, 
written  on  fra- 
gile paiiynis,  on 
the  bands  and 
sarciphagi  of 
the  dead ,  on  tem- 
ple walls  and  in 
tombs.  The  lit- 
erary activity  of 
the  living  was 
exercised  mainly 
in  the  prepa- 
ration for  the 
lite  in  the  fields 
of  Amenti,  the 
land  ol  the 
West,  the  future 
home  of  the  de- 
ceased. The  gods 
and  the  dead 
were  objecLs  of 
es|>ecial  care, 
fiut  in  snite  of 
the  wealth  of 
materials  there 
is  dilUculty  in 
o  btain  i  ng  a  c  lear 
TJewof  thereliK- 
iousmnceptions 
of  the  Egyp- 
tians, because 
behind  all  their 
tormuleand  rit- 
ualistic  observ- 

bachicrounil  of 
mythology  as 
yet  im|)erfectlT 
comprehended, 

the  less  eswntiol 
to  a  complete  un- 
ite rstanding  of 
t  he  religion  in 
its  essence.  The 
references  te 
these  myths  an 
t«nded  <lo  not 
mere  directorle: 
■»  a  ■v.ngbmct 
aifCH. 

Taitn  and  .Vorro/tfe*.— Egyptian  literature  is  at  its  best 
in  the  tales  which  have  been  preserved  dating  from  the 
periods  of  the  Middle  and  N'ew  Kinfr<lams.  The  Egyptian 
was  so  lacking  In  iiimpnation  that  when  he  left  the  region 
of  simple  prose  he  i»i'nine  bombastic,  groti'soup,  and  absurd. 
Yet  the  literary  Egyptian,  even  when  ri'latmga  plain  and 
simple  story,  was  wont  to  interiifl  sjH'whcs  and  long  let- 
ters which  wore  evidr>ntly  intended  as  lilerarv  adornments. 
It  in  a  remarkable  fni-t  lliat  must  of  Ihi-st-  IhIis,  and  all  of 
those  eiiuched  in  siinj.le  prusi'  H|ieech,  corae  from  the  period 
subsiiiuent  to  the  Uykus  invasion  and  nccujiation.  The 
go-calfed  prose  namiliv™  of  the  previous  pi-riod  are  prob- 
ably poetic  in  their  stnicture.  luring  more  arlifit'ial,  leas  in- 
telligible, and  in  marked  contrast  to  those  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty,  which  show  a  style  truer  te  the  contemporary  idiom 


and  more  natural  than  the  official  texts  and  the  inscriptions 
in  the  bombastic  style  and  antique  language  ol  their  ancient 
models. 

Poetry. — Closely  allied  to  the  tales  are  the  poetical  writ- 
ings. Susie  and  singing  were  practiced  In  all  periods  to 
express  joy  and  Rriel.  and  the  son|r  was  the  amversal  ac- 
companiment of  labor.  The  specimens  from  the  ancient 
kinj^lom  ore  valuable  mainly  as  showing  the  origin  of  the 
folk  song.  In  the  more  artistic  pieces  of  later  tunes,  allit- 
eration was  practiced  frequently,  and  plavs  on  wotxjs  were 
n.— i^  *"  a  great  length.    The  "  paiaUel^  of  members," 


Zodiac  of  thf  Temple  r>f  t 


',  but  the  particular  events  in- 
pear  in  delail.  The  ritualistic  books  are 
t  ol>servanees:  the  RUuai  of  the  Dead 
•   made   up  of    accretions    during    long 


familiar  te  us  in  the  Hebrew  poets,  is  frequent  and  s-mie- 
times  very  artistic.  This  parallelism  is  sometimes  si rir I. 
sometimes  free,  and  a  poetical  composition  is  occasionally 
arranged  strophicolly.  Rhythm  was  also  introduced,  wilh  a 
regular  beat  of  accents,  dependent  upon  theuiiual  laws  nf 
Egyptian  phonology.  Long  lines  are  interrupted  in  snnn' 
of  the  manuscripts  of  the  iliddle  Kingdom  by  shorter  lin.'* 
which  mark  transitions  of  thought  as  well  as  of  meter.  A\ 
times  these  lines  are  marked  in  red. 

Letters. — A  peculiar  form  of  literature  has  been  pn^ 
served  in  the  collection  of  letters  prepared  by  teachers  fur 
their  pupils.  Some  conUin  praise  ol  the  occupation  and 
advantages  of  the  learned  scribe,  who  is  released  from  the 
toil  and  fatigue  of  the  soldier  and  the  laborer.  Others  con- 
tain moral  instruction,  the  precepts  of  etiquette,  and  the 
formula  of  elegant  intercourse.  Tney  are  cast  in  the  form  of 
instruction  given  to  the  young  by  their  elders,  or  to  pupils 
bv  their  teachers,  in  a  style  that  is  to  us  often  far  fn>in 
clear.  In  the  later,  and  estiectally  in  the  demotic,  perioiLs. 
letters,  contracts,  and  private  documenU  afford  glimpaes  of 


EGYPTOLOGY 


royal  tgyplien  de  Turin  (2  vols^  Parjg,  1834-26),  the  general 

hT<:\\mit\u^\n\iisSotictdeacriplivtdtsMoniimrtiU&gyptitn» 
du  Mwif-^  'Ckarla  X.  (Paris,  1H27).      In  183S-30  he  seitrched 


his  return  he  was  made  Professor  of  Egjptiati  Literature  in 
tho  Collece  de  Fraiiw,  but  his  strenuous  activity,  and  es- 
pecially Lbu  hardships  to  which  he  had  snbmillvd  during; 
his  recent  joumev,  had  overtaxed  his  atrenRtb.  He  was 
seized  vilh  a  fatal  fevor  and  died  Mar.  4,  1»32,  a  few  days 
after  he  had  delivered  his  first  lecture.  His  rapid  success 
hod  raised  up  a  bust  of  detractors  and  opponents.  Klap- 
roth  criticised  hts  work  with  a  bail  faith  and  a  virulence 
which  cvuD  death  did  nol  abat«  {Examtn  erifiqut  da  fra- 
raupT  df  J'ru  Jf.  Champollion  tur  lea  Hiiroglgpheg,  Pari.i, 
1832):  Spohn  and  Scyllarth  started  a  rival  system,  which 
was  ivjocteil  in  Europe  after  the  death  of  Uhlcmann  (1955), 
but  which  continued  to  find  some  degree  of  acceptance  in 
the  U.  S.  for  more  than  thirty  years.  Tlie  ^neral  public, 
however,  had  received  his  laliors  with  deiijiht  and  imme- 
diately proclaimed  bis  discoveries  as  among  the  most  won- 
derful ever  achieved  in  the  domain  of  antif|uity.  After 
his  death,  men  of  every  nation  took  up  his  tenchines  and 
advanced  the  work  he 'had  begun  so  well:  Kestor  Lhfite, 
Charles  Lenormant,  and  Dulaurier  in  France;  Salvolini, 
RoscUini,  Ungarelli,and  Baruccbl  in  Italy;  Leemans  in  ihe 
Netherlands;  Wilkinson.  Birch,  and  OAum  in  England. 
Chompollion-Pigeac  devoted  himself  to  the  memory  of  his 
younf^r  brother,  and  published  the  most  imjKirtAnt  of  his 
unfinished  books,  his  Letlrta  icriUa  d'&gyptr  (Paris,  1833) ; 
his <ri-amniai>r.^jiifp/t>RNi!(Paris.  1836-41);  his DtWionnat'n' 
^gyptitn  ni  eeriliire  kieroglyphique  (Paris,  1841-46);  his 
Monamtnta  da  rtgyple  el  dr  la  Niibie  (Paris,  183S-T5). 
coinpleted,  however,  only  by  Maspero.  Since  then  the  story 
of  EKypIolo^  has  been  a  per|>c1ual  record  of  success  and 
discoveries.  Ijepsius  analyzed  criticallv  In  his  Lftire  A  M, 
h ProfraaeHT RostUini  afirCulphabei  hifroglyphiqtif  (Rome. 
18.17)  the  structure  of  the  old  language,  aixl  elucidated  the 
origin  and  mechanism  of  the  syllabic  characters,  the  exist- 
ence of  which  had  onlv  been  surmised  by  Champollion. 
Lepsius,  however,  early  left  philological  for  historical  and 


from  his  pen:  Diis  Todltnbiirk  der  Jigypttr;  C'tber  die 
xii.  SgypliarJie  KGniydymtalie  ;  Einltilung  in  die  Ckro- 
nolngie;  Leber  den erxleit  Sgyptiachtn  QSIterkrfia;  KBnigit- 
biieh  der  alien  Aggpler,  and  many  more.  Large  portions 
of  these  have  lieconie  antioualed.  hut  they  formed  the  solid 
ground  upon  which  the  ennmoUvry  and  'history  of  ancient 
Egvpt  have  been  built  up.  JIjs  three  years'  stav  in  the  Nile 
valley  at  the  head  of  a  commission  of 'German  draughtsmen 
and  scientists  (lM43-4.'>)  produceil  the  gigantic  DenkmUler 
aua  Aggplrn  uitd  Alhiopien  (12  vols.,  ItcrUn,  1840-^!)).  in 
which  all  the  historical  texts  known  at  the  time  were  re- 
pmduceil  by  the  skillful  hand  of  Weidenbach.  llimsen 
pnpuUri/nl  the  ideas  of  Jiei>sius  in  his  Jigvpieiu  S/elfe  in 
der  Welhiexrhifhtt  (ll.iiuliurg.  184!)):  lUinrich  Itnigsch. 
thi'n  a  viimu  iimn,  applii-.!  himsi'tr  t<i  demotic  texts  (Srrip- 
lura  ^'lyiliorum  drmolirn.  lltTlin,  1848):  Orainmaire  de- 
miiliipie  (ilcrlin.  IKJ-l).  Whili'  Ihint-s  went  thus  in  Ger- 
m:inv.  Kmniiiiiuel  ile  K'nige  cnmmencei!  his  liilmrs  in  France 
wilh'hi-  A'j-.Kyi'-N  rr<fi:,;e  de  C.mrrnqe  de  it.  le  CbrrHlier 
de  Hun^ei,.  in  which  the  m-Tiis  ..f  liunsen's  and  l.ei.sius's 
work  were  fully  re.oiriii /.'<!.  while  their  err»r>i  and  fallacious 
hyji.li h.'si's  were  jK.iiiml  out  with  a  vig.ir  of  method  and  a 
cortrtintv  which  pliiceil  tlie  vniLiig  aullii.r  at  the  heail  of 
livinc  Ki:vpli'l"(.'i'"^.  KTnninnu.'l  rle  li.xv;;!-  hii-  i->un  termed 
the  sec..i.'.l  f..urid.r  of  K-vi.1.il..i;v.  and  h..  \ms  a  iH-rfect 
riuht  lo  thi'  tide.  Ilu  reNi<>.l,'l.-.l  [he  t'mmiii.ir  in  liis  Chrri^ 
U,mnlhie  ^■r/v^'^"!"' ll'nris  lNfiT-T«i:  her-Hll.-.l  hac^k  to  life 
the  first  .him-Tii'S  in  his  lierherehen  -Hr  /«  mm.y,m'nla 
qa'on  pent  ii'fri'nier  niir  *i>  premierer  .li/iiiitlii'f  de  ilniii- 
Ibon  (Paris.  IHtHil ;  he  giive  tii.-  i-rfi'^-t  !n.-lel>iif  lli,.  [mthod 
in  which  Ku'vi.lKM.  t,-st,^.sh..iil.|  !«■  cnminciK,"]  u|K>n  leder 
l.vleneraM.lwi.r.1  l,y  w.ini  ij>  hi.  Memo.re  sur  n.tfripfion 
d'Abmej,,  fbefdeM  nmil.,«ier>  fWn-^.  IK-,]),  in  his  h<-de 
fir  !,-«.  »l.le  ;:,;plien„e  de  In  ls,t.li,.ll.;,,'i,  Im/ifrMe 
(PHri-s.  l>i,V>-.-.;i).  1,11.1  in  his  >iii,ill.T  piiiuphlels.  and  he  was 
the  Hrst  wlio  n'HJlv  tnin-hir-'d  wh-ile  Kirviitiiin  Ijrioks  nnil 
invri,,(i..M-.  l...tli  lii.Ti.L'lv|,l,i.-  and  hi.r»rl.-.  He  gave  a 
n.-v,-  impulse  t.i  K-y[.i..)._.-y  M..t  ..uiy  in  Knince.  «h.Ti.  Mii- 

afler  him,  but  aL~.  in  knglund'.  where  hi=  ijillueiicr  was  fell 


by  Birch,  Hinclffi,  Jjep^e-Henouf,  and  in  Germany,  where 

Brugsch.  nUmichen,  Ebers,  and  Elsenlobr  seconded  the 

efforts  of   Lepsius.    The  elders  of  the  German  school  are 

irly   all    practical    archieologists,  who,   like   DQmichen. 


ularized  in  ingenious  novels  (Die  dgyptiaehe  K&n\g»- 
lorhltr.  I'arda.  Ihe  Setiirealtm)  the  knowledge  they  hod 
acquired  in  their  scientific  researches.  They  are  headed  by 
tho  veteran  Heinrich  Brugseh  (Brugscb  Pasha),  who  may 
be  said  to  be  the  last  of  the  heroic  generation  which  diil 
not  specialize  within  a  narrow  branch  of  the  science,  but 
took  the  whole  field  for  its  specialty.  Hia  Qramatiirt 
(Leipzig,  1872);  Dietionnaire hifroglypbique  (Leipzig,  1867- 
82):  Oeographitche  In»ehrifien  (Leipag.  1857-60);  and 
Dielionruiire  gfographiqae  de  I'andennt  &gyptt  (Ijcipzig, 
1877-80) ;  bis  Matinuuxjponr  atrvir  d  la  reeonslruetion  du 
caUndritr  dea  aneiena  Egyptiena  (Leipzig,  1864) ;  his  Ge- 
acbichte  .igyptena  (Leipzig,  1877) ;  his  Religion  und  Mytho- 
logie  der  alien  Apgpler  (Leipzig.  188.5-88):  his  Thetauruf 
Ittacripfionum  ^gypliacarum  O^ipzig.  1883-81) ;  and  his 
Agyptoiogie  (Leipzig,  1691)  are  fundamental  works,  the 
great  faults  of  which  are  lost  in  greater  merits.  With  1hf> 
exception  of  Wiedemann,  whose  turn  of  mind  is  deciiledly 
historical,  the  more  recent  German  school  inclines  mo;^ 
and  more  to  grammars  and  philology  under  the  Icai)  of 
Adolf  Erman.  the  successor  of  Lepsius' both  in  the  Museum 
and  at  the  University  of  Berlin.  On  tlie  other  hand,  ihi- 
French  school, though  not  adverse  to  philolo^,hasdirecti..<l 
its  strength  towant  history  and  archaeology  since  the  death 
of  Emmanuel  de  Rougi^  (1872)  and  of  Cliabas  (1885).  Aii- 
guste  Mariette  (Marictle  Pasha)  had  opened  the  way  for 
them  by  his  immortal  labors  among  Ihe  Egyptian  ruins  in 
the  interest  of  both  the  French  (1849-54)  and  Egvptiaii 
(1858-81)  Governments.  He  had  discovered  the  Serajieum 
of  Memphis,  freed  the  temples  of  Edfu,  Kamak,  Deir  el-Ba- 
hari,  Denderab,  and  Abyilus  from  the  rubbish  which  cum- 
l>ered  them,  explored  the  whole  Nile  valley  from  Tanis  to 
Napata,  and  collected!  in  Boulak  in  1839  that  museum  of 
antiouities  which,  transferred  to  Gizch  (1889).  is  one  of  the 
wonders  of  modem  Egypt.  The  direction  of  Egyptian  ex- 
cavations passeit  from  his  bands  to  those  of  G.  Maspero 
(1881-86)  and  E.  Orebaut  (1886-92).  and  descended  -in 
1893  upon  De  Morgan,  all  of  them  Frenchmen.  Moreover, 
tlie  French  Government  maintains  in  Cairo  a  Alitaian  a 


baut  (1883-86),  and  Buuriant.  Young  Egyptologists  are 
sent  every  year  to  Egypt  to  excavate,  draw,  c'opv,  and  puli- 
Hsh  the  monuments.  They  are  heliieii  in  the  work  of  iiiid- 
ing  and  preserving  the  remains  of  antiquity  by  an  Anj;!'" 
American  society,  the  Egypt  Exjiloration  fiiiid,  the  lir-t 
si^cretarv  and  real  promoter  of  which  was  Miss  Amelia  1). 
Kdwar<fc  (1882-1)3).  In  1883  they  sent  out  their  first  agunt. 
fidouord  Saville,  of  Geneva,  and  he  cleared  the  site  of 
I'ithom  in  the  land  of  Goshen.  Since  then  Naville, 
Flin<lers,  Petrie,  Griffith,  Gardner,  and  Newberry  have  be.>n 
at  work.  Naucratis  has  come  to  light,  Tanis  and  Buhaslls. 
the  Pyramids  of  the  Fayum,  the  tombs  of  Beni-llasan  and 
El-Ainarna  have  yielded  unexpected  treasures  of  archffiilm;!- 
cal  and  liislorical  lore. 

Hecords  bcfin  to  appear  with  the  third  dvnasty  of  Sfa- 
netho.    The  Sphinx  of  Gizeh  is  certainly  older,  b'ut  being 


26 


EGYPTOLOGY 


deity:  thus  Pierret,  Easat  8ur  la  mythologie  Sgyptienne 
(Paris,  1879)  and  Le  panthian  igyptien  (Paris,  1880),  and 
Brugsch,  IHe  Religion  und  Mythologie  der  alien  Agypter 
(Leipzig,  1885-88).  Le  Page-Renouf  {Lectures  on  the  Ongin 
and  Growth  of  Reliqion  aa  Illiistriiied  by  the  Religion  of 
Ancient  Egypt,  London,  1880)  considers  the  Egyptian  my- 
thology as  being  a  disease  of  the  language,  according  to  the 
principles  of  the  Max  Mtiller  school,  while  Maspero  {Etudes 
de  Mythologie  et  d^Archiologie  £gyptienneSy  Paris,  1892-93) 
insists  on  the  animistic  and  naturalistic  character  of  the 
Egyptian  myths,  as  does  also  Wiedemann  {Die  Religion  der 
alten  Agypter,  MtXnster,  1890).  Detailed  accounts  of  the 
common  life  have  been  drawn  by  Wilkinson  (Manners  arid 
Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  edited  by  Samuel  Birch, 
3  vols.,  London,  1878);  by  A.  Brraan  {Agypten  und  dgyp- 
tisches  Leben  im  Alterthum,  2  vols.,  TObingen,  1889) ;  and  by 
Maspero  {Lectures  historigues:  ^gypte  et  Assyrie,  Paris, 
1890;  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assuria,  New  York, 
1892).  The  art  and  architecture  of  Egypt  have  been  treated 
by  Perrot  and  Chipicz  in  the  first  volume  of  their  great  His- 
toire  de  Vart  (Paris,  1881 ;  English  translation,  2  vols.,  Ix)n- 
don,  1883),  and  more  briefly  by  Maspero  in  VArchhlogie 
Sgyptienne  (Paris,  1887 ;  English  translation  by  Amelia  B. 
Edwards,  London  and  New  York,  1887 ;  German  translation 
by  Georg  Steindorff,  Berlin,  1889).  Some  very  good  repro- 
ductions of  Egyptian  statues  are  to  be  found  in  O.  Rayet's 
Monuments  de  Yart  antique  (Paris,  1880-84).  The  materials 
for  historical  and  artistic  subjects  has  been  collected  in  sev- 
eral great  works,  the  first  of  which  was  the  Description  de 
r Egypt  (Paris,  1809-30 ;  2d  ed.  1820-30,  followed  by  Cham- 
pollion's  Monuments  de  VSgypte  et  de  la  Nubie  (Paris,  1835- 
79) ;  Rosellini's  Monumentt  cTEgifto  e  di  Nubia  (Pisa,  1832- 
44) ;  Lepsius's  Denkmdler  aus  Agypten  und  Athiopien  (Ber- 
lin, 184^-59) ;  and  the  smaller  collections  of  J.  DUmichen, 
Altdgyptische  Kale nderinschrif ten  (Leipzig,  1868) ;  Alt- 
dgyptische  Tempelinschriften  (Leipzig,  1867);  Die  Flotte 
einer  dgyptischen  K6nigin  (Leipzig,  1868) ;  Mistorische  In- 
schriften  altdgyptischer  Denkmdler  (Leipzig,  1867-69) ;  Re- 
sultate  der  archaeologisch-photographischen  Expedition 
(Berlin,  1869-71);  Brugsch  and  Dtlmichen,  Recueil  de 
monuments  Sgj/ptiens  (1862-85) ;  E.  de  Rouge,  Inscriptions 
reeueillees  en  Egypte  (Paris,  1877-79) ;  Marietta,  Monuments 
divers  (1871-90),  and  others.  But  the  time  is  past  for 
these  unmethodical  compilations  of  material,  in  which  texts 
of  all  periods  are  mix^,  some  complete,  some  in  a  frag- 
mentary state.  The  better  custom  of  publishing  mono- 
^aphs'in  which  one  temple  or  one  class  of  monuments 
IS  described  as  completely  as  possible  is  illustrated  by 
Mariette*s  Denderah  (Paris-Cairo,  1869-80),  Abydos  (Paris, 
1869-81),  Deir  el-BahaH  (Leipzig,  1877),  and  Karnak  (Leip- 
zig, 1875) ;  the  Notices  of  Tneban  Tombs,  published  by  the 
members  of  the  French  mission ;  bv  Rochemontiex's  Edfu 
(Paris,  1892);  Benedite*s  Phila  '(Paris,  1893);  Gayet's 
LouxoT  (Paris,  1893),  which  are  yet  in  course  of  publica- 
tion. 

The  bulk  of  Egyptian  literature  has  been  preserved  in 
papyri,  nearlv  all  of  which  are  scattered  in  the  various 
museums  of  Europe.  Nine  papyri  out  of  ten  contain  the 
religious  books  and  rituals  wnich  were  placed  with  the 
mummies  in  the  coffins  or  in  the  sepulchral  rooms.  The 
most  famous  of  them  is  the  Book  of  the  Dead,  or  Rituel 
Funeraire,  a  compilation  of  prayers  and  magical  incanta- 
tions intended  to  msure  the  security  of  the  soul  in  the  other 
world,  and  to  sen'e  it  as  a  sort  of  password  in  the  travels  it 
was  compelled  to  undertake  l)efore  reaching  the  Hall  of 
Judgment  and  the  Elysian  Fields.  Several  copies  of  this 
book  have  been  reproduced  in  facsimile  by  Lepsius  {Da^ 
Todtenbuch  der  alten  Agypter,  Berlin,  1842)  and  by  E.  de 
Rouge  {Rituel  Funeraire  des  anciens  £gyptiens,  Paris, 
1861-64),  but  the  standani  edition  is  that  proiected  by  the 
International  Congress  of  Orientalists  in  Lonclon  (1874)  and 
executed  in  part  i)y  Naville  in  Das  thehanische  Todtenbuch 
der  xriii.  bis  jrx.  Dynn^tie  (Berlin,  1886).  It  gives,  how- 
ever, those  cha})ters  only  which  are  to  be  found  in  the 
manuscri[)ts  of  the  Theban  period;  for  those  which  belong 
to  the  twelfth  dynasty  one  must  resort  to  Die  dlteHte  Texte 
des  Todtenbuchs,  bv  Lei>sius  (Berlin,  1867),  to  Maspem's 
Mf moires  de  la  Misxioti  fran^aine.  du  Caire  (toni.  i.,  fasc. 
2),  and  to  the  Ancient  Texts  from  the  Coffin  of  Amamu  in  the 
British  Musi'um,  hy  Birch  and  Le  Pa^'e-Renouf  (London, 
1887).  Translations  of  the  whole  lKK»k  exist  in  English, 
prepared  by  Birch  (in  Bunsen's  Egypt's  Place  in  Univfrml 
History,  vol.  v.,  1866)  and  by  Le  rage-Renouf  (in  the  Pro- 


ceedings of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,  from  vol. 
xiv.) ;  in  French,  by  Pierret  {Per-mr-hru,  le  Livre  des  Morin, 
Paris,  1882).    Some  of  the  principal  chapters  have  been 
translated  or  edited  by  Pleyte  {Jitude  sur  le  Chapitre  J::> 
du  Rituel  Funiraire,  in  £tudes  £gyptologiques,  iL,  Levden. 
1868-70,  and  Chapitres  supplSmentatres  du  Livre  des  ifnrfM 
102-174,  Leyden,  1881-82) ;  by  Guieysse  {Rituel  Funfrairt 
:6gyptien,  Chapitre  64\  Paris,  1876);  by  Goodwin  {On  iht 
IWh  Chapter  of  the  Ritucd,  in  the  Agyptisehe  Zeitsehriff, 
1871);  by  Lefebure  {Traduction  comparh  des  Bymnejt  au 
Soleil  eomposant  le  150*  Chapitre  au  Rittiel  (Paris,  IbGS), 
and  by  others.    The  most  common  books  of  this  sort,  next 
to  the  Book  of  the  Dead,  were,  in  Theban  times,  the  BfHik 
of  Knowing  what  there  is  in  the  other  World,  and,  in  the 
Saite  perioS,  the  various  Books  of  Breathing  Anew.    Tin- 
former  has  been  edited  bv  Lanzone  {Le  domicile  des  Esprit^*. 
Paris,  1879),  and  by  Lef^ture,  Le  Tombeau  de  Seti  /.,  in  Mt- 
moires  de  la  Mission  du  Caire,  tom.  ii.) ;  and  it  has  l)eeii 
translated  by  Maspero  {Etudes  de  Mythologie,  tom.  ii.i. 
The  Book  of  Breathing  Anew  has  been  both  edited  and 
rendered  into  Latin  by  Brugsch  (<Sal-w-*Sin«»,  sive  lib*-r 
metempsychosis  veterum  ^gyptiorum,  Berlin,  1851).    Ritu- 
als proper — that  is,  collections  of  the  ceremonies  and  prayers 
performed  in  the  temples  and  tombs — are  very  numeroiL-^ ; 
such  are  the  ritual  for  the  cult  of  the  Theban  Amon  (O. 
von  Lemm,  Das  Ritualbuch  des  Ammoftdienstes,  Leipzig. 
1882),  the  ritual  for  the  services  celebrated  in  the  sevt-n 
chapels  of  the  temple  of  Seti  I.  at  Abydos  (Mariette,  Abydo», 


iX  the  ritual  used  while  preparing  tne  mummies  (Masf>ero, 
Le  Rituel  de  V Enibaumement,  in  JfSmaires  sur  gas.  papyrus 
du  Louvre,  Paris,  1879).     The  Opening  of  the  Afouth  and 


the  other  rites  performed  on  the  day  of  burial,  whether 
inside  or  outside  of  the  tomb,  have  been  preserved  to  us  in 
the  pyramids  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  dynasties,  Ounas,  Tet  i, 
Pepi  I.  and  II.,  Mihtimsasuf,  and  in  the  private  and  ruyal 
vaults  of  the  Theban  cemeteries.  The  texts  in  the  pyramid> 
have  been  collected  and  translated  by  Maspero  {Recueil  df 
Travaux,  i.  to  xiv.),  and  those  of  the  Theban  hypogees  by 
Schiaparelli  (//  libra  dei  Funerali  degli  Antichi  Egizinni, 
Rome,  1880-90)  and  by  DUmichen  {Der  Orabpalast  drs 
Patuamenemap  in  der  thebanischen  Nekropolis,  Lei{)zig, 
1884-^5).  Books  of  magic  abound,  though  tney  are  not  a> 
numerous  as  the  strictly  religious  or  ritualistic  works.  Mo»t 
of  them  are  unpublished  as  yet,  but  the  translations  of 
Chabas  {Le  papyrus  magigue  Harris,  Chfiions-sur-Saone. 
1861),  Pleyte  {^tude  sur  une  rouleau  magique  de  Musee  de 
Leyde,  in  Etudes  i^yptologiques,  i.),  Golenischeff  {Die  Mft- 
temich-Stele,  Leipzig,  1877),  and  Lefebure  {Un  Chapitre 
de  la  Chroriique  Solaire,  in  the  Agyptisehe  Zeitschrift, 
188I^J  ^ive  a  sufficient  idea  of  the  ways  m  which  Pharaoh's 
magicians  were  wont  to  conjure  the  demons.  That  they 
were  sometimes  prosecuted  as  adepts  in  the  black  art  is 
proved  by  the  proceedings  in  a  trial  for  high  treason  at 
Thebes  during  tne  reign  of  Ramses  III.  (Deveria,  Le  I'lapy- 
rus  judiciaire  de  Turin,  Paris,  1865-68).  Magicians  acttnl 
oftener  as  physicians  or  surgeons,  and  no  remedy  could  l* 
properlv  applied  without  their  help.  Al)out  twenty  treat is»»s 
on  medicine  are  known  to  exist,  of  which  only  two  have 
been  published :  the  Papyrus  mediccde  de  Berlin,  by  Brugsch 
{Recueil  de  monuments,  torn,  ii.),  and  the  Papyrus  Ebers,  by 
Ebers  and  Stem  {Papyrus  Ebers :  ein  hieratisches  Hana- 
buch  altdgyptischer  Arzneikunde,  Leipzig,  1875).  Kln^rs 
studied  ana  published  comments  upon  the  portions  of  his 
papyrus  which  relate  to  diseases  of  tne  eye  {Papyru0Ebers  : 
die ' Maase  und  das  Kapitel  uber  die  AugenkrankJieii efi, 
Leipzig,  1892),  and  a  German  version  of  the  whole  has  lieen 
published  bv  Dr.  H.  Joachim  {Papyrus  Ebers :  das  dlfeste 
iuch  Uber  neilkunde,  Berlin,  1890).  No  papvrus  treating 
of  astronomy  has  yet  been  discovered,  but  the  calendars, 
zodiacs,  astnmomical  and  astrological  tables  which  abound 
on  the  walls  of  temples  and  toml)8  at  Ombos,  Esneh,  Edfu, 
Denderah,  the  Ramesseum,  the  Memnonium  of  Abydos,  the 
funerary  rooms  of  Seti  I.  and  the  Ramessides  of  the  twen- 
tieth dynasty  furnish  a  large  (quantity  of  material.  Very 
little  remains  of  the  papers  of  Biot,  but  the  identification  of 
Egyptian  with  modem  stars  and  constellations  by  Brugs<»h 
{Thesaurus  Jnscriptionvjyi  ^gyptiacarum,  i.,  Astronomische 
Inschriften,  Leipzig,  1888)  are,  if  not  certain,  at  least  very 
probable.  Three  mathematical  papyri  have  been  found,  one 
at  Tanis  lielonging  to  Roman  times  and  one  from  the  twelfth 
dynasty  found  in  the  Fayum  by  Petrie,  the  third  at  Thebes 
by  Rhihd.  The  last  has  been  interpreted  and  annotated  by  A . 
Eisenlohr  {Ein  mathematisches  JIandbuch  der  alien  Agyp- 


EIBENSTOCK 


leOI,  after  the  peace  of  Luneville,  dertroyed  the  works.  The 
citadel  was  rebuilt  in  1915  bf  the  Pnissian  general  A9t«r. 
the  projector  o(  all  the  woriis  at  Coblentz.     Pop.  (1800) 

ElbenBlock.  fben-atok :  town  of  Saxony ;  on  railway,  18 

miles  S.  S.  B.  of  Zwickau  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref. 
5-F>.  It  has  manufactures  of  muslin,  lace,  ohemii^ls,  and 
tinware.     Pop.  (18B0)  7,186. 

Elchberg,  leh'bArch,  Julius:  composer  and  t<>acher;  b. 
at  Dflsiwldort,  Germany,  June  13,  1824;  receiveii  his  flrst 
instruction  from  his  father  and  afterward  studied  in  the 
Brussels  Conseri-atorT.  In  1857  lie  became  a.  naident  of 
New  York,  and  in  1859  removed  to  Boston,  where  in  1867  he 
eatablishe-i  the  Bi.ston  Conservatory  of  Shisie.  He  composed 
much  tor  the  violin,  on  which  he  was  an  e  seel  lent  performer, 
bnt  is  best  known  as  the  composer  of  the  opew.*,  Tlie  Doctor 
of  Alcantara  (Boston,  Apr.  7,  1862):  The  Hose  of  Tyrol; 
The  Two  Cadis;  and  A  Night  in  Rome.  D.  in  Boston, 
Jin.  IB,  1893.  D.  E.  Hebvby. 

Elohendorir,  Ieh>n-dorf,  Joseph  Fbeiherr.  von:  lyric 
poet;  b.  near  Ratibor,  in  Pni^ian  Silesia,  Mar.  10.  1788. 
He  studied  law  at  Ilalle,  where  he  met  Nuvalis,  and  at 
Heidelberj;,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  the  romanti- 
cists, Amim,  Brentano,  and  GOrres.  EichendorS  himself  be- 
longs to  the  later  Romantic  school,  whose  prealest  representa- 
tive he  raay  be  considered.  His  poems  (1837)  are  of  ait  un- 
usual sweetness  of  melody,  tenderness  and  depth  of  feeling, 
and  elegance  of  form.  He  also  wrote  several  dramas  and  a 
numberoinoveKof  *hich/lu«(fcmi,e6*nfrnej  Tavgeniektt 
ia  the  best  and  most  widely  read.  He  was  by  faith  a  Roman 
Catholic,  and  from  the  standpoint  of  his  faith  wrote  Oe- 
schichte  der  poetischen  Lilltraliir  Dealschlands  {History  of 
the  Poetical  Lil*rature  of  Germany.  1857),  which  is  an  in- 
teresting and  valuable  work.  See  Richard  Dietze,  Eichen- 
dorff'a  Ansicht  Ober  romanlitche  Poesie  (Leipiig.  1883).  D. 
at  Seisse,  Nov,  36.  1857.  JuLifs  Guebel. 

Eichhoff,  leh'hilf,  Fbiediiicb  Gubtav:  philologist;  b.  at 
Havre,  France.Aug.  17,  1790;  son  of  a  merchant  formerlv 
of  Hamburg.     As  a  student  in   Paris  he  devoted  himsi-lf 

Earticularly  to  Oriental  languages;  in  1830  became  the 
ing's  librarian;  in  1843  Professor  of  Foreign  LHnguages  at 
Lyons ;  in  1855  inspector-general  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
Among  bis  numerous  works  are  Parallite  dea  Ijaiiguea  de 
r Europe  el  de  Vlnde  (1836) :  Mudes  itur  Niniix.  PerxijmH-. 
tl  lamylhologif.  del' Edda {\i5^\:  Orammaire ginerale  indo- 
europhnae  (1867).  He  aided  in  compiling  a  Dietionnaire 
iluuudogique  dra  racines  allemandea  (1840;  new  eii.  1855). 
D.  in  Paris,  May  10,  1875. 

Elchhorn,  ich  horn,  Joiiann  Gotti'Iiied  :  German  scholar 
and  biblical  critic;  b.  at  DOrcnziminem,  Oct.  16. 1752;  edu' 
catcd  at  GiiltinRcn ;  became  Professor  of  Oriental  Language! 
at  Jena  in  1775.  In  1788  he  was  called  to  the  chuir  of 
Oriental  and  Biblical  Literature  at  GOItingen.  which  be  ftlled 
nearly  tliirtv-eight  years.  He  edited  the  Allgnneine  Biblio- 
thek  der  bibliaehen  Lilleraiur  (10  vols.,  1787-1801),  and  wrote 
numerous  works  which  display  an  eminent  knowledge  of 
Oriental  and  biblical  antiquities.  He  is  noted  for  having 
introduced  to  the  German  world  the  famous  hyjiotliesis  of 
Astruc  (if,   indeed,   he  did  not  come  upon  the  idea  ■  — 

Sorarilv),  and  for  having  proiiucod  the  first  systematic  i 
uclion  to  the  Old  Tesiament,  Hislurinth^rilische  Ei 
tang  in  das  Aile  Teala'itiU  (3  vols..  17»:J),  which  reached  a 
fifth  edition.    Among  his  other  works  are  Einleihing 
AVm*  Teatamenl  (3  vols.,  1804-14);  Urge^.hichfe  (Prii 
History, 2  vols..  I700-9a) :  Wellgeech ie/ile  (Universal  llisl. 
5  vols.,  1799-1814);  and  OeschicliU  dtr  Lillrrnlnriiin  ihrem 
Anfang  bis  auf  die  iiniealtn  Zeiirn  |8  vols.,  lHtfc)-13).   D.  it 
Guttiiigen.  Juno  25,  1827.  K*!viscd  by  C.  II.  Tor. 

Eichhorn,  Kabi.  Frikobich  :  jurist  and  historian ;  a  sol 
of  J-ihann  (J.ittfrie.1  Eieldiom ;  b.  at  Jena.  Nov.  30, 1781 
Professor  of  German  I.bw  at  Gottingcn  from  1817  to  182!^ 
Ho  puWisheil,  U'sides  olhcr  works,  Deuliirhe  Slaalt-  vni 
JirrhliKit«chichlt{IJvmMn  Political  ami  Legal  llistory.4vols.. 
1808-23  ;  5th  ed.  1843-15).      U.  in  i;..l.igiie,  July  4.  18.14. 

Eickler.  ifhler.  Auovst  Wjuiei.ii:  botanist;  b.  nea: 
Zieirenhaiii,  Hes.-i4>n,  Apr.  22, 1830;  eiliu-ati-d  in  the  Univer 
silv  of  Mnrlmrg;  privat  d.K-cnt  at  Munich  lM6r.-71;  Pni 
tessor  of  Botany  at  Uralz  1871-73;  at  Ki,-I  18T:t-7H:  and  a 
Berlin  1878-87.  His  numerous  pulilisli.-d  wrilinir*  an 
mainly  upon  systematic  Imlnuv  and  the  Mruclurc  c.f  hiirhc 
plants.  For  niany  years  he  wh.-  tiie  edihir  of  iVi/m  liniiti 
Uensis.  to  which  he  was  a  frequent  contributor.     His  book 


EIDER  DUCK 

floral  structure,  BlUlhendiagramma  (1875-7B),  is  a  stand- 
ard work.     D.  in  Berlin,  Mar.  2.  1887. 

Charles  E.  Bessbv. 
Elcbstiidt,  ieh'stet  (Lat.  Aurea'twn.  or  Dri/opolis) :  town 
of  Bavaria ;  on  the  river  AltmQhl ;  about  42  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  Katislion  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  7-F).  It  has 
a  Gothic  cathedral  founded  in  1259,  a  ducal  palace  once 
belonging  to  Eugene  de  Beaubamais.  a  public  library,  a 
"""""m,  and  the  castle  of  St.  Wilibald,  used  as  a  barrack  ; 
lanutactures  of  hardware,  cotlon  and  woolen  fal)rii-s. 
.  The  bishopric  of  EichstJIdt  was  founil'-d 
here  about  745  a.  d..  and  in  1802  became  a  principality,  with 
the  city  Eichstiidt  a.1  capital.  The  principality  was  given 
to  Prince  Eugene  de  HeHutiamaia  in  1817,  and  dissolved  in 
■"55.  Pop.  of  town  (1800)  7,475. 
Eichw«ld,  ich'caktt,  Edwabd:  naturalist  of  German  ex- 
action :  b.  at  Mitau,  Russia,  July  4, 1795.  He  visited  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  Persia,  and  becarue  Professor  of  Mineral- 
ogy and  Zofilogy  at  SI.  Petersburg  in  1838,  after  which  he 
made  scientific  excursions  t^i  several  parts  of  Russia  and 
Italy.  Among  his  works  are  Travels  to  the  Caspian  iSea 
attdthe  Caucasus  (1834):  Fauna  Caepio-Caueasta  (1841); 
Tlie  Primiliit  World  in  Ruagia  (4  vols..  1840-47) ;  and  The 
Palteontologg  of  Russia  (\85l).  D.  in  St.  Petersburg,  Nov. 
10,  1876. 

Elder,  i'd*r  (hat.  Eidera):  a  river  of  Germany,  forming 
the  boundarv  between  .Schleewlg  and  Holstein ;  rises  alHiut 
10  miles  S.  W.  of  Kiel,  flows  nearly  westward,  and  enters  the 
German  Ocean  at  TSnning.  It  ia  alx>ut  90  miles  long,  and 
is  navigable  from  its  mouth  to  Kendsburg.  A  canal  cut 
from  Rendsbnrg  to  Kielfiord  opens  a  communication  from 
the  Baltic  to  the  North  Sea. 

Elder  Duck :  any  one  of  several  species  of  sea-ducks,  es- 
pecially the  European  eider  (Somateria  mollissima),  wluch 
furnishes  the  eider  down  of  commerce.  This  duck  also  oc- 
curs in  the  northern  parts  of  North  America,  but  the  com- 
mon American  eider  is  tiomaleria  dresseri,  while  still  an- 
other species  (S.  t'-nijfnini)  is  found  on  the  Pacific  con.-Jt. 
The  eider  duck  is  larger  than  the  common  duck,  and  the 
color  of  the  plumage  in  the  male  varies  with  the  changing 


sea  gn'cii  on  the  head.  But  he  does  not  acquire  this  I'lu- 
iiiiige  until  his  third  year;  before  that  time  it  resembji-s 
that  of  the  female.  The  nest  is  constructed  of  fine  mos.sc» 
and  seaweeiis.  anil  the  epKs.  from  five  to  seven  in  number, 
lire  about  3  inches  long  ami  2  broad,  and  of  a  light-green 
I'ulor.  During  incubation  the  female  deposits  in  the  nest 
tlie  down  wluch  she  plucks  from  her  breast,  and  if  this  is  re- 


30 


EISLEBBN 


EL^IS 


Eisleben,  Is'ld-ben :  town  of  Prussian  Saxony ;  about  20 
miles  W.  of  Halle,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway 
(see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  4-F).  It  is  divided  into 
the  old  and  the  new  town,  the  former  of  which  is  inclosed 
by  walls.  It  has  an  old  castle  and  a  gymnasium,  also  man- 
ufactures of  potash  and  tobacco.  Copper  and  silver  are 
mined  in  the  vicinity.  Martin  Luther  was  bom  here  in 
1483,  and  died  here  in  1546.  The  house  in  which  he  was 
born  was  partially  consumed  by  fire  in  1689,  but  has  been 
restored.  In  the  Church  of  St.  Andrew  are  presei-ved  his 
cap,  cloak,  and  other  relics.  A  bronze  statue  of  the  great 
Reformer  was  erected  in  1883.    Pop.  (1890)  23,903. 

Eisteddfod,  d-steth'vod:  a  congress  of  Welsh  bards  and 
musicians  for  promoting  the  cultivation  of  the  national 
poetry  and  music,  and  secondarily  of  maintaining  the  tradi- 
tions and  customs  of  the  country."  Its  origin  is  very  ancient, 
probably  dating  from  a  time  long  previous  to  the  Christian 
era,  but  the  first  meeting  of  which  there  is  any  record  was 
held  on  the  Conway  in  North  Wales  in  the  sixth  century. 
The  terra  Eisteddfod,  however,  was  probably  not  applied  to 
these  sessions  till  early  in  the  twelith  century,  when  such 
an  assembly  was  callea  at  Caerwys,  in  Flintshire,  and  at- 
tended by  all  the  bards  of  Wales  and  some  from  England 
and  Scotland.  Here  and  at  other  royal  seats  the  congresses 
were  held  for  a  long  time  every  three  years,  and  bein^  under 
the  patronage  of  the  princes  were  generally  occasions  of 
magnificent  display.  Poetical  and  musical  contests  were 
the  chief  features  of  these  gatherings.  Degrees  and  prizes 
were  conferred  upon  the  successful  competitors,  who  were 
therebv  raised  to  a  position  of  hi^h  honor  and  admitted  to 
the  halls  of  the  Welsh  princes  and  nobles.  Edward  I.  sanc- 
tioned these  bardic  congresses  by  his  statute  of  Rhuddlan, 
and  they  occurred  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  III.,  Henry  VI., 
Henry  VIII.,  and  Elizabeth,  often  under  the  royal  permis- 
sion or  patronage.  There  was  an  important  one  held  at 
Bewper  Castle,  Glamorgan,  in  1681,  but  from  that  time  till 
1819  little  is  heard  of  them.  At  the  latter  date  the  re- 
awakening of  the  Welsh  national  spirit  gave  them  a  new 
impulse,  and  they  have  since  then  l)een  held  annually  and 
attended  by  large  numbers.  The  Eisteddfod  for  1892  was 
held  at  Rhyl ;  that  for  1893  was  appointed  to  be  held  at 
Pont-y-Pridd  in  South  Wales.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Eitelberger  von  Edelbergr,  i'tel-barch-er-fon-a'del-bSrch, 
Rudolf:  art-historian:  b.  at  Olmtltz,  Austria,  Apr.  14, 
1817;  became  in  1852  Professor  of  Art  History  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna,  and  contributed  much  to  the  improve- 
ment of  Austrian  industry  and  art.  He  wrote,  amon^  other 
works.  Die  Reform  des  KuThstunferrichts  (1848) ;  MitielcU- 
terliche  Kunsfdenkmale  des  Oesterreichischen  Kaiserstaata 
(2  vols.,  1858-60) ;  and  Quellenschriften  zur  Geschichte  der 
Kunst  des  Mitielalters  und  der  Renaissance  (1871).  D.  in 
Vienna,  Apr.  18,  1885. 

^ectment  [from  Lat.  eji'cere,  ejec'tum,  cast  out ;  e,  out, 
-^ja'cere^  cast] :  in  law,  a  mixed  action,  as  it  is  resorted  to 
in  order  to  recover  the  possession  of  land,  and  damages  for 
the  wrongful  withholding  of  it,  though  the  damages  are 
nominal.  Originally,  it  was  a  "  possessory  "  action — that  is, 
adapted  to  the  recovery  of  the  possession  of  land.  By  a 
series  of  fictions  it  finally  came  to  be  a  convenient  means  of 
testing  the  title.  The  substance  of  the  fiction  was  a  suppo- 
sition that  a  lease  for  a  certain  number  of  years  had  been 
made  to  a  tenant,  John  Doe,  who  had  entered  into  posses- 
sion, and  had  then  been  ejected  by  a  person  supposed  to  rep- 
resent the  party  to  be  ultimately  made  defendant.  This 
person  was  termed  "  a  casual  ejector,"  and  was  usually  rep- 
resented as  Richard  Roe.  An  action  was  then  brought  sud- 
stantially  under  the  following  title :  **  Doe,  as  tenant  of  Ed- 
wards (claiming  the  land),  against  Roe."  A  written  notice 
was  thereupon  sent  in  the  name  of  Roe  by  Edwards's  attor- 
ney to  the  opposing  claimant  (Archer),  wno  is  the  party  in 
possession.  By  this  notice  Archer  was  ail  vised  to  defend 
the  action,  otherwise  Roe  would  allow  judgment  to  be  taken 
against  him  and  the  possession  would  be  lost.  Archer,  on 
making  application  to  be  made  defendant,  was  allowed  to 
defend  upon  condition  that  he  would  a<lniit  the  validity  of 
the  fictitious  portion  of  these  proc»eedings  ;  so  that  the  mat- 
ter was  narrowed  down  to  a  trial  of  the  merits  of  the  case. 
The  action  was  now  deemed  really  to  be  between  Edwards 
and  Archer,  though  Doe  still  remained  plaintiff  on  the  rec- 
ords of  the  court.  It  is  a  well-settled  rule  in  this  action  that 
the  plaintiff  can  only  recover  upon  a  legal  title,  as  distin- 
guished from  a  title  m  a  court  of  equity.  He  can  succeed 
only  upon  the  validity  of  his  own  title,  and  not  upon  the 


weakness  of  that  of  his  adversary.  He  must  also  have,  in 
legal  phrase,  a  **  right  of  entry."  Where  that  does  not  exist 
another  form  of  action  must  be  adopted.  There  was  one 
serious  practical  inconvenience  following  this  method  of 
procedure.  There  was  no  limit  in  law  t-o  the  number  of  suc- 
cessive actions  of  ejectment  that  could  be  brought  by  a 
plaintiff,  although  he  had  been  worsted.  He  had  only  to 
substitute  another  fictitious  tenant  in  the  place  of  Doe,  and 
all  the  proceedings  might  be  ^one  through  with  again.  The 
only  check  upon  repeated  actions  of  this  kind  was  a  resort 
to  a  court  of  equity  for  an  injunction  to  prevent  harassing, 
and  perhaps  exhausting,  litigation.  The  fictitious  portion 
of  the  proceeding  was  abolished  in  England  by  the  Com- 
mon-Law Procedure  Act  of  1852,  and  the  action  placed  upon 
satisfactory  grounds.  The  same  result  had  been  accom- 
plished as  early  as  1830  in  New  York. 

Should  the  plaintiff  succeed  in  his  action,  he  has  also  an 
independent  cause  of  action  for  the  loss  of  profits  sustained 
by  reason  of  the  defendant's  wrongful  possession.  This  is 
known  as  an  action  of  trespass  for  mesne  (intermediate) 
profits.  In  some  of  the  U.  S. — e.  g.  New  York — this  cause 
of  action  may  be  united  with  the  action  of  ejectment.  The 
recovery  would,  by  the  statute  of  limitations,  commonly  be 
limited  to  the  mesne  profits  for  the  last  six  years. 

T.  W.  DWIOHT. 

Ekaterinburg,  d-kaa-ta-reen-boorg' :  fortified  town 
(founded  in  1722);  government  of  Perm,  Russia;  160  miles 
S.  E.  of  Perm  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  6-1).  It  has  straight 
broad  streets,  many  cnurches,  manufactures  of  metals,  and 

fovemment  mints,  and  is  the  principal  city  of  the  mining 
istrict  in  the  Ural  Mountains.    Pop.  (1887)  33,739. 

Ekaterinodar',  or  Jekaterinodar :  the  chief  town  of  the 
Kuban  territory,  Southern  Russia ;  on  railway,  and  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Kuban  river ;  in  lat.  45°  3'  N.,  Ion.  38'  30' 
E. ;  555  miles  N.  W.  of  Tiflis  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  11-E). 
It  is  on  a  swampy  site,  subject  to  overflow,  and  the  houses 
are  wooden  structures.  It  was  founded  in  1792,  in  the  reipn 
of  Catherine  II.,  and  is  now  the  seat  of  the  hetman  of  the 
Chernomonan  Cossacks.  It  has  an  active  though  local  trade, 
and  one  of  the  government  horticultural  institutions  is  es- 
tablished in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  (1871)  17,622 ;  (1886)  39,610. 

M.  W.  H. 

Ekaterinoslar :  a  government  of  Southwestern  Russia ; 
bounded  N.  by  Kharkof  and  Poltawa,  E.  by  the  count rj'  of 
the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  S.  by  Tauria  and  the  Sea  of  Azof, 
and  W.  by  Kherson.  Area,  2o,148  sq.  miles.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Dnieper,  the  Samara,  and  the  Waltschija,  and  con- 
sists almost  entirely  of  large  steppes.  The  soil  is  fertile. 
Pop.  (1889)  1,874,182. 

Ekaterinoslaf :  city  of  Russia;  capital  of  the  goyem- 
ment  of  same  name ;  situated  on  the  Dnieper,  115  miles  S.  W. 
of  Kharkof  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  10-D).  It  was  founded 
in  1784  by  Prince  Potemkin,  and  named  after  the  Empress 
Catherine  II.,  in  whose  honor  a  monument  has  been  built. 
It  has  a  large  cloth  factory,  and  many  other  manufactures. 
Pop.  (1888)  46,876. 

Ek'ron :  one  of  the  royal  cities  of  the  ancient  Philistines, 
and  the  seat  of  an  oracle  of  Beelzebub ;  in  Judea ;  about  25 
miles  W.  by  N.  from  Jerusalem.  Its  site  is  identified  with 
the  modem  Akir,  or  Akree,  Although  no  longer  powerful, 
it  was  a  large  yillage  in  the  time  of  the  crusades,  but  now 
consists  of  about  fiity  mud  huts. 

Elfeagna'ceie  [deriv.  of  Lat.  elceag'nus  =  6r.  ixaiaypot,  a 
Boeotian  marsh-plant] :  a  family  of  exogenous  plants  (trees 
or  shrubs),  natives  of  Europe,  North  America,  and  other 
parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  being  rare  south  of  the 
equator.  They  have  entire  leprous  or  scurvy  leaves,  a  su- 
perior ovary,  and  apetalous  flowers.  Several  species  indifje- 
nous  in  Persia  and  rfepaul  bear  edible  berries.  This  order 
also  comprises  the  Shepherdta  argentea^  or  buffalo  berry, 
which  grows  near  the  upper  Missouri  river,  and  bears  a 
pleasant  acid  fruit;  this  and  the  Shepherdia  eanadt^nsis 
and  the  Elceagnus  argentea  (silver  berry  of  the  Northwest) 
are  the  only  known  North  American  species.  The  oleaster 
{Elteagnus  august  if  olio)  is  a  native  of  the  Levant  and 
Southern  Europe.  This  tree  is  often  planted  in  shrubberies 
for  the  sake  of  its  fragrant  yellow  flowers  and  it«  silvery 
white  foliage.    It  attains  a  height  of  nearly  20  feet. 

Elseagnns :  a  genus  of  the  family  EL^fiAGNACSiE  (q,  t\), 

ElaB^is  [from  Gr.  lAaioy,  olive  oil,  iAxdoy  olive-tree] :  a  ge- 
nus of  trees  of  the  family  Palmacece.  The  Elmis  guinren^ 
sis,  or  oil-palm,  a  native  of  Western  Africa,  produces  the 


32 


ELASTIC  CURVE 


ELBE 


rhinidcBf  in  some  respects  the  hiehest  and  most  wide-rang- 
ing of  the  class.  To  this  family  belong  several  of  the  most 
common  species  of  the  eastern  American  coasts.  Equally 
wide-ran^mg,  and  perhaps  still  more  admirably  adapted  for 
a  wandering  life,  and  even  more  formidable  in  their  arma- 
ture«  are  the  Lamnidm,  which  include  the  mackerel  sharks 
and  the  formidable  man-eater  {Carcharodon  carcharias,  etc.). 
The  families  of  more  limited  distribution  are  the  Scylliida, 
which  are  chiefly  represented  along  the  shores  of  the  Old 
World  and  Australia ;  the  Pristiophoridce^  which  are  pecul- 
iar to  the  oceans  of  China,  Japan,  and  the  neighboring  seas ; 
and  the  HeterodontidcB^  whicn  are  confined  to  the  Pacific. 
The  representatives  of  the  order  Rai(B  are  distributed  in  an 
analogous  manner.  The  most  widely  diffused  of  the  types 
is  the  family  of  RaiidcB ;  all  the  others  are  more  limited  in 
their  range,  at  least  toward  the  northward  and  southward, 
and  are,  on  the  whole,  less  represented  by  species  and  by  in- 
dividuals in  the  regions  where  they  occur  at  all.  The  Gh  inuB- 
ridm  of  the  present  epoch  are  rather  cold-water  types ;  and 
of  the  generic  or  super-generic  types  one  {Chimmra)  is  rep- 
resented by  species  of  the  northern  seas,  and  another  (Ccdfo- 
rhynchus)  by  species  in  southern  waters.  The  oceans  are  the 
stations  for  wnich  all  the  members  of  the  class  are  most 
fitted ;  but  although,  on  the  whole,  they  are  essentially  ma- 
rine types,  nevertheless  some  are  found  at  times,  and  a  few 
permanently,  in  fresh  waters.  Theodore  Gill. 

Elastic  Garre:  in  mechanics,  defined  by  James  Ber- 
noulli as  the  figure  which  would  be  assumed  by  a  thin  hori- 
zontal elastic  plate  if  one  end  were  fixed  and  the  other 
loaded  with  a  weight.  The  curve  assumed  by  a  plate  or 
beam  when  resting  upon  two  supports  and  loaded  with 
weights  is  also  an  elastic  curve,  provided  that  the  weight  be 
not  so  g^eat  as  to  impair  the  elastic  properties  of  the  ma- 
terial. These  curves  belong  to  the  class  known  as  cubic  and 
quartic  parabolas,  the  cubic  ones  being  for  single  loads  and 
tne  quartics  for  uniform  loads.    See  Flexure. 

Mansfield  Mebriman. 

Elasticity  [from  Gr.  ^Xotm^s  (as  if  *i}iaaruc6$),  driving, 
i\«r^o^  driver,  deriv.  of  ikaop^iyy  drive] :  the  property  pos- 
sessed by  certain  bodies  of  recovering  their  original  form 
and  size  after  the  external  force  is  withdrawn  by  which  they 
have  been  compressed.  Matter  is  believed  to  be  composed 
of  molecules  or  small  particles,  acted  upon  by  attractive 
and  repulsive  forces,  ana  from  the  combined  action  of  these 
forces  result  the  various  forms  and  properties  of  matter. 
According  to  this  yiew,  molecules  are  not  in  contact,  but  at 
an  infinitesimal  distance  from  each  other,  which,  however, 
may  be  increased  or  diminished.  When  the  body  is  at  rest 
the  opposite  forces  which  any  of  its  molecules  exercise  on 
each  otner  are  in  equilibrium.  If  the  distance  between  the 
molecules  be  increased  within  the  limits  of  the  action  of  the 
forces,  both  forces  are  diminished ;  and  if  the  distance  is 
lessened,  both  are  increased,  but  not  in  the  same  proportion. 
Solid  bodies  are  imperfectly  elastic,  and  do  not  entirely  re- 
cover their  form  when  the  disturbing  force  is  removed ;  but 
there  seems  to  be  no  limit  to  the  elasticity  of  gases.     The 

Ehenomena  of  elastic  bodies  are — 1.  That  a  perfectly  elastic 
ody  exerts  the  same  force  in  restoring  itself  as  that  with 
which  it  was  compressed ;  2.  The  force  of  elastic  bodies  is 
exerted  equally  in  all  directions,  but  the  effect  takes  place 
chiefly  on  the  side  where  the  resistance  is  least ;  3.  When  a 
s<»lid  elastic  body  is  made  to  vibrate  by  a  sudden  stroke,  the 
vibrations  are  made  in  equal  times  to  whatever  part  of  the 
body  the  stroke  may  be  communicated.  No  theory  of  elas- 
ticity founded  on  any  assumed  hypothesis  as  to  the  molecu- 
lar constitution  of  matter  has  as  yet  been  found  satisfactory 
when  applied  to  solids.  In  this  case,  therefore,  the  theory 
of  elftsticitv  is  best  investigiited  without  resorting  to  any 
such  hy|H)theses. 

Eiastic  Limit:  the  limit  to  which  a  body  can  Ite  strained 
and  yet  recover  its  original  shape  when  the  strain  is  re- 
moved. A  strain  carried  beyond  this  causes  permanent  de- 
formation.   See  Fatkk'e  of  Materiai«s. 

Elastic  Tissue :  a  form  of  fibrous  tissue,  sometimes  called 
Yellow  Fibrous  Tissue,  which  may  be  drawn  out  to  twice 
its  original  length,  to  which  it  returns  when  released.  It  is 
found  in  the  membranes  which  connect  the  cartilaginous 
rings  of  the  trachea  an<l  various  other  structures  of  the 
animal  botly  requiring  elasticity.  In  the  human  lK)dy  per- 
haps the  most  remarkable  exam[)le  of  the  elastic  tissue  is 
seen  in  the  lignmentn  suhtJnva^  or  intervertebral  ligaments. 
Almost  all  other  ligaments  are  unyielding  and  inelastic, 
but  these  are  extremely  elastic.    Their  action  is  to  help  re- 


store the  spinal  column  to  its  vertical  position  when  it  ha>« 
been  deflected  by  muscular  action.  In  some  of  the  lower 
animals  the  ligamentum  nitc?ice,  the  great  ligament  of  the 
nape  of  the  neck,  is  highly  elastic,  and  serves  to  maintain 
the  proper  equilibrium  between  the  muscles  that  erect  and 
those  that  depress  the  head,  as  when  the  animal  is  grazing. 

El'ater  [Gr.  iXarfip,  driver,  deny,  of  iKaOy^iu,  drive] :  a 
LinnaBan  genus  of  coleopterous  insects,  now  the  type  of  a 
very  large  and  distinct  family  of  the  serricorn  Coleoptera, 
called  SlateridcB,  They  have  a  narrow,  elongated  CMKly, 
and  are  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  strong  spine  pro- 
jecting from  the  posterior  margin  of  the  prostemum,  and 
a  groove  or  socket  fitted  for  tne  reception  of  the  spine. 
If  they  fall  on  their  back,  they  recover  their  feet  by  a  vio- 
lent muscular  effort,  which  throws  them  into  the  air  with  a 
ierk  and  a  clicking  sound.  Hence  they  are  called  click- 
Deetles,  snap-bugs,  etc.  This  moyement  is  the  rebound  caused 
by  the  sudden  disengagement  of  the  spine  from  its  scKkct. 
•Die  wireworms  of  the  U.  S.  are  larv©  of  the  Elaieridiv, 
and  are  very  destructive  to  growing  crops.  The  elaters  feed 
on  fiowers,  leaves,  and  other  soft  parts  of  plauts.  The  fire- 
fiy  of  tropical  America  is  the  Elater  or  I^ophortis  nocti- 
lucu8y  and  it  has  been  discovered  that  the  larve  of  at  le&^t 
one  North  American  species  of  Mdanactes  are  luminous. 

Elate'rinm  [Gr.  iKaeHioww  (sc.  ^ficacw^  medicine),  cathar- 
tic, driving,  deny,  of  Aavytiv,  drive]:  a  drug  obtained  fnvm 
the  Echalium  eJuterium,  or  wild  cucumber,  called  alsu* 
squirting  cucumber.  It  is  an  annual  belonging  to  the  fani  ily 
Cucurhttace(By  with  a  trailing  stem,  heart-shapcKi  leaves, 
lobed  and  toothed,  yellow  fiowers,  axillary;  fruit  gravi^h 
green,  about  1|  inches  long,  covered  with  soft  prickles,  ^'he 
iruit  in  parting  from  its  stalk  expels  the  seeds,  along  with  a 
mucus,  througn  the  opening  in  which  the  stalk  was  in- 
serted. Elaterium  is  contained  in  the  thick  green  mucus 
surrounding  the  seeds.  It  is  a  powerful  hyurogogue  ca- 
thartic, dangerous  when  used  in  excess,  and  is  very  irritatini: 
to  the  eyes  and  skin.  The  active  principle  called  elaterin  is 
obtainea  from  it.    Elaterium  is  sometimes  used  in  dr(>[t.>y. 

E'lath  (Heb.  Eloth,  trees ;  Lat.  JEla'na  or  Ela'na) :  a 
town  several  times  mentioned  in  the  Bible;  situated  at  the 
foot  of  the  valley  El  Ghor  in  Idunnea,  and  at  the  head  *»f 
the  Elanitic  arm  of  the  Red  Sea  (now  known  as  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah) ;  near  lat.  29**  30'  N.,  Ion.  30'  E. ;  10  miles  K  of 
Petra.  It  was  conquered  by  King  Dayid,  and  under  Solo- 
mon became  an  important  commercial  emporium.  It  con- 
tinued to  be  a  seaport  of  importance  under  the  Romans.  It 
was  twice  taken  by  the  crusaders  (1118  and  1182  a.  d.),  but 
after  their  time  fell  into  decay.  It  stood  on  or  near  the 
spot  now  occupied  by  the  fortress  of  Akabah,  which  is  held 
by  a  small  garrison  of  Egyptian  troops. 

El'ba(Pr.  Elbe;  anc.  Jl'va  a.ud  ^tlia'Ua;  Gv.AidaXia): 
an  island  of  Italy ;  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  between  Cor- 
sica and  Tuscany;  from  the  latter  it  is  separatee!  by  a 
channel  6  miles  wide.  It  is  about  18  miles  long,  and  A'ari»»s 
in  width  from  2^  to  10  miles ;  area,  87  sq.  miles.  The  co««.t^ 
are  bold  and  deeply  indented  by  several  gulfs  which  fonn  p»t  kI 
harbors.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  and  the  highest  |H>iiit 
has  an  altitude  of  about  3,500  feet.  The  island  has  no  manu- 
factures; among  its  agricultural  products  are  wine,  wheat, 
oliyes,  and  various  fruits.  Excellent  iron  ore  is  found  here, 
which  on  account  of  the  lack  of  fuel  is  not  smeltcil,  but 
shipped  directly  to  the  opposite  coast  of  the  mainland.  The 
sarame  and  tunny  fisheries  are  of  some  importimce.  The  cli- 
mate is  mild  and  equable,  and  the  whole  island  salubrious 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  spots  on  the  coasts.  Pop.  23,()<M  I. 
Capital,  Porto-Ferraio.  By  the  Treaty  of  Paris  this  isltnul 
was  designated  as  the  residence  of  Napoleon  I.,  who  re- 
moved to  it  May  4,  1814,  and  escaped  Feb.  26, 1815. 

Elbe  (anc.  Al'bis;  Bohemian,  La' be;  Dutch,  Elve):  an 
important  river  of  Germany;  rises  in  the  northeastern  part 
of  Bohemia,  among  the   mountains  called  Ricsencebirc^*. 
One  of   its  sources  is  about  4,500  feet  above  the  le vol  «if 
the  sea.      It  flows  generally  in  a  northwestern   direction, 
drains  the  northern  part  of  Bohemia,  intersects  Saxony  aiul 
Prussia,  and  enters  the  German  Ocean  near  Cuxhaven  :  iit 
this  ix)int  the  tide  rises  about  10  feet.     It  drains  an  area  <if 
over  55,000  sq.  miles.    Its  total  length  is  alx>ut  725  mili-<. 
This  river  is  several  miles  wide  at  every  point  between 
its  mouth  and  Altona,  a  distance  of  nearly  70  miles,    lt> 
principal  affluents  are  the  Havel,  the  Moldau,the  Saale,  ami 
the  Eger.    The  chief  towns  on  its  banks  are  Dresden,  Mat:- 
deburg,  Hamburg,  and  Altona.    Between  Dresden  and  Aii^- 


34 


ELDON 


£L  DORADO 


monly,  each  synagogne  had  also  it«  board  of  elders,  although 
in  smaller  towns  there  was  often  but  a  single  rabbi.  Tne 
early  Christian  Church  is  believed  by  many  to  have  bor- 
rowed its  eldership  from  the  Jewish  synagogue.  In  the 
New  Testament  elder  and  bishop  are  thougnt  by  many 
Christians  to  be  identical,  but  opinion  on  this  point  is  by  no 
means  uniform.  But  at  least  as  early  as  the  second  century 
(in  the  Ignatian  Epistles)  we  find  the  three  orders  of  bish- 
ops, presbyters  (or  elders),  and  deacons.  Presbyterians  have 
both  "  teaching  "  and  **  ruling  "  (or  lay)  elders,  but  whether 
this  distinction  existed  in  the  apostolic  age  is  still  a 
mooted  question.    See  Presbyter. 

Eldon,  John  Scott,  Earl  of :  Lord  Chancellor  of  England ; 
b.  at  Newcastle.  June  4,  1751.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
where  he  gained  in  1771  a  prize  of  £20  for  an  English  prose 
essay.  In  1772  he  contracted  a  clandestine  marriage  with 
a  lady  named  Elizabeth  Surtees,  and  by  this  act  forfeited 
a  fellowship  which  ho  had  obtained  in  the  college.  He 
studied  law  in  th6  Middle  Temple,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1776,  inherited  £3,000  from  his  father  in  that  year,  and  be- 
gan to  practice  in  the  northern  circuit.  After  four  years  of 
moderate  success,  he  gained  great  distinction,  and  rose  rap- 
idly to  fame  and  affluence.  He  became  in  1783  a  member 
of  Parliament,  in  which  he  supported  Mr.  Pitt,  and  showed 
himself  an  able  debater.  He  was  appointed  solicitor-gen- 
eral in  1788,  and  attorney-general  in  1793.  During  the  ex- 
citement of  the  French  revolution  he  prosecuted  Home 
Tooke  and  others  who  were  accused  of  treason,  but  they 
were  defended  by  Erskine  and  acquitted.  In  1799  he  be- 
came chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  was 
created  Baron  Eldon,  and  entered  the  House  of  Peers.  On 
the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  by  Mr.  Addington  in  1801, 
Lord  Eldon  was  appointed  Lord  Chancellor.  He  contin- 
ued to  fill  that  high  office  under  several  successive  admin- 
istrations for  a  period  of  twenty-six  years,  except  an  in- 
terval of  nearly  a  year  in  1806-07.  His  reputation  as  a 
judge  was  very  high,  but  as  a  statesman  his  merit  was  not 
f^reat.  D.  Jan.  13, 1838.  His  brother  William  was  an  em- 
inent judge,  and  bore  the  title  of  Lord  Stowell.  See 
Twiss,  The  Public  and  Private  Life  of  Lord  Eldon  (3 
vols.,  1844) ;  Lord  Campbell,  Lives  of  the  Lord  CJumcel- 
lors. 

Eido'ra:  town  and  railway  junction ;  capital  of  Hardin 
CO.,  la.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  lowa^  ref.  4-H) ; 
situated  on  the  Iowa  river,  about  66  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Des 
Moines.  It  has  eight  churches,  a  state  reform  school,  a  flour- 
ing-mill,  planing-mill,  potteries,  lar^  brick  and  tile  works, 
electric  lights,  etc.,  and  is  a  shipping-point  for  coal,  live 
stock,  and  grain.    Pop.  (1880)  1,584;  (1890)  1,577. 

Editor  of  **  Herald." 

El  Dorado,  el-do-raa'do  (Sp.,  the  gilded):  the  fabled 
king  of  an  equally  fabulous  Indian  city,  long  supposed  to 
exist  somewhere  in  the  northern  part  of  South  Amenca.  In 
its  most  definite  form  the  story  described  a  lake  in  which 
was  an  island  with  a  city  marvelously  rich  in  gold,  silver, 
and  precious  stones.  The  chief  or  "king"  of  the  city  was 
daily  or  periodically  anointed  with  thick  oil,  in  which 
gohl-dust  was  stuck  until  he  appeared  to  be  covered  with 
the  metal.  This  king  was  "  El  Dorado "  of  the  Spaniards, 
and  the  name  has  been  erroneously  transferred  in  com- 
mon language  to  the  supposed  city  or  region  which  he  gov- 
erned. 

This  widespread  delusion  was  probably  the  result  of 
various  causes  which  we  can  only  conjecture  at  this  day. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  vague  reports  of  Cuzco  and  other 
Andean  cities  passed  from  tribe  to  tril)e  of  the  Indians,  and 
were  rcHounted  by  them  to  the  Spaniards.  Or  we  may  ex- 
plain the  numerous  stories  of  golden  cities  as  bits  of  aborig- 
inal folk-lore,  come  down  from  more  ancient  times,  just  as 
the  child's  tale  of  a  pot  of  gold  under  the  rainbow  is  a 
legacv  of  the  Middle  Ages  It  is  even  possible  that  El 
Dorado  may  have  been  a  real  personage  whose  wealth  was 
magnified  by  time  and  distance.  It  is  said  that  the  Ind- 
ians about  the  sacred  lake  of  Guatavita,  in  the  Bogota 
highlands,  celebrated  a  strange  yearly  sacrifice.  "  On  the 
appointed  day  the  chief  smeared  his  body  with  balsam  and 
then  rolled  in  gold-dust.  Thus  gilded  and  resplendent,  he 
entered  a  canoe,  surrounded  by  his  nobles,  while  an  im- 
mense multitude  of  people  with  music  and  songs  crowded 
the  shores  of  the  lake.  Having  reached  the  center,  the  chief 
deposited  his  offerings  of  gold,  emeralds,  and  other  precious 
thin^,  and  then  jumi>ed  in  himself  to  bathe"  (Acosta,  Des- 
cubrimiento  y  Conquista  de  la  Nueva  Granada,  p.  199). 


But  it  is  not  averred  that  the  Spaniards  ever  witnessed  this 
ceremony,  and  the  story  itself  may  be  but  a  fonn  of  the  Kl 
Dorado  myth. 

The  sixteenth  century  was  a  very  credulous  period,  and 
the  cupidity  of  the  Spaniards  eagerly  grasped  at  stories  of 
golden  cities  and  rich  kings.  Tales  imperfectly  understood 
were  embellished  to  suit  tlieir  imagination ;  and,  above  all, 
they  constantly  asked  leading  questions,  which  savages  al- 
most invariably  answer  in  the  affirmative.  No  doubt,  also, 
the  Indians  often  concocted  stories  of  distant  mines  and 
towns,  hoping  that  their  unwelcome  guests  would  go  in 
search  of  them ;  or,  seeing  how  the  Spaniards  loved  gold, 
they  invented  stories  to  please  them.  In  1492  Columbus 
heard,  or  thought  he  heard,  of  rich  mines  and  cities  back 
from  the  coas&  of  Cuba  and  Hispaniola,  and  in  1502  he 
named  Costa  Hica  and  Castilla  del  Oro  from  similar  reports. 
At  Darien  Balboa  heard  of  the  rich  temple  of  Dabaiba, 
vaguely  located  somewhere  about  the  heaa  of  the  Atrato ; 
the  temple,  it  was  said,  was  lined  with  gold,  and  slaves 
were  sacrificed  there.  In  1512  he  led  an  expedition  in 
search  of  it;  there  were  others  in  1515  and  later,  and  it  was 
long  a  tempting  bait.  Some  of  the  explorers  found  tombs, 
rich  in  golden  ornaments,  but  no  temple.  In  1580  Alfinger 
marched  into  the  mountains  of  Venezuela  searching  for  a 

g>lden  citT,  and  he  and  most  of  his  men  perished.  In  15:^1 
lego  de  Ordaz  explored  the  Orinoco  with  a  similar  object ; 
one  of  his  officers,  Martinez,  afterward  claimed  that  he  ha<l 
actually  been  in  the  golden  city,  which  he  called  Manoa : 
and  he,  it  is  said,  was  tne  first  to  apply  the  name  El  Dorado 
to  the  ^Ided  king.  It  was  natural  enough  that  lying  report  s 
like  this  of  Maitinez  should  grow  up  around  the  story,  all 
the  more  so  that  they  were  readily  believed.  For  a  time 
the  mountains  of  New  Granada  were  the  favored  region  of 
El  Dorado.  In  1587  Ouesada,  marching  from  Santa  Mart  a, 
reached  the  plateau  of  Bogot^  and  the  country  of  the  Chib- 
chas ;  soon  aiter  he  was  joined  there  by  Federmann,  who  bad 
come  from  Venezuela,  and  Benalcazar  from  Quito,  all  cha<^ 
ing  the  same  golden  phantom.  The  spoil  of  the  Chibchas 
only  whetted  their  appetites:  when  it  was  known  that  Kl 
Dorado  could  not  be  found  in  the  highlands,  his  city  wba 
located  farther  and  farther  toward  the  center  of  the  (con- 
tinent, in  the  g^eat  forests  of  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon. 
These  wilds  arg  almost  unknown  at  the  present  day,  but  in 
the  sixteenth  century  they  were  traversed  a«;ain  and  again 
by  bands  of  Spanish  adventurers.  The  early  knowledge  of 
the  Orinoco  and  Amazon,  with  their  tributaries,  was  al^]o^t 
entirely  due  to  these  expeditions.  In  1541  Philip  von  Hut  en. 
starting  from  Coro,  passed  clear  across  the  Orinoco  ba^in. 
and  actually  reached  the  country  of  the  Omaguas,  near  the 
Amazon,  a  journey  that  seems  nearly  incredible.  He  failed 
to  conquer  the  Omaguas,  and  probably  for  no  better  reaM»n 
they  became  for  a  time  the  guardians  of  El  Dorado.  Peiln> 
de  u rsua  started  from  Bogota  to  find  a  **  golden  city  of  the 
sun,"  and  his  expedition  founded  the  town  of  Pampluna. 
In  1560  the  same  leader  was  appointed  "  governor  of  Oma- 
gua  and  El  Dorado,"  and  he  started  to  find  his  domain  by 
way  of  the  Huallaga  and  Amazon.  Ursua  was  murdered  by 
Lope  de  Aguirre,  who  finally  descended  the  Amazon  and 
reached  Venezuela  after  one  of  the  maddest  piratical  crui>*  > 
ever  recorded.  By  this  time  the  myth  had  taken  many  new 
forms.  On  the  southwestern  tributaries  of  the  Amaz<>ti 
there  were  the  fabled  districts  of  Enim  and  Pavtiti,  said  t** 
have  been  founded  by  Incas  who  had  fled  from  Peru,  and 
to  have  surpassed  ancient  Cuzco  in  splendor ;  these  were  t  he 
objects  of  numerous  expeditions,  ana  even  intheeighte»^nth 
century  they  were  universally  supposed  to  be  realities 
North  of  the  Amazon  the  supposed  tlown  of  El  Dorado  wa*^ 
shifted  eastward  until  it  reached  Guiana.  There  the  Kni:- 
lishman  Raleigh  searched  for  it  in  1595,  believing  that  he 
had  located  this  much-desired  city  in  a  lake  called  Pariiim, 
Raleigh's  expedition  led  indirectly  to  the  modem  colonv  of 
British  Guiana;  and  the  Lake  Parima  remained  on  Eni^Ii^h 
maps  until  Schomburgk's  explorations  conclusively  pn>vtHl 
that  it  was  a  pond  and  swamp.  The  emerald  mountain  ol 
Espirito  Santo,  and  the  Martyrios  gold  mine,  long  s«»ujrht 
for  in  Western  Brazil,  recall  the  El  Dorado  myth;  while  f.nr 
southward  in  the  Argentine  plains,  the  city  of  Cesar,  witi) 
silver  walls  and  houses,  was  another  alluring  phant4>m.  It 
was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  shipwrecked  Sjvini>h 
mariners,  and  even  late  in  the  eighteentn  century  ex{>t'di- 
tions  were  sent  to  search  for  it. 

References. — Schomburgk,  introduction  to  Italei(7h\t 
Discovery  of  Ouiana  (Hakluyt  Society,  1859);  Marklmni. 
Search  for  El  Dorado  (Hakluyt  Society,  1861);  WinsT  ji- 


I 


3« 


ELECTION 


ELECTRICAL  MACHINES 


fttiX^l  fnitr  fj^Hereft  or  clAims  that  the  declared  nuijority 
ove«  it*)  «ucee-iA  Ui  election  frauds,  the  elections  are  likely  to 
be  rif>ut*r<4^L  At  ele<ctionK  to  le^«»Uti%'e  a^ssemblies  such  a»- 
»wmbli*2*  dw/ide  finally  ordinarilv  on  the  claims  of  rival  can- 
di<lAt«r^:  but  in  i^^irne  caf^es  the  ifecision  re*>ts  with  the  courts. 
If  a  pn^idential  elw'tion  is  conteste<i  in  a  republic,  there  is 
dariffer  of  civil  war,  of  which,  in  (larticular,  tne  republics  of 
S'lUth  and  Central  America  fumi>h  many  examples.  The 
C.  S.,  which,  on  the  whole,  have  U*en  free  from  the  sad  ex- 
jjerienc<-»  of  the  Scmth  and  Central  American  republics,  had 
m  l>i751  a  c<in«<pir-uouH  instance  of  a  contcste<l  gubernatorial 
eWftion  and  iu  di.sa?>trouj«  consequences  in  Louisiana,  where 
for  H**veral  months  two  rival  governors  claimed  each  to  be 
the  lawful  executive  of  the  State,  and  tried  to  enforce  his 
claim,  until  on  May  22.  IHTi,  the  Pn^ident  of  the  U.  S.  inter- 
fered bv  a  proclamation  in  favor  of  one.  The  raf)st  serious 
c&*)e  o{  a  dii'putef]  natioruil  election  was  the  memorable 
Hayes  and  Tilden  contest  of  1^576,  which  was  decided  in 
favor  of  the  former  by  an  electoral  commission  comp<jsed  of 
five  .Senat'irs,  five  Repres<'nlatives,  and  five  ass4x:iate  judges 
of  the  .Supn^me  Court.  (See  Presidential  Electoral  Com- 
msHiox.j  F'or  information  as  to  presidential  elections  in  the 
U.  S.,  w-e  Stanwrjod,  A  History  of  Presidential  Elections 
(4th  in\.  1802).  S*'e  Ballot  Reform,  Xomixatiox,  Pl£bis- 
ciTK,  Keprese-vtative  System,  Suffrage,  and  Vote. 

Eleetlon,  in  theologj' :  See  Calvinism. 

Elector  [I^t.  e/ec7or,  <'\n)fy^T.  deriv.  of  eli  gere,  select :  e, 
out  from  +  U'gere,  c1kx>j«*']:  a  title  of  those  German  princes 
who  hairl  the  right  or  privilege  of  electing  the  Emperor  of 
Germany.  There  were  originally  (1256  a.  d.)  seven — namely, 
the  Kle<;t/>rH  of  (Joli)gne,  Mentz,  Treves.  Br^hemia.  Branden- 
burg, Saxony,  and  the  Elw-tor  Palatine.  The  first  three 
were  Archbishoris  of  Cologne,  Mentz,  and  Treves.  The  elec- 
tfirs  ha*l  several  important  privileges,  and  a  very  peculiar 
p<isition  in  the  empire.  They  usually  chrxsc  the  heir  or  near 
relative  of  the  precerling  emperor.  As  the  electoral  dignity 
of  the  Palatine  had  been  transferred  to  the  Dukes  of  Bavaria, 
an  eighth  electorate  was  established  by  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia in  1648  for  the  PaUtine,  which  ceai»e4l  in  1777,  when 
the  house  of  Bavaria  l)ecame  extinct.  In  16(^2  the  elector- 
ate or  dignity  of  elector  was  conferral  on  the  Dukes  of 
Brunswick-LQneburg,  who  were  aftem-anl  stvled  Electors 
of  Hanover.  The  electors  were  entitle<l  to  all  royal  digni- 
ties and  honors  except  the  title  of  majesty.  On  the  disK)lu- 
tic»u  of  the  Holy  Koinan  Empire  in  1806,  the  office  became 
obsolete,  but  the  title  was  retained  by  the  rulers  of  Hesjve- 
Cassel  till  1866,  when  that  state  was  unite^l  to  Prussia.  The 
term  elector  is  also  applied  to  each  of  thf>se  fierscjns  who. 
under  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.,  are  chosen  to  elect  the 
President.    See  Electors. 

Electoral  College:  See  CoNSTiTrTxo.v  of  the  C  S.,  Art. 
XII.,  and  Electors. 

Electoral  GommiMion :  See  Presidextial  Electoral 
Commission. 

Electoral  Crown,  or  Cap :  a  crown  worn  by  the  electors 
of  tlie  German  empire.  It  was  sunnounted  bv  two  golden 
deniicircles,  ornamented  with  pearls  and  havmg  a  golden 
orb  an<l  cross  at  the  toj). 

Electors :  in  the  political  system  of  the  U.  S.,  the  persons 
who  are  chosen  by  tne  peo[>le  of  the  several  States  to  elect 
the  President  and  Vice-Pre>ident.  Ew'h  State  chof)ses  a 
numlier  of  electors  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  members 
it  sends  to  both  hous«'^  of  Congress*.  No  S<*nator  or  Kejire- 
sentative,  or  |H'rson  holding  an  office  of  profit  or  trust  under 
the  v.  S.,  can  be  api)ointed  an  elector.  The  electors  must 
be  chosen  on  the  same  (lav  in  all  the  States — that  is,  on  the 
Tuesilav  next  after  the  first  Mcmdav  in  Noveinlwr.  The 
Constitution  onluiiis  that  the  electors  simll  meet  in  their 
respective  States  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  I)eceiiil»er.  and 
vole  by  billot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom 
at  least  shall  not  bean  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with 
thems<^lves ;  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  pers^ms 
vott^d  for  as  Presi(h»iit,  etc.,  and  of  the  nuniljer  of  votes  for 
each;  wJiich  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  an«l  transmit 
seale<l  to  the  seat  of  government  of  the  U.  S.,  directed  to 
the  president  of  the  Senate.  The  electors  of  all  the  States 
constitute  the  elect<»ral  college*.  A  majority  of  tlie  whole 
numU»r  of  electoral  votes  is  necessary  to  elect  the  Pre>»i(lent 
and  Viee- President.  In  1802  the  whole  number  of  electors 
\*;»s  444.  They  meet  at  the  capitals  of  their  respective 
Slates  on  tiie  first  Wednesday  in  December.  The  electoral 
Voles  are  opene<l  and  counted  on  the  second  Wednesihiy  of 


Pebmary  by  both  houses  of  Congress,  which  meet  in  the 
chamber  of  the  Representatives.  If  no  candidate  ha^  a 
majority  of  all  the  votes,  the  House  of  Representative^  ha^ 
a  right  to  choose  either  of  the  three  persons  baring  xhf 
highest  number  of  votes.  It  was  supposed  by  the  frainrrs 
of  the  Constitution  that  the  electors  would  exercise  a  fr.-«- 
discretion  and  choose  the  best  man  for  the  offices,  but  the 
position  has  lost  its  importance  from  the  fact  that  the  elit-- 
tor  is  obliged  by  usage  to  vote  for  the  candidate  of  his  fiany. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Electra  (in  Gr.  *BXjfKrpa):  a  daughter  of  Agamenin.»n. 
King  of  ilycenae;  sister  of  Orestes,  and  wife  of  Pylad*-.. 
She  was  sometimes  called  Laodice.  Her  story  is  the  sul)jr<t 
of  dramas  written  by  -^schylus,  Euripides,  Sophocles,  and 
Racine.  The  most  perfect*  of  the  ancient  tiagedie>  of 
'*  Electra  "is  that  of  Sophocles:  in  this  she  stimulates  her 
brother  Orestes  (whose  life  she  has  saved  from  the  vif^l.'net• 
of  her  father's  murderers)  to  avenge  the  death  of  that  jian  nt. 
This  he  accordingly  does,  with  the  aid  of  Apollo.  No  K?.- 
than  five  other  persons  of  this  name  are  mentioned  in  the 
Greek  mythology. 

Electrical  Fishes :  fishes  having  the  power  of  giving  sen- 
sible shocks  of  electricity,  a  power  possessed  probably  by  no 
other  animaL  At  least  fifty  marine  AniniRU  of  ver}' diverse 
character  are  known  to  have  this  power.  Among' the  U-<1 
known  are  several  sf»ecies  of  Torpedo  and  Xarcine  (of  Uh- 
ray  family),  one  of  which  is  occasionally  found  on  the  At- 
lantic coast  of  the  C.  S.  The  Electrophorus  electricuA.  a 
fresh- water  eel  of  South  America,  sometimes  20  feet  Ion::, 
has  the  power  of  overcoming  men,  and  even  horses,  by  its 
tremendous  shocks.  Two  species  of  Ifaiapterurus  of'  the 
African  rivers  are  also  electric.  Faraday  ol»erves  that  th* 
Electrophorxis  may  produce  a  shock  equal  to  that  of  fift*t  n 
Leyden  jars,  containing  in  all  3,500  sq.  inches,  charge^l  t.. 
the  highest  degree.  The  force  is  that  due  to  ordinary 
static  elect ricitv,  and  readily  affords  a  spark.  The  Torjndo 
and  the  electnc  eel  have  electric  organs  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  nenous  svstem,  consisting  of  a  series  of 
highly  vascular  cells  or  hollow  prisms  containing  a  walen 
fluid.  Other  electric  fishes  have  a  less  definite  apjiaraiuV 
for  this  function.  It  is  not  known  that  this  remarkaitle 
power  is  of  any  service  to  these  fishes,  except  in  self -protec- 
tion.   See  Electricity,  Animal. 

Electrical  Machioes:  machines  for  the  electrostatic 
generation  of  differences  of  potential,  that  is  to  say,  f«'r 
electrification  by  friction  or  by  electrostatic  induction.  In 
frictional  machines  the  body  rubbed  is  a  revolving  ghi-^ 
plate  (in  early  forms  a  cylincfer  or  ball  rubbed  bv  the  hami), 
passing  between  rubbers  of  soft  leather  to  which  a  dreeing 
of  sodium  amalgam  has  been  applied  (Fig.  1). 

In  the  process  of  electrification,  equal  and  opjH»site 
charges  are  always  generated.  In  frictional  machines  t  h» 
glass  plate  and  the  metal  parts  which  gather  charge  there- 
from (combs  and  prime  conductors)  become  positively,  tlie 
rubber  negatively,  electrified.  The  latter  is  usually"  con- 
nected metallically  to  the  earth.  In  a  dry  atmo'sjih»'re 
I  under  such  circumstances  the  prime  conductor  soon  Ix-gins 


FlQ.  1. 


to  show  signs  of  strong  electrification,  and  after  a  few  rapid 
revolutions  of  the  plate  sparks  may  be  drawn. 

In  all  such  machines,  however,  even  under  the  niosi 
favorable  conditions,  a  scarcely  appreciable  portion  of  the 
work  done  ap[H»ars  in  form  of  electrical  energy,  the  remain- 
der being  wasted  as  heat.  For  this  and  for  other  reHx)n> 
friction-machines  have  gonealmosteutirely  out  of  use.  1km n.: 
re[)laced  by  a  class  of  machines  which  produce  elect  ritica- 
t ion  by  electrostatic  induction.  There  are  manv  forms  i4 
such  apparatus,  the  best  known  being  the  "influeiuv-inn- 


ELECTRIC  ARC 


ELECTRIC  BLOWPIPE 


■0  of  the  current.  At 
lost  infinite  electrical 
(I  establish  an  arc  between  two  points,  there- 
fore, it  is  necessary  to  heut  the  intervening  air  to  a  degree 
at  which  it  is  capable  of  carrpn^  the  current.  This  can  be 
done  iu  some  cases  hj  the  application  of  a  flatne,  bnt  the 
usual  method  is  to  briiiK  the  terminals  together  for  an  in- 
stant. Current  then  flows,  and  at  the  point  of  contact 
where  the  resistance  is  high  much  heat  is  generated,  the 
points  glow,  and  the  air-Aim  between  reaches  a  temperature 
such  as  to  make  it  a  conductor.  The  terminals  maj  now 
be  separated  without  extinguishing  the  arc.  If,  however, 
neither  of  these  methods  is  fulloned,  but  the  difference  of 
potential  between  the  two  points  is  increased  Ui  a  verj  high 
value,  the  insulating  power  of  the  intervening  medium  will 
be  ovoroome.  and  a  discharge  will  take  place.  With  most  of 
the  devices  by  means  of  which  sufficient  potential  difTer- 
ences  can  be  reached  (the  induction-coil,  influence-machine, 
etc)  the  result  is  simply  a  spark  which  differs  from  the  are 
in  being  of  short  duration  (rarely  more  than  ^^^  of  a 
second).  After  the  passage  of  the  spark,  the  medium,  beins 
mobile,  will  re-establish  itself,  and  no  further  discharge  wifi 
occur  until  the  potential  difference  has  risen  again  to  its 
former  high  value.  The  term  "  electric  arc  "  is  applied  to 
the  permanent  air-path  established  for  the  current  by  one 
of  the  previous  methods. 

The  surfaces  between  the  terminals  and  the  arc  offer 
greater  resistance  to  the  current  than  does  the  arc  itself. 
These  then  are  the  regions  of  the  highest  temperature.  If 
the  terminals  are  of  metal,  however  refractory,  it  is  at  once 
fused  and  rapidly  volatilized.  Almost  the  only  material 
capable  of  withstanding  the  heat  developed  is 'carbon  in 
graphitic  form,  and  even  this,  under  the  action  of  the  arc,  is 
atowly  disintegrated  and  oxidized,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  points  at  the  required  proiimity  cither  bj  gravity 
or  by  a  mechanical  device.  When  an  arc  is  maintained  in  a 
continuous-current  circuit,  the  contact  resistance  at  the  posi- 
tive terminal  is  greater  than  at  the  negative.  The  former, 
therefore,  is  always  hotter.  Both  carbons,  however,  are  ren- 
dered vividly  incandescent,  and  it  is  to  the  light  which  they 
emit  that  the  system  of  illumination  known  as  "  arc-light- 
ing" owes  its  brilliancy.     See  Electbic  Liohtisq. 

According  to  R<issetti,  the  temperature  of  the  hottest  part 
of  the  positive  carbon  of  the  arc-lamp  is  3,900°  C,  that  of  the 
negative  carbon  2.450°  C.  Owing  to  tliLs  difference,  also  to 
the  electrolytic  action  of  the  current,  the  two  terminals  are 
attacked  in  a  different  manner,  and  each  assumes  a  char- 
acteristic form.  /The  positive  is  consumed  the  more  rapidly, 
in  general  about  twice  as  fast  as  in  the  negative  carbon. 

Fig.  1  is  from  a  photograph  of  the  arc,  made  by  the 
writer.  Owing  to  the  high  actinic  value  of  its  rays  the  arc 
appears  in  the  photograph  relatively  brichter  than  to  the 
eye,  but  the  illustration  brings  out  several  of  the  points  al- 
ready mentioned,  viz.,  the  greater  brightness  of  the  upper, 
or  positive,  carbon,  the  difference  in  the  shape  of  the  two, 
and  the  fact  that  the  incandew;cnt  carbons  are  more  im- 
portant as  a  source  of  light  than  the  arc  itself.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  positive  pencil  is  eaten  away  at  the  end,  form- 
ing a  cavity  (technically  known  as  the  crater),  which  is  the 
brightest  region  of  all ;  also  that  the  lower  carbon  is  pointed, 
with  a  little  crest  or  nipple.  This  is  formed  in  great  part 
of  carbon  which  has  bi^-a  iletached  from  the  positive  pencil, 
transferred  througli  the  arc  by  the  current  and  deposited 

In  order  that  an  arc  may  be  maintained  across  an  appreci- 
able air-gap,  a  difference  of  potentibd  of  about  twenty-two 
volts  must  exist  between  the  terminals.  As  the  voltage 
rises,  the  maximum  length  of  arc  increases  until  at  fifty 
volts  it  is  perhaps  as  much  as  a  centimeter. 

Are-lamps  in  commercial  practice  are  maiDtalneil  at  a 
voltage  of  approximately  the  Utter  value. 

The  reaialantt  of  the  electric  arc  varies  with  the  current 
flowing,  but  it  seems  surprisingly  small  when  we  consider 
the  materials  of  which  it  is  coiiijHiscd,  With  ten  amperes 
flowing  and  fifty  volts  lietwecn  terminals,  the  resistance  (by 
Ohms  law)  is  only  five  ohms.  f)f  this  a  considerable  and 
nearly  constaut  factor  is  the  "contact-resLstance"  between 
the  terminals  and  the  intervening  gas.  It  follows  that  the 
resistance  of  the  arc  is  not  dint-lTy  ])roportional  to  the  ilia- 
tance  between  the  oarlwiis.  but  is  exprestcd  by  a  formula  of 
the  following 


R.  : 


quantity  which  expresses  the 


of  the  gas  layer  per 


The  electric  arc  acts  like  any  conductor  carrying  current. 
When  placed  in  the  magnetic  field,  for  instance,  it  tentis  to 
move  at  right  angles  to  the  lines  of  force.  Since  the  medium 
is  a  mobile  one,  this  tendency  is  indicated  by  marked  dis- 
placement of  the  arc  (as  in  the  well-known  experiment  of 
the  repulsion  of  the  arc  by  means  of  the  horseshoe  magnet). 

In  an  alternating-current  circuit  many  of  the  phenonienii 
of  the  arc  differ  from  those  just  described.     The  terming 


no.  1.— The  el 


itlrwi-rurrpot  circuit). 


tend  to  assume  the  same  shape,  they  are  equally  bright,  and 
they  are  consumed  at  nearly  the  same  rate.  In  siii-h  <'in'iiit4 
the  current  passes  through  zero  at  every  alternation,  and  the 
are  is  extinguished  at  every  reversal ;  but  it  is  re-eslabli.slied 
as  the  current  rises,  before  the  air-gap  has  had  an  opjHir- 
tunity  to  cool.  The  familiar  humming  of  the  altemaiiiig 
arc  is  due  to  this  reignition  at  each  alternation.  The  fad  of 
the  extinction  of  the  arc  has  been  established  by  photo- 
graphing it  upon  a  rapidly  moving  plate. 


Fig,  3  is  from  such  a  photograph,  made  by  Mr.  J.  (*. 
McAfvnn  (Trans.  Am.  IhsI.  E.  E..  18B1). 

The  trace  of  the  imasfe  of  the  arc  is  not  continuous,  but 
consists  of  alternate  light  and  dark  spaces,  which  corresjxind 
in  time  to  the  periixTof  reversal.  The  continuous  trait'> 
above  and  below  the  image  of  the  are  are  due  to  the  incan- 
descent tips  of  the  upper  and  lower  carbons. 

The  materials  present  in  the  are  depend  upon  the  chamo- 
ter  of  the  terminals  and  of  the  intervening  medium.  The 
are-spectrum  alwavs  shows  bright  lines,  which  are  tracea'ilr 
to  the  vapors  of  whatever  metals  chance  to  be  present.  Bi-- 
tween  carbon  points  are  obtained,  besides  the  lines  charai-- 
terlstlc  of  carbon  compounds,  the  sodium  lines  and  litii-:^ 
due  to  iron  and  to  various  other  metals. 

Aside  from  its  value  in  artificial  illumination,  the  are  is 
of  importance  in  metallurgy  and  in  various  processes  wherp 
vcTv  high  temperatures  are  essential.  For  some  dcscriplinn 
of  its  application,  see  Klectbic  Lioht,  ELECTHir  Wei.di\o  ; 
also  ELGCTRicrrv  and  Electric  DisrHiBOE. 

E.  L.  Nichols. 


40  ELECTRIC  BEL 

ona-cumnt  arc  it  is  tooler  thftn  the  positive — these  and  & 
maltitudo  o(  other  questions  are  in  great  meaaure  undeter- 
mined.   The  details  of  the  work  alread;  done  in  this  inter- 


Fio.  I.— TbnODvlUMurj  discharge  (aller  a  photOKraph  b;  Prof .  Boja). 

estinK  domain  of  experimental  physics  are  scattered  through- 
out the  Bcientiflc  journals  and  transactions.  Excellent  sum- 
Duries  are  to  be  found  in  such  wcirks  as  Riess's  Reibvngg- 
rleklTieitSt,  and  iu  the  (ourth  volume  of  Wiedemann's  trea- 
tise, Dit  Lthre  von  dtr  Eltktriciiat 


Tvt.  8.— Oroup  of  BpBTlu  paniDg  becweeii  Uie  polea  of  a  Holti  ma- 
cblne  dunnd  halt  a  aeoand  (from  a  pnoti^raph). 

Electrical  discharges  occurring  in  nature  are  treated  in 
the  article  Liohtnino  {q.  v.).  For  explanation  of  various 
terms  used  in  this  article,  see  CAPAcrrv,  Condenser.  Con- 
DVCTOR,  DiELEiTBK',  ELEcTBinTV,  Specteum,  and  Vacuum. 
K  L.  Nichols. 
ElMtrio  Eel:  See  Electrical  Fisses  a:id  Gvunotl 
Electric  Fnmsce :  an  apiuratuB  in  irhich  verj  high 
temperalures  are  nttained  bv  surrounding  the  electric  arc, 
or  sometini<>!>  h  group  of  arcs,  in jiarallel  with  carbon,  lime. 
or  other  rcfractorv  substance.  The  material  within  which 
the  arc  i»i  imliedilnl  (should  he  a  poor  coniluelor  of  heat  anil 
of  eli-clricity  :  it  should  be  extreiDely  n'traclory.  and  it. 
should  \k  a  rethicitif;  agent.  In  mnic  fornix  of  furnace  a 
carbon  (xit  is  used,  inin  which  is  inserted  a  heavy  carbon 
pi'ncil  or  a  l>nnch  of  penrtlA.  the  Iwittom  of  the  pot  forming 
one  lerminnl.  The  material  to  he  fu^ied  xn  placed  between 
(lie  end  of  the  pencil  and  the  IhiIIoui  of  the  pol,  surrounded 
with  suitalilc  mixing  iiiHifrial.  Aiioilier  form  coummIs  of 
two  gniu|>s  of  pencils  dipping  dingoiiully  into  a  furnace 
box,  one  groiin  serving  an  |M)silive.  the  other  as  nejnitivc 
terminalK.  The  tenijicnitiireH  produced  suDti-e  to  rctluce 
the  most,  refractory  ores,  such  as  the  oxides  of  nlnniinium 
and  mugiicsiuiii.  '\  furnace  of  small  ^in;,  consisting  of  two 
slender  |M'ncils  lni«rteil  into  a  cylinder  of  linie,  Inis  been 
u:4ed  for  the  reduction  of  the  rare  metals,  erbium,  yttrium, 
etc.  B.  L.  Njcuols. 


.wledge  for  2,U(K> 


BLBCTRICITY 

Electrieit7  [from  Lat.  ebc'fruin=Or.  J|x«Krp«v,  amber] : 
the  cause  of  an  important  class  of  phenomena,  the  science 
of  which  may  1m  said  to  have  its  origin  in  the  experinients 
of  William  Gilbert,  of  Colchester,  physician  to  ^ueen  Eliia- 
lieth  (1540-1603).  The  isolated  fact,  generally  ascribed  to 
Thalea,  that  amber  when  rubbed  attracts  other  bodies  was 
known  to  the  Syrians  and  Persians  at  an  early  day,  as  well 
as  to  the  GreeilBi  but,  aside  from  the  statement  of  Theo- 
phrastus  that  the  fabulous  mineral  lyicurion  shared  with 
amber  the  property  in  question,  Bcarcely  an  addition  s 
to  have  been  made  to  this  branch  of  knon 

Gilbert  studied  the  phenomenon  of  amber-rubbing  ^rs- 
temalically.  and  made  out  a  Ions  list  of  substances  which 
he  found  capable  of  being  excited  by  friction.  He  was  the 
first  to  propose  the  term  "  electric  "  by  which  to  distinguish 
the  forces  thus  brought  into  play  from  those  due  to  magnet^ 
ism.  From  his  time  on,  the  students  of  electricity  rapidly 
3nth  century  there  were  among  its 

_,  _  ^wton,  Boyle,  von  Guericke.  and 

Hawksbee;  in  the  eighteenth,  Du  Faye,  Symmers,  Kollet, 
and  Franklin.  Modem  electricity  began,  however,  with 
Cavendish,  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  His 
more  precise  investigations,  followwl  by  those  of  Davy, 
Oersted.  Ohm,  Ampere,  Faraday,  Weber,  Heurv,  and  their 
disciples,  made  possible  the  work  of  the  CTeat  scSiooI  of  elec- 
tricians of  which  Maxwell,  von  Helmboltz,  and  Kelvin  are 
the  leaders,  as  well  as  the  important  industrial  achievementa 
of  the  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  nomenclature  in  vogue  in  electricity  is  strangely  at 
variaiice  with  the  present  opinions  concerning  the  nature  of 
the  phenomena  with  which  the  science  deals.  It  is  a  sur~ 
vival  of  the  time  when  the  two-fluid  theory  of  Du  Fave 
and  Symmer  and  the  one-fluid  theory  of  Franklin  were  trie 
two  conflicting  "modem  views  of  electricity."  We  still 
speak  of  the  separation  of  the  electricities;  of  the  positive 
(or  ncKative)  electricity  flowing  off  to  earth,  when  a  IxkIv 
electrifled  by  induction  is  connected  metallicly  with  the 
ground.  We  speak  of  current,  of  the  direction  of  the  cur- 
rent, of  flow  and  rate  of  flow.  The  term  cAorae  originallv 
conveyed  the  idea  of  filling  a  body  with  the  electric  fluid, 
and  discharge  referred  to  the  supposed  escape  of  that  fluid. 
Terms  indicative  ol  the  existence  of  the  electric  fluid  are 
still  used,  but  it  is  merely  for  cmivenience,  and  with  recog- 
nition on  the  part  of  every  welf-informed  student  that  the 
nomenclature  is  an  artificial  one.  Electricitv,  from  Ihe 
standpoint  of  the  present  day,  is  a  science  whicli  deals  with 
certain  transform^ions  of  energy.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this 
article  to  describe  some  of  the  more  important  of  then' 
transformations,  and  to  point  out  their  relation  to  the  |>he- 
nomena  with  which  other  parts  of  the  science  of  physics  have 
to  do.  In  the  course  of  the  discussion  it  will  be  neces-arv 
to  deal  primarily  with  a  process  called  electriflcation.  and 
indirectly  with  a  large  number  of  important  and  interes-t- 
ingphen'omena  which  result  therefrom. 

Eltelrifiealion  is  a  process  which  involves  the  expenditure 


of  potential)  between  neighboring  bodies  or  between  parts 

_.  .L_ i._i_.      1.  : . 1  to  determine  precisely  in 

1  consists,  but  there  is  an 
analogy  between  electriflcation  and  other  physical  processes, 
in  which  potential  energy  is  produced,  which  may  in  some 
degree  aiu  in  the  understanding  of  the  nature  of  the  ca."^. 
The  processes  in  question  arc  those  in  which  difference  of 
temperature  is  created  or  difference  of  level  in  liqui<ls,  or  in 
which  a  spring  is  stretched  or  a  chemical  com{>ound  is 
broken  up.  In  all  such  cases  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  <tif- 
ference  of  potential  to  be  equalized.  In  the  equalization. 
energy  in  one  form  or  another  is  always  dcvelo)>cd.  giving 
rise  lo  the  innumerable  phenomena  which  it  is  the  proviiuT 
of  the  scii'iicc  of  phvsics  lo  describe.  When  the  differcnci- 
of  potential  producecl  manifests  itself  in  certain  wavs  it  ts 
clflssified  as  electrical,  and  the  process  by  means  of  which 
the  ])Otential  difference  has  been  producM  is  called  electri- 


heat,  by  the  movement  of  a  conductor  in  the  magiietie  fieM 
(or  by  variation  in  the  strength  of  the  maenetic  field  m 
whicli  conductors  lie),  and  in  other  ways.  These  will  l«- 
considered  in  turn,  and  in  connection  with  each  the  niun- 
im;K>rlaiit  phenomena  which  characterize  the  re-oslaiilish- 
iMOiit  of  equilibrium  will  be  touchwl  upon.     It  will  be  seen 


43 


ELECTRICITY 


The  condition  of  the  body  thus  infiuenced  is  as  follows: 
It  csrriea  upon  ite  surface  two  equal  and  opposite  electriS- 
cations.  The  difference  ol  potential  teods  toward  equaliza- 
tion, but  it  is  kept  u(i  bjr  the  continued  action  of  the  induc- 
ing body.  It  the  latter  be  removed,  or  if  its  electrification 
disappear,  instant  equalization  wilhin  the  body  carrying  the 
induced  eharBes  will  take  place  (if  it  be  a  good  conductor). 
In  the  case  ofa  poor  conductor  the  return  to  the  neutral 
condition  will  be  more  frradual.  In  both  cases,  however, 
the  restoration  of  equilibrium  wilt  be  accompanied  by  the 
development  of  energy  in  some  form. 

For  a  long  time  thtse  effects  were  regarded  as  cases  of 
action  at  a  distance.  It  is  now  generally  accepted  that  the 
action  tAkes  )ilace  through  a  universal  medium  filling  all 
space  and  permeating  all  matter :  and  that  the  medium  poe- 
tcteea  properties  such  as  to  establish  its  identity  with  the 
luminiferous  ether.    See  Lioht. 

It  is  usual  Ui  eipress  the  above  condition  of  affairs  by  say- 
ing th^  every  electrified  body  possesses  a  field  of  force  of 
which  it  forms  a  center.  Particles  of  matter  within  this 
fleld  tend  to  move  toward  or  away  from  a  body,  according 
to  the  manner  in  which  thej  may  be  electrified.  The  paths 
which  they  tend  to  follow  are  called  lines  of  force. 

The  simplest  cose  is  that  of  a  field  in  which  there  are  only 
two  bodies,  a  and  b,  at  a  distance,  d,  from  one  another.  The 
force  of  their  mutual  attraction  or  repulsion  is  eipressed  by 
the  equation 

I-  a.  • 

where  qi,and  q*  are  factors  which  eipress  the  electrical  con- 
dition of  the  two  bodies.  They  are  called  the  quantUie*  of 
eltelneil^  with  which  a  and  b  respectively  are  charged — a 
name  which  has  come  down  from  a  time  when  there  was 
thought  to  be  an  electric  fluid. 

Considering  electrification  as  a  process  by  means  of  which 
a  difference  o[  potential  is  produced,  q.  and  qt  may  still  be 
used,  defined  as  the  amount  of  work  done  upon  the  bodies 
a  and  b  to  electrify  them. 

It  is  of  importance  to  note  that  the  eouation  for  the  force 
between  two  electrified  bodies  is  precisely  analogous  to  that 
which  expresses  the  law  of  gravitation  between  any  two 
particles  of  matter  in  space,  and  also  to  the  formula  for  the 
attraction  or  repulsion  between  two  magnetic  poles,  viz., 
M,Mi 


'.' 


d' 


d' 


where  f,  and  f_  are  the  forces  in  question,  and  MiMi  the 
masses  or  mimi  the  strength  of  the  poles  respectively. 

All  three  are  examples  of  what  are  known  as  central 
forces,  and  act  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance. 

Since  every  material  particle  in  the  neighborhood  of  an 
electrified  body  suffers  electrical  disturbance  (insulated 
bodies  having  difference  of  potential  between  their  parts, 
bodies  in  metallic  connection  with  the  earth  coming  to  a 
different  potential  from  the  latter),  and  since  the  production 
of  those  enanges  involves  the  exi>enditure  of  energy  which 
is  restored  in  one  form  and  another  whenever  the  potential 
differences  cease,  it  follows  that  the  electrification  of  a  body 
always  implies  work  done,  the  quantity  of  which  depends 
upon  the  amount  and  the  arrangement  of  matter  in  the 
neighborhood. 

Whenever  a  field  of  force  is  established  within  which 
there  is  matter  Ui  be  acted  upon  inductively,  a  temporary 
storage  of  ein'trica!  energy  takes  place,  and  in  certain  ca»cs 
the  amount  stoml  is  very  large.  Apparatus  designed  for 
thus  storing  definite  quantities  ot  electrical  energy  is  called 
a  eondennrr. 

A  condenser  generally  consists  of  two  or  more  parallel 
walls  or  coatingK  of  conduct  ing  mutcrial.  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  layer  of  some  insulating  substance  enlled  the 
dielectric.  A  familiar  form  of  condenser  is  the  Leyden  jar. 
Sec  CosDENSEa. 

Elerlrijiralion  bi/  Induetion. — Electrostatic  induction  af- 
fonU  the  most  conveiiierit  itud  effri'live  means  of  Ijringing 
about  differences  of  iKitentinl,  and  it  is  in  the  eiiuiilirjit ' 
ot  such  differcniH's  that  many  of  the  most  strikiilit  pherii 
enn  of  eli-ctrioity  occur.     In  Ihc  early  days  of  the  »i-ici 
boilies  were  elec'trifieil  chielly  by  friclion.  '  A  s[iliere  of  glass 
mainlained  in  rapid  nrtuticm  and  excileil  by  contact  with 
the  dry  hands  of  the  ex|H>rinient<T  (Kij;.  2)  cunsiituted  the 
celebrated  electrical  machine  of  llawkslve.     l^Ier  a  cylin- 
der wa-s  Hulistiluted  for  the  revolving  sjilicn-.  and  later  still 
«  revolving  <lisk  of  plate  glass,  rubbed  with  leather.     About 


s  based  upon  the  principle  of  electrification  by  ii 


lo.  v.— Paoslmlle  of  ai 
Paris.  ITHl. 


AbM  Nollet'l  i 


■iDB.diowirpH.-k* 


Stated  in  the  most  general  way  the  process  in  all  such 
machines  consists  ot  the  tollowiug  cycle  of  operations : 

(1)  A  conductor  of  electricity  is  brought  very  near  to  some 
body  previously  electrified. 

(3)  The  former  is  connected  metallically  with  the  earth. 

(3)  The  earth  connection  is  severed. 

If  at  this  point  the  inducing  body  and  tlie  conductor  >>e 
sejiarated,  the  latter  will  be  found  to  be  charged  (i.  e.  to  \<e 
electrified,  and  at  a  different  potential  from  the  earth).  The 
sign  (±)  of  its  charge  will  be  opposite  to  that  of  the  inducinj; 

ITiis  cycle  of  operations  may  be  gone  through  with  over 
and  over  again  without  depreciation  of  the  inducine  chart'i'- 
The  source  of  the  electrical  energy  develoi)ed  each  time  l^ 
the  work  necessary  to  separate  the  two  bodies  ot  unlike 
electrification  (inducing  and  induced)  from  one  another. 

The  simplest  form  of  apparatus  by  which  elect rificat inn 
by  induction  can  be  carried  on  is  the  well-known  electropli- 
orus.  The  replenisher  of  Lord  Kelvin  and  the  influence- 
machines  of  Holtz,  Toepler,  Wimshurat,  etc..  are  to  be  re- 
garded simply  as  devices  for  the  continuous  and  automHtic 
performance  of  the  electrophonis  cycle  (just  described).  See 
ELETTRirjiL  Machines. 

Experiments  showing  the  development  of  energy  durinjj- 
the  discharge  of  electrified  bodies  are  much  more  numerous 
than  those  indicating  the  e)ipcnditure  of  work  in  produoini; 
electrification.  The  latter  is  a  gradual,  cumulative  proi'i'^-.. 
and  in  the  case  of  most  machines  the  amount  ot  energy  ci in- 
verted into  heat  is  so  much  greater  than  that  which  lak,?* 
lectrical  form  that  It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  latliT. 


In  influence-machines  ol  the  Holtz  type,  for  example. 

amount  of  power  used  when  a  high  dinerence  ot  |iotc- 

maintained  lietween  the  terminals  of  the  machine  i^ 


much  greater  than  for  small  differences.  Determinatinnst-f 
electrical  output  in  terms  ot  the  energy  applied  show  s 
scan'ely  appreciable  efliciency.  It  is  nevertheless  fn-ijui^nily 
possible  todeteet  fluetuationsin  the  speed  ot  such  a  machine 
when  driven  by  a  small  water-motor  or  other  source  of  [uini-r 
of  inadequate  regulation,  the  power  necessarv  to  j)naUi<-'' 
rotation  rising  steadily  before  each  spark  and  dropping  t»  ii 
small  value  at  the  moment  of  discharge. 

Whenever  electrical  discharge  takes  place,  there  is.  how- 
ever, immediate  and  complete  reconversion  of  the  energi-  •  .f 
clei'trifiealion  into  other  forms.  The  transformation  int.. 
energy  of  motion,  tor  instance. may  be  made  to  manifest  ii- 
wlt  in  a  variety  ot  ways.  The  experiment  of  the  electric.-il 
tuurniqiirl  if  a  familiar  Illustration. 

A  body  (Fig.  .SI.  charged  by  connection  with  one  of  1  li.- 
lerminala  of  a  Holtz  machine,  carries  a  pair  ot  revolviiiu' 


At  each  point  the  degree  of  electrification  is  very  great,  s 


kI 


n-aclion  in  Biirker's  mill,  tendu  to  thrust  tbe  point  bock- 
vunl.  naA  motion  of  rotation  results. 

A  siill  room  striking-  eaperiment,  showing  the  conversion 
■.■'.  I'l^'OIrica)  enerffv  into  motion,  is  that  of  the  reversibility 
■  ■!  i\m  Uoltz  mM'hine. 

If  two  such  machines  be  taken  and  their  terminals  con- 
iitH:tu<l  by  means  of  a  line  of  wire,  as  in  Fig.  4,  and  it  manhine 


Fia.  4.— Tbe  HolU  mtchlDe  driten  ae  a,  motor. 
I,  duly  cjtcileil,  bo  driven,  producinR  potential  differences 
U:  w)-t-n  its  lerniiiial^  ui  bi.  which  are  in  mi-tallic  ci  inn  motion 
«]<li  the  terminals  a,l>i  of  mac-hinc  2,  the  lalter  will  be 
'lr:vi'n  as  a  motor.  The  movable  jiIhId  of  machine  Swill 
:  Tiiv.'i  in  the  o[i])09ite  direction  from  that  in  which  it  would 
I''  'Iriven  when  the  machine  is  to  be  used  as  a  generiLtor. 
'I  :ii.-<  n-versibiltty  of  the  influence-machine  was  discovered 
l>%  lliiltz  at  an  earl;  stage  of  his  experiments,  and  was  de- 
^  riU.-d  by  hira  in  1867. 

\'-'llixir,  KUctricily. — Bj  the  means  of  nriHliioitie'  electri- 
ti'Miion  just  discussed,  i.  e.  friction  and  elcctrostalic  induc- 
t.ui.  irrcat  differences  of  electric  [Kitential  are  priHluceil,  re- 
■■:,i'i[ii;  in  the  man j  brilliant  phcnuiuena  usually  classified 
iiii.li-r  the  heail  of  "-•-■■-  -■-■----■-" 
■r>i.-  i 

'■Ibmv      ,,        . 

Ui'i  aiiracled  the  widest  inturcst  amonj;  physiolofris 
;.-;i^ii^U'ts.  were  found  to  lead  to  so  many  new  ph  - 
-:,it  the  disciiwiion  of  the  source  of  nervous  eici 
t  'ii'  fri  i|^'9  lei;  (of  Ualvani's  exiicriment)  soon  became  of  see- 
■  .iri'irv  iniiHirtaiice.  Phvsiolc)Kical  ellectji  were  the  Hrst 
i'j'nL'i  tor.  but  in  the  hands  of  Banks,  to  whom  (as  president 
■■f  tlic  Itoyal  Six^iety  of  Liondon)  Volta  early  comtnunicuted 
tji'  discovery,  and  of  Carlyle,  electrolysis  within  the  volluic 
I  discovered,  together  with 


lecinciiy  wnicti  are  capable 
of  acting  uptm  one  another  chemically  are  in  contact,  a  dif- 
ference of  potential  is  sot  up  ix'tween  them.  The  usual 
combination  consists  of  two  unlike  metals  placed  in  a  liquid 
which  conducts  electricity  and  is  capable  of  attacking  one 
of  them.  >juch  a  device  is  a  voltaic  cell;  a  collection  of  such 
ceils  constitutes  a  BiTTEHV  {q.  ):).  That  a  difference  of 
potential  exists  lietweeti  the  metals  of  a  voltaic  cell  can  be 
dctcrtniiieil  by  connecting  them  respectively  to  the  quad* 
rants  of  an  electrntnctcr  of  fair  sensitiveness.  It  will  then 
be  found  that  metals  maybe  ctassitled  into  two  groups: 
cop])cr.  platinum,  gold,  etc.,  on  the  one  hand,  showing  a 
dec'idi'd  positive  (vitreous)  electrification  when  used  in  a  cell 
in  which  a  member  of  the  other  group,  zinc,  iron,  magnesiuin 
(and  nearlv  all  casilv  o;cidized  metuls).  forms  the  other  ter- 
minal. When  the  iBrst-nanie<l  terminal  is  connected  with 
the  earth  the  other  shows  a  correspondingly  great  negative 
(resinous)  charge. 

Electrification  by  the  voltaic  method  is  di9tinguished  by 
the  followinpr  charai-teristics: 

(1)  It  owes  its  origin  to  chemical  action  between  theparta 
of  the  cell,  the  energy  neeessarj  to  bring  alKJUt  the  differ- 
ence of  potential  and  tu  mainlain  it  being  the  result  of  de- 
generative chemical  reactions  which  lower  the  potential 
energy  of  the  system. 

(2)  With  given  metals  and  a  given  solution  separating 
them,  the  potential  difference  is  a  definite  one,  both  aa  to 
direction  and  amount,  being  entirely  independent  of  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  cell. 

(3)  The  difference  of  potential  between  the  terminals  of  a 
cell  cannot  be  reduced  to  zero  by  connecting  them  metallic- 
ly.  As  in  the  case  of  two  bodies  previously  charged  by  fric- 
tion or  induclion.  continual  tendenry  toward  equalization  of 
condition  manifests  itself,  but  this  tendency  is  overcome  by 
continued  chemical  reaction  within  the  cell,  the  reaction  be- 
ing of  such  a  character  as  to  re-establish  the  potential  differ- 
ence. There  results  the  phenomenon  known  as  the  eUctrit 
currenl.  which  fur  convenience  is  spoken  of  as  flowing  from 
the  positive  terminal  of  copper,  platinum,  or  carbon  (in  ac- 
cordance with  previous  conventions  established  in  the  study 
of  electrification  by  friction)  through  the  outer  connecting 
circuit  to  the  other  terminal  (zinc). 

Tlie  energy  drreloptd  in  the  outer  circuit  of  a  voltaic 
battery  may  lie  made  to  take  useful  forms — heat,  motion  of 
ma-vses.  chemical  activity,  etc.  It  may  be  used  to  establish 
fields  of  force — a  process  which  involves  the  expenditure  of 
energy — or  in  the  production  of  radiation,  and  in  many 
other  ways.  Thus  the  discovery  of  (he  voltaic  pile  under- 
lies the  Hrst  really  important  attempts  to  utilize  electrical 
energy. 

The  electrometer,  as  has  already  been  indicated,  serves  to 
show  the  relatioti  of  voltaic  electricity  to  the  "static  "  forms 
previously  known,  but  it  is  to  another  and  almost  infinitely 


.  ...it  elfclrvmeter  is  sensitive  to  a  hundredth  of  a  volt,  per- 
ha|)s ;  gntvanomeiera  have  been  constructed  by  means  of 
which  differences  of  potential  of  less  than  a  millionth  of  a 
volt  can  be  mcnsurcil,  or  currents  down  to  the  hundred- 
thousand-millionth  of  an  ampOre. 

The  laws  governing  the  development  of  energy  in  the 
electric  circuit  have  lieen  very  fully  studied  anil  precise 
qiiahtitive  ndations  have  been  established.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  Paradav's  law  of  the  chemical  action  of 
the  current.  Joule's  law  of  tlie  heating  effect  of  the  current, 
and  the  laws  of  electro- magnetic  induction.  These  last 
govern  (1)  the  production  of  motion  by  the  agency  of  the 
eleetrii!  current,  with  transrormiitlon  of  energy  from  the 
electric  to  the  kinetic  form ;  (2)  the  production  of  eurrtnl 
by  the  movement  of  a  c<inductor  through  a  magnetic  field, 
w'ith  transform  III  ion  of  kinetic  energy  into  electrical  form; 
{H)  the  establishment  and  modification  of  magnetic  fiehls  of 
force,  by  which  means  electrical  energv  is  transferred  from 
one  system  of  conductors  to  another  tlirough  space,  or  into 

Farridiiy'i  litm  of  elecfrolyis  deal  with  ph( 
occurring  when  an  eWtric  current  traverses  any  liq 
an  element)  which  is  capable  of  transmitting  it. 


iquid  (not 


44 


ELECTRICITY 


Under  the  above  conditiong  the  liquid  is  decomposed.  The 
acid  radical  contained  in  it  always  aiipeiixs  at  tbe  teimitiftl 
wbenM  the  current  enters  the  liquid ;  the  metallic  com- 
ponent of  the  liquid  always  appears  at  the  terminal  toward 
which  the  current  is  flc)wiiig,  Faraday  investiftated  this 
subject  and  expressed  his  results  in  two  laws,  which  maj  be 
stated  as  follows : 

(1)  Tht  chemical  aelion  per  unit  of  lime  in  an,  rlectrolylic 
ctil  is  directly  proportional  to  the  sirenglh  of  the  turrenl 
flowing  through  it. 

^  if  the  aamt  amount  of  current  flotBg  through  a  eerieii 
of  eelu  eotUainittg  miriout  electrolytes,  the  uieight  of  the 
maleriaia  »et  free  (called  by  Faraday  the  "ions'")  in  each 
will  be  proportional  to  the  chemical  equivalent  of  the  »ub- 
stances  (which  mar  be  elements  or  radical  groups). 

The  amount  of  any  ion  liberated  b^  the  passage  of  a 
coulomb  of  eleetricitv  (i.  e.  bycne  ampere  of  current  in  one 
second  of  time)  is  called  its  electro-ehemical  eijuivalfnt. 

The  following  iaa  table  of  the  electro-chemical  equivalenls 
of  some  of  the  more  important  elements : 

Hydronu DOIOBB 

OntcBD O'0eS88 

Sodium O-MST 

Chlorine OXri 

Potusliuii O'**! 

IrDDirromfeiTlculM) 0-1994 

Iron  (trom  ferrous  wItHi 0-»00 

Nickel 0-aOffi 

Copper (froTD cuprtc  ulu} ... 0-SS7V 

Oopper  ((rom  cuproui  BBIM) O'ttsee 

ppniTiinB asm 

8U»or I-II80 

Tin  (rrom  nantiic  aalU) OttM 

Tin  (from  ■Unnoui  ulta) OflOM 

Iodine I-BIM 

Gold 0«JW 

Hercurj  (from  mercuric  Mlta) 1  (187 

UercuiyjrrommercurousMlUi tOT* 

LcMl 1-071 

Uf  the  above,  oxygen,  chlorine,  bromine,  and  iodine  were 
termed  anions  by  Faraday,  the  others  Imlions.  The  ter- 
minal at  which  the  former  claae.  which  includes  the  acid 
radicalx,  is  set  tree  is  called  the  cmode;  that  at  which  the 
metallic  elements  appear  is  the  kathode.  The  current 
travels  through  the  electrolyte  from  anode  to  kathode,  and 
metals  therefore  may  be  considered  as  moving  with  the  cur- 
rent to  the  point  of  deposition,  while  tbe  acia  group  travels 
against  it. 

Familiar  examples  of  the  electrolysis  of  metals  are  found 
in  the  plating  of  copper,  nickel,  silver,  gold,  etc  Where 
tbe   deposited  metal  takes  crystalline  form,  very  striking 


effects  are  produced,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "lead  tree," 
Fit'.  .■>. 

1'he  jihc[iomcnon  of  elcctrolrsis  is  well  brought  out  in  the 
followini;  exporimont : 

In  a  V-slift|icil  lulie  (Fij;.  81  is  [ilwcl  a  wOutinn  of  neutral 
sulphate  of  soilium.  The  platiniiTn  terminals  p  »  intro- 
duce the  electric  current  to  the  cdi  anil  eonducl  it  away. 
Tbe  solution  is  previously  stained  purgile  by  the  action  of 


« through  from  p  to  n  the  fol- 


litmuR.  When  current 
lowing  reactions  occur, 
Na^O.  +  mH.O  =  SO.  +  mH.O  +  2Na  =  O  +  H,SO.  + 
(m-3)H,0  +  3NaH0  +  2H. 
Here  we  have  two  sets  of  chemical  changes:  (1)  Those  due 
to  electrolysis,  viz..  SOt  set  free  at  the  positive  pole,  3Na  at 
the  negative.  (8)  Secondary  reactions  purely  chemical.  Free 
SO.  forms  H.SO,,  setting  free  0.  aNa  at  the  other  [wle 
forms  the  hvdrate  2 Nail 0.  and  two  parts  of  hydrogen  are 
liberated.  The  free  acid  shows  itself  by  the  reddening  of 
the  litmus  solution  in  the  regions  surrounding  the  piisi- 


-lydi ,.   . 

solution  blue  in  its  neighborhood.  Oxygen  and  hydmgci 
are  given  off  as  gases  at  their  respective  tenninaK  and  may 
be  collected  and  tested. 

If.  after  electrolysis  has  proceeded  for  some  time,  the  crtl  is 
taken  out  of  circuit  and  the  poles  connected  to  the  terminals 
of  a  galvanometer,  that  instrument  will  indicate  the  pas- 
sage of  current  in  the  direction  opposed  to  that  in  which  I  he 
electrclyzing  current  has  been  flowing.  This  current  will 
continue  as  long  as  there  is  a  difference  between  the  liquids 
in  the  two  arms  of  the  cell.  The  current  in  electrolysis  has 
broken  up  a  neutral,  inactive  compound,  Na^SOi.  producing 
two  chemicallv  different  and  very  active  substances.  Hi:S<.>, 
and  NaHO.  ^he  separation  of  these,  then,  has  been  ac- 
complished by  the  expenditure  of  energy  now  stored  in  the 
cell.  Difference  of  potential  will  exist  between  them,  ani^ 
so,  by  contact,  between  the  platinum  poles.  Flow  of  cur- 
rent in  direction  opposite  to  that  which  charged  the  cell 
tenils  to  recombitte  the  acid  and  alkali  of  the  two  amis  of 
the  tube;  and  it  is  their  recombination  that  creates  the 
current  which  the  cell  has  become  capable  of  generating. 
Such  a  cell,  after  the  passage  of  the  charging  current,  \»  a 
form  of  storage  battery  or  AcroHULiTOH  [q.  t,),  giving 
current  as  long  as  the  difference  between  the  solutions  sur- 
rounding the  platinum  terminals  continues. 

Vidtamelr!(.—^t  having  been  established  by  many  criiicHl 
and  precise  in  vest  uat  ions  that  the  first  law  of  Faraday  19 
rigorouslytrue.it  follows  that  the  quantity  of  electricity 
transmitte<l  in  a  circuit  (i.  e.  the  integral  of  the  cum-ni  n'r 
product  of  the  average  current  and  the  time)  may  be  nieii.-'- 
urcd  by  electrolysis.  Any  instrument  for  such  purpose  is 
called  a  Voltameter  {g.  v.). 

The  electrolyte  selected  for  voltamolry  must  contain  as 
one  of  its  ions  a  aubslance  insoluble  in  the  liquid,  chemicallv 
slable  and  easily  colleeteil  and  weighed.  In  practice  biit 
lew  materials  are  used:  viz.,  oxygen  and  hydrogen  (frmn 
ciecom[H)sition  of  water),  silver,  copper.  and-Einc.  Sdvi-r 
and  conper  voltameters  are  used  where  precision  is  desireil. 
since  they  can  be  inaile  to  give  results  ai-cordant,  within 
I'd  -per  cent.  Zinc  has  lieeii  founil  to  be  the  best  metal 
fur  ci'mniercial  ineasuremeiils  extending  over  considcra- 
lile  intervals  of  time.     It  is  used  in  chemical   mi'ters  fi.r 


46 


ELKCTRICITY 


positive  pole  of  the  ^nerator  to  its  negatiye  pole.  The  rate 
of  fall  for  each  portion  of  the  circuit  depends  upon  the  re- 
sistance per  unit  of  length  of  the  conductor  traversed  by  the 
current.  Through  regions  of  high  resistance  the  fall  of 
potential  is  rapid ;  through  ^ood  conductors  of  large  cross- 
section  it  may  be  inappreciable. 

In  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  8}  a  circuit  between 
two  points  is  represented.  The  total  difference  of  potential 
between  a  and  /  is  100  volts,  maintained,  say,  by  a  storage 
battery  of  fifty  cells.  This  is  indicated  by  the  vertical  dis- 
tance between  a  and  b.  The  fall  of  potential  from  a  to  the 
successive  points  h  cd  e  f\a  represented  likewise  b^  vertical 
distance,  the  rate  of  fall  by  the  gradient  of  the  line  which 
connects  them. 

Abscissas  in  the  diagram  represent  lengths  of  the  various 
conductors  used  in  the  circuit. 

The  circuit  contains : 


(1)  20  ohms  of  copper  wire  (between  a  and  h) 

(2)  "  platinum  "        "         6    "    / 

(3)  "  silver        "        "         c    "    d 

(4)  **  iron  "        "         d    ""    e 

(5)  "  gold         **        "         e    "    / 


The  cross-sections  of  these  wires  are  all  the  same,  and 
their  lengths  respectively  indicate  the  relative  conductivity 
of  the  metaL  Tne  fall  of  potential  through  each  piece  will 
be  the  same,  since  the  resistances  are  the  same,  and  by 
Joule's  law  the  amount  of  heat  developed  in  each  (PR)  per 
second  will  be  the  same.  If  all  other  resistances  beyond  a 
and  /be  supposed  to  be  negligible,  the  current  by  Ohm's  law 
will  be  one  ampere,  the  energy  developed  in  each  section 
will  be  20  watts,  or  4*8  calories  per  second.  In  wires  of 
equal  diameter  the  radiating  surface  will  be  proportional 
to  the  length.  The  good  conductors,  copper,  silver,  and 
gold,  being  long  and  of  relatively  large  surface,  will  remain 
cool  while  carrjring  current  sufficient  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  platinum  and  iron  to  points  high  above  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere.  The  difference  may  be  brought  out 
in  a  striking  manner  by  sending  a  heav^  current  through  a 
composite  circuit  of  the  kind  under  discussion.  It  will  be 
found  that  the  platinum  becomes  white  hot  and  the  iron  red 
hot,  while  the  copper  and  silver  are  still  barely  warm  to  the 
touch.  This  is  an  illustration  of  the  physical  principle 
made  use  of  in  lighting  by  incandescence  (see  articles  Elec- 
tric Lighting,  Electeic  Aug,  and  Glow-lamp);  also  in 
heating  by  electricity. 

Resistance,  which  is  one  of  the  factors  which  ent-ers  the 
ecjuation  for  Ohm's  law,  is  the  reciprocal  of  conductivity,  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  length  of  the  conductor,  and  in- 
versely proportional  to  its  cross-section.  Resistance  in  the 
diagram  (Fig.  8)  is  measured  by  the  fall  of  potential  through 
a  unit  length  of  the  conductor  in  question,  i.  e.  by  the  gra- 
dient of  the  lines  joining  the  successive  points,  a  b  c,  etc. 
As  thei%  is  a  direct  and  constant  relation  between  the  re- 
sistance of  a  conductor  and  the  heat  evolved  by  the  passage 
of  a  current,  it  is  evidently  possible  by  using  conductors  of 
ecjual  length  and  equal  cross-section  to  compare  the  re- 
sistances of  different  substances  in  terms  of  heat-units.  For 
a  fuller  explanation  of  the  methods  of  measuring  resistance 
and  for  data  concerning  the  specific  resistance  of  various 
substances,  see  articles  Resistance  (in  electricity),  Wheat- 
stone's  Bridge,  etc. 

Electricity  from  Heat  (thermo-electricity). — The  direct 
production  of  difference  of  potential  in  a  metallic  circuit  by 
application  of  heat  is  perhaps  a  less  important  phenomenon 
tnan  that  of  the  transformation  of  electrical  energy  into 
heat  (discussed  under  heading  Joule's  Law).  It  has,  how- 
ever, numerous  interesting  applications.  Wlienever  two 
metals  are  arranged  so  as  to  form  a  closed  circuit  and  the 
surfaces  of  contact  differ  in  temperature,  a  voltaic  current 
will  flow  through  the  circuit.  The  electromotive  force, 
generally  verv  small,  depends  upon  the  difference  of  tem- 
perature of  the  junctions,  although  rarely  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  that  difference,  excepting  through  small  ranges. 
The  electromotive  force  varies  greiitly  with  the  nature  of 
the  metals  in  the  circuit.  For  each  temperature  it  is  pos- 
sible to  arrange  a  list  of  substances  so  that,  when  any  two 
of  them  are  made  into  a  thenno  clement,  current  will  flow 
through  the  hot  junction  from  the  metal  which  is  first  in 
the  series  into  the  other.  Such  a  list  is  called  the  thermo- 
electric series  for  that  teniperature.  By  measurement  of 
the  electromotive  forces  generated  by  a  difference  of  one 
degree  (centigrade)  in  the  case  of  the  union  of  each  member 
of  the  series  with  some  selected  metal,  the  relation  of  each 


to  all  the  other  members  of  the  list  may  be  expressed  quan- 
titatively, and  the  performance  of  any  given  couple  may  be 
indicated.    The  following  is  such  a  table : 

Thermo-electro  series  and  E.  M.  F.  in  yolte  between  each  member 
and  the  metal  lead,  when  a  difference  of  one  defO'ee  (centisrade) 
exists  between  junctions.  (The  average  temperature  of  £e  two 
junctions  is  20°  C.) 


Bismuth  +  89*  x  10-«  volts. 
Cobalt  +  22-  X  10" • 
Mercury  4- 0*418  x  10-«  " 
Lead +0-0  X  10-*  " 

Tin-0-lxlO-« 
Platinum  -  0*9  x  10- •  " 
Gold  -  1-2  X  10-« 


Silver  —  3-0  x  10"  •      volt.^. 
Zinc  -  8-7  X  10- • 
Copper -3-8  X  10-* 
Iron  (soft)  - 17-5  X  10  -« *• 
Antimony  —  2*8  x  10  -  •   to 
26-4  X  10-*  volt*. 

Tellurium  -  502-x  10  -  •  •• 
Selenium  —  807-  x  10"  •  ** 

Compiled  for  other  temperatures  or  ranges  of  temperatures, 
other  values  would  be  obtained,  and  certain  memDers.  not- 
ably iron,  would  have  other  positions  in  the  series.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  electromotive  forces  are  never 
simply  proportional  to  temperature  differences.  In  nearly 
all  cases,  indeed,  the  current  generated  in  the  circuit  eon- 
twining  a  thermo  element  will  reach  a  maximinn  at  some 
definite  temperature  difference,  falling  off  again  as  the 
difference  between  the  junctions  increases,  and  finally  being 
reversed  in  direction.  This  phenomenon,  in  the  case  of  au 
iron-copper  element,  is  shown  graphically  by  means  of  the 
curve,  Pig.  9. 


I 


/ 


/ 


t 


\ 


100' 


200' 


-  Temperaturea 


\    aoo< 
% 
I 
I 

I 
I 


I 


Fio.  9. 


One  junction  of  such  an  element  being  kept  at  0"  centi- 
grade (§2°  Fahrenheit),  the  other  is  heated  slowly,  and  the 
deflection  of  a  galvanometer  with  which  the  element  is  in 
circuit  is  followed.  Starting  from  zero,  the  deflection  ris«-> 
at  first  in  direct  proportion  to  the  rise  of  temperature,  thrn 
more  slowly.  It  reaches  maximum  at  169"^  centigrade  (8;^6'2 
Fahrenheit)  and  zero  again  at  270"  centigrade  (518^  Fahn-n- 
heit),  after  which  it  continues  indefinitely  in  the  negative 
direction. 

Thermo-currents  afford  a  most  convenient  and  delicate 
means  of  measuring  temperatures.  The  method  is  em- 
ployed especially  in  cases  where  the  temperatures  to  l>e 
measured  are  in  localities  inaccessible  to  direct  observatic»n 
by  means  of  ordinary  thermometers;  as  for  example,  in  the 
study  of  subterranean  or  deep-sea  temperatures,  or  of  th** 
fluctuations  occurring  within  the  cylinder  wall  of  a  s»toarn- 
engine,  or  where  the  temperatures  lie  beyond  the  range  of 
the  mercury  thermometer,  as  in  the  measurement  of  th»* 
heat  of  furnaces,  or  of  the  extreme  cold  obtained  by  tho 
liquefaction  of  oxygen,  etc. 

Another  and  even  more  interesting  fleld  is  in  heat  motis- 
urements  of  such  character  that  ordinary  thermometers  are 
of  insuflioient  delicacy,  as  in  the  exploration  of  the  sixx.'- 
trum.  The  materials  used  in  thermo  elements  for  hf*it 
measurements  depend  upon  the  temperatures  to  be  studitM. 
To  determine  flame  temperatures,  metals  of  the  platinum 
group  would  be  selectea;  where  great  delicacy  is  de5inisl 
the  metals  at  the  ends  of  the  thermo-electric  series  are  o<iin- 
bined,  notably  antimony  and  bismuth;  where  greater  sensi- 
tiveness than  can  be  obtained  with  a  single  element  ts^ 
necessary,  or  higher  potential-difference  is  desired,  severa,! 
elements  are  united  to  form  a  Thermopile  (y.  t\).  \Mieii  a 
current  is  sent  through  a  thermo  element  from  any  other 
source,  it  is  found  that,  aside  from  any  heating  effects  com- 


ELECTRICITY 


From  the  repellent  and  attractive  forces  between  Uoes,  it 
follows  that  the  conductors  a  und  b,  carrying  current  in  the 
same  direction,  will  bo  drawn  together,  while  6  and  e  will  be 
repelled. 


This  mutual  action  ofeurraits  was  observed  by  Ampere, 
who  stated  his  results  llius: 

Ampere's  Rate.— {I)  Currents  in  parallel  circuits  attract 
each  olhcr  when  flowing  in  the  same  direction,  and  repel 
when  flowing  in  opposite  directions. 

<2)  C'Ircaits  making  any  angle  with  one  another  tend  to  be- 
come parallel  witli  the  current  flowing  in  the  same  direction 
through  thcra. 

■■  is  usual  to  attribute  these  forces  between  -■ — -' ' 


the  analogous  eSocts  which  o 


Q) 


carrying  cur- 
rent are  brougiit 
near  to  magnets  or 
when  one  mag:ict 


the  two  fields  of 
force.  The  effect 
is  entirely  inde- 
pendent    of     the 


no.  II. 

which  will  tend 
the  direct 

Thus  a  wire  (fp|.  Pi);.  14)  iiiimial  .     .      ,  , 

ing  current  away  from  the  observer,  in  the  uniform  fleld  of 
force  represented  bv  the  long,  parallel  arrows,  will  tend  to 
move  downward.    Wire  (tc,)  carrying  current  toward  the 


ob-*npr  will  trnvcl  upwiir 

1.     l>>ii  tliis  rpaction  is  bn 

oncnf  the  most   iiii|KirlMnl 

t  electrical  devices— the  mo 

Sec  Klb(th[.'  Motor. 

Fanulav's  <lisk  molor  i'  a 

an  escceii'inKly  simjile  aud 

nstructivc  form. 

Between  the  poles  of  a  horseshoe  magnet  (Pig.  15)  ii 
mounted  a  thin  disk  of  copper,  its  axis  parallel  to  the  liiict 
of  force,  so  that  the  sector  vertically  below  the  axis  is  in  tlir 
fleld.  At  its  lowest  point  the  jieriphery  of  the  disk  di[i~ 
into  a  trough  of  mercury.  If  current  be  sent  through  tin 
disk,  entcnuK  through  the  mercury  and  leaving  by  nay  of 
the  axle,  the  lines  of  flow  will  be  veitical  and  at  right  angli'> 
to  the  magnetic  field,  which  will  act  upon  that  portion  of  the 
copper  which  carries  current,  driving  it  out  oi  the  field  in 
the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow.  The  result  is  a  rapid 
rotation  of  the  disk,  the  direction  of  which  depenils  u|H>n 
the  direction  in  which  current  passes  through  it  and  tl><' 
polarity  of  the  magnet. 

Even  the  earth's  fleld  exerts  such  action  upon  every  con- 
ductor which  carries  current.  The  effect  is  shown  in  ■ 
striking  manner  by  the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  IS. 


■e  frequently  i 


angedsc 


Two  parallel  troughs  of  clipper  aie  ftlled  with  a  cnndniM 
ing  liquid,  preferably  an  ai' id ulated  solution  of  copiHT  sul 
phatc.  Two  lioat-shspeil  copjier  vessels  arc  joined  by  a  n.i 
of  the  same  tuetut.  forming  a  sort  of  catamaran.  This  d<ii. 
ble  boat  is  allowed  to  float  in  the  two  troughs  as  in<lic«i. 
in  the  diagram.  Current  introduced  at  a  will  flow  li 
means  of  the  connecting  bar  to  the  other  trough,  fimliii 
exit,  and  returning  to  llie  battery  at  b.  By  the  attioii  i 
the  earth's  magnetic  fleld  upon  the  connecting  bar  the  Ixut 
will  be  driven  from  end  to  end  of  the  trough  at  consideral>l 

The  application  of  the  general  principle  to  this  case  ma 
1)6  seen  bv  reference  to  Fig.  17,  in  whieti  «•  is  the  conducin 
lietween  the  boat,*  seen  in  emss-section,  the  current  flowiii 
from  the  observer.  The  vertical  component  of  the  earth 
magnetism  t'  t'.  acting  upon  the  lines  of  force  sumumdiii 
the  wire,  tends  to  drive  the  latter  in  the  direction  of  tb 
dotted  arrow  a. 

Thus  far  the  case  of  straiglit  wii 
Conductors 
ca!  coil  (helix 
When  current  traverses  suc-h 
a  coil,  the  lines  of  force  unite 
to  form  a  single  set.  They  en- 
ter the  coil  at  the  end  in  wnich 
the  current  viewwl  from  with- 
out nxially  travels  clockwise, 
and  issue  from  the  other  end. 
Such  a  ciiil.  hung  from  its  cen-  , 
ter.  its  axis  horizontal  and  free 
to  rotate  about  a  vertical  siia- 
|>ension.  will  set  itself  axially 
in  the  magnetic  meridian 
when  current  is  sent  through 
it.  To  an  observer  looking 
northward  toward  the  south- 
[H)iiitiiiic  end  of  the  coil  (lie 
curn-nt  then  flows  elockwiiie. 
The  svstcm  of  lines  of  force  Ijelongiiw  to  such  a  coil  or- 
ruspoiid  preciselv  in  arranpi'meni  to  those  of  a  bar-in»t;iii-t 
i-X(-epting  that  tlierc  is  not  the  same  difference  in  penm-H- 
bility  between  the  external  and  internal  circuit, 

Il'is,  indiHil.  i>ossililc  to  utilize  a  coil  of  wire  cBrrjinj;  cu r- 
rent  inslemi  of  a  mnt-nct  for  the  needle  of  a  galvanonu'ti-r 
(q.  v.).  Wciwr's  wi'll-known  instrument,  the  elect nulyriii - 
mometer,  WHS  con<!lriicted  u|>on  that  principle,  the  neclli 
iH'ing  a  I'oll  into  which  current  was  introduced  through  tht 
wires  l>y  which  it  wa.s  siisjiended. 


■■e 


Fio.  17. 


ELECTRICITY 


■    f\ 

ia>po»r»  iht  motimt  must  be  in  &  ilircclion  opposite  t< 
the  pritDBiT.    The  law  may  be  stated  thus: 
In  ■aeigMxiring  iciren  Ike  introdu((ion  of  currenf  into  a 


\  oppositr  indwrd  currenl  in  the  olhfm.  iht  dura- 
tion oj  irnich  comsponds  to  Iht  interval  required  to  compute- 
ly  eatablisk  the  fittd  of  forte  doe  to  the  primary  current. 

The  instant  that  the  primary  (mrrent  has  reached  jls 
normal  value  all  iiiduetton  ceases.  Let  the  current  be 
itoppeil,  however,  by  breaking  circuit,  and  a  disappearance 
of  the  Held  of  force  follows,  which  is  equivalent  to  the  re- 
moval of  the  secondary  circuit  to  a  dislAoce,  and  which  in- 
liuees  a  current  to  oppose  such  motion. 

In  general,  therefore,  m  neighboring  wires,  one  of  tehieh 
Carrie*  current,  the  effeet  of  breaking  fireuit  is  to  induce 
currenl  in  the  othere,  the  dirertion  of  which  is  the  same  n» 
that  of  the  primary,  and  the  duriition  of  which  ie  the  in- 
terrat  neeemary  for  the  complete  disappearance  of  the  field 
of  force  due  to  the  primary  current. 

The  duration  of  these  induced  currents  is  a  question  in- 
volving the  resistance,  self-indnetion,  and  capacity   of  the 
two  circuits ;  also  the  character  of  the  medium  within  which 
the  Held  must  be  established  or  destroyed.     The  complete 
discussion  liea  quite  beyond  the  scope  of  this  article ;  it  may. 
however,  be  noted  as  of  some  practical  import  that  the  rise  of 
the  priinary  current  is  in  general  less  rapid  than  its  deca- 
dence, and  tliat  therefore  the  induced  current  rises   to  a 
higher  value,  aud  is  of  shorter  duration  in  the  latter  case. 
For  example,  the  photographic  record  of  the  dying  away  of 
the  current  in  the  70-ohm  coil,  already  re- 
ferred to.  when  circuit  was  suddenly  broken, 
is  shovrn  in  Fig.  21b  (curve  e,f)  and  the  in- 
duced current  by  the  dotted  curve  (g.  h.). 

These  photographic  traces  (a  6  and  ef) 
were  obtamed  by  the  movement  of  a  mirror 
attached  to  the  plate  of  a  telephone  receiver, 
according  to  the  ingenious  method  devised 
by  Dr.  F^iihlich,  of  Berlin  (18tW-91). 

The  oscillations  shown  in  the  curve  e.  f. 
are  the  natural  vibrations  of  the  teleph< 


above  the  boiling-point  of  water.  A  strip  of  copper  mounted 
to  oscillate  between  the  poles  of  such  a  magnet  (see  Fig.  22) 
will  swing  freely  so  long  as  the  magnet  is  not  in  circuit,  but 
when  the  Held  is  established,  puwertul  eddy  ci 


Pio.  U. 
up  within  the  copper,  resisting  its  motion.  Whatever  be  its 
amplitude  of  vibration,  the  strip  will  be  brought  tu  rt-^^ 
witoin  the  period  of  a  single  oscillation.  The  experiment 
is  a  most  striking  one,  the  motion  of  the  pendulum  being 
checked  as  if  by  passing  through  some  viscous  metliutu. 
These  eddy  currents,  or  Foueault  currents  (after  their  di*- 
coverer),  are  a  serious  source  of  loss  in  many  forms  of  tlec- 
Irical  machinery.  They  can  be  guarded  against  in  a  gTcat 
measure  bv  lamination  of  those  parts  of  the  machine  which 
cut  lines  of  force. 

The  induction  coil  (RuhmkorS  coil,  spark  coil)  is  a  form 
of  apparatus  for  the  utilization  of  the  induction  effects  pro- 
duced by  making  and  breaking  circuit.  It  consii'ts  of  a 
primary  and  a  secondary  coil,  one  within  the  other,  the 
of  the  two  being  occupied  bya  core  of  iroa 


'V  of  current.    The  ph» 

arising  wlicn  a  voltaic  circuit  is  opened  or 
closed  are  not  always  of  the  simple  character 
shown  in  these  two  diagrams.  It  is  found, 
for  instance,  that  when  the  capacity  of  the 
circuit  bears  eerUin  relations  to  tKe  resist- 
ance and  self-induction,  the  rise  of  current  or 
its  decadenee  will  be  oscillatory,  with  corre- 
sponding oscillations  of  induced  current  in 
the  secondary  circuiL 

Electro-magnetic  induction  is  a  phenomenon  involving 
the  transformation  of  enerfy.  The  mere  establishment  of 
an  electro-magnetic  field  of  force,  like  the  creation  of  an 
electrostatic  fteld.  involves  the  expenditure  and  storage  of 
energy,  to  be  utilized  when  the  tleld  disappears  again. 
Ever)'  movement  of  a  conductor  through  a  Held  meets  with 
resistance,  the  surmounting  of  which  requires  the  expendi- 
ture of  energy  equivalent  to  that  which  is  represented  by 
Ihc  induced  current.  The  induced  currents,  for  example. 
which  circulate  in  a  block  of  metal  driven  rapidiv  through 
the  magnetic  tteld  are  transformed  into  heat  untfer  Joule's 
law.  If  the  Faraday  disk  (P'ig.  15)  be  driven  between  the 
poles  of  a  powerful  magnet,  it  will  soon  rise  in  temperature 


wires.  Since  the  onlinary  use  to  which  the  induction  coil 
is  put  is  tr<  obtain  spark  discharges  similar  to  those  obtained 
from  the  Holtz  machine  and  devices  of  that  character,  the 
primary  usually  consists  of  a  few  turns  of  l*eavy  trire.  the 
secondary  coil  of  very  many  turns  of  fine  teire.  The  details 
of  construction  of  such  coils,  and  some  account  of  their  |>(.t- 
formance,  are  given  under  Isductiob  Coil  (q.  r). 

The  currents  obtained  by  induction,  either  in  the  move- 
ment of  eonductors  in  the  magnetic  field,  as  In  the  case  of  tlie 
dynamo,  or  by  making  or  lireakinf  circuit,  as  in  the  Uuhni- 


52 


BLEOTBIC  UOHTING 


cault,  Sieroens,  and  others  belong  to  the  former,  nearly  all 
l&mps  in  onJinary  eominereial  service  to  the  latter  tilaaa. 
As  soon  as  contact  between  the  carbon  tips  has  been  intule 
tbo  penciln  are  drawn  apart,  either  by  the  clockwork  train, 
driren  by  a  spring  but  started  and  stopped  electrically,  or 
by  a  clutch  operated  directly  by  an  electro-magnet.  This 
play  of  the  carbons,  in  which  they  approach  each  other  at 
every  diminution  of  the  current  and  iieparate  whenever  the 
current  iocreases  again,  constitutes  the  regulation  of   the 

Innumerable  devices  for  performing  these  operations  have 
been  resort«d  to,  most  of  them  based  upon  the  principles 
just  touched  upon.     One  of  the  earliest  of  arc-lamp,  Arch- 
ereau's  regulator,   is  shown   in   Fig.  1.      In  this  lamp  the 
lower  tarlion  is  movable,  being  balanced  by  a  weight  which 
acts  over  a  pulley.     When  the  current  passes  through  the 
solenoid,    the   lower   carbon- 
hcjder.  which  is  partly  of  iron, 
is  drawn  down  into  the  core  of 
the  coil  until  the  resistance  of 
the  arc  reduces  the  current  to 
the  extent  necessary  to  bring 
ftlwut    equilibrium    between 
the  mo^etic  forces  and  grav- 
ity.    Figs.  2  and  3  show  other 
early  forma  o(  the  arc-lamp. 
They  illustrate  the  two  types 


most  frequently  met  with  in  modem  practice.  In  the  Sie- 
mens regulator  (Fig,  2)  the  electro- magnet  E,  which  is  in 
circuit  with  the  arc  attracts  the  anchor  A.  moving  the  gang 
of  toothed  wheels  in  nuch  direction  as  to  slightly  separate 
the  carbons.  By  means  of  the  contai-t  device,  c  d.  which 
throws  the  magnet  out  of  circuit,  this  movement  of  the 
anchor  is  repeattil  over  and  over  again  until  a  balance  is 
obtained.  Fig.  3  shows  one  uf  the  older  forms  of  the  Brush 
lamp,  of  which  many  moilem  commercial  lamps  are  modifi- 
cations. The  lower  carbon-holder  is  flxnl.  'Die  upper  one. 
B  B.  plays  freely  within  the  iron  cylinder  C.  which  in  turn 
forms  the  movable  core  of  the  large  solenoid  A,  The  clutch 
consists  of  a  flat  bra.is  collar.  I>.  which  surrounds  the  car- 
bon-holder. When  no  current  is  flowing.  C  drops  to  the 
bottom  of  the  l>oi  E  F^  and  the  ring  assumes  a  horizontal 
position,  relcwing  the  carbon,  which  falls  until  contact  oc- 
cutsbetWBen  F  and  P.  The  circuit  Ihuscompleted,  thecore 
rises  within  the  coiL,  D  is  thrown  into  an  oblique  position, 
clut^'hing  the  carlion-rod  li  and  lifting  the  pencil  out  of 
contact     The  arc  once  established,  the  upper  carbon  is  held 


in  its  proper  position  magnetically,  every  fluctuation  of  cur- 
rent being  followed  by  a  slight  rcadjuBtmeat  of  Jte  position. 
tending  t«ward  the  maintenance  of  equilibrium. 

In  the  case  of  an  arc-lamp  fed  with  di- 
rect current,  it  is  found  that  the  positive 
carbon  is  much  hotter  than  the  negative ; 
also  that  it  is  consumed  more  rapidly. 
Roughly  speaking,  the  rate  of  consump- 
tion IS  as  two  to  one.  but  this  ratio,  which  , 
is  by  no  means  fliod,  depends  upon  the  -j- 
voltage  of  the  arc.  the  amount  of  current 
flowing,  and  the  quality  of  the  pencils. 
The  shape  of  the  two  pencils  is  also  char- 
acteristic, the  upper  or  positive  terminal 
being  flattened  or  even  indented,  forming 
a  ■'  crater,"  while  the  lower  carbon  is 
pointed,  and  there  is  a  tendency  for  the 
carbon  particles  transferred  through  tjie 
arc  by  the  current  to  build  a  nipple  in  the 
axis  of  the  pencil.  These  features  are 
shown  in  Fig,  4. 

The  crater  is  the  surface  of  highest  in- 
candescence  in    the    arc-lamp.      Conse-  ,  

quently  the  illumination  will  be  a  maxi- 
mum in  those  regions  surrounding  the 
lamp  from  which  its  surface  is  visible 
(viz.,  obliquely  below  the  tamp  and  at  an 
angle  between  40°  and  60°  from  the  hori- 
zontal plmie).  Fig.  5  is  a  diagram  indi- 
cating the  vertical  distribution  of  light 
from  a  direct  current  arc-lamp. 

The  length  of  the  radius  vector  gives  p,^  ^ 

the  can<lle-power  emanating  in  the  direc- 
tion selected.  The  form  of  the  curve  of  illunitnation  will 
vary  in  different  cases  with  the  length  of  the  arc.  the  diam- 
eter of  the  carbons,  and  the  amount  of  energy  developed  in 
the  lamp.  The  diagram  may  be  regarded  as  typical  ^r  Ihi' 
case  of  an  ordinary  commercial  lamp  with  carbons  half  an 
inch  in  diameter,  a  potential -difference  of  50  volts  and  10 
amperes  of  current  flowing  through  the  lamp. 

In  the  case  of  arc-lamps  ted  with  altemating  currents  ihr 
conditions  are  altogether  different  from  those  which  exi>l 
whore  the  direct  current  is  employed.  The  distribulion  uf 
lif^it  above  and  below  the  horizontal  plane  is  more  ni-arly 
equal,  and  the  difference  in  form  of  the  two  carbons  is  h-s> 
marked.  The  illumination  at  any  given  instant  is  bv  nn 
means  uniform,  but  the  distribution  shifts  so  rapidly  ka  to 
defy  close  measurement. 

2'Ae  eanrfie-pouwr  of  arc-lights,  in  general,  has  been  great  Iv 
overrated.  For  example,  according  tt>  the  system  in  Ti>gii'F 
up  to  1890,  and  used  to  some  extent  even  after  thai  year, 
lamps  were  rated  at  3,000  "  nominal  candle-power,  the 
"  mean  spherical  "  illuminating  power  of  whicn  was  fniin 
250  to  400  candles,  and  whose  hnghtnees  in  the  directi 


of 


\  i^ 

^  1          1 

i^K(\ 

:yH 

Fia.  & -Curve  or  the  distribution 


wasfrmn  l,CK)0tol,500candies.  Fig.Sistakon 
from  measurements  upon  such  a  lamp,  the  mean  spherical 
candle-power  of  which  is  but  4!)1  candles.  The  maxiniutn 
radius  of  the  curve,  which  indicates  the  intensity  of  tti< 
light  in  the  direction  of  greatest  brightness,  correspi>iii!~ 
to  1.056  candles. 

The  candle-power  of  the  average  arc-light  when  viewnl 
in  the  direction  of  greatest  brightness  is  found  to  be  hbiiut 


54 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTING 


The  light  of  the  glow-lamp,  however,  is  due  to  a  carbon 
surface  all  at  one  temperature,  which  temperature  varies 
with  the  electrical  energy  expended  in  the  lamp,  while  that 
of  gas  and  petroleum  flames  is  made  up  of  radiation  from  a 
gnat  number  of  separate  carbon  particles,  the  temperature 
of  which  depends  upon  their  position  within  the  flame.  The 
mean  temperature  of  the  flame,  on  the  other  hand,  is  al- 
ways nearly  constant. 

in  spite  of  this  slight  difl!erenceof  condition,  it  is  possible 
to  flna  a  temperature  at  which  an  incandescent  lamp  will 
give  li^ht,  the  distribution  of  energy  of  which  throughout 
the  visible  spectrum  will  agree  approximately  with  that  of 
an  ordinary  naked  "bat*s-wing  £^as  flame.  Five  lamps 
tested  for  the  purpose  in  1891  (Mr.  J.  C.  Shedd  observer) 
were  found  to  reach  the  condition  of  incandescence  most 
nearly  corresponding  to  that  of  the  gas  flame  (at  15*1 
candle-power),  the  eneiv)r  expended  then  being  4*8  watts 
per  candle  (average),  lliis  was  at  a  somewhat  lower  tem- 
perature than  that  at  which  the  lamps  were  intended  to  be 
used,  viz.,  16  candles. 

At  lower  temperatures  than  the  above  the  light  of  the 
glow-lamp  differs  from  that  of  gas  in  being  relatively  richer 
in  the  reo,  and  at  still  higher  temperatures  in  being  richer 
in  the  blffe. 

Distribution  of  light  from  the  glow-lamp  is  a  question 
of  the  cross-section  of  the  filament.    Filaments  of  circular 


Fio.  T.—Dkignan  showing  the  distribution  of  light  in  the  caee  of 
glow-lamps  with  filaments  of  rectangular  cross-section. 

cross-section  give  almost  uniform  distribution  in  the  hori- 
zontal plane.  Filaments  are,  as  a  rule,  rectan^lar  in  cross- 
section.  These  are  placed  with  the  longest  diameter  in  the 
plane  of  the  filament,  or  at  right  angles  to  that  plane. 
The  result  is  that  different  amounts  of  radiating  surface 
are  exposed,  according  to  the  direction  from  which  the 
lamp  is  viewed.  Curves  a  and  6,  Fig.  7,  show  the  results 
of  candle-power  measurements  upon  lamps  of  these  two 
types. 

Tht  electric  maintenance  of  arc  and  incandescent  lamps 
is  carried  out  upon  entirely  distinct  systems.  Arc-lamps 
are  placed  in  series  (Fig.  8),  the  same  current  traversing  all 
that  are  in  circuit.  Glow-lamps  are  arranged  in  multiple 
(Fig.  0).  The '  condition  to  be  met  in  dynamo  machines 
for  arc-lighting  is  complete  and  automatic  regulation  for 
constant  current  through  wide  ranges  of  external  resist- 
ance. The  dynamo  for  incandescent  lighting,  on  the  other 
hand,  must  possess  complete  power  of  regumtion  for  con- 


Fio.  8.— Arc-lampe  arranged  in  series.   (C  is  commutator  of  dy- 
namo ;  M,  M,  the  fleld  magnets ;  L,  L  .  .  .,  the  lampa) 

stant  potential.  The  means  by  which  these  requirements 
are  met  is  described  in  the  article  Dynamo-electbic  Ma- 
chine {q.  v.).  The  desirability  of  furnishing  both  arc  and 
glow  lamps  from  the  same  circuit  has  led  to  many  attempts 
to  operate  arc-lamps  on  constant-potential  circuits  and  m- 
candescent  lamps  in  series.  It  has  been  found  possible  to 
do  lx>th,  but  the  conditions  are  such  as  to  lead  to  a  separa- 
tion of  the  two  types  wherever  practicable. 

In  arc-lighting  the  number  of  lamps  which  can  be  fed 
by  a  single  machine  is  limited  to  about  sixty.  The  differ- 
c\wv  of  |x>tential  at  the  terminals  of  the  dynamo,  about  fifty 
volts  for  each  lamp  in  circuit,  reaches  a  value  at  this  limit, 
beyond  which  it  is  not  found  possible  to  maintain  the  insu- 
lation of  the  machine.  In  incandescent  lighting  the  num- 
ber of  lamps  which  can  be  supplied  from  a  given  center  is 


limited  only  by  the  cost  of  the  copper  conductors  necessary 
to  carry  the  current.  Since  the  potential-difference  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  number  of  lamps,  the  amount  of  current 
must  increase  in  direct  proportion  to  that  number,  and  with 
it  the  weight  of  copper  usea. 

Thus  far  this  article  has  dealt  with  electric  lights  main- 
tained on  direct-current  circuit.    It  is  equally  practicable, 

A 
LLLLLLLL 


LLLLLLL  L 
B 


^^<^^^^^^ 


LLLLLLLL 


Fig.  0.— Arrangement  of  glow-lamps  in  multiple :  A,  three-wire  sys- 
tem ;  B,  two- wire  system.  (C,  C,  C,  commutator  of  dynamo ; 
L,  L  .  .  .,  lamps.) 

and  under  many  circumstances  more  advantageous,  to  use 
alternating  currents. 

In  the  earliest  days  of  arc-lighting  alternate-current  gen- 
erators were  employed,  and  the  delicacy  of  regulation  poisi- 
ble  in  alternate-current  dynamos,  without  loss  of  efficiency, 
has  led  to  a  return  to  the  older  practice.  For  incandesc-ent 
lighting  also,  wherever  it  is  necessary  to  transmit  to  consid- 
erable distances,  the  alternate  current  permits  the  carrying 
of  large  amounts  of  energy  over  small  wires.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  the  Transformer  (a.  v. ;  see  also  Alter- 
nate Currents  and  Dynamo-electric  Machine),  a  device 
by  means  of  which  the  current  and  voltage  in  a  circuit  mav 
be  raised  and  lowered  almost  at  will,  their  product  whick 


Fio.  10.— The  arrangement  of  glow  lamps  in  an  altematlnff-ciuTent 
circuit :  A  is  the  armature  of  the  altematcH* ;  T  is  the  timiw- 
former  ;  L,  L,  L  .  .  .,  arc-lamps. 

represents  the  energy  remaining  constant.  Fig.  10  shows 
the  arrangement  of  a  circuit  for  transmission  of  ener^-  to 
glow-lamps  at  a  distance  by  means  of  an  alternate-current 
generator  and  transformers. 

77ie  economy  of  the  electric  light  is  a  Question  involving: 
many^  factors.  One  does  not  have  to  deal,  as  in  light  pn*- 
duction  by  direct  combustion,  simply  with  the  consumpt  i«  m 
of  fuel  by  oxidation.  In  the  arc-lamp,  nevertheless,  the  car- 
bon pencils  undergo  continual  disintegration,  and  have  to 
be  renewed  dailj  at  an  appreciable  cost.  Even  the  glow- 
lamp,  although  incandescence  takes  place  in  the  absence  of 
oxygen,  is  subject  to  more  or  less  rapid  depreciation  durinv: 
service,  and  the  renewal  of  degenerated  lamps  is  an  item  of 
expense  to  the  consumer.  The  life  of  the  incandescent  lamp 
diminishes  as  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  maintained 
rises.  The  amount  of  light  per  unit  of  energy  expended,  on 
the  other  hand,  increases  veiy  rapidly  with  the  temperature. 
The  relationship  between  life  and  the  degree  of  incandes- 
cence has  been  carefully  studied  b^  John  W.  Howell  {TranA- 
aciions  Am.  Institute  of  Elec,  Engineers^  vol.  v.,  p.  i^9).  Tlu- 
curve  in  Fig.  11  gives  graphically  the  results  widch  he  hn^ 
obtained  from  the  life  study  of  a  very  large  number  of 
lamps. 

Abscissas  in  this  diagram  represent  the  degrees  of  incan- 
descence (indirectlv  the  temperature  of  the  filament),  e^- 
{)ressed  in  terms  of  the  number  of  watt|  expended  in  t  h«» 
amps  to  produce  a  candle-power  of  light.  Now,  the  co-st  ^  >i 
light  Xo  the  consumer  is  made  up  of  two  factors — viz.,  tin- 
cost  of  developing  the  necessary  amount  of  energy  in  thv* 
lamps,  and  that  of  renewing  the  broken  lamps  upon'  his  cir- 
cuit, lie  may,  for  instance,  pay  50  cents  apiece  for  lani|»<. 
and  3,  5,  10.  or  even  20  cents  per  kilowatt  (one  horse-imwi-r 
is  equal  to  0*7459  kilowatts)  per  hour;  or  the  price  of  lamp- 
may  be  20, 30,  or  40  cents,  with  power  at  any  one  of  the  alx  >\  *• 
rates.  Whatever  may  be  the  relative  cost  of  power  and  of 
lamp  renewal,  the  sum  of  these  two  factors  can  be  so  pr«>- 


66 


ELECTRIC  METERS 


ELECTRIC  MOTOR 


Regarded  as  a  light-making  device,  the  efficiency  of  the 
arc  and  glow  lamps  is  not  very  much  higher  than  that  of 
the  sources  of  artificial  light  which  they  have  in  a  great 
mefljsure  superseded. 

The  question  of  actual  relative  cost  of  production  is  a 
most  complicated  one,  involving  the  cost  of  power,  of  at- 
tendance, of  interest  upon  the  money  investea,  as  well  as 
the  price  of  copper  and  of  machinerv.  The  adoption  of 
electric  lights  is  more  frequently  basea  upon  other  consid- 
erations than  upon  mere  cheapness  of  production.  Sanitary 
or  lesthetic  conaitions  often  prevail,  or  the  adaptability  of 
the  light  to  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  to  be  used. 
The  applications  of  the  electric  light  are  almost  innumera- 
ble. In  some  cases,  it  is  true,  where  much  was  expected, 
unforeseen  difficulties  have  led  to  the  return  to  the  older  il- 
luminants.  This  is  the  ease  in  coast  lighting,  for  which 
purpose  the  brilliancy  of  the  arc-li^ht  seemed  to  indicate  it 
as  tne  most  desirable  of  sources.  The  experiments  of  Tyn- 
dall  in  the  service  of  the  Trinity  House,  1876-77,  showed, 
however,  that  in  thick  weather  the  shorter  wave-lengths  of 
the  spectrum,  which  are  especially  prominent  in  the  arc- 
light,  «re  wholly  absorbed  by  the  atmosphere ;  so  that  the 
fluctuations  both  in  quantity  and  quality,  with  changes  of 
weather,  rendered  the  electric  arc  the  very  worst  of  lights 
for  lighthouse  purposes.  In  many  other  situations,  as  in 
lighting  mines,  steamships  at  sea,  in  submarine  work,  etc., 
the  electric  light  possesses  advantages  such  that  the  question 
of  cost  becomes  unimportant.  In  these  and  in  innumerable 
other  services  where  it  is  not  in  the  same  sense  indispensa- 
ble, it  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  an  essential  feature  of 
motlern  eouipment.  Many  details  concerning  the  electric 
light  may  be  found  in  the  following  special  treatises : 

Dredge,  Electric  Illumination',  Maicr,  Arc  and  Glow 
Lamps ;  Hedges,  Continental  Electric-light  Stations ;  Des- 
mona.  Electricity  for  Engineers ;  also  in  the  admirable 
summaries  published  from  time  to  time  by  MM.  Palaz, 
Richard,  and  others  in  La  Lumiere  ^lectriqtie  (Paris) ;  also 
in  the  reports  of  the  commissions  of  the  electrical  exhibi- 
tions of  Philadelphia,  Paris,  Munich,  Vienna,  Antwerp, 
Frankfort,  etc.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Electric  Meters:  appliances  for  the  measurement  of  the 
energy  developed  in  an  electric  circuit.  These  are  of  three 
kinds :  (a)  clockwork  recorders,  {b)  chemical  meters,  (c)  mo- 
tor-meters. In  the  first  a  known  fraction  of  the  current  to 
bo  measured  passes  through  a  galvanometer  which  records 
by  means  of  a  stylus  upon  a  chronograph  sheet  driven  by 
clockwork.  Large  first  cost  and  the  difficulties  of  maintain- 
ing clockwork  devices  in  continued  use  have  kept  this  class 
of  meters  out  of  general  use.  Chemical  meters  are  zinc 
voltameters,  the  plates  of  which  are  weighed  from  time  to 
time.  Motor-meters  are  electric  motors,  the  speed  of  which 
is  recorded  by  a  dial  device  like  that  of  the  gas-met<»r.  See 
Meters  and  Wattmetees.  E.  L.  N. 

Electric  Motor :  a  machine  for  the  conversion  of  electri- 
cal energy  into  the  form  of  mechanical  power.  The  first 
mot<ir  of  any  real  importance  was  constructed  by  Jacobi  in 
1838.  This  motor,  like  all  its  predecessors,  depended  for  its 
action  on  the  attraction  and  repulsion  of  electro-magnets. 
Its  efficiency  was  very  low.  chiefly  because  of  the  large 
amounts  of  energy  that  had  to  be  expended  in  producing 
magnetization  in  magnetic  circuits,  completed  only  through 
large  air-gaps.  The  iron  masses  or  electro-magnets,  which 
are  set  in  motion  by  the  action  on  them  of  stationary  electro- 
magnets, are  called  armatures.  A  great  advance  was  made 
by  the  invention  of  the  Siemens  shuttle  armature  in  1855. 
This  machine  is  the  highest  development  of  the  old  ideas  of 
the  electric  motor — the  repulsion  and  attraction  of  electro- 


Fio.  1. 

magnets.  The  shuttle  armature  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  1.  As 
an  electro-magnet  it  is  an  iron  cylinder  magnetized  trans- 
versely by  means  of  a  single  coil  wound  in  two  deep,  longi- 
tudinal, and  diametrically  opposite  grooves.  The  ends  of 
the  coil  are  connected  to  opposite  halves  of  a  metallic  ring, 
insulated  and  mounted  on  the  shaft,  forming  a  two-part 
commutator.  Electric  connection  through  the  annature  coil 
is  made  by  means  of  brushes  resting  on  the  commutator,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2.    Fig.  2  shows  the  form  of  the  stationary 


Fxo.  2. 


ma^et  and  the  arrangement  of  the  armature  with  res{tect 
to  it.  The  poles  present  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  in  diame- 
ter slightly  larger  than  that 
of  the  armature.  It  is  seen 
that  the  function  of  the  two- 
part  commutator  is  to  reverse 
the  current  in  the  armature 
at  the  proper  instant  for  con- 
tinuing the  rotation  through 
the  action  of  electro-mag- 
netic repulsion  or  attraction. 
By  the  adoption  of  this  form 
of  moving  and  stationary 
electro-magnets  the  magnetic 
effects  were  enormously  in- 
creased, owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  magnetic  circuit  is 
made  up  almost  entirely  of 
iron.  The  electro-dynamic 
effects  and  the  efficiency  of 
the  electric  motor  were  in- 
creased in  proportion.  Ow- 
ing to  numerous  causes,  the 
efficiency  and  output  for  a 
given  size  of  machine  were, 
however,  still  hopelessly  low. 
Chief  among  these  causes  were  the  Poucault  current  lessees 
in  the  core  and  the  energy  wasted,  and  the  trouble  encoun- 
tered in  reversing  the  current  suddenly  through  the  large 
number  of  turns  in  the  armature  coil. 

The  great  and  effective  advance  of  the  electric  motor  was 
made  shortly  after  the  introduction  of  the  Gramme  dyna- 
mos in  1871.  It  was  found  that  these  dynamos  would  work 
equally  well  as  motors,  and  with  this  discovery  came  a 
clearer  understanding  of  the  nature  of  electro-magnetic  in- 
duction, which  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 

A  conductor  carrying  a  current  and  moving  across  the 
lines  of  force  in  a  magnetic  field  takes  up  or  gives  out  me- 
chanical energy  in  amount  equal  to  the  product  of  the  cur- 
rent through  the  conductor  into  the  electromotive  force  de- 
veloped in  it  by  its  motion  through  the  magnetic  field.  The 
mechanical  energy  is  given  up  to  the  conductor  when  the 
electromotive  force  generated  in  it  is  positive  with  res|>ect 
to  the  current,  and  is  given  up  by  it  when  the  electromotive 
force  is  negative.  It  is  this  knowledge  that  has  enabled  an 
improvement  in  electric  motors  to  be  made  each  time  that 
an  improvement  has  been  made  in  electric  generators.  It 
follows  from  the  absolute  reversibility  of  the  electro-mag- 
netic induction  of  electric  currents  that  good  electric  gvu- 
erators  make  good  electric  motors.  It  does  not  necessarily 
follow,  however,  that  a  good  dynamo  operated  under  one  set 
of  conditions  will  make  an  eqiially  good  motor  when  o{)er- 
ated  relatively  under  entirely  different  conditions. 

Electric  machinery  for  motor  practice  is  required  to  oper- 
ate almost  universally  under  different  conditions  from  thnt 
of  the  ^nerator  as  to  speed,  load,  and  speed  regulation. 
Where  it  is  reauired  to  meet  conditions  dinerent  from  tin  ►be 
that  are  met  by  the  dynamo,  it  must  be  different  in  de^iirn 
and  construction.  These  special  requirements  have  enlist  <-< I 
the  attention  of  some  of  the  ablest  engineers  of  the  wirKl 
since  the  introduction  of  the  dynamos  with  the  Gramme 
and  Hftfner-Alteneck  armatures. 

The  great  use  of  the  electric  motor  is  for  the  transmissicm 
and  distribution  of  power.  The  electric  motor  and  the  eft>e 
with  which  electric  energy  may  be  transmitted  without 
serious  loss  to  great  distances  make  possible  the  commercial 
use  of  many  waste  powers.  Served  with  current  fri»ni 
neighboring  electric-light  stations,  it  is  a  re«dy  and  tH«»- 
nomical  power  in  small  and  large  units  in  citiesl  The  ajv- 
plication  of  the  electric  motor  to  railway  propulsion  foruiN 
now  a  great  industry  by  itself. 

There  are  two  great  classes  of  electric  motors,  direct  cur- 
rent and  alternate  current.  The  simple  law  that  a  dynamo 
acts  as  a  motor  when  a  current  from  an  external  source  is 
passed  through  its  armature  in  a  sign  opposite  to  the  elect  r*-!- 
motive  force  it  develops  extends  to  direct  current,  alteniHt^- 
current,  and  all  forms  of  motor  alike.  In  any  motor,  a>  n\ 
the  dynamo,  there  are  two  distinct  organizations  of  parts 
the  field  and  the  armature.  The  field  is  generally  e5>tal»- 
lishetl  by  current  from  the  source  supplying  the'  rrmtor. 
The  current  is  allowed  to  pass  through  tne  armature,  whi<h 
sets  up  a  rotation  due  to  tne  force  exerted  by  the  action  t»f 
the  field  on  the  armature.  Now  the  motion  of  the  armatur*-^ 
conductors  through  the  field  produces  in  them  an  elect n.^ 


58 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS 


ceaL  At  Frankfort  b  "st«p-down"  tronafonnatioD  look 
place  tbroogh  tmnstonners  similar  to  those  used  at  Laut- 
fen;  from  Cbese  the  current,  once  mora  at  ordinary  voltage 
and  coirespoDdingly  increased  stren^h,  was  dalivered  to  an 
Orehstrom  motor  that  developed  75  II.'P.  in  retnrn  for  the 
too  B.-P.  given  up  to  the  dynamo  by  the  turbines  at  Lauf- 
fen.  Harhis  J,  Ryan. 

Electric  BailwajS:  those  railways  on  which  electricity 
is  the  motive  potrer.  The  first  step  toward  the  applica- 
tion of  the  electric  motor  to  railway  propulsion  was  made 
by  Thomas  Davenport,  of  Brandon,  Vt.  He  constructed  in 
1835  a  model  electric  car  operated  on  a  circular  track.  The 
car  motor  was  ol  the  pole-attracting  type,  and  was  operated 
by  means  of  batteries  carried  on  the  car.  In  Apr.,  1S51, 
Prof.  Page,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  operated  a  16- 
H.-P.  locomotive  that  derived  electric  current  from  100  large 
Qrove  cells  carried  with  it.  This  locomotive  attained  a 
speed  of  19  miles  an  hour,  and  was  run  on  the  Baltimore 
and  Washington  Railway.  The  motor  was  likewise  of  the 
pole-attracting  type.  The  experiments  of  Page  demonstrated 
the  entire  possiodity  of  nidway  propulsion  by  means  of 
electricity,  but  with  primary  batteries  the  cost  was  prohibi- 
tive. The  next  decided  advance  came  with  the  commer- 
cial introduction  of  the  Gramme  and  Siemens  dynamos, 
which  provided  at  once  an  economical  means  for  the  pro- 
duction of  electrical  energy  and  an  efficient  motor  when  the 
operattoD  of  those  dynamos  was  reversed.  From  1873  to 
1887  experiments  were  made  in  Europe  and  in  the  U.  S. 
with  Tatying  success.    Among  the  promoters  of  these  enl«r- 

Srisea  were  Fontain  and  Breget,  Siemens  and  Ilalake, 
ramme  and  Emr,  of  Europe,  and  George  F.  Green,  Kill- 
son,  Stephen  D.  Field.  J.  C.  Henry,  Daft,  V  an  Depole,  Short, 
and  Sprague,  of  the  U.  S.  Through  the  eCForta  oC  these  tnen 
a  dozen  or  more  eiperimental  roaiu  were  operute<l,  and  while 
they  were  not  all  successful,  each  one  constituted  a  great 
practical  lesson. 

Numerous  forms  and  methods  of  mounting  the  motor 
were  tried.  Methods  of  every  kind  were  used  for  gener- 
ating and  conducting  the  current  to  the  motors.  The  direct 
supply  of  electrical  energy  in  the  form  of  constant  current 
or  constant  potential  from  the  generators  to  the  motora  was 
made  by  sliding  or  rolling  coiitact  through  the  rails  insu- 
lated from  each  other  and  from  the  earth;  through  a  third 
rail  insulated  and  mounted  at  the  center  of  the  track  in  a 
slotted  conduit,  or  just  above  the  ground,  using  the  track  as 
a  return;  or  through  a  conductor  mounted  on  insulated 
supports  overhead,  with  the  track  and  the  earth  as  a  return 
for  the  current.  Storage  Latteries  were  used  by  charging 
them  at  the  generating  stations,  and  then  loading  them  on 
the  cars  to  supply  the  molora  with  current,  thus  avoiding 
the  need  of  running  conductors  along  the  road. 

Out  of  all  these  practical  trials,  attempts,  and  experiments 
there  was  developed  the  system  of  electric  street-railway 
propulsion  that  is  now  bciiig  used  in  most  o(  the  cities  in 
the  U.  S.,  and  has  been  introduced  in  Europe.  In  1887 
Frank  J.  Sprague  undertook  to  equip  the  Union  Passenger 
Railway,  of  Richmond.  Va.,  operating  twenty  cars,  for  elec- 
tric traction.  The  work  was  completed  ana  the  road  went 
into  operation  with  electric  motive-power  early  in  1888. 
This,  therefore,  was  the  first  road  to  be  equipped  in  a  real 
engineeriDg  spirit  and  determination :  consequently  the  re- 
suUa  of  all  previou.s  attempts  and  experiments  w~~~ 


(ully  lookeii  into,  and  the  methoils  that  were  found  to  be 
best  and  most  practicable  were  adopted.  The  final  outcome 
was  the  adiiption  of  the  single  overhead  trolley  system. 
using  the  earth  and  the  rails  as  a  return.  The  success  of 
the  Richmond  road   invited   public  conf^ciencc  to  .such  an 


In  modern  practice  the  current  is  supplied  at  a  constant 
potential  of  500  volts  from  the  dynamos  in  the  generating 
'  ''       '     "  motors  direct  by  means  of  a  bore  copper 

alley-wire,  suspended  in  the  air  over  the 
of  each  ear-track.  Fig,  1  givee  one  a  good  idea  of 
the  manner  in  which  the  troQey-wire  is  suspended  in  the 
streets  and  the  method  adopted  for  taking  the  current  from 
it  to  the  motors  on  the  car-trucks,  from  which  it  is  returned 
to  the  power-bouse  through  the  wheels,  track,  and  earth. 
The  trolley-wire  is  suspended  by  means  of  cross  wir«s  at- 
tached to  poles  erecl«a  at  the  curbs  in  the  streets.  These 
cross  wires  are  insulated  from  the  trolley-wire  except  where 
it  is  electrically  joined  to  the  feed-wiree.  The  feed-wires 
provide  all  extra  conducting  capacity  needed  for  keeoing 
up  the  full  supply  of  current  in  all  parts  of  the  trolley-line. 
They  are  given  a  weather-proof  insulation  and  mounted  ou 
glass  insulators  carried  on  the  poles,  or  they  are  given  a  su- 


perior insulation,  covered  with  lead,  and  placed  in  conduits 
underground;  to  these  the  trolley-lino  is  joined  eleetricallv 
at  intervals.  The  current  is  taken  from  the  trolley-liiie  ti> 
the  moving  car  through  the  trolley  and  trolley-pole  that  are 
carried  by  the  car.  The  troiley-jiole  has  a  pivot  attaclunent 
to  the  top  of  the  car.  and  by  means  of  springs  presses  the 
trolley  uniformly  against  the  trolley-wire.    The  trolley  and 

ele  being  metallic,  the  current  is  led  through  them  to  tlio 
p  of  the  car.  and  thence  through  metallic  conductors  to 
the  motors  below.  It  is  necessary,  on  account  of  its  weight, 
to  give  the  motor  flexible  suspension  on  the  car-trucks,  id 
order  to  lessen  the  wear  on  the  tracks  and  the  tendency  tu 
damage  the  insulation  of  tho  wires  on  the  fields  and  arma- 
tures of  tho  motors,  due  to  the  excessive  shocks  that  would 
otherwise  be  experienced.  This  is  accomplished  bj  pivot- 
ing one  end  of  the  motor  to  the  car-axle,  and  suspending  the 
other  with  spring  from  the  truck-frame.  The  power  of  the 
motor  is  transmitted  from  the   armature   to   the   axle  bv 


solid  oil. 


;  method  of  mounting  and  connecting  the 


motor  is  illustrated  in  Fig,  8,  Series  motors  are  used,  and 
for  driving  a  Ifi-fool  car  in  ordinary  practice  two  15  U.-P. 
motors,  one  on  each  axle,  are  used.  The  speed  of  the  mi> 
tors  is  regulated  by  changing  the  electrical  pressure  appliiil 


60 


ELECTROCUTION 


of  the  chair.  The  wire  attached  to  the  head  electrode  de- 
scended from  the  ceiling,  and  that  of  the  lower  one  passed 
alone^  the  floor  to  the  chair,  being  protected  by  a  strip  of 
wood.  The  dynamo  and  engine  were  located  in  one  of  the 
prison  shops,  several  hundred  feet  from  the  execution  room ; 
the  voltmeter,  ammeter,  switch-board,  etc.,  were  located  in 
a  room  adjoining  the  execution-room,  which  contained  the 
death-chair,  electrodes,  and  connecting  wires. 

Communication  between  the  meter-room  and  dynamo- 
room  was  by  means  of  electric  signals.  The  apparatus  used 
in  all  the  subsequent  executions  at  Sing  Sing  and  Auburn 
was  substantially  a  duplicate  of  that  described,  except  as  re- 
gards the  location  of  the  measuring  instruments,  switch- 
board, etc.,  and  the  form  and  points  of  application  of  the 
electrodes. 

In  the  execution  of  Kemmler  the  voltmeter,  ammeter, 
and  switch-board,  etc.,  were  not  in  the  execution  chamber ; 
hence  there  is  no  official  record  of  the  electromotive  pressure 
and  current-strength  at  the  time  of  making  and  during  the 
continuance  of  the  first  contact.  But  reasoning  from  cases 
of  accidental  death  and  experiments  on  some  of  the  lower 
animals,  and  also  from  tne  subsequent  electrocutions,  it 
must  have  been  at  least  1,500  volts.  The  amperage  also 
was  not  recorded  in  this  case.  An  account  of  the  execution 
of  Kemmler  will  give  a  very  correct  idea  of  all  subsequent 
executions  by  electricity,  except  in  regard  to  some  matters 
of  detail  in  the  points  and  length  of  time  of  contact  of  the 
electrical  current.  After  Kemmler  was  seated  in  the  chair 
and  properly  strapped  and  the  electrodes  moistened,  all  of 
whicn  time  occupied  about  three  minutes,  the  warden  sig- 
naled the  assistant  in  charge  of  the  switch  in  the  next  room 
to  turn  the  lever  which  closed  the  circuit  and  sent  the 
deadly  current  through  the  prisoner's  body.  The  moment 
the  contact  was  made  the  body  was  thrown  into  a  state  of 
extreme  muscular  rigidity.  Every  muscle  of  the  body 
seemed  to  be  in  a  state  of  tonic  spasm.  Synchronously  witn 
the  onset  of  rigidity,  motion,  sensation,  and  consciousness 
were  apparently  absolutely  suspended,  and  remained  so 
while  tne  contact  was  maintainea.  At  the  end  of  seventeen 
seconds  the  prisoner  waspronounced  dead,  and  the  contact 
immediately  broken.  When  the  electrical  contact  was 
broken  the  rigidity  noted  was  succeeded  by  complete  muscu- 
lar relaxation ;  at  the  same  time  superficial  discolorations 
appeared  on  the  face.  The  body  remamod  limp  and  motion- 
less for  about  half  a  minute,  when  there  occurred  a  series 
of  slight  spasmodic  movements  of  the  chest,  accompanied  by 
the  expulsion  of  a  small  amount  of  mucus  from  the  mouth. 

There  were  no  evidences  of  return  of  consciousness  or  of 
sensation,  but  in  view  of  the  possibility  that  life  was  not 
wholly  extinct,  and  in  order  to  take  no  risk,  the  current  was 
ordered  to  be  reapplied,  which  was  done  about  two  minutes 
after  the  first  contact  was  broken.  The  sudden  muscular 
rigidity  noted  on  the  first  contact  was  observed,  and  contin- 
ued until  the  contact  was  again  broken,  when  the  same  state 
of  complete  muscular  relaxation  again  set  in.  The  second 
current  lasted  about  seventy  seconds,  and  toward  the  end 
was  accompanied  by  a  small  volume  of  smoke  issuing  from 
the  points  of  contact,  due  to  scorching  of  the  sponges  on  the 
electrodes.  There  was  also  some  desiccation  of  the  already 
dead  body  under  the  electrodes. 

After  this  contact  there  was  no  radial  pulse  or  heart- 
action,  and  the  corneas  were  depressed  and  fiaccid.  The 
sudden  and  painless  character  of  the  death  of  the  criminal 
was  demonstrated.  In  point  of  fact  the  criminal  was  abso- 
lutely dead  at  the  time  of  breaking  the  first  current.  The 
movements  referred  to  have  been  noticed  in  some  of  the 
subsequent  executions,  and  also  in  animals  experimentally 
killed  by  electricity,  and  afford  no  evidence  of  conscious 
suffering. 

These  movements  were  very  slight  in  comparison  with 
those  usually  found  after  decapitation  and  hanging,  which 
have  sometimes  been  noted  an  hour  after  the  execution, 
where4ks  in  subsequent  executions  by  electricity  no  reflex 
muscular  action  was  found  three  minutes  after  the  last 
contact  was  broken. 

No  doubt  there  were  certain  minor  defects  in  the  arrancre- 
ment  and  operation  of  the  apparatus  used  in  the  Kemmler 
execution,  but  notwithstanding  these  defects  unconscious- 
ness was  instantaneous  and  death  painless.  This  was  clearly 
demonstrated  in  subsequent  executions,  four  of  which  were 
witnessed  by  the  writer.  The  object  to  be  attained  in  the 
infliction  of  the  death  penalty,  so  far  as  the  individual  is 
concerned,  is  sudden  and  painless  death.  One  celebrated 
electrical  expert  recommended  the  passing  of  the  electrical 


current  through  the  hands  instead  of  Vertex  of  skull  and  legs, 
as  then  the  current  would  have  a  more  direct  paralyzing  effect 
on  the  heart.  In  the  case  of  McElvaine  (Feb.  8,  1892)  this 
was  shown  to  be  erroneous  and  not  practical.  It  has  been 
shown  by  physiologists  and  medical  electricians  that  the 
arrest  of  the  heart's  action  can  be  as  readily  effected  by  de- 
stroving  or  paralyzing  the  brain  center,  which  presides  over 
the  heart's  action.  It  has  been  conceded  by  all  the  medictal 
and  electrical  experts  present  during  these  executions  that 
by  including  the  brain  directly  in  the  circuit  the  action  of 
the  heart  would  probably  be  quickly  arrested,  while  at  the 
same  time  all  the  vital  centers,  including  that  of  conscious- 
ness, would  be  paralyzed.  The  brain  it«elf  is  very  suscep- 
tible to  the  influence  of  electricity,  as  is  shown  sometimes  to 
an  alarming  extent  by  the  passage  of  mild  currents  into  it 
through  the  skull.  The  nerve  tissues  also  contain  an  excess 
of  saline  moisture,  and  hence  are  among  the  best  of  conduct- 
ors, while  the  amount  of  brganic  matter  in  live  bone  also 
renders  it  a  fairly  good  conductor. 

In  all  the  executions  following  Kemmler*s  one  electrwle 
was  applied  so  as  to  cover  the  forehead  and  temples,  and 
the  otner  to  the  calf  of  the  leg,  this  one  being  the  larger. 
The  point  of  contact  of  the  body  electrode  is  not  one  of 
great  importance.  It  may  be  applied  to  the  hand,  foot,  or 
any  other  part.  The  eiectroaes  were  kept  thoroughly 
moistened  by  a  continuous  flow  from  two  suspended  foun- 
tain syringes  containing  salt  water.  The  preparations  of  the 
prisoners  from  the  time  they  entered  the  execution-room  to 
the  closure  of  the  circuit  which  rendered  them  unconscious 
varied  from  about  four  minutes  in  Kemmler's  case  to  one 
minute  and  nine  seconds  in  Tice's  case  (May  17,  1892). 
The  electromotive  pressure  in  the  executions  succeeding 
Kemmler's,  as  shown  by  the  voltmeter  taken  by  Prof.  Landry, 
varied  from  1,458  to  1,716  volts,  while  the  ammeter  showeii 
a  variation  in  current  of  from  two  to  seven  amperes.  In 
each  instance  the  prisoner  walked  deliberately  to  the  chair, 
and  quietly  submitted  to  the  application  of  the  stra^is  and 
electrodes.  There  was  nothing  unduly  repulsive  in  the  exe- 
cutions. About  the  only  objective  phenomena  observed 
were  instantaneous  and  complete  tonic  rigidity  of  the  mus- 
cular system  on  closure  of  the  circuit  and  marked  miiscular 
relaxation  as  soon  as  the  contact  was  broken.  The  length 
and  number  of  contacts  varied  from  two  contacts  of  seven- 
teen and  seventy- two  seconds  respectively  in  Kemmler's 
case  to  four  contacts  of  nine  seconds  eacn  in  Tice's  case. 
There  were  chest  movements  and  possibly  heart-beat  after 
first  contact  in  Kemmler's  case ;  in  Jugiro's  (three  contac^ts 
of  fifteen  seconds  each,  July  7. 1891),  slight  radial  flutter; 
in  Tice's  case,  none  after  breaking  the  last  circuit.  The 
length  of  time  which  elapsed  from  the  time  the  condemned 
person  entered  the  room  until  he  was  absolutely  dead  varied 
from  about  eight  minutes  in  Kemmler's  case  to*  two  minutes 
and  forty-nine  seconds  in  Tice's  case.  Executions  by  hanging 
usually  required  from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes,  and  fre- 
quently the  heart  has  been  found  beating  thirty  minutes 
after  the  fall  of  the  drop.  Additional  time  is  consumed  in 
adjusting  the  rope  and  cap  and  in  pinioning,  and  frequently 
the  victim  is  simply  strangled. 

In  the  opinion  of  C.  F.  MacDonald,  M.  D.,  there  are  abun- 
dant reasons  for  believing  that  conscious  life  is  destroyetl  so 
rapidly  by  electricity  that  the  application  of  the  current 
could  be  repeated  several  times  witnin  the  interval  that  is 
known  to  elapse  between  the  receipt  of  an  injury  or  a  jh»- 
ripheral  sensory  impression  and  its  conscious  perception  by 
the  brain  through  the  medium  of  the  sensory  nerves.  In 
other  words,  the  electrical  current  would  travel  frt>m  the 
point  of  contact  to  the  brain  many  times  faster  than  sonsor>' 
impressions  or  nerve  currents  would — the  rate  of  velocity  of 
the  latter  being,  roughly  s|)eakin&:,  only  about  155  feet  per  se<*- 
ond,  while  elect ricitv  travels  at  the  rate  of  millions  of  feet  i»er 
second.  Thus  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  an  electrical  cur- 
rent of  lethal  energy  coming  in  contact  with  the  body  so  as 
to  include  the  brain  in  the  circuit  would  reach  the  latter 
and  produce  unconsciousness  long  before  any  sensory  im- 
pression at  the  point  of  contact  could  be  conveyed  to  and 
appreciated  by  that  organ  through  the  process  of  nerve-con- 
duction, which,  as  has  been  shown,  requires  a  distinetlv  af>- 
preciable  period  of  time — the  rate  of  transmission  of  pamful 
sensations  being  even  slower  than  that  of  ordinary  tactile 
impressions. 

This  was  shown  very  clearly  by  a  series  of  experiments 
in  instantaneous  photography  made  by  Prof.  Muybridge. 
A  careful  post-mortem  examination  was  held  on  eacn  of  the 
persons  thus  executed,  but  nothing,  either  macroscopic  c»r 


ELECTROMETER 


ELECTRO-PLATING 


F  between  the  at- 
tracted disk  and  the 
panllel  plane  is 
sufficient  to  bring 
ihe  (onner  to  a  se- 
lected position  (the 
zero  of  the  iodex). 
The  difference  of 
potentinl  between 
the  plnnee  is  Ihus 
measured. 
A  tar  more  sensi- 

the  quadi-ant  elec- 
trometer, one  of  the 
simplest  forms  of 
irhich  is  shown  in 
Fia.5.  The  essen- 
tial parts  are  the 
needle,  which  is 
simply  a  strip  of 
metal,  and  the 
quadrants.  The 
a  flat  cylindrical 


a  cut  into  quadrants  which  are  separated 


B  sufficient  to  give  compiet* 
mounted  ujKin  a  glass 
post.  The  needle, 
swinging  in  the 
center  of  the  bpi, 
touches  none  of 
the  quadrants.  The 
sus|iension  is  usu- 
allT  bifllar,  al- 
though in  some 
fonns  of  the  in- 
strument the  tor- 
sion of  a  single 
suspension  Bber  is 
substitnted.  The 
nonnai  ;iosition  of 
the  needle  with 
reference  to  the 
quadrants  is  shown 
in  Fig.  6,  The 
quadrants  are  con- 
ne(-tcil  pairwise  by 
wires  diagonally 
,  acniss.  1  with  3 
and  2  with  4. 

The  quadrant 
electrometer  may 
be    used    in    four 


Fro.  a 


(1)  The  needle  is  given  a  large  constant  charge  and  the 
quadrant  pairs  are  tirought  to  Uie  potentials,  the  difference 
of  which  is  to  be  measureil.  The  deflection  o(  the  needle  is 
then  determined  by  the  method  of  the  mirror  and  scale. 

The  following  is  the  law  of  the  instrument  thus  use<l : 


Sind  =  j,(V,-V,)V„. 


where  d  is  the  deflection 
the  di 


is  a  constant  depending  upon 

and  adjustment  of  the  quadrant''  and  needle 
the  bifllar  su»|N'nsion:  V,  anil  V,  are  the  potentials 
of  Ihe  quailrant  pairs  ;  and  Vn  is  the  potential  of  the  needle. 
To  hold  the  nwdie  at  the  high  potential  necessary  to  great 
sensitiveness  Lorii  Kelvin  (in  the  Thomson  electrometers) 
moimted  the  needle  and  quadrants  upon  a  Levden  jar.  the 
inner  coaling  of  whirh  consisted  of  strong  sulphuric  acid. 
The  needle  was  connected  wilh  the  inner  coating  by  means 
of  a  line  platinum  wire  which  dipped  into  the  acid,  and  thus 
always  shared  the  elect  riflcal ion  of  the  jar.  For  the  ex- 
tremely ingenious  devii-cs  by  means  of  which  Ihe  charfje  of 
the  ni-tsUe  is  replenisliinl  and  gauged,  and  the  sensiiiveiipss 
of  the  instrument  is  varied,  tlie  reader  Is  n^ferred  to  the 
nionc^raph  On  Khrlrom'li-n  (Thonwm's  llififTg  on  Ehc- 
Irottatitt  find  Jlagni'l I'mn).  or  to  JCnryelopirdta  Brilannirtt 
viii..p.  117,  or  lo  dray's  Abtoliitt  MeaaHremfii/s  in  £lec- 
iricity  and  ilagnrtiam,  vol.  i. 


(2)  In  the  second  method  of  using  the  electrometer  the 
quadrant  pairs  are  given  a  large  potential-difference  and  the 
body,  the  potential  of  which  is  to  be  measured,  is  connected 
with  the  needle.    The  same  formnla  applie& 


Smd  =  ^^{\,-\\f. 

where  V,  —  V,  is  the  difference  of  potential  between  Ihe 
quadrant  pairs. 

{4)  In  the  fourth  method  the  quadrant  pair  which  is  not 
connected  with  the  needle  is  brought  to  zero  potential 
(earth).    The  formula  becomes: 


Sin<j  = 


2C 


Methods  3  and  3  are  of  small  sensitiveness,  but  they  have 
the  ailvantage  of  bein^  applicable  to  the  measurement  of 
alternating  potential  differences. 

Valuable  modifications  of  the  Thomson  electrometer  have 
been  made  by  Kirchhoff,  Mascart,  CBr[>en(ier,  Kyan.  and 
others,  and  an  entinOy  different  principle  has  been  intro- 
duced by  Lippmann  in  his  "  capillary  electrometer.*'  In  llii.-i 
instrument  advantage  is  taken  of  the  movement  of  a  mercurv 
column  in  a  small  tube  (owing  to  changes  of  the  surfaM- 
tension  when  electrifled),  and  it  is  found  possible  to  measure 
very  minute  differences  of  potential  (■0001  volts).  Sec 
Electricftt,  Electroscope,  etc.  E.  L.  Nichols, 

EI«ctroph'orDH  [from  tlectro-  (Gr.  tjAorrpor.  amber),  nsi-d 
as  meaning  electricity,  +  Gr.  -^opei.  bearing,  <leriv.  of  p4ptai, 
to  boar]:  the  simplest  form  of  apparatus  for  the  coniiiiued 
production  of  electricity  bv  electrostatic  induction.  It  con- 
sists of  a  disk  of  vulcanite,  sulphur,  or  of  some  re$ini>us 
com|>osition,  and  a  metallic  disk  of  smaller  diameter  with 
an  insulated  handle.  The  resinous  surface  having  been  cler- 
trifled  by  friction,  the  metallic  disk  is  placed  u|)on  it.  The 
latter  is  then  momentarily  connected  with  the  earth  to  al- 
low of  the  cscuie  of  the  negative  charge,  which,  having  bei'ii 
generated  by  the  inductive  action  of  the  resinoiisly  eleclri- 
tled  surface  below,  is  repelled  and  escapes  to  the  ground. 
The  metallic  disk  then  possesses  a  positive  charge,  which 
may  be  removed  by  withdrawing  the  disk  from  its  resinous 
beil.  and  may  be  utilized  in  charging  Leydeii  jars.  etc.  Sincv 
in  tliis  cycle  of  o|ieratiDns.  which  is  known  as  the  i']e<'tri>- 
phorus  cycle,  and  which  is  performed  automaiically  in  influ- 
ence machines,  accumulators, and  replenishers,  the  original 
charge  is  not  depleted,  the  performance  may  be  re|H'ated  as 
often  as  is  desired  without  recharging  the  resinous  pluti.-. 
The  source  of  the  electrical  energy  thus  developed  Ik'k  in 
Ihe  work  which  must  be  done  in  removing  the  |insitivelv 
charged  disk  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  negativelv 
electrifled  plate  upon  which  it  has  been  lying  during  th« 
first  portion  of  the  cycle.    See  ELEcTgiciTT. 

E.  L.  NicHot^. 

Electro-plating:  the  covering  of  the  surface  of  articles 
formed  of  the  cheajtfr  metals  with  gold,  silver,  platinum, 
nickel,  copper,  or  other  costly  metals  by  means  of  Ihe  ektt  ric 
current,  on  the  same  principle  as  that  which  is  employed  in 
elect  rot  yping.  German  silver  is  one  of  the  best  siib8taa<>«^ 
lo  receive  an  electro-plate,  though  copper  and  its  allovs  urv 
excellent.  If  iron.  zinc,  or  pewter  were  to  be  used,  tliev 
were  formerly  first  plated  with  copper,  but  improvements 
reniler  that  unnecessary.  All  Hrti<'k'S  to  be  plated  are  most 
carefully  cleaneil  and  scounxl.  They  are  then  dipped  in  ct 
solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury,  and  receive  therefrom  a  thin 


c-l'.nng  ana  isrimzing  (i-ona.m),  auu  oruQurs  nacii 

tUrtro^atiT  (New  York.  1893). 

Electroscope  [from  rJedm-,  electricity  <Qr.  JJAcrrpsv,  a 

txT)  +  Or.  -mm 

observing] :  an 


eating  electrillca- 
liim.  The  forces 
between  chHrgeU 
bodies  are  either 
reyiellent  or  ntlnu!- 
tive,  Hml  both  are 
niucle  use  ot  in  the 
cli-etroseope.  The 
fctmi  Kciif  rally  eni- 
nloveii  is  shown  in 
Fig.  1.  It  cunsi.sts 
of  a  pair  of  jnild 
leaves  attached  to 
the  lower  end  of  a 
vertical  metallic 
rod.  For  protec- 
tion the  teivcsare 
mounted  within  a 
metal  box  with 
elH:s3  windows. 
The  rod  which  ter- 
minates without  in 
4  ball  or  disk  is 
careful Iv  insulated 
from  the  case  by 
means  of  a  layer 
of  shellac  or  glass. 
When  a  charged 
hoilv  is  brought 
I  neiir  to  the  disk  or 
'  knob,  the  liitter, 
together   with  the 


rold 


1(1  the  leaves  diverpie.  Used  in 
ilicatea  electritication,  but  docs 
not  show  the 
character  of  the 
(lischari^  If 
tbelcaviHibeiriy- 
en  a  permanent 
I'lmrt,-!^,  the    in- 

dieattlheaiifnas 
well  lis  the  rela- 
tiif  ilfffrefiitvu- 

ehargetl  body 
broiiglit  near. 
Bodies  of  simi- 
lar electrifica- 
tion to  Ibc  elec- 
troscope 

the  dilation  of 
the  leaves;  those 
with  the  charge 

of  opiNisite  KJjni 

will    draw     the 

loivcs  together. 

Til  is     form    of 

elettrostopc  was 

no,  s.  firct     desi-ribed 

byBonnet(l(t»7). 

Hither  tvpe  of  electroscope  (Fig,  2)  contains  but  one 

>  "t  gold  leaf,  which  hangs  vertically  between  two  ter- 


The  eK'troscope  just  (iescribed  was  first  used  by  Bohnen- 
beryer  (1H19).  who  maintained  the  cluirge  of  the  terminals  by 
means  of  a  dry  pile.  In  the  hands  of  Ilankcl,  who  substi- 
tuteil  ^  hundred  cells  of  water  battery  for  the  drv  pile,  and 


Annahn  der  Pbytik,  e4.  p.  28).  the  Bohiieiil>erper  elect__ 
scope  was  rendered  canalilc  of  accurate  <)iiaiititftlive  indica- 
tions. Ilankela  niodincation  should  titerefore  be  clo^tsed  as 
on  elect  roiucler. 

In  cusi!S  where  considerable  charges  are   lo  lie  studied 
■h  less  sensitive  devices  may  be  niailc  to  serve  as  electro- 


s(^o|M'8.  A  pith  tail  hung  by  a  silken  thread,  a  rod  of  vul- 
canite or  of  sealinp-was  susliciuled  in  a  stirrup,  even  a  lath 
balanced  upon  a  point,  may  be  used.    See  ELEcmicinf  and 


ELDUTHOUIil 


X  L. Ni,n. 


Electrotype  [formed  from  elerlra-  (Or.  JfAdtrw,  ambei^ 
used  as  meaning  electricity.  -|-  fi/pe.  Iiwm  Or.  riwai,  image, 
figure] :  the  cast  of  an  object  procureii  by  the  gradual  deiKwi- 
tion  of  a  metal  frotu  a  solutiiui  by  means'of  a  current  of  dec* 
tricitv.  When  two  pieces  of  clean  platinum  are  put  into  a 
solutionof  sulphate  of  copper,  no  change  takes  place.  But  if 
an  electric  current  is  transmitted  through  the  solution  by 


anode  remaining  clean,  if  the  current  lie  reversed,  the  cop- 
wr  will  be  transferred  frnra  the  jijattnum  plate  on  which  it 
had  l)een  deposited  to  the  clean  jilale.  By  thus  reversing 
the  direction  of  the  current  the  cop]ier  may  lie  sent  back- 
ward and  fgrward,  being  always  deposited  upon  the  negative 
pole,  or  that  surface  by  which'the  electric  current  leaves  the 
electrolyte  or  solution  that  is  undergoing  det'ompositifm. 
By  continuing  the  electric  currents,  and  keeping  up  thti 
strength  of  the  solution  by  otlding  fresh  portions  of  the  salt 
of  co]i]icr,  the  metallic  film  on  the  eutlnide  may  be  made  of 
any  rcipiired  thickness,  and  afterward  peeled  oS  the  plat- 
iiiiitu  surface.  The  texture  of  the  <'oiiiier  deposited  varies 
witii  the  batten-'powcr  employed  and  with  the  stn^nglh  and 
temiieralure  of  the  solution,  and  may  be  hard,  brittle,  and 
crystalline,  or  ti High  and  malleable,  acconling  to  the  man- 
agement ot  till!  operator,  A  current  ot  low  intensity,  a 
muilerately  slmug  si'lution  of  sulphate  of  copper  acidulated 
with  sulphuric  acid,  ami  a  temperature  not  oelow  60'.  are 
the  most  favorable  circumstances  for  obtaining  the  best  de- 
jKisit  of  copiier.  When  the  negative  pole  oroulhoiie  is  ir- 
-■igular  (like  a  coin  or  medal),  instead  of  bein^  a  plane  sur- 


may  be  sulistilutnl  for  copjier  by  proper  management,  or  if 
the  precipitated  metal  be  left  upon  the  surface  im  which  it 


requires  but  little  apparatus,  and  involves  no  great  expense. 
A  medal  niay  be  either  copiul  directly,  ami  ati  inverted  im- 
pression obtained  from  which  a  second  electrotype  can  be 
taken,  or  a  cast  of  the  metal  may  In;  first  miuie  in  stearin  or 
plaster.  In  the  latter  ojieratiou,  which  is  the  most  generallv 
used,  the  mold,  if  of  plaster,  must  be  first  soakeil  in  oil, 
tallow,  or  melted  s|iermaceti,  so  as  to  render  it  imjierviouB 
to  water.  It  must  then  be  niatle  a  conductor  of  the  current, 
and  this  is  done  by  thoroughly  brushing  black  teail  over  the 
snrfac«  which  is  to  lie  reproduced.  In  case  the  medal  itself 
is  used,  in  onler  to  prevent  the  deposition  of  cojijier  which 
would  take  place  u|ion  tlie  e<lgesand  u[K>n  the  reverse  of  the 
medal,  those  jMirts  shoidd  lie  covered  with  sealing-wax,  var- 
nish, or  shellac.  The  tntro(hietion  of  this  valuable  art  has 
been  ascribed  to  different  penmns.  Daniell  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  notice  the  deposil.iiin  of  metallic  copper  by 


64 


ELECTRUM 


ELEPHANT 


electricity  while  working  with  his  battery ;  Jacobi,  of  St. 
Petersburg,  first  published  in  1889  a  practical  application  of 
this  fact,  which  publication  called  out  announcements  from 
Spencer  and  Jordan,  two  Englishmen,  who  were  both  work- 
ing independently  at  the  same  object  as  Jacobi.  Messrs. 
Elkington,  of  Birmingham,  soon  after  applied  the  process 
to  the  gilding  and  plating  of  goods  on  a  large  s^ale.  Elec- 
trotypins  has  to  some  extent  superseded  the  old  stereotype 
process  for  making  plates  for  printers'  use,  especially  for  the 
reproduction  of  engravings  and  where  large  numbers  are  to 
be  printed.  For  a  summary  of  the  various  processes  used 
by  printers  in  the  departments  of  stereotyping  and  electro- 
typing,  see  Peintiuq. 

Electrnm  [Lat.  =  Gr.  IlK^terpoy^  amber] :  a  natural  alloy 
of  gold  and  silver,  in  the  proportion  of  two  of  gold  and  one 
of  silver.  It  is  found  in  Siberia,  Norway,  and  California, 
and  occurs  in  tabular  crystals  or  imperfect  cubes  of  a  silver- 
white  color. 

Electuary  [from  Late  Lat.  eUctua'rium  (also  electa'rium), 
a  deriv.  from  a  corrupted  form  of  6r.  4K\tuer6v,  cf.  iitXtty/M, 
derivatives  of  iKXtlxtiy,  lick  up.  The  word  appears  in  Ital. 
laitovaro  (under  the  influence  of  latte)  and  in  Germ,  as 
LcUwerge] :  in  pharmacy,  a  variety  of  confection  tliinner 
than  a  conserve,  and  composed  of  powdered  drugs  mingled 
with  honey,  sirup,  glycerin,  or  other  vehicle.  Electuaries  are 
not  now  recognized  in  the  U.  S.  and  British  pharmacopoeias. 

Elegiac  Distich :  a  couplet  consisting  of  a  dactylic  Hex- 
ameter and  a  Pentameter  {qq,  v.).  The  second  verse  repeats 
the  movement  of  the  hexameter,  as  if  reconsidering  it 
Hence  its  reflective,  emotional  character.  Schiller's  famous 
distich  is  translated  by  Coleridge  thus : 

In  the  bexametoi:  rises  the  fountahi's  silvenr  colomn ; 
In  the  pentameter  aye  falling  in  melody  back. 

The  elegiac  distich  was  the  flrst  step  toward  the  Strophe 
{q.  v.),  and  was  used  in  tlie  elegy  (iKryuoy),  the  poetry  of 
subjective  reflection.  As  to  the  inventor,  the  ancients  did 
not  agree.  There  are  extant  elegies,  or  fragments  of  them, 
by  some  fift^  poets,  from  Callinus  (730  b.  c^  down ;  but  the 
period  specially  marked  by  elegiac  composition  closes  not 
long  after  Theognis  (540  b.  c),  of  whom  we  have  about  1,400 
verses.  This  form  of  poetry  was  much  used  in  epigrams, 
epitaphs,  etc.  The  chief  Roman  elegists  are  Catullus,  Pro- 
pertius,  TibuUus,  and  Ovid.  Milton  W.  Humphreys. 

Elegy  [vifi  Lat.  elegi'a^  from  Gr.  rk  iKrvM^  an  ele^ac 

Coem,  a  lament,  collec.  plur.  of  iKtyuou] :  the  name  given 
J  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  to  poems  of  various 
kinds,  being  applied  to  the  martial  lyrics  of  Tyrtjcus,  the 
aphorisms  of  TTieognis  and  Solon,  the  melancholy  effusions 
of  Mimnermus,  and  the  erotic  poems  of  Ovid,  Catullus,  and 
Tibullus.  In  modem  times  the  name  is  applied  chiefly  to 
poetical  compositions  of  a  melancholy  character,  such  as 
Gray's  Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard, 

Element  [from  Lat.  elementum^  a  constituent  or  funda- 
mental part ;  the  word  possibly  originated  in  the  names  of 
the  letters,  /,  m,  n,  i.  e.  el-em-en-tumy  and  was  afterward  felt 
to  be  a  noun  with  the  common  sufiix  -mentum ;  cf.  En^. 
a  h  c'«,  pron.  dbee8eez\  or  it  may  be  connected  with  Skr.  dni- 
man-,  smallest  piece]  :  a  term  used  in  various  senses ;  a  flrst 
principle  ;  a  rudiment ;  a  constituent  part  of  a  compound  ; 
sometimes  the  proper  state  or  sphere  of  a  person  or  an  ani- 
mal. In  the  plural,  the  first  principles  or  rule^  of  a  science 
or  art ;  also  tne  bread  and  wine  in  the  Eucharist.  Ancient 
philosophers  applied  this  term  to  fire,  air,  earth,  and  water, 
each  of  which,  in  their  several  systems,  was  supposed  to  be 
the  first  principle  of  all  things.  The  elements  of  the  al- 
chemists were  sulphur,  mercury,  and  salt.  As  a  modem 
scientific  term,  element  signifies  a  simple  substance,  or  one 
which  chemists  have  not  yet  decomposed. 

Elements  :  in  astronomy,  the  data  required  in  order  to 
compute  the  place  of  a  planet,  satellite,  or  comet ;  those  nu- 
merical quantities,  etc.,  which  are  employed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  tables  exhibiting  the  motions  of  the  moon  and  planets. 
They  comprise  tlie  least  mean  distances  of  the  planets  from 
the  sun,  the  eccentricity  of  their  orbits,  their  mean  motions, 
daily  and  annual,  their' masses,  etc. 

Elements,  Chemical  :  See  Chemistry. 

Eleml  [cf.  Fr.  elemi.  Span,  elemi,  Ital.  elemi ;  the  word  is 
of  Eastern  originj  :  a  fragrant  resinous  substance  procured 
from  several  species  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Amyrida- 
cea.  It  exudes  from  incisions  made  in  the  bark,  is  at  first 
soft,  but  becomes  hard  and  brittle.  It  is  generally  pale 
yellow,  semi-transparent,  and  soluble  in  alcohol,  except  a 


residue  called  elemin.  It  is  obtained  from  the  Idea  irica- 
riba,  which  grows  in  Brazil ;  from  Elaphrium  elemiferum,  of 
Mexico ;  ana  from  Canarium  commune.,  of  Manilla.  Elemi 
is  used  in  the  preparation  of  ointments  and  plasters. 

Elephant  [from  Lat.  elephantus,  or  elephas,  from  (tr. 
i\4^,  -ovTOf ;  origin  obscure]:  the  common  name  of  the 
members  of  the  sub-family  Elephant ims,  a  group  of  thick- 
skinned  mammals  of  the  order  Proboscidea,  distinguishe<l 
among  living  mammals  by  the  possession  of  a  long  trunk, 
or  proboscis,  forming  a  prolongation  of  the  nose.  The  head 
is  large  and  rounded,  and,  owing  to  the  shortness  of  the 
neck,  seems  to  be  set  directly  on  the  shoulders.  The  limbs 
are  straight  and  massive,  the  ears  large,  flattened,  and  in  re- 
pose carried  along  the  side  of  the  neck ;  the  dark  wrinkle<l 
skin  is  nearly  naked,  being  sparsely  sprinkled  witli  black 
hairs,  while  the  end  of  the  tail  bears  a  tuft  of  coarse  whale- 
bone-like hairs.  The  dentition  is  remarkable.  There  art* 
but  two  incisors;  these,  which  are  in  the  upper  jaw,  are  the 
successors  of  two  small  milk  incisors,  and  grow  throughout 
life  as  two  pointed,  slightly  curved  tu^s.  In  many  of  the 
Asiatic  elephants,  however,  the  tusks  are  poorly  developed. 
The  tusks  consist  of  that  fine-grained,  elastic  modification 
of  dentine  termed  ivory. 

The  grinders  are  formed  of  vertical,  transverse  plates  of 
enamel,  arranged  in  compressed  U-shaped  folds,  imlKnldt^d 
in  dentine,  and  having  tlie  hollow  of  the  U  filled  with  ce- 
ment.   During  the  life  of  an  elephant  there  are  altogether 
six  molars  on  each  side  of  each  jaw,  but,  owing  to  the  ptviil- 
iar  mode  of  their  succession,  not  more  than  one  entire 
tooth  and  part  of  another  is  in  place  and  in  use  at  any  one 
time.    The  teeth  are  not  developed  one  below  the  other,  a.s 
in  mammals  generally,  but  one  oehind  the  other,  the  tooth 
in  use  moving  slowly  forward  in  the  jaw,  being  replaced  by 
the  one  which  forms  at  its  back.    The  lower  jaw  is  very 
heavy,  and  is  loosely  articulated  with  the  cranium,  being.  a> 
it    were,    suspended    by    the    large    masticatorv    inuj«i'lt*<. 
While  the  upp>er  bones  of  the  legs  are  unusually  long,  the 
bones  of  the  feet  are  small  and  imbedded  in  a  mass  of 
Umgh  spongy  tissue,  which  forms  an  elastic  pad  ami  ren- 
ders the  step  of  these  huge  beasts  springy  and  noLseles^. 
The  bones  of  the  forearm  are  crossed  one  over  the  other, 
and  there  is  no  round  ligament  {ligamenfum  teres)  running 
from  the  center  of  the  thigh  bone  to  its  socket.    The  hea<i 
of  the  elephant  is  large,  but  this  is  not  due  to  the  size  of  the 
brain,  this  being  comparatively  small,  but  to  the  neccs-^ity 
for  providing  surface  for  the  attachment  of  the  mus<lfs 
whicn  form  the  trunk,  and  for  those  which  sustain   the 
weight  and  leverage  of  the  trunk  and  tusks.    A  large^>orti«  »n 
of  tine  skull  is  formed  of  bony  air-cells  which  give  great  in- 
crease in  bulk,  with  but  slight  additional  weight,  and  thc^o 
constitute  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  cranium  that  a  ball 
may — and  frequently  does — pass  entirely  through  the  hea<l 
without  causing  death.    The  most  striking  feature  of  the 
elephant  is  the  trunk,  which,  formed  of  thousands  of  inter- 
lacing muscles  and  capable  of  the  most  varied  movements, 
compensates  for  the  shortness  of  the  neck  and  enables  the 
animal  to  reach  objects  far  above  his  head  or  lying  on  the 
ground  at  his  feet.    With  it  he  conveys  food  to  his  mouth, 
or  drinks  bv  drawing  up  water  in  the  nostrils  and  discharg- 
ing it  into  his  mouth,  a  peculiar  valve-like  arrangement  pre- 
venting the  water  from  reaching  above  a  certain  point  in  the 
proboscis.    The  trunk  of  the  Asiatic  elephant  is  provi«le<l 
with  a  little  finger-like  projection,  but  the  African  species  has 
none.    In  the  case  of  the  African  species,  which  furnishes 
the  bulk  of  the  ivory  of  commerce,  the  tusks,  although  weji}>- 
ons  of  defense,  bid  fair  to  be  the  cause  of  its  extermination, 
from  75,000  to  100,000  animals  being  killed  annually.     As 
the  animal  grows  but  slowly,  and  as  Africa  is  being  yearly 
rendered  more  and  more  accessible,  the  end  can  not  be  vt'r>- 
far  off.    Tusks  have  been  obtained  9  or  10  feet  in  length,  an<l 
150  lb.  in  weight,  but  such  are  rare,  the  average  weight   i»f 
tusks  from  Africa  now  brought  to  market  being  about  510  Ih., 
that  of  tusks  from  India  much  less.    Elephants  are  polyirn- 
mous,  and  usually  associate  in  small  herds,  although  former- 
ly the  African  species  was  found  in  great  numbers.   The  |k*- 
riod  of  gestation  is  twenty-one  months,  and  the  female  briiii^ 
forth  but  one  young  at  a  birth,  the  baby  elephant  Ih'iucp 
about  3  feet  high  and  from  150  to  200  lb.  in  weight.     The 
rate  of  growth  is  slow,  an  elephant  requiring  from  twenty 
to  thirty  years  to  attain  its  full  stature  and  full  weight,  thiV 
latter  varying  from  6,000  to  9,000  lb.    Its  food  is  strieily 
vegetable,  consisting  of  the  twigs  and  leaves  of  trees,  sh«>4'>t's 
of  young  bamboo,  grass,  and  aquatic  plants.    There  are  but 


Elephaiit-«lii«w  IMaeroKtlidri  typicui}. 

what  resemble  the  juinpine-mi<;e  of  North  America,  and 
fuv  some^im<^H  loc&llj  termed  elephunt-iiiice.  F.  A.  L. 

Eleta:  A  town  ot  Russia i  ^vcmment  of  Orel;  od  Che 
Sosna;  230  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Moscow  {se«  map  o(  Russia,  ref. 
8-E).  It  has  many  factories,  and  a  largtt  trade  in  leather, 
grain,  and  flour.     Pop.  (1888)  86,33B. 

Elensl'lie:  a  eenus  of  gxvsses  {Oraminur).  comprising 
several  species  whieh  are  natives  of  India  and  other  warm 
ciimatCB,  and  are  cullivateii  for  food.  EUtisiiif  eoraeana  is 
extensively  cultivated  (or  lis  lar^  farinaceous  erain  (:;alled 
korakan  or  dociissa)  in  India,  Chma.  Japan,  and  throughout 
Africa.  The  Eleu«ine  indiea  is  naturalized  about  dooryards, 
etc.  in  the  U.  S. 

El«Dsln'lft,  or  GleaslnlKn  HjBterleB:  an  annual  festi- 
val celebrated  in  ancient  Greece  in  honor  of  Demeler  (Ceres) 
and  Persephone  (Proserpine).  The  worship  of  Demeter  orig- 
inally took  place  at  Eleusis  only,  but  after  the  conquest  of 
that  city  by  the  Athenians  feasts  were  celebrated  in  her 
honor  In  various  Grecian  cities.    The  origin  of  these  mys- 


o  Attica,  where  she  taught  the  inhabitants  the 
corn  and  institute<l  the  mysteries.  The  festiTal  consisted  of 
the  greator  a:id  the  lesser  mysteries.  The  lesser  feast  was 
held  in  the  spring  at  Agrte,  on  the  Ilissus.  and  wad  only  a 
preparation  for  the  real  or  greater  mysteries.  The  latter 
took  tilace  in  October.  On  the  first  day,  calleii  Ayivti^  (the 
assembling),  the  mystie — i.  e.  those  who  haii  U'en  ini- 
tiated in  the  itt/aer  Eleusinia — assembled  at  Athens.  On 
the  si>cnnil_they  walked  to  the  sea  in  procession  and  were 


cateH  o(  harlev  from  the  Karian  plain  were  offered.  On  the 
fourth  day  the  procession  of  the  sacred  liasket  {Kixafdot 
iciBoSoi)  took  place.  This  basket  contained  pomegranate^^ 
and  poppy-seeds,  and  was  drawn  on  a  cart  oy  osen,  and 
fotlowea  by  women  bearing  mystic  cases.  The  fifth  day 
appears  to  have  been  known  as  the  torch-day,  and  prob- 
ably synilioliii'd  the  warcli  o(  Demeter  for  Persepnone. 
The  roysta'  walked  with  torches  tj)  the  temple  of  Demeter 
at  Eleusis.  where  they  seem  to  have  remained  all  night. 
The  sixth  day,  called  lakchos,  from  a  son  of  Demeter,  was 
the  most  solemn  of  aU.  A  <lecorated  statue  of  lakchos  was 
carried  from  Athens  to  Eleusis.  where  the  votaries  again 
passed  the  night  and  were  initiated  into  the  last  mysteries. 
Under  an  awful  oath  of  secrecy  they  were  admitte<l  Into  the 
inner  sanctuary,  where  they  were  allowed  to  see  the  sacrod 
things,  after  which  thev  were  called  tpopiif — i.  e.  watch- 
ers.     On   the  seventh  ilav  ther  n'tumeil  to  Athens  with 


siipi)os»t  to  have  Xwvn  aildiil  to  the  original  number,  so  that 
thooe  might  be  Initiateil  who  hail  bern  unable  to  attend  on 
the  sixth  day.  On  the  ninth  anil  last  day  two  vessels  filled 
with  wine  or  water  were  emptieii — one  toward  the  east,  the 
other  lowanl  the  west — by  the  priests,  who  at  the  same  time 
uttered  some  mystical  wonls.  Resides  these  ceremonies 
there  wen'  several  others  "f  which  the  Eleusinian  games, 
supiMMfl  to  have  taken  place  on  the  seventh  da v,  and  t^^ 
have  l)een  the  most  ancient  in  Greece,  were  the  chief.  The 
Emperor  Theodosius  suppressed  the  festival.     Nothing  cer- 


BLEVATORS 

tain  is  known  respecting  the  doctrines  revealed  to  the  ini- 
tiated, but  thev  are  supposed  to  have  containeii  comfurtiii^- 
assu ranees  with  reganl  to  a  future  Btal«.  Distinc1iiin>  '1 
class  were  abolished  at  the  Eleusinia,  and  with  this  view  l.v  - 
curgus  forbade  any  woman  to  ride  in  the  procession  m  j 
chariot,  under  fwnaltvof  a  heavy  tine.  f>ee  ilermann.  l.-ht- 
Imch  der  golle*ditiuilliehfn  Allerlunur  der  Oritchtn;  Fiin-- 
ter,  lier  liaul  und  die  HUekltehr  der  Ptruphont ;  Ilngu'in- 
macher.  Die  Elewinitektn  Mysterien;  Grote,  Uitlury  of 
&rrece,  part  i.,  chap,  i.  Revised  by  B.  B.  UoLUkS. 

Eleo'sts  (in  Gr.  't\*uait.  or  *EX«imM:  an  ancient  >n>] 
celebrated  citT  of  (Srecce:  situated  in  Attica,  near  the  nnrlh- 
ern  shore  ot  the  Gulf  ot  Salamts ;  Bl>out  12  miles  X.  W.  uf 
Athens.  It  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  Ueiuitir 
(Ceres),  who  had  here  a  large  temple,  and  whose  mysiji- 
rites, called  Blbusinia  (9.  k.),  were  jierformed  annually  with 
great  pomp.  The  site  of  Eleusis  was  near  the  modern  vil- 
lage of  Levsina     See  Wordsworth.  Orerw  (1853). 

Elen'thent:  one  of  the  Bakaha  Islands  (g.  v.). 

Elenthe'iia  [from  Or.  iXtMtfot.  free] ;  a  national  festival 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  instituteil  in  470  b.  c.  to  comniem<~ 
rote  their  deliverance  from  the  Persian  armies  whicli  hm\  in- 
vaded Greece.  It  was  celebrated  annually  at  Platoa  in  ih? 
early  part  of  autumn. 

Elevation  [from  Lat.  elera'lio;  e,  out  -f  teva'rt,  light(-M. 
raise]  :  the  act  of  raising  to  a  higher  level  or  plac« ;  the  nil 
of  exalting  in  rank;  altitude ;  ncight  above  the  siirfai''': 
sometimes  exaltation  of  mind  or  st^te ;  a  hill  or  eleval'->l 
ground.  In  engineering  and  architecture,  a  geomotriiu] 
representation  ot  a  building  or  other  object,  as  if  pn'jeii.'i 
(see  Descbiptcve  Geohetrv)  upon  a  vertical  plane  by  jier- 
pendicular  lines  drawn  through  its  defining  lines  or  [h>iiiI-. 
It  is  generally  a  projection  of  the  exterior,  therein  differ- 
ing from  a  utiion  which  shows  the  interior,  or  a  part,  as  if 
cut  through. 

Elevation  in  astronomy  is  the  angular  height  or  the  atti- 
tude of  a  celestial  object  above  the  horizon,  measiircl  l>y 
the  arc  of  a  veriical  circle  passing  through  it  and  thezciiiiti. 
Thus  the  elevation  of  the  pole  denotes  the  arc  of  the  m.'rid- 
ian  intercepted  between  the  pole  and  the  horizon,  and  i-> 
always  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  ol>server.  The  grenli-i 
elevation  of  a  star  occurs  when  that  star  is  on  the  meriilmn. 

Elevation  in  gunnery  is  the  inclination  of  the  axis  id  i  he 
cannon  or  gun  aoove  the  object  aimed  at,  in  order  to  c<>uq- 
teract  the  effect  which  the  force  of  gravity  causes,  li  va- 
ries with  the  range. 

Elevfttlon  of  the  Host  (in  Lat  tltva'lio  hot'lia):  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  ritual  of  the  mass,  the  bfting  up  of  the 
elements  after  consecration  Tor  the  adoration  of  the  pcoplf. 
It  forma  one  of  the  most  solemn  and  impressive  featum  of 
the  whole  Itoman  Catholic  liturgy. 

Elerators,  or  Lifts:  machines  for  lifting  passengers  or 
freight,  consisting  essentially  of  a  car  which  is  raised  by 
ropes  or  is  pushed  up  by  a  ram  from  below,  power  ln-ini; 
applied  to  the  ropes  or  ram,  the  car  heme  maintain.il  m 
lateral  position  by  rails  of  wood  or  metal,  upon  which  it 
moves.  The  term  is  usually  applied  to  mochmes  of  whi.li 
the  vehicles  move  in  a  vertical  direction.  Elevators  nf 
crude  form  have  been  known  and  used  since  the  I'arhi-i 
times,  being  propelled  by  man,  animal,  and  water  po»i-r. 
but  have  wen  applied  extensively  to  buildings  onlv  ^inn- 
about  the  year  1850. 

Elevators  ore  classified  as  hand,  power  or  belt,  steam,  hy- 
draulic, and  electric  elevators.  Hand  elentlora,  as  the  nann- 
implies,  are  worked  by  hand-power,  Potcrr  rlfvalor>  an' 
those  in  which  the  ropes  supporting  the  car  are  wound  upun 
drums,  revolved  by  gearing  and  pulleys  driven  by  lietts.  and 
are  applied  to  factories  where  power  is  distributed  by  shaft- 
ing. Steam  eltvalors  are  those  in  which  the  ropes  are 
wound  on  drums  revolved  by  steam-enginca,  the  engin--# 
formine  part  of  the  machine,  and  are  used  principally  in 
mines,  blast  furnaces.  an<l  warehouses. 

Hydraulic  ehralim  are  of  two  principal  fonns.  the  ram 
type  much  used  in  Europe,  and  the  suspended  type.  Tlu- 
ram  elevator,  which  was  first  used  extensively  by  M.  I^^'ii 
Ecloui,  of  Paris.  France,  consists  of  a  cylinder,  usually  sunk 
in  the  earth,  containing  a  ram,  on  top  of  which  is  plactil  ihr 
cage.  When  water  pressure  is  admitted  to  the  cylinder,  thi^ 
ram  b  foreed  upward,  pushing  the  car  above  it ;  when  the 
pressure  is  relieved,  the  car  and  plunger  descend  by  thoir 
own  weight.  In  the  susiiended  type  the  cables  are  carrii-ii 
over  sheaves  at  the  top  of  the  building,  and  thence  down  and 


68 


ELGINSHIRE 


ELIOT 


sculptures  are  described  and  figured  in  Michaelis's  Der  Par- 
therum,  and  many  of  them  also  in  works  on  Greek  sculpture, 
for  which  see  Sculptuke.  Russell  Sturqis. 

Elff  lush  ire,  called  also  Moray  :  a  county  of  Scotland ; 
bounded  N.  by  the  German  Ocean,  E.  by  Banffshire,  S.  b^ 
Inverness,  and"  W.  by  Nairn.  Area,  482  s'q.  miles.  The  cli- 
mate is  mild  and  dry,  and  the  soil  open,  sand  v,  and  grav- 
elly ;  very  fertile  in  the  northern  part.  The  cnief  agricul- 
tural products  are  wheat,  oats,  and  other  kinds  of  grain ;  the 
county  was  formerly  called  the  granary  of  Scotland.  The 
chief  articles  of  export  are  cattle,  salmon,  grain,  and  timber ; 
there  are  also  some  woolen-mills.  Together  with  Nairnshire, 
it  sends  one  member  to  Parliament.  Chief  town,  Elgin. 
Pop.  (1891)  43,448. 

Eli  (Seut.  'HA./) :  high  priest  at  the  temple  of  Shiloh  when 
the  ark  of  the  covenant  was  ih  the  tabernacle  at  that  place 
(1  Sam.  i,  3,  9),  and  civil  judge  of  Israel  for  at  least  twenty 
years.  In  his  old  age  his  sons,  Hophnl  and  Phinehas,  whom 
ne  had  invested  with  authority,  profaned  the  sanctuary  and 
received  from  him  only  a  feeble  rebuke.  In  conseciuence 
judgments  were  pronounced  against  his  house  by  Samuel,  who, 
as  a  child,  had  ministered  to  the  Lord  before  Eli.  Several 
years  after  this  Israel  was  defeated  in  battle  by  the  Philis- 
tines. Hophni  and  Phinehas  were  slain,  and  the  ark  of  God, 
which  they  had  taken  to  the  field,  was  captured  (1  Sam.  iv.). 
A  messenger  from  the  army  brought  the  fatal  news  to  the 
aged  high  priest,  who,  on  hearing  that  the  ark  was  taken, 
fell  from  his  seat  and  died. 

Elia*:  See  Lamb,  Charles. 

Elias,  d-lee'ti^,  Dominoo  :  Peruvian  statesman ;  b.  in  lea, 
1805;  educated  in  Europe.  He  was  a  prominent  agricul- 
turist and  statesman,  acting  president  for  a  short  time  in 
1844,  and  was  otherwise  prominent  in  Peruvian  politics. 
D.  at  Lima  in  1867. 

Elizas  Leyi'ta :  a  Jewish  rabbi ;  b.  at  Neustadt,  near  Nu- 
remberg, Feb.  8,  1472.  He  taught  Hebrew  at  Rome  and 
Venice,  was  distinguished  as  a  grammarian,  and  published 
numerous  works,  among  which  are  a  Hebrew  Grammar,  & 
Chaidaic,  Talmudic,  and  Rabhinical  Lexicon,  and  Mas- 
sorah,  containing  critical  notes  on  the  text  of  the  Bible. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Sebastian  Miinster  (who  translated 
several  of  his  works  into  Latin),  Pr.  Buxtorf,  Cardinal  Egidio, 
of  Viterbo  (in  whose  house  he  lived  for  many  years,  and 
whom  he  aided  in  unraveling  the  enigmas  of  the  Cabala), 
Dr.  Ekik,  and  others.  He  was  neither  a  deep  nor  an  original 
spirit,  but  he  was  learned  and  sound.  He  remained  a  Jew, 
although  so  much  with  Christians.  He  first  popularized  the 
views  tnat  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  was  formed  by 
Ezra  and  the  great  synagogue,  and  in  the  face  of  the  cur- 
rent Jewish  theory  denied  that  the  Hebrew  vowel-points 
were  earlier  than  tne  Talmudists.    D.  in  Venice  in  1549. 

£lie  de  Beaamont,  a'lee'de-bo'mdn',  Jean  Baptists  Ar- 
MAND  Louis  L^oxce:  geologist;  b.  at  Canon,  Calvados, 
France,  Sept.  25,  1798.  He  was  educated  in  the  Polytechnic 
School,  and  became  Professor  of  Geology  in  the  College 
of  France  in  1832,  chief  engineer  of  mines  in  1833,  and  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1835.  Among  his  works  are 
Carte  geologique  de  la  France  (2d  ed.  1855),  and  Noiic^a  sur 
Us  syatemes  dea  montagnes  (1852),  in  which  he  gave  his 
theories  on  the  elevation  of  mountain-ranges.  He  succeeded 
Arago  as  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1853.    D.  in  Canon,  Sept.  21,  1874. 

Eiiiall  [Heb.  'Elijahu,  for  whom  Jehovah  is  God;  Gr. 
*HX/af  J :  a  Hebrew  prophet  concerning  whose  ancestry  the 
Scriptures  are  silent.  The  chief  events  in  his  life,  as  related 
in  the  first  and  second  b(K)ks  of  Kings,  were  his  prediction 
of  the  great  drouth  which  afflicted  Israel;  the  confounding 
and  dcMt ruction  of  the  priests  of  Baal;  his  persecution  by 
Jezebel;  his  prediction  of  the  violent  deaths  of  Ahab,  Jeze- 
bel, and  their  son  Ahaziah;  his  appointment  of  Elisha  to 
succeed  him  in  the  prophetic  office ;  and  his  own  translation 
in  a  chariot  of  fire.  H.  B. 

E'llm  [Heb.,  stout  trees] :  the  second  station  mentioned 
in  the  march  of  the  Israelites  after  crossing  the  Red  Sea 
(Ex.  XV.  27).  It  has  been  identified  with  Ghurundel,  al)out 
halfway  between  Suez  and  Sinai. 

Elio,  a'lee-6,  Frantisco  Javier:  general;  b.  at  Pam- 
plona, Spain.  Mar.  4,  1767;  entere<l  the  army  in  1785.  In 
1805  he  was  sent  to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  with  re-enforce- 
ments against  the  English;  was  appointed  commandants 
general  of  the  Banda  Oriental ;  forcea  the  English  to  give 


up  Montevideo  (Sept.  9, 1807),  and  was  made  governor  of 
that  city;  returned  to  Spain  in  1810,  and  was  am>oint<<l 
viceroy  of  Buenos  Ayres;  but  he  was  opposed  by  tne  junta 
and  people.  (For  events  of  the  period,  see  Uruguay.)  Gen. 
Elio  returned  to  Spain  in  1811,  and  as  commander  of  the 
Spanish  troops  in  Catalonia  and  Valencia  won  brilliant  vic- 
tories over  the  French  in  1812-13.  He  was  made  governor 
and  captain-general  of  Murcia  and  Valencia  soon  after  tlu' 
restoration  of  Ferdinand  VII. ;  in  1^20  he  was  imprisont^i 
by  the  revolutionists;  accused  of  instigating  an  armed  at- 
tempt to  liberate  himself,  he  was  condemned  by  a  court 
martial,  and  executed  at  Valencia,  Sept.  4,  1822. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Eliot,  Andrew,  D.  B.  :  b.  in  Boston,  Mass..  Bee.  28, 1718 ; 
a  descendant  of  Andrew  Elliott,  of  Somersetshire,  England, 
who  settled  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  about  1683.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1737,  and  became  associate  pastor  of  the  New 
North  church,  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1742.  and  sole  pastor  in 
1750.  He  took  an  active  interest  in  the  conversion  of  tlie 
Indians,  and  in  defending  the  Congregational  polity  against 
the  attacks  of  the  Episcopalians.  In  1773  he  decllne<l  an 
election  to  the  presiaency  of  Harvard  College.  D.  in  Bos- 
ton. Sept.  13, 1778. 

Eliot,  Charles  William,  LL.  B.  :  president  of  Har>'Hrd 
University ;  b,  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Mar.  20, 1834 ;  educated  at 
Boston  Public  Latin  School ;  A.  B.,  Harvard,  1853 ;  tutor  in 
mathematics  at  Harvard  1854-58;  assistant  Professor  of 
Mathematics  and  Chemistry  1858-61 ;  of  Chemistry  1861-6:i ; 
Professor  of  Chemistry  iii  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  1865-69 ;  president  of  Harvard  since  1869 ;  au- 
thor (with  F.  H.  Storer)  of  Manual  of  Inorganic  ChenitHtry 
(1866);  Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis  (IhOiM. 
President  Eliot's  chief  writings  since  his  election  to  the  i»re-- 
idency  of  Harvard  have  been  his  annual  reports ;  these  nave 
ranked  among  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  litera- 
ture of  higher  education.  His  influence  has  been  widely 
felt,  and  has  strongly  promoted  progress  in  university  meth- 
ods and  management.  .    C.  IL  T. 

Eliot,  George:  pseudonym  of  Mary  Ann   (or  Marian) 
Evans,  an  English  novelist :  b.  at  Arbury  farm,  in  Warwick- 
shire, England,  Nov.  22,  1819.    She  remained  under  t!je 
parental  roof,  first  at  Griff,  on  the  same  estate,  afterward  at 
Coventry,  until  1849.    Her  father,  a  man  of  considerable 
business  ability,  was  agent  of  the  estate  on  which  Art>ury 
farm  was  situated,  and  afterward  also  of  Lord  Ayle$;fonl, 
Lord  Lifford,  and  others.    His  children  were  well  educated 
and  strictly  trained,  but  Mary  Ann  very  early  exhibited  great 
independence  of  character,  and  in  1841  abandoned  the  beliefs 
in  which  she  had  been  reared,  choosing  a  spiritual  patii  of 
her  own.    In  1846  she  published  anonymously  a  translation 
of  Strauss's  Life  of  Jesus,  which  in  1854  was  followed  by  a 
translation  of  Feuerbach's  Essence  of  Christianity,     After 
the  death  of  her  father,  in  1849,  she  resided  for  one  year  ai 
Geneva,  and  then  settled  in  London  as  assistant  editor  of 
the  Westminster  Review,  to  which  she  contributed  a  gr**at 
number  of  remarkable  articles.    She  enjoyed  the  intimate 
friendship  of  all  the  most  advanced  thinkers  of  her  day.  nnd 
in  1854  she  formed  a  union  with  George  Henry  Ltwhs 
{q.  v.),  which  was  somewhat  embarrassing,  as  Mr.  l^ewes.  v  bo 
had  separated  from  Mrs.  Lewes,  but  was  not  divorced  fr>»in 
her,  was  unable  to  make  Miss  Evans  his  lawful  wife.    Other- 
wise the  union  was  a  happy  one,  and  it  was  Mr.  Lewes  who 
first  gave  her  the  idea  of  attempting  a  work  of  fiction.      In 
1858  Scenes  of  Clerical  Life  appeared,  and  was  imroeiliatel y 
recognized  as  the  product  of  a  erreat  and  original  power.     It 
was  followed  by  Adam  Bede  (1859J,  which  was  a  still  crroAt«T 
success,  and  by  The  Mill  on  the  /7o/w(1860);  tSilas  Mnrn*  r 
(1861);   Romola  (1863);   Felix  Holt  (1866);  Middlemftrrh 
(1871-72);   Daniel  Deronda  (1878);    The  Imprest<ions    t.f 
Theophrastns  Such  (1879).    She  published,  also,  a  draniii. 
The  Spanish  Gypsy  (1868),  and  the  poems  Aaatha,     77* •^ 
Legend  of  Jubat  and  Armgart  (1869).    After  tne  death   *  f 
Mr.  Lewes,  in  1878,  she  married  John  Walter  Cn>j«,  mI,  . 
published  an  elaborate  and  very  interesting  biography    »  f 
her,  George  ElioVs  Life  as  Related  in   her  Letters  *<t/o/ 
Journals  (1885-86).     SW  died  at  Cheyne  Wjdk,  Chelsea 
Dec.  22,  1880. 

Eliot,  John;  "the  apostle  to  the  Indians";  b.  in  Kn in- 
land ;  baptized  at  Widford,  Hertfonlshire,  Aug.  5,  1604«  lT» 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  removed  to  Boston,  Masss>..  i.-. 
1631,  and  in  1682  began  his  connection  with  the  churx*h  «- 
Roxbury  which  he  held  at  his  death.  He  acquired  the  luii 
guage  of  the  Indians,  and  from  1646  he  devoted  hims^olf  t- 


70 


ELIZABETH 


ELK 


money  and  troops.  In  1568  the  Parliament,  anxious  that 
she  should  have  an  heir,  entreated  her  to  marry,  but  she  re- 
turned an  evasive  answer,  and  would  neither  accept  the 
hand  of  any  of  her  suitors  nor  decide  in  favor  of  any 
claimant  of '  the  throne.  Among  her  suitors  were  the 
French  Duke  of  Anion,  the  Archduke  Charles  of  Austria, 
and  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  Jjeicester,  who  was  for  many 
years  her  chief  favorite.  William  Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh,  was 
ner  Prime  Minister  and  most  trusted  adviser  during  the 
greater  part  of  her  reign,  the  prosperity  of  which  was 
uirgely  due  to  his  prudence  and  influence. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  fleeing  from  her  rebellious  subjects, 
took  refuge  in  England  in  1568,  and  was  detained  as  a  pris- 
oner by  Elizabeth.  The  latter  regarded  Mary  as  a  danger- 
ous rival,  because  the  English  Catholics  wished  to  raise  ner 
to  the  throne  of  England,  and  formed  several  plots  and  con- 
spiracies for  that  object.  (See  Mart  Stuart.)  Mary  was 
beheaded  Feb.  8,  1587.  Philip  II.  of  Spain  had  long  medi- 
tated a  hostile  enterprise  against  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  had 
offended  him  by  aiding  his  revolted  Dutch  subjects  and  by 
persecuting  the  English  Catholics.  For  the  invasion  of 
England  he  fitted  out  the  Invincible  Armada,  which  con- 
sisted of  about  130  vessels,  with  over  19,000  soldiers,  and 
sailed  in  May,  1588.  A  violent  storm  dispersed  the  Spanish 
ships,  many  of  which  were  wrecked,  and  the  rest  were  en- 
countered by  the  English  fleet,  mostly  consisting  of  small 
but  excellentlv  equipped  vessels,  under  Admiral  Howard, 
and  thoroughly  beaten,  Aug.  8,  1588,  The  disastrous  fail- 
ure of  this  expedition  did  not  terminate  hostilities  between 
England  and  Spain.  An  English  fleet  took  Cadiz  in  1596. 
After  the  Earl  of  Leicester  di^  (1588)  the  Earl  of  Essex  was 
the  queen*8  favorite  courtier.  The  Puritans  were  severely 
persecuted  in  the  latter  part  of  her  reign.  She  died  Mar. 
24,  1603,  and  was  succeeded  by  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  who 
became  James  I.  of  England.  Her  reign  was  one  of  the 
most  prosperous  and  glorious  in  English  history.  The 
Elizabethan  age  was  almost  unequaled  in  literature,  and 
was  illustrated  by  the  genius  of  Shakspeare,  Spenser,  Bacon, 
Sidney,  and  Raleigh. 

Authorities. — Froude,  History  of  England  (vols.  vii.  to 
xii.) ;  Green,  History  of  ths  English  People  ;  Camden,  His- 
tory of  Queen  Elizabeth  (1625) ;  Dr.  Thomas  Birch,  Memoirs 
of  the  Reion  of  Quten  Elizabeth  (1754);  also  Motley,  The 
Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic  and  History  of  the  United 


Netherlands, 


Revised  bv  C.  K.  Adams. 


Elisabeth,  Saint,  of  Hungary:  a  daughter  of  Andrew  II., 
King  of  Hungary ;  b.  at  Presburg  in  1207.  She  became  in 
1221  the  wife  of  Louis,  landgrave  of  Thuringia,  who  died  in 
1227  at  Otranto.  on  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land.  His  eldest 
brother  Henry  seized  his  possessions,  and  banished  his  widow 
and  children.  The  knights  of  Thuringia  restored  her  son 
Herman  to  the  throne,  and  Elizabeth  received  as  a  dower 
the  city  of  Marburg,  where  she  retired  with  her  daughters, 
and  spent  the  remainder  of  her  life  in  what  became  one  con- 
tinued penance.  D.  Nov.  19,  1231.  Says  Mrs.  Jameson, 
**0f  all  the  glorified — victims  must  I  call  them,  or  mar- 
tyrs f— of  that  terrible  but  poetical  fanaticism  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  she  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable ;  and  of 
the  sacn*d  legends  of  the  Middle  Ages  hers  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  most  instructive.  See  Charles  de  Monta- 
leinbert,  Vie  de  S.  Elizabeth  de  Hongrie  (1836),  which  has 
been  translated  into  English ;  also  Charles  Kingsley's  SainVs 
Tragedy, 

EHz^abethan  Architecture:  a  term  applied  to  the  style 
which  prevailed  in  England  after  the  decline  of  the  GotHic, 
mainly  during  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I,  It  re- 
sulted from  the  intnxluction  of  Renaissance  or  classic  forms 
from  Germany  and  Holland  during  the  reigns  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  Elizabeth ;  and,  while  it  retained  the  muUioned 
and  traceried  windows  and  bays,  the  hood-moldings  and 
parapets  of  the  preceding  Tudor  style,  it  employed  many 
classic  details  and  a  somewhat  monotonous  stvie  of  surface- 
carving  derived  from  Holland  and  Germany.  It  appears 
chiefly  in  domestic  archite<?ture,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
Jacobean,  in  which  the  Gothic  details  wholly  disappeared. 

A,  D.  F,  Hamlin. 

Elizabeth,  Cape :  See  Cape  Elizabeth. 

Elizabeth  City :  town;  capital  of  Pasquotank  co.,  N.  C. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  North  Carolina,  ref. 
2->r) ;  situated  on  railway  and  on  the  Pastjuotank  river,  46 
miles  S.  of  Norfolk,  Va.  It  is  the  center  of  an  agricultural 
district  producing  chiefly  grain  and  cotton,  and  has  Creecy 
Park,  a  State  normal  school,  steam  grist-mills  and  saw- 


mills, a  cotton-factory,  shingle-factories,  and  planing-mill ; 
also  a  fine  harbor,  safe  and  sufiSciently  deep  for  large  ves- 
sels. Pop.  (1880)  2,315 ;  (1890)  3,251 ;  (1893)  with  suburbs, 
6,000.  Editor  "  Ecoyomsr  and  Falcon.** 

Ellzabethgrad,  or  Jelissawetgrad :  town  of  Rusi^ia; 
government  of  Kherson ;  160  miles  N.  E.  of  Odessa  (see  map 
of  Russia,  ref.  9-C).  It  has  an  imiK)rtant  trad&and  is  a  great 
market  for  horses.    Pop.  (1889)  57,884 

Eiizabethine  Nans :  a  congregation  of  monastic  womeri 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  belonging  to  the  third  ordtr 
of  St.  Francis.  The  name  Elizabethines  was  at  first  applit*<l 
to  voluntary  associations  of  women  who  imitated  the  zeal  of 
St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  without  taking  monastic  vow> 
or  retiring  from  the  world.  But  from  the  tradition  that 
St.  Elizabeth  belonged  to  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis,  ilw 
name  is  sometimes  given  to  Franciscan  nuns.  It  is  prribable. 
however,  that  the  Franciscan  nuns  of  the  third  order  wen* 
not  established  till  1395. 

Elizabeth  Islands :  a  group  of  sixteen  small  islands  be- 
longing to  Dukes  CO.,  Mass.,  lymg  between  Vineyanl  Sourul 
and  Buzzard*s  Bay.  Since  1864  they  have  constituted  the 
township  of  Gosnold.  The  largest  of  the  islands  in  the  order 
of  their  size  are  Naushon,  Nashawena,  Pascjue,  Cuttv- 
hunk,  Nonamesset,  Uneatena,  and  Penikese.  Cuttyhunk 
was  the  seat  of  Bartholomew  Gosnold^s  first  colony  in'**  Vir- 
ginia," founded  in  1602,  but  abandoned  the  same  year  on 
account  of  troubles  of  the  colonists  with  each  other  and  with 
the  Indians.  The  islands  are  a  favorite  resort  for  fishing 
and  yachting,  and  were  fonnerly  much  more  thickly  in- 
habited.    Pop.  (1880)  152 ;  (1890)  135. 

Elizabeth  Petrov'na:  Empress  of  Russia;  b.  in  De<>. 
1709 ;  daughter  of  Peter  the  (Jreat  and  Catherine  I.  Sin- 
was  dissolute  in  morals,  and  appears  to  have  been  unambi- 
tious, as  she  made  little  effort  to  obtain  the  throne.  Ivan,  au 
infant,  was  proclaimed  emperor  in  1740,  but  the  French  sur- 
geon Lestocq  and  other  partisans  of  Elizabeth  consj)ire«i 
against  Ivan  with  success,  and  she  became  empress  in  1741. 
As  an  ally  of  Austria  and  France  she  waged  war  against 
Frederick  the  Great  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  Her  anny 
gained  a  victory  at  Kunersdorf,  and  entered  Berlin  in  1760. 
She  had  several  children  by  Count  Rasumovski,  who  was 
first  her  servant,  subsequently  her  chamberlain,  and  was  at 
length  secretly  married  to  her.  T),  Jan.  5,  1762,  and  was 
succeeded  by  her  nephew,  Peter  III. 

Elizabeth  Stnart :  Queen  of  Bohemia ;  daughter  of  James 
I.  of  England ;  b.  in  the  palace  of  Falkland,  Scotland,  A\ig. 
19,  1596.    She  was  married  in  1613  to  Frederick  V.,  ele<tnr 

gilatine,*  who  was  chosen  King  of  Bohemia  in  1619  by  thi- 
rotestant  party.  She  is  said  to  have  been  beautiful,  and  is 
considered  a  heroine.  Her  husband  was  defeated  in  bat  th- 
in 1620,  and  she  passed  the  remainder  of  her  life  in  exile  and 
adversity.  She  was  the  mother  of  thirteen  children,  includ- 
ing the  famous  Prince  Rupert.  D.  in  England,  Feb.  13. 
1662.  George  I.  of  England  was  her  grandson.  See  her 
Life  in  Mrs.  Everett  Green's  lAves  of  the  Princesses  of  Eng- 
land (1851). 

Elizabeth'pol,  or  JelissawetpoF :  a  government  of 
Transcaucasia,  Asiatic  Russia ;  bounded  N.  oy  Tiflis,  E.  by 
Baku,  S.  by  Persia,  and  W.  by  Erivan ;  area,  17,038  sq, 
miles.  The  government  consists'  in  the  west  of  high  moun- 
tains, while  tiie  east  is  more  level.  It  is  drained  bv  the  Kur 
and  numerous  other  small  streams.  Chief  town,  tllizabeth* 
pol.    Pop.  (1889)  753,395. 

Elizabethpol :  city ;  capital  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name ;  90  milesS.  E.  of  Tiflis  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref. 
12^G).  It  has  a  number  of  churches,  mosques,  and  fruit- 
gardens.    Silkworms  are  raised  here.    Pop.  (1886)  20.294. 

Elizabethtown :  city  and  railway  junction;  capital  of 
Hardin  co.,  Ky.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Kentucky, 
ref.  3-F) ;  42  miles  S.  by  W.  from  Louisville.  It  has  various 
manufactures,  and  is  an  agricultural  center.  Pop,  (1880i 
2,526 ;  (1890)  2.260. 

Elizabethtown:  borough;  Lancaster  co..  Pa.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-H) ;  situated 
on  railwav,  18  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Lancaster  and  18  miles  E. 
S.  E.  of  llarrisburg.  It  has  a  farming-implement  manufac- 
tory, a  machine-shop,  and  a  fiouring-mill.  Pop.  (1880)  980 ; 
(181)0)  1,218. 

Ellt  [0.  Eng.  elch,  eolh,  though  k  <ch  remains  unex- 
plained :  M.  H.  Germ,  elch  <  0.  H.  Germ,  elaho ;  the  word 
has  been  displaced  in  Mod.  Germ,  by  Elen,  Elenthter,  a  Baltic 


72 


ELLEXSBrRGH 


ELLIOTT 


Bt  his  death  the  earldom  became  extinct,  and  the  barony 
reTerted  to  his  nephew. 

ElIeBskwn^k:  citT;  capital  of  Kittitas  eo..  Wash,  (for 
kx-ation  of  cr»antT.  see  map  of  Washington,  ref.  5-F);  situ- 
ate<l  on  Yakima  river  and  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad, 
185  milf'55  E.  .S.  E.  «>f  Seattle.  It  has  six  churches.  State  nor- 
mal <«-h«oI  and  fine  public  schooLs  and  is  chiefly  engaged  in 
a^icuiturp.  st«<'k-raisiag,  and  mining.  Pop.  (1890)  2,768 ; 
(l!ft«:i)  e<tiina;e«L  SjSuU.  EnrroB  of  "Capital.*' 

EUeBTille:  rillaje:  Ulster  cc,  X.  Y.  (for  location  of 
c»»«ntT.  <ee  map  of  New  York,  reL  7-J) :  on  rail  war  and  on 
the  Delawarp-  and  Hn*i-^  Canal ;  100  miles  N.  X.  Vf.  of  New 
York  citr.  It  is  -sitaated  in  a  beaut ifal  and  fertile  valley  at 
the  fotit  of  the  >hawan:runk  Mountains,  and  is  a  favorite 
summer  resort.  It  is  the  seat  of  UUter  Seminary,  and  has 
an  ac-a<iemy  and  ?rad*Ki  public  <oh<x>Ls  many  handsome 
pahiie  and  private  t»»iiMinjr*.  a  ffla-ss-manafaciory,  cutlery- 
works,  «ston**irare  i«»tT«rry.  hi  it-?tone  quarries,  manufactories 
of  leather  and  Uuis.  excellent  water-works,  and  electric 
lights.  Imraerjse  uiiantitit^  of  huckleberries  are  shipped 
fr^Kn  this  fioiuL  P-»p.  ilSSii  2.750:  tlS9U)  2.881:  (1893)  in- 
cluding parts  of  village  outside  corporation  limits,  3.o(X). 

Editor  of  *"  Joubxal." 

Ellerr,  William:  fiat  riot :  h,  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  Dec.  22, 
17J7.  He  was  a  raerr-hant  in  his  youth,  and  began  to  prac- 
tice law  in  1770  at  New|»«»rt.  Having  sained  a  high  reputa- 
ti<^»n  for  integrity  and  wisdom,  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  from 
Rh«xle  Inland  to  the  national  Congress  of  1776,  in  which  he 
signeii  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  re-elected, 
and  remaine*!  in  Conpvss  until  1785.  In  that  year  he  ac- 
tively <up(»one«l  Rufus  King  in  his  attempt  to  secure  the 
aU'lirion  of  slavery.  In  1790  he  was  appointed  collector  of 
Xewywrt,  a  j»»>^ition  which  he  held  till  his  death.  He  sup- 
ports i  the  Fe«ieral  party.    D.  at  Newport,  Feb.  15.  1820. 

EUet.  CiiAALEs:  engineer;  b.  at  Penn*s  Manor,  in  Bucks 
CO.,  Pa.,  Jan.  1,  1810;  devoted  himself  to  mathematical  and 
engineering  pursuits,  and  became  an  assistant  engineer  on 
the  ChtjT^peake  and  Ohio  Canal.  He  then  visited  Europe, 
an  i  after  a  ctnirse  at  the  Pohtechnic  School  in  Paris  re- 
tumt;<i  to  the  pmotice  of  his  nrofe?<sion,  holding  successively 
tht*  pr»*itions  of  ensrineer  on  tne  Ut  lea  and  Schenectady  Rail- 
way, on  the  Erie  Railway,  and  chief  engineer  of  the  James 
River  and  Kanawha  Canal.  He  was  the  author  of  an  Essay 
on  thf  Latr«  of  Trade,  and  of  other  works  of  a  similar  char- 
acter. He  built  the  bridge  acniss  the  Schuylkill  at  Pair- 
m«»ant.  the  fir^t  wire  suspension  bridge  in  the'U.  S.  In  1845 
h'^'  affinn»-ii  that  a  bridge  might  be  built  across  the  Niagara 
l»^'i«»w  the  fall*.  <*^'ure  and  fitted  for  railway  uses;  and  he 
wa-*  in  1**47  ilie  d»-^ijminjf  and  constructing  engineer  of  the 
preliminary  wire  su-^nsi^tn  brieige  (a  light  foot-bridge),  in- 
tende«l  a*  a  *rvif»;  bridge  for  the  construction  of  the  main 
work.  During  the  ci\"il  war  he  was  commissioned  to  do 
what  he  o>uid  to  pn»tect  the  MisMssippi  gunboat  squadron 
again-t  a  fl»^t  of  b«r»tile  rams  untlersiood  to  be  coming  up 
ttie  river.  He  ha.-tiiy  ei|uip()ed  a  fleet  of  nine  river  steam- 
boats a-  rams,  of  which  he  wa-*  given  the  command.  In  a 
sul«-<iiuirnt  Uittle  tJunn  6.  1*:<62).  tenninating  in  a  decisive 
d^-feat  of  the  C«»nf-«ien4»e  s^^uailron,  he  received  a  wound, 
fr»m  which  he  di»^l  at  Ciiin>,  Dl.,  on  June  21. 

Ellice  I^Uods:  a  group  of  small  islands  in  the  South 
Par-iti<-:  S.  \V.  of  Sam**  and  N.  of  Fiji :  discovered  in  1819. 
They  are  atoll*  or  ci»r«il  islands  and  contain  lagoons,  which 
in  twr.  of  the  gr«»iip.  Lak^ria  and  Olo^nga  or  Quiros  Island, 
are  of  fre-h  water.  Nui,  another  of  the  islands,  is  remark- 
al4e  f'T  tht-  fine  natural  f«>:  in  tains  caused  by  the  water  from 
the  >ca  gaining  a<  '-^  to  tij»-  iagocm  underneath  the  reef. 
The  [>«»puiation,  which  exiiiJ»it^  the  same  general  traits  as 
that  of  Samoa,  nuratjer*  atii»ut  2.5'J<J. 

Ellichpiir':  a  di-trict  'and  city»  of  Ea-^t  Berar,  British 
India:  l^r-tw^^n  th*-  f*ira... ,-  2>  51  and  2P  46  N..  and  the 
men-lian*  76  40  an.l  ?<  :^j  F.:  along  the  sr.uth  side  of  the 
Tap*i  nv«-r.  An-a.  2.f;>:{  ^j.  mil.--.  Th.-  northern  half  is  in 
th»*  Satpura  m"'iii*ain-:  ti.-  •*Mjih,-rn  i>  flat  and  intersected 
by  -jtri-ain^  It  fta-  n^  rai»«ay«<w  The  prineipal  agricultural 
pro-iuct>  are  wtieat  (of  en-eii-nt  <^uality).  rire.  pul^»s,  oil 
s«Hf<i>,and  timU-r.  Th»-  prir.ci|«al  t"wn  i^  KUichpur.  formerly 
a  «'aj.jTal  of  the  IV**an.  and  a  pla^H  of  iui{><jrtance,  now 
with  lutle  tra*le.  Pop.  of  th.-  t-.wn.  27/K>0;  of  the  district 
^li.'*''.  M.W.H.   ' 

Eiiirott.  Axirp.EW:  civil  eni-inf^r:  b.  in  Bucks  co.,  Pa„ 
Jan.  24,  17*4.  \\k  ftm:«i.-il  E.li«-«.tr*«  Mills  in  Marylami! 
and  removeti  to  Baltimon.-.     He  was  a  friend  of  Dr.  Frank- 


lin and  of  Washington.  In  1790  he  was  employed  by  the 
Federal  Government  to  survey  and  lay  out  the  capital  of  the 
U.  S.  He  was  appointed  surveyor-general  of  the  U.  S.  in 
1792,  and  became  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Engineer- 
ing at  West  Point  in  1812.  D.  at  West  Point,  Aug.  29, 
1820.  ® 

EUieott  Charles  Johk,  D.  D.  :  theologian ;  b.  at  Whitwell, 
near  Stamford,  En^^Und,  Apr.  25, 1819,  and  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  where  in  1859  he  was  appointed  Hulsean  lecturer 
and  in  18iS0  Hulsean  Professor  of  Divinity.  In  1861  he  l»e- 
came  Dean  of  Exeter,  and  in  1863  Bishop  of  Gloucester  and 
Bristol.  His  commentaries  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul, 
which  began  to  appear  in  1854,  put  him  into  the  front  rank 
of  biblical  scholars.  His  Historical  Lectures  on  the  Life  uf 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (1860)  were  the  Hulsean  lectures  for 
1859.  His  first  work  was  a  Treatise  on  Analytical  Statics 
(1842). 

EUIcott  Cl^:  town  (incorporated  in  1867);  capital  of 
Howard  co.,  Ma.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Mary- 
land, ref.  2-E) ;  situated  on  the  Patapsco  river  and  the  Baft, 
and  0.  R,  R.,  10  miles  W.  of  Baltimore  and  31  miles  N.  N.  E. 
of  Washington,  D.  C.  It  has  8  churches,  a  college,  6  public 
schools,  a  large  flouring-mill,  2  cotton-factories,  2  barrel- 
factories,  a  large  paper-mill,  a  stone-crusher,  several  impor- 
tant granite  quarries,  electric  lights,  etc.  Pop.  (1880)  1,7W ; 
(1890)  1,488.  Editoe  of  "  Times." 

EUinwood,  Frank  Fields,  D.  D.  :  clergyman ;  b.  in  Kirk- 
land,  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y.,  June  20, 1826.  He  graduated  fnim 
Hamilton  College  1849,  and  took  the  theological  course  in 
Auburn  (1851-52)  and  Princeton  (1862-53)  Seminaries.  He 
was  pastor  in  Belvidere,  N.  J.,  1853-54,  and  in  Rochester. 
N.  Y.,  1854-65;  then  was  secretary  of  the  committee  of 
church  erection  for  five  vears,  and  of  the  memorial  fnncl 
committee  1870-71;  in  iSTI  became  secretary  of  foreign 
missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  He  pub- 
lished The  Great  Conquest  (New  York,  1876)  and  Orieittal 
Religions  and  Christianity  (1892).      Wilus  J.  Beech er. 

Elliott,  Charles,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  clergyman ;  b.  in  Glen- 
con  way.  County  Donegal,  Ireland,  May  16,  1792;  entered 
the  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  emi- 
grated to  the  U.  S.  in  1814,  and  went  to  Ohio  in  1818.  where 
ne  edited  the  Me^/erw  Christian  Advocate  and  other  jour- 
nals. He  was  a  Profcv^^sor  of  Languages  at  Madison  College, 
Uniontown,  Pa.,  1827-31,  and  president  of  Iowa  Weslevan 
University  1^56-60  and  1864-67;  author  of  A  Treatise'  tm 
Baptism  (1834);  Life  of  Bishop  Roberts  (1853);  Ddinra- 
tion  of  Roman  Catholicism  (2  vols..  New  York,  1842);  *Vm- 
fulness  of  American  Slavery  (2  vols.,  Cincinnati,  0.,  1851); 
History  of  the  Great  Secession  from  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  (1855) ;  The  Bible  and  Slavery,  etc.  D.  in 
Mt.  Pleasant,  la.,  Jan.  3, 1869. 

Elliott,  Charles  Lorino  :  portrait-painter ;  b.  at  Scipio, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.,  1812 ;  pupil  of  Trumbull  and  of  Quidor,  New 
York ;  National  Academician  1846.  His  portraits  are  well 
painted  and  excellent  in  color;  he  was  considered  by  his 
fellow -artists  the  best  portrait-painter  of  his  time.  His  por- 
trait of  Prof.  T.  A.  Thacher  is  in  the  Yale  Art  School ;  those 
of  Erastus  Corning  and  Asher  B,  Durand,  the  artist,  are  in 
the  Corcoran  Gallery,  Washington.  He  painted  the  portrait 
of  Matthew  Vassar,  at  Vassar  College.  D.  in  Albanv,  N  .  Y., 
Aug.  25,  1868.  W.*A.  C. 

Elliott  Ebenbzer  :  poet,  called  the  "  Corn-law  Rhymer  " ; 
b.  near  Rotherham,  Yorkshire,  England,  Mar.  17, 1781.  He 
was  not  liberally  educated,  and  was  considered  a  dull  boy  at 
school.  In  early  youth  he  worked  in  an  iron-foundry,  in 
which  his  father  had  been  employed.  He  produced  in  1798 
Thf  Vernal  Walk\  a  poem.  After  he  had  worked  for  many 
vears  in  the  foundry  he  married  and  removed  in  1821  to 
ShefBeld,  where  he  engaged  in  the  iron-trade  on  his  own  ac- 
count, and  was  successful.  His  most  iH)pular  poems  are 
lite  Corn-la  IP  Rhymes,  which  promoted  the  repeal  of  the 
corn-laws,  and  were  much  aduiired.  He  afterward  wmte 
The  Village  Patriarch  (1829);  Byron  and  Napoleon  {1^1); 
Lot*e,  and  other  ix)ems.  His  works  are  commended  for  their 
energy  and  the  sympathy  with  the  poor  which  they  exhibit. 
D.  at 'Great  Houghton,  near  Barnsley,  Dec  1,1849.  See 
Ward's  English  Pbets  (2d  ed.  1883). 

Elliott  Samuel  Mackenzie:  physician;  b.  at  Inreme^ 
Scotland.  Apr.  9,  1811 ;  studied  at  tfie  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons in  Glasgow,  where  he  grailuated  in  1828.  and  in  Ixm- 
don;  removed  in  iaS3  to  the  U.  S,;  visited  (Cincinnati  and 
Philadelphia,  and  settled  finally  in  New  York,  where  he  ac- 


74 


ELLORA 


ELMINA 


Ellora:  town  of  Hindustan.    See  Elora. 

EllBWOrth :  cit)r  (founded  in  1867) ;  capital  of  Ellsworth 
CO.,  Kan.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  5- 
P) ;  situated  on  Smoky  Hill  river  and  on  the  Union  Pacific 
R  R. ;  155  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Topeka ;  also  the  terminus  of 
a  branch  of  the  St.  Louis  and  ban  Francisco  Railway.  It 
has  7  churches,  a  fine  brick  school-house,  and  3  pnmarv 
schools,  and  is  the  center  of  an  extensive  wheat  l)elt  ana 
grazing  section.  Here  are  found  valuable  clays,  gypsum, 
and  mineral  paints,  and  here  was  first  discovered  the  im- 
mense salt-bed  which  underlies  Central  Kansas.  Across  the 
river  are  situated  the  G.  A.  R.  reunion  grounds,  160  acres, 
belonging  to  the  State.  Pop.  (1880)  929 ;  (1890)  1,620 ;  (1893) 
estimated,  2,000.  Editor  of  **  Reporter." 

Ellsworth :  city  and  port  of  entry ;  capital  of  Hancock 
CO.,  Me.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Maine,  ref. 
8-E) ;  on  railway  and  on  the  navigable  Union  river ;  2  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and30  miles  S.  E.  of  Bangor.  Several  bridges 
cross  the  river  here.  The  city  has  a  public  library,  shoe- 
factories,  and  many  sawmiUs.  Ship-building  is  carried  on, 
and  the  trade  in  ice  and  lumber  is  important.  Pop.  (1880) 
6,052 ;  (1890)  4,804. 

Ellsworth,  Ephraim  Elmer:  soldier;  b.  in  Mechanics- 
yille,  N.  Y.,  Apr.  23,  1837.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
he  became  colonel  of  a  zouave  rep  men  t  in  the  Union  army, 
and  in  taking  possession  of  the  city  of  Alexandria,  opposite 
Washington,  May  24,  1861,  was  shot  dead  by  an  inn-keeper 
from  whose  roof  he  had  removed  a  Confederate  flag. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver,  LL.  D.  :  chief  justice ;  b.  in  Windsor, 
Conn.,  Apr.  29, 1745 ;  son  of  a  farmer ;  entered  Yale  College 
in  1762,  but  left  in  his  junior  year  and  completed  his  studies 
at  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  graduating  with  honor  in  1766, 
He  studied  theology  for  a  year,  but  abandoned  it  for  the 
law ;  in  1771  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Hartford  co.,  Conn. ; 
in  1772  married  Abigail  Wolcott,  member  of  an  illustrious 
family  of  East  Windsor ;  was  appointed  State  attorney  for 
Hartford  County  in  1775;  in  1777  settled  in  Hartford  and 
became  the  most  eminent  practitioner  in  the  Stat4».  He 
represented  Windsor  in  the  General  Assembly  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Revolution,  and  was  one  of  the  committee 
called  the  "  Pay-table  *'  that  managed  the  military  flnances 
of  the  colony.  In  1778  he  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  (Con- 
tinental Congress,  where  he  served  on  the  marine  committee 
and  the  committee  of  appeals.  From  1780  till  1784  he  was 
a  member  of  the  State  CounciL  He  left  Congress  in  1783, 
declining  a  re-election,  and  in  1784  became  a  judge  of  the 
superior  court  of  Connecticut.  In  1787  he  was  sent  as  a 
delegate  to  the  convention  at  Philadelphia  which  framed 
the  Federal  Constitution,  and  took  a  leauing  part  in  its  pro- 
ceedings, but  owing  to  temporary  absence  was  not  able  to 
sign  the  instrument ;  was  ttie  most  influential  member  of 
the  State  convention  which  in  1788  ratified  this  Constitution. 
In  1789  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  in  which  he 
gaine(l  distinction  as  a  debater,  as  the  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee for  organizing  the  U.  S.  judiciary,  as  a  supporter  of 
Washington's  administration,  and  as  the  leader  of  the  Fed- 
eral party  in  the  Senate.  Through  his  influence  John  Jay 
was  sent'  to  England  in  1794,  and  the  treaty  negotiat'Cd  by 
Jay  was  upheld  by  the  Senate.  In  1796  President  Wa,shing- 
ton  appointed  him  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
U.  S.,  to  succeed  John  Jay,  and  his  official  conduct  and  de- 
cisions were  approved  by  both  political  parties.  In  1799 
Judge  Ellsworth  was  by  President  Adams  appointed,  with 
Gov.  William  Richardson  Davie  and  A^'illiam  Vans  Murray, 
envoy  extraordinary  to  Prance,  and  aided  in  negotiating  the 
treaty  of  Mar.  2,  1800,  which  terminated  the  strained  rela- 
tions between  the  two  countries.  Judge  Ellsworth  then  re- 
signed his  office  on  account  of  ill-health,  and.  after  a  visit 
to  England,  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  1801,  and  in  1802  was 
re-elected  to  the  State  Council  of  Connecticut,  on  which  he 
servetl  until  his  death.  In  1807  he  declined  the  office  of 
chief  justice  of  the  State.  President  Dwight  {Traveli*)  de- 
claretl  that  after  Mr.  Ellsworth  entere<i  public  life  "no  man, 
whi'n  Washington  was  not  present,  would  be  more  readily 
aokn<m'lod^e<l  to  h<»ld  the  first  character."  lie  received  the 
di';;ree  of  LL.  D.  from  Yale,  Dartmouth,  and  the  College  of 
New  Jersey.  D.  at  Windsor.  Conn.,  Nov.  26,  1807.  See  Van 
Santvoord,  Livrs  of  the  Chief  Just icen, 

Ellsworth,  William  Wolcott,  LL.  D.:  jurist;  son  of 
Oliver  Ellsworth,  chief  justice ;  b.  at  Windsor,  Conn.,  Nov. 
10,  1791;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1810;  studicnl  law 
at  Litchfield  and  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  which  became  his 


home ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1818,  and  in  that  same 
year  married  Emily,  eldest  daughter  of  Noah  Webster,  the 
lexicographer.  In  i827  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  l^aw 
in  Washington  (Trinity)  College,  and  held  that  office  until 
his  death.  From  1829  till  1884  he  served  as  a  Whig  in  Con- 
gress, resigning  to  pursue  his  profession.  While  in  Congress 
he  prepared  and  reported  a  law  of  copyright  which  wils 
adopted  by  the  Government.  From  1838  till  1842  he  was 
Governor  of  Connecticut  He  twice  declined  an  election  to 
the  U.  S.  Senate,  but  in  1847  was  elected  judge  of  tbe  su- 
perior court  and  of  the  supreme  court  oi  errors,  retiring 
from  the  bench  in  1861.  D.  at  Hartford,  Jan.  15, 1868.— His 
twin-brother,  Henbt  Lkavitt  Ellsworth  (1791-1858),  a 
lawyer  by  profession,  was  from  1836  till  1848  U.  S.  commis- 
sioner of  patents ;  published  a  number  of  reports  on  t  he 
science  of  agriculture,  and  Digest  of  Patents  from  1770  to 
1839  (1840). 

Ellwangen,  el-t*aang'en :  an  old  town  of  WUrtemberg ; 
on  the  Jaxt ;  45  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Stuttgart  (see  map  of  (ler- 
man  Empire,  ref.  7-E).  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  castle,  a  lios- 
pital,  and  a  gymnasium ;  also  tanneries  and  bleach-works. 
Pop.  (1890)  4,606. 

Ellwood,  Thomas  Crowell  :  author ;  b.  in  Oxfordshire, 
England,  in  Oct.,  1639 ;  a  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends. 
His  friend  Isaac  Penington  secured  for  him  in  1662  the 
position  of  reader  to  the  poet  Milton,  who  showed  him  the 
manuscript  of  Paradise  Loaty  and  requested  him  to  take  it 
home  and  read  it.  On  returning  the  manuscript,  Ellwood 
suggested  to  Milton  the  idea  of  Paradise  Regained,  by  ask- 
ing, **  What  hast  thou  to  say  of  Paradise  found!'*  Among 
Ell  wood's  works  are  a  Sacred  History  (1705) ;  a  poem  called 
DaHdeis  (1712);  and  an  autobiographv  (1714),  frequently 
reprinted  (e.  g.  Boston,  1877,  London,  1885).  D.  in  Anier- 
sham,  Mar.  1,  1713. 

Elm  [O.  Eng.  elm:  0.  H.  Germ,  e/m,  cognate,  though 
with  dinerence  of  ablaut,  with  Lat.  ulmus,  to  which  O. 
Norse  almr  exactly  corresponds ;  Mod.  Germ.  Ulme  shows 
direct  dependence  on  the  Latin   word]:  any  tree  of  the 

fmus  Utmus  of  the  order  Ulmaeea,  natives  of  Europe  and 
orth  America,  with  alternate  serrate  leaves,  which  are 
oblique  or  unec]ually  heart-shaped  at  the  base.  The  ovary 
is  two-celled,  with  a  single  anatropous  ovule.  The  fruit  is  a 
one-celled  membranaceous  samara,  winged  all  round.  This 
^nus  comprises  numerous  species,  five  or  more  of  which  are 
mdigenous  in  the  U.  S.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  is 
the  Utmus  americana  (white  or  American  elm),  a  large 
ornamental  tree,  usually  with  spreading  branches  and 
drooping,  pendulous  boughs.  It  grows  rapidly,  often  at- 
tains the  height  of  100  leet,  and  is  admired  as  one  of  the 
most  noble  and  beautiful  of  forest  trees.  Its  favorite  habitat 
is  in  moist  woods  where  the  soil  is  rich,  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  rivers  and  creeks.  The  trunk  sometimes  ascends  with- 
out branches  50  or  60  feet,  and  then  separates  into  a 
few  primary  limbs,  which  gradually  diverge  and  present 
long  arched  pendulous  branches  floating  in  the  air.  The 
wowl  of  this  tree  is  used  for  making  huos  of  wheels.  An- 
other species  native  of  the  U.  S.  is  the  slippery  elm  (r7mw« 
fulva),  a  smaller  tree  with  a  very  mucilaginous  inner  bark, 
which  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  aemulcent.  Among  the  im- 
portant trees  of  this  genus  is  the  common  English  elm  ( (7- 
TMAS  campestris),  which  grows  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and 
is  extensively  planted  in  Great  Britam.  It  is  one  of  the 
chief  ornaments  of  English  scenery.  The  wood  of  this 
tree  is  compact,  fine-grained,  very  durable  in  water,  an<l 
is  used  for  various  purposes  by  wheelwrights,  machinists, 
joiners,  and  ship-builders.  It  has  a  mucilaginous  bark, 
which  is  esteemea  as  a  medicine.  The  Ulmus  montana.  or 
wych  elm,  is  a  native  of  Scotland,  and  a  tree  of  rapid  gn^wth, 
valuable  for  timber,  which  is  used  for  the  same  purj)oses  as 
the  English  elm.  Europe  also  produces  the  cork-barke*l 
elm  {llmHs  suberosa),  a  tall  tree  extensively  plantetl  in  Eng- 
land, and  nameil  with  reference  to  the  corky  ridges  or 
wings  on  its  branches.  A  valuable  fine-erained  wood  is  ob- 
tained from  the  Ulmns  alata,  winged  eun  or  wahoo,  which 
grows  wild  in  the  Southern  U.  S. 

El  Mahdl :  See  Mahdi,  El. 

Elmer,  John  :  See  Avlmer,  John. 

El  Mesherif :  See  Berber. 

Elmi^na:  fortified  town  and  seaport  of  Africa;  lat.  5* 
5'  N.,  and  Ion.  1  23  W.  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  5-C) : 
former  capital  of  the  Dutch  possessions  on  the  Guinea 
coast.     It  is  defended  by  a  strong  fort.    Elmina  was  taken 


76 


ELOCUTION 


body.  Breath,  as  the  material  of  tone,  must  be  properly 
economized  and  directed.  Control  of  the  respiratory  mus- 
cles must  be  acquired  through  systematic  exercise  in  deep 
breathing.  Any  safe  and  effective  system  of  vocal  training 
must  be  grounded  in  the  physiological  laws  of  speech.  The 
three  physical  properties  of  tone — (1)  force  (energy,  loudness, 
intensity),  (2)  pitch,  and  (3)  quality  {timbre,  clang-tint, 
character)— must  be  regarded  as  essential  structural  elements 
in  a  true  method  of  vocal  development. 

Through  the  aid  of  the  laryngoscope,  and  the  researches 
of  physicists  like  Helmholz,  Czermak,  Mayer,  and  K&nig,  a 
vocal  technique  for  the  formation  and  training  of  the  voice 
need  no  longer  be  a  matter  of  experiment  and  speculation. 
Vocal  culture  may  proceed  by  a  method  which  shall  be  at  the 
same  time  natural,  trustworthy,  and  scientific.  The  result 
of  skillful  training  and  persistent  practice  is  the  control  of 
a  voice  which  is  at  once  powerful,  resonant,  svmpathetic,  of 
good  compass,  and  that  can  be  produced  witli  ease  and  en- 
durance. 

In  speech  the  natural  effect  of  true  vocal  training  would 
be  a  firm,  incisive,  yet  easy  and  agreeable,  enunciation ;  and 
closely  allied  with  the  utterance  of  language  in  complete 
discourse  is  a  correct  pronunciation,  which  is  conformed  to 
the  standard  authorities,  that  is,  the  best  dictionaries  of  the 
English  language.  It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the 
value  of  the  commonplace  but  fundamental  virtues  of  enun- 
ciation and  pronunciation  in  giving  clearness  and  precision 
to  speech. 

Gesture,  as  the  second  instrument  in  revealing  the  idea 
and  manifesting  the  speaker*s  personality,  includes  all  sig- 
nificant movements  of  the  body  and  limbs,  and  the  expres- 
sion of  the  countenance ;  it  is  the  symbolical  language  of 
the  emotions  and  passions  of  the  soul.  Hence  gesture  is 
significant  action ;  out  to  be  significant  it  should  be  reason- 
ably rare.  Insignificant  action  must  be  repressed ;  signifi- 
cant action  must  not  be  overdone.  In  teaching  gesture 
great  care  should  be  exercised  lest  the  instruction  result  in 
a  mechanical  and  self-conscious  style  of  action.  T4ie  ground- 
work of  discipline  in  gesture  should  be  the  use  of  aesthetic 
^mnastics  of  some  approved  method.  Systematic  practice 
m  such  exercises  gradually  corrects  awkwanlness,  gives 
flexibility  to  the  bodily  movements,  and  a  command  of  all 
the  physical  agents  of  expression.  Significance  in  action  is 
secured  by  observing  the  gestures  which  intelligent  people 
spontaneously  use  when  speaking  under  the  influence  of 
genuine  feeling. 

The  third  principle  of  aesthetic  science,  that  of  form,  the 
special  object  of  study  and  criticism,  is  the  delivery  of  the 
complete  discourse  before  an  audience.  The  interi)reting 
function 'of  expressive  speech,  especially  in  the  delivery  of 
appropriated  thought,  is  a  deoartment  of  literary  criticism. 
All  elaborate  composition,  like  poetry  or  artistic  prose,  ^re- 
(|uires  interpretation.  The  interpreting  power  of  delivery 
is  operative  in  every  sentence  a  speaker  utters.  Complete 
oral  expression  implies  a  faculty  of  mental  analysis  of 
thought  and  language,  and  a  power  to  sympathize  with  the 
purpose  and  feeling  of  an  author,  and  witn  the  order  and 
movement  of  his  ideas.  Impressive  utterance  is  often  the 
truest  revelation  of  an  author's  thought.  Reading  aloud  in- 
creases the  power  of  literary  analysis.  The  interpreting 
power  of  the  speaker  is  directly  related  to  the  receptive 
power  of  the  hearer.  *'  The  best  style,"  says  Herbert  Spencer, 
"is  that  which  best  economi7A»s  the  recipient's  attention." 
The  law  of  mental  economy  is  no  less  true  of  vocal  than  of 
literary  style.  Style  in  delivery  involves  the  proper  man- 
agement of  the  voice  in  its  method  of  enunciation,  and  in 
the  use  of  both  the  intellectual  and  emotional  elements  of 
expression.  The  intellectual  elements  are  emphasis,  pause, 
and  inflection ;  the  emotional  elements  are  force,  pitch,  qual- 
ity, and  rate  of  utterance.  A  slovenly  enunciation,  or  a 
faulty  use  of  anv  one  of  the  elements  of  expression,  dissi- 
pates and  disturbs  the  hearer's  attention  ;  itj)uts  an  unnec- 
essary strain  upon  his  mental  receptivity.  The  natural  ex- 
pression of  clear  thinking  and  true  feeling,  in  the  correct 
use  of  these  elements,  stimulates  the  hearers  attention,  and 
enlarges  his  capacity  for  receiving  ideas. 

Style  in  gesture  is  directly  related  io  form.  Feeling  sug- 
gests when  action  should  be  made  ;  jii<lgment  and  taste  dic- 
tate the  form  of  the  gesture,  and  also  a  true  economy  of 
action  with  reference  to  frequency  and  significance.  The 
mastery  of  the  significant  symbols* of  feeling  contributes  to 
varietv  in  action. 

The  secret  of  an  interesting  and  impressive  style  of  speak- 
ing is  an  intelligent  sympathy  working  through  the  imagi- 


nation. The  true  method  of  delivery,  both  in  public  address 
and  in  artistic  speech,  is  the  natural  method.  True  natural- 
ness consists  in  observing  the  cardinal  law  of  all  expressive 
art,  propriety,  or  the  adaptation  of  manner  to  the  varj'ing" 
form  01  the  matter.  Through  the  creative  power  of  the 
imagination,  spontaneously  giving  shape  to  all  the  intona- 
tions of  the  voice  and  to  the  significant  movements  of  ges- 
ture, the  speaker's  personality  is  most  completely  manif  este<l : 
"  The  stjle  is  the  man." 

In  original  discourse  the  natural  method  is  that  of  good 
conversation,  ennobled  and  idealized ;  it  is  a  person's  natural 
manner  in  earnest  conversation  on  worthy  tnemes  raised  to 
its  highest  power. 

A  good  speaker  always  regards  two  things :  one  is  found 
in  the  address  itself,  in  the  character  of  the  subject  matter ; 
the  other  in  the  place,  occasion,  and  circumstances  of  de- 
livery. It  is  assumed  that  the  speaker  is  master  of  the 
topic  he  is  to  present.  Clearness  and  vigor  of  thinking, 
earnestness  of  purpose,  and  an  active  sympathetic  imagina- 
tion working  in  unison,  spontaneously  create  the  a{){)rr>- 
priate  forms  of  utterance  and  action,  and  dispose  the  va^ 
rious  elements  of  expression  in  harmonious  relations.  In  the 
general  management  of  delivery  the  speaker  is  careful  to 
adapt  his  manner  to  the  different  parts  of  discourse.  In 
the  introduction  he  regards  the  place,  occasion,  and  circum- 
stances of  delivery.  He  begins  by  directing  eye  and  voice 
to  the  farthest  auditors,  speaking  to  them  with  the  easy  de- 
liberation of  pleasant  conversation.  His  initial  pitch*  and 
force  take  care  of  themselves,  being  instinctively  and  natur- 
ally determined  by  his  dignified  colloquial  address  to  the  dis- 
tant auditors.  Gesture  is  rarely  needed  in  the  introductory 
matter.  If  used,  it  is  used  sparingly,  and  in  the  colloc^uial 
and  expository  style.  Deliberateness  is  the  characteristic  of 
the  introduction.  The  discussion  is  conducted  with  an  in- 
creased warmth  of  feeling,  issuing  in  firm,  full,  resonant 
tones,  an  animated  rate  oi  utterance,  and  a  positive  expn.»s- 
sion  of  earnestness  in  countenance,  attituue,  and  action. 
Variety  is  secured  through  the  force  and  brilliancy  givon 
to  the  important  ideas,  and  through  fidelity  to  the  tht»ory 
of  speaking  in  the  method  of  impassioned  conversation. 
Gesture  is  likely  to  be  used  because  the  feelings  and  imag- 
ination of  the  speaker  are  active.  Energy  of  earnest nes>  is 
the  characteristic  of  the  discussion.  As  the  speaker  enters 
upon  the  conclusion,  he  leads  the  audience  to  infer  from  his 
tones  and  manner  that  he  is  closing.  Sometimes  he  conc^m- 
trates  his  discussion  into  a  brilliant  climax ;  at  other  tinu^ 
he  comes  into  a  subdued  and  sympathetic  relation  to  liis 
audience ;  the  force  is  softened,  the  quality  is  slightly  as}>i- 
rated,  the  rate  is  deliberate,  and  the  pauses  frequent  though 
brief.  The  whole  manner  is  persuasive.  Even  in  the  methixi 
of  eloquent  climax  the  artistic  sense  of  the  skillful  speaker 
leads  him  to  express  a  natural  subsidence  of  emotion  ov  de- 
livering the  few  closing  sentences  in  a  slow  and  sympathetic 
manner.  He  returns  to  the  mental  plane  of  his  auditors, 
but  both  speaker  and  audience  are  on  a  higher  plane  of 
thought  and  emotion  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  dis- 
course. The  characteristic  of  the  conclusion  is  impressive- 
ness. 

The  artistic  g^uping  of  the  parts  of  discourse  into  an 
organic  whole  imparts  unity  ana  concentration  to  delivery. 
The  order,  movement,  and  structure  of  discourse  should  l>e 
observed  at  the  rhetorical  points  of  transition.  Transitions, 
or  "  landing-places,"  which  mark  the  change  from  one  as- 

Cect  of  the  subject  to  another,  should  be  properly  indicated 
y  changes  in  vocal  treatment  through  some  natural  differ- 
ence in  force,  pitch,  rate,  and  pause.  If  a  speaker,  unrler 
the  excitement  of  the  occasion,  feels  that  he  is  losing  s*'lf- 
control  in  one  or  more  elements  of  expression,  let  him  take 
advantage  of  his  **  landing-places "  to  recover  himself,  and 
speak  in  his  natural,  key  ana  rate  of  movement.  Sentences 
tnat  contain  an  impassioned  quality  of  thought  should  be 
delivered  with  appropriate  energy  and  brilliancv,  with  the 
proper  gradation  of  voice  in  approaching  and  in  leaving  the 
vigorous  passage.  Subordinate  ideas  are  given  with  a  force 
and  an  animation  of  movement  consistent  with  a  distinct 
enimciation  and  the  clear  communication  of  ideas. 

Naturalness  as  related  to  the  interpretation  of  elevated 

Srose  and  to  poetry  desen'cs  a  passing  mention.  Prose,  as 
istinct  from  colloquial  speech,  is  an  artistic  or  at  least  an 
elalwrated  production;  therefore  it  must  be  delivered  artis- 
tically— that  is,  under  the  influence  of  feeling  and  imagina- 
tion. The  l)est  form  of  every-tlav  s[>eech  is  the  basis  and 
guide  to  the  deliverv  of  prose,  fiut  prose  and  alma^^t  all 
pul)lic  address  is  ordinary  speech  idealized;  feeling  ami  im- 


78 


ELMWOOD 


ELr^SIWAH 


On  the  art  of  deliverr:  Ras«*^D  and  MuH'c-h.  V''>rnJ  Ov/- 
iurti  Lewis  B.  Mr»aiMf,  Vf^'jJ  o^'y^n-uCK^i  avi  Fs%**^»24 
Training;  Juut<   E.  Munich,  A  /^'*<i  f^r  >i».i>-n  i>ji^ 

i}TXh**'\*y'.  Th»*  .•Ue:i'»nAr:»-*,  \V«.r".r^-.-r.  \V.-*»<r-r.  S?.>r- 
month.  CVntunr.  I:nr*rnAl:  K.!--*!.  ni-i  M^r:»  t.  a.*  a»^«.Tv^  : 
Phrfe,  H'f^r  Ah»t*il'j  I  Pnrft*fuuj^*  *  i^  i  N- -^^  7~^-.•^^*J••«/ 
Words  of t^n  Uttyr'tH^funr^d :  Arrvs.  7^*.^  '"^ s  *•":•. *r :  S--«.tr 
and  Whe»^:»-r.  A  Mannni  of  £*^j,M<h  P^  s**^.  ir.-ni  and 
Spelhng:  AU«Tt  Saii-tiarr,  /^"h-*-  .7*  7*wj  '^'•.  "'zfjt. 

Expression:  Ku'^^U  and  M  .^ri  • -^  V*r.7r<  v  :.*--•:  Mar- 
dnch,  Ana^u**^  £hf^ufu/n:  IV -L  /^t  <►-»:#-*  /'  £"' -r*^*iv«i: 
ReT.  F.  T.  Ru>B*lL  r«f  of  :h^  Vof^  »*  i^;^:  :•  •  V  .7-»i  >;"  li- 
in^;  McIIvaiutr,  JEr-'**'»i'i^/i»:  Ravii*:.:..!.  is-  '^-^-'rV  J/jj»- 
i«<ii:  Baii»*T,  Jntn^iurtt'^  to  £t-.«r^:tonz  Lt-s  -fr.  Art  <»/ 
R^^ingi  A^Jje  Bau'^iiru  7>^  Arf  of  Lj"*  »,:»*'^H**fU^ 
Spt^ak^kgi  Holy.^ike.  T***^  Rudiment*  'f  P^  *•  %^  >;,...i*-,s^  : 

Vor/il  Erprrjutioni  Nairiao  SLvi-j^rxi,  B'f'r'  i-i  A ••'ii '»!<•<•. 

Ge^iurv :  iMtMtriei  B»«^tn.  Jl'tHt'T  of  '/♦a**.*-'-:  Kav- 
mofid,  iPm/ors  Jfanvnl  i  M  cl  I  vainer,  JLV-Oi^fc.'iva  :  Btr^  /Vii»- 
cipl^s  of  E'^f^ufion. 

Phy-'i'-al  c«il*'irv:  Gut t man,  JE'fh^fir  Ph%,*%^n2  Ci'^^rei 
G*fnevieve  St«'i»f»infs,  S>M'»''*y  Gymttfi-^iirsi  M;att  S.  Tr.  mp- 
son,  Rhttthmi^ni  Oymtuf^ttrjti  Emtriv-n,  Ph^Ai^.tl  f\^t'4r«, 

Crilu>m:  lii:r.nii'^»n,  Wridug  *iud  Sp*.^eh-moiin43',\jt'wis^ 
AriorM  aiui  Artttuj',  Matth**w«s  *fr*\iory  aud  ifr*it'tr«\  Ctury. 
TV  Pnjrinr^  t,f  Erpr^Aifion :  Henrr  Irvms,  7**^  Dromn : 
Arxrh^T,  A '>"«</  'Xe  Thtatrt ;  Franc i^4ue  Saiwy.  R^r/jUrrtiun* 
of  M*ddU  Lift.  J.  W."  Chi  a*  HILL. 

ElsW90d :  town;  Pef»ria  co„  IlL  {for  I<ieation  of  county, 
see  map  of  IiliTi'»i«, ref.  4-D»:  on  the  C-.B-,and  <^.  Railruttfl: 
26  miie>  W.  hy  N.  of  Pe»>ria.  The  chief  invia>tri^  are  ac- 
ri^'ultare.  mining,  and  manufacturing.  Pop.  tl5!*J»  1,504: 
(l«l«»i  l..>4><. 

EloB^tioB  [fn>m  Lat,  tlou^  rr.  remove  to  a  distance] : 
in  astn>nomy.  tr.c  ap[«arvrit  aii;rular  di:^^anc'e  of  a  planet 
from  the  Mill.  The  jjreare^l  eloitjaUoD  of  Mercury  amounts 
to  aUmt  2i9  :jU,  that  of  Venu^  t<»  about  47  49,  and  that  of 
the  superior  planets  may  have  any  value  up  to  IW. 

Elo'n.  or  Ellon :  a  d^>av^l  town  of  Hindustan,  near 
DowIataliA^l :  lat,  2^)' 5  X^  iW  75  13  E.  '-s^m- map  of  X. 
India,  ref.  9-D>.  H«*re  an?  numerrius  remark:* Me  cave- 
temples,  whi«h  -urjia-v-i  in  mairnitude  all  othen*  in  India,  and 
are  a^ionie^i  wiih  'jtatue^  and  oiner  sculptures.  Besides  the 
cave-temp i»*<  hi-wn  out  in  the  Hjojie  of  a  rrw-ky  hilL  there 
are  vast  e  litiees  or  pa:rr,<las  can'e*i  ««at  of  s«»!id  jrranite  hills, 
90  as  to  fonn  matniiti'^-nt  mon«»liihs,  having  an  exterior 
as  Well  as  interior  aR-hiteclure,  richiv  dec«»rate<l.  Thev  are 
among  the  m<»>t  stu{ien<lous  monuments  ever  rai?e«l  by 
man.  The  most  remarkable  of  these,  the  temple  called  the 
KaiitU,  detJir-aleil  to  Siva,  is  al>«>ut  145  feet  long  and  KK) 
feet  hi^rh,  an«l  Is  supfMjrte<l  bv  four  n)ws  of  pilasters  with 
c<»lo:%sal  elejiliants  beneath.  In  the  court  which  surrounds 
the  Kaila>  temple  are  several  oK-li^ks,  sphinxes,  and  col- 
onna4le>.  Many  mythcilogical  fi;rures  are  carve<l  on  the 
walli^.  The  date  of  the  construction  of  these  temples  is 
not  kn'»wn.  A^-f'^'nlinjj  to  Fer«russon,  they  were  execute<l 
not  later  than  2<J<I  B.  c.  Se**  I^Assen's  Indii*rhe  Alttrfums- 
kun^U  and  Ferjfusson's  Hnndb^jok  of  Arehitt-rture. 

El  Paso.  el-}»aaso:  city  and  railway  junction;  Wood- 
foni  c*»..  111.  (f«»r  l«ication  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois, 
ref.  A-K):  17  miles  X.  of  Hl<K^mintrton.  It  has  larjre  mills, 
several  prain -elevators,  ear riatre- factory,  and  agricultural- 
impj»-m»'Tit  Wijrk''.  A  ci^ial-shaft  has  been  sunk  here.  Pop. 
(IH^J;  l.:r.K);  (1**1K);  K:i.>J. 

El  PmM>:  f'ity,  railway  center,  and  port  of  entry;  capital 
of  El  Pa"^>  c««..  T»'X-  ifor  hif-ation  <)f  county,  see  map  of 
Teia>,  T*^{.  '^Ht:  ^imaXe*!  on  the  Rio  Grande,  Xear  it  the 
riv»-r  f»4-«'^-^  tnrouk'h  a  mormtain-srap  calle<l  El  Paso  del 
Xr>rte  iXorth  Pa-<"»».  wni<h  i-*  the  chief  thoroughfare  l)etween 
Mexico  and  Xew  Mexico.  On  the  <»j»f»o*5ite  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grand*',  in  <'h:h'i:ih-.La.  M«xi«-r».  is  Ciudad  Juarez,  formerly 
caij«-«i  l*n^f  ili-i  X'tft*'.  a  \jli;i::»*  imfM»rtant  as  the  starting- 

tc'int  of  th»-  M'-xi'-afi  r«-iitrai  Kailroaii.  and  haviimacu'»tom- 
lou'^e.  lhn»u.'h  i»fi.«'h  a  iarj"**  amount  of  c«'hnIs  |«iss  in  tran- 
Nl  ljetw»-»-n  th**  r.  S.  and  M«'\u^».  Kl  Pa-***  has  numerous 
chunh*-,  five  wfj.p.;*,  a  ^'^PtJ'^l  fed«'ral  b»ii]dinsr.  smelters 
<in<jiiiiiiij;  a  'K'pji'-r  p!«irj*'.  a  r*  fr:;:trHT'»r  for  l>eef  and  other 
in^'a?",  \i  *—iH4  *->ri^.  f#.«iiiirjL'-riiiii-.  ♦rj«."^work««,  electric  li>;hts, 
♦'•••.  Pop.  ilf^}i  7;>i:  tiS^J/  10.;;.;^:  d^^trii  UK-al  census 
Vi.'Mii).  Ei>iTOR  OF  - Tribixe.** 


ElpklBstoae,   Admiral 

EU'HDSSTOXE. 


See    Keith,   Gborob   Keith- 


ElpkiBStooe,  Hon.  Moi-^rrsruABT :  historian;  b.  in  Scot- 
laii'L  17711:  a  youni:er  s<»n  of  L<»rd  Elphinstone.  He  en- 
tere«l  the  Benpil  ci%'il  s«*rvice  in  1795.  was  sent  as  ambas- 
sawior  to  the  i-ourt  of  (*abul  in  IHIb.  and  was  governor  of 
Bi»mluy  l*<ll#-27.  Bishop  Helier  expressed  the  opinion  tliat 
h»*  wa.'»  "in  every  resjiecl  an  extraordinary  man/*  and  that 
Li<  Indian  |iolicy  was  wise  and  liberaL  Mr.  Elphinstone 
nr^i^^le«i  in  1K29.  and  returned  to  En{?Iand.  lie  publisIuHl 
an  Account  of  Caubul  (lt?15 :  2d  e<l.  1841)  and  a  liUtory  of 
It%*iia :  the  Hindoo  and  Mohammedan  Periods  (2  vids., 
IMl :  6th  e^l.  H<74j,  bi»th  of  which  are  highly  esteeuicti. 
Hi-*  Life  {\><i*4)  was  written  by  Sir  EL  Colebrooke,  who 
e»iit»-d  liis  fjosthumous  volume  The  Rim  of  British  Pourer 
in  the  East  aW7).     D.  Nov.  *20.  lbo9. 

EIpkiBStoDe,  William:   prelate  and  statesman;  b.    in 

4t!as^»w,  S<M»tland,  14^il :  graduate«l  at  the  University  of 

(»ias^)w  1452:  and  afterward,  taking;  holy  orders,  officiat«^i 

a>  priest  of  the  Chureh  of  St.  Michael  for  four  years.     He 

l»ei.-ame  a  student  of  civil  and  canon  law  in  the  University  of 

ParLN  where  hi>  reputation  for  learning  caused  his  ap{M)int- 

meni  to  a  pn»fe>s<»rship.  which  he  held  six  years.    Returning 

to  Scotland,  he  was  .appointed  rwtor  of  the  University  t»f 

Glasgow,  and  sul^sequently   held   the  important   office   of 

I  official  of  I>othian.     In  1478  he  became  a  member  of  the 

I  pri^-y  council.     With  the  Bishop  of  Dunkeld  and  the  Earl 

'  of  Buchan  he  bmiight  about  a  re(*onciliation  between  James 

,  III.  and  Lcuiis  XI.,  a  service  that  pnKnirwl  for  him  the  see 

I  of  Ross,  which  was  afterwanl  excnanged  for  that  of  AlK*r- 

■  deen.     Having  bwn  made  chancellor  of  the    kingdom  in 

1484.  he  again  di>tingiiished  himself  as  a  diplomatist  by  the 

success  of  his  negotiations  with  the  English  king  and  of  his 

mediations  between  the  liarons  and  his  own  sovereign,  now 

James  IV.     He  was  next  intrusted  with  the  mission  to  the 

En)|»en>r  Maximilian  to  arrange  a  marriage  l)etween  James 

and   the   empien^r's  daughter.     In  this  he  faileil,  but  suc- 

I  ceeile<l  in  ctmif>letely  restoring  friendly  relations  with  the 

Dutcli.     From  the  year  1492  to  his  death  he  held  the  office 

of  privy  seal.     It  is  as  a  patnm  of  learning  that  he  is  U>st 

known.     The  foundation  of  the  university  at  Aberdeen  was 

due  almost  entirely  to  his  influence,  and  King*s  College 

owes  its  erection  and  maintenance  to  his  care  and  liberality. 

D.  Oct.  25.  1514.     lie  wrote  a  history  of  Scotland,  a  book  of 

canons,  and  some  biographies  of  Scotch  saints. 

P.  M.  Colby. 

El  Rosar'lo:  town  of  Sinaloa,  Mexico;  55  miles  R  of 
Mazatlan  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  5-E).  Here  were  rich 
gold  mines,  which  are  no  longer  worked.  It  is  an  entrejuH 
of  trade  between  Mazatlan  and  the  interior.    Pop.  5,000. 

EPmss  :  See  Alsace. 

El8«8»-Lothriiigen :  See  Alsace-Lorraine. 

Els'helmer,  Adam:  landscape-painter;  called  bv  the 
Italians  II  Tedes(X)  (i.  e.  the  (lenuan);  b.  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main  in  1574.  His  works  are  highly  finished.  He 
excelled  in  chiaroscuro  and  in  faithfulness  to  nature.  He 
worked  mostlv  in  Rome,  and  died  in  that  city  in  want  in 
1620. 

Elsinore,  el-si-nr>r'  (Dan.  HetMnydr) :  an  old  town  and 
seaftort  of  the  island  of  Seeland,  Deimiark :  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Sound  (here  only  2^  miles  wide);  24  miles  X. 
by  E.  of  Copenhagen.  It  is  defende<l  by  the  castle  of  Kn»n- 
lK)rg,  which  commands  the  Sound  at  its  narrowest  part.  It 
hivs  a  cathedral,  a  custom-house,  and  a  r<»yal  palace  called 
Marienlist,  from  which  is  obtained  a  magnificent  view  of 
the  Sound  and  of  Hel<ingborg  in  Sweden.  At  Elsinore 
until  1887  dues  were  collect eil  fniin  foreign  vessels  navigat- 
ing the  Sound.  It  has  an  active  trade,  and  some  manufac- 
tures of  arms,  bnunly,  hats,  etc.  Here  was  laid  the  s<u»ne. 
of  Slmksix^are's  Hamlet,  and  a  mile  from  the  city  Hamlet's 
grave  is  shown.     Pop.  (1890)  11,082. 

El-Siwah.  el-see'waa  (aiic.  Ammonium):  the  most  north- 
erlv  of  the  five  Etrvptian  oases:  about  440  miles  W.  N.  W. 
of  ancient  Theln^s.  It  is  6  miles  long  and  3  broad.  The 
i>asis  aU>unds  in  salt  ami  alum,  whicn  were  anciently  ex- 
{Mirtt^l.  Dates,  j>oniegranates,  and  other  fruits  are  pn>- 
ducwl  in  very  larp*  quantities.  Sheep  and  cattle  are  brwi  in 
great  nunil)ers.  The  oasis  abounds  in  fresh-water  springs, 
and  is  in  j>art  rather  marshy.  The  ruins  of  the  temple  of 
Amnion  and  of  other  ancient  buildings  are  still  in  exist- 
ence.    Pop.  about  8,000.    Chief  town,  Kebir. 


80 


ELYTEA 


EMANCIPATION,  PROCLAMATION  OF 


an  island  in  the  Western  Ocean,  or  as  located  in  mid-air. 
Some  of  the  ancients  imagined  that  the  kingdom  of  Pluto 
was  divided  into  two  regions — Tartarus,  in  which  the  wicked 
were  punished,  and  Elysium,  the  abode  of  the  good. 

Elytra :  See  Entomology. 

Elze,  erts6,  Friedrich  Karl:  German  Shakspeare  schol- 
ar ;  b.  at  Dessau,  May  22,  1821 ;  studied  at  Leipzig  and 
Berlin ;  taught  in  the  Dessau  gymnasium ;  called  to  the 
University  of  Halle  as  "  ausserordentlieher "  Professor  of 
English  in  1875 ;  promoted  to  a  full  professorship  in  1876. 
Elze's  interests  lay  chiefly  in  the  direction  of  modern  Eng- 
lish literature.  lie  was  a  zealous  member  of  the  Deutsche 
Shakespeare-Gesellschaft  and  a  frequent  contributor  to  its 
Jahrbuchy  which  he  edited  1868-79.  Of  his  separate  pub- 
lications may  be  mentioned  lives  of  Scott  (1864) ;  Byron 
(1870) ;  and  Shaksi)eare  (1876) ;  an  edition  of  Hamlet  (1857 ; 
2d  ed.  1882);  Notea  on  Elizabethan  Dramatists  (3  vols,, 
1880-86 ;  2d  ed.  1889) ;  and  Orundriss  der  e^iglischen  Philo- 
logie  (1887;  2d  ed.  1888).    D.  Jan.  21, 1889. 

Q.  L.  Kjttredoe. 

El'zerir,  or  Elzeyler :  the  name  of  a  family  of  Dutch 
printers  who  lived  at  Amsterdam.  Leyden,  and  other  places, 
and  were  celebrated  for  the  accuracy  and  beauty  of  their 
typop'aphy.  They  published  excellent  editions  of  many 
classic  authors  between  1583  and  1681.  The  first  eminent 
printer  of  the  family  was  Louis  or  Lodewijk,  who  was  bom 
at  Louvain  about  1540,  settled  in  Leyden,  and  died  about 
1617,  leaving  five  sons — Matthias,  Louis,  Giles  (or  ^gidius), 
Joost  (or  Jodocus),  and  Bonaventure,  who  were  aU  pub- 
lishers. The  business  was  continued  by  Abraham,  a  son  of 
Matthias,  and  his  partner  Bonaventure,  who  published  duo- 
decimo editions  of  the  classics  which  are  still  highly  prized 
for  their  beauty  and  correctness.  The  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment is  among  their  masterpieces.  A  press  was  established 
in  Amsterdam  in  1638  by  Louis  Elzevir  (a  grandson  of 
Louis  first  mentioned),  who  published  good  editions  of  nu- 
merous authors.  Several  other  members  of  the  family  were 
distinguished  printers.  At  least  1,600  works  were  published 
by  the  Elzevirs. 

Emanation  [from  Lat.  emana'tio^  an  oozing  out,  deriv. 
of  emana're ;  e,  forth  +  mana're,  flow,  ooze] :  m  the  reli- 
l^ons  of  India  and  of  ancient  Persia,  in  Neoplatonism,  and 
in  Gnosticism,  a  theory  of  ontology  and  of  cosmogony 
which  ascribes  the  origin  of  the  universe  and  of  all  inferior 
beings  to  an  outflow  from  the  Deity.  The  name  has  also 
been  applied  to  the  good  and  evil  influences  which  the 
heavenly  bodies  were  fonnerly  believed  to  send  forth,  and 
which  were  thought  to  determine  the  destinies  of  men. 

Emancipation  [from  Lat.  emancipa'tio,  deriv.  of  eman^ 
eipa're,  formally  release  from  authority  or  ownership;  e, 
forth  4-  mancipa're,  transfer,  release  by  the  formal  act  of  the 
manei'pium,  deriv.  of  manceps,  one  who  acquires,  purchaser, 
contractor ;  man-  (manus),  hand  +  ca'pere,  take] :  the  act  of 
freeing  from  subjection  of  any  kind.  In  Roman  law  a  son 
was  regarded  as  the  slave  of  his  father,  and  could  by  a  fic- 
tion of  that  law  be  freed  by  being  sold  {mancipcUtts)  three 
times  by  the  father.  This  enfranchisement  was  termed 
emancipation.  Different  modes  of  emancipation  were  after- 
ward recognized  by  Roman  jurisprudence.  In  countries 
where  that  law  prevails  the  word  signifies  the  exemption  of 
the  son  from  the  power  of  the  father,  either  by  express  act 
or  implication  of  law.  By  the  civil  law  of  France,  majority 
and  emancipation  are  attained  at  twentv-one,  and  a  minor 
is  emancipated  by  marriage.  The  wora  emancipation  is 
used  in  a  general  sense  to  signify  the  liberation  of  a  slave, 
or  the  admission  of  certain  classes  to  the  enjoyment  of  civil 
rights,  as  Catholic  Emancipation  (g.  i\). 

Emancipation,  Proclamation  of:  the  most  important 
document  ever  penned  by  a  President  of  the  U.  S. ;  isvsued 
by  President  Lincoln,  Sept.  22,  1862,  as  a  notice  to  the  Con- 
federates to  return  to  their  allegiance,  emancipation  of  the 
slaves  being  proclaimed  as  a  result  which  would  follow  their 
failure  so  to  return.  The  real  Proclamation  of  Emancipa- 
tion was  the  supplementary  document  of  Jan.  1, 1863.  Tnis 
act  was  simply  a  war-measure,  based  solely  upon  the  Presi- 
dent's authority  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and 
navy. 

Proclamation  of  Emancipation. 

I,  Abraham  Lincoln,  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
Commander-in-c;hief  of  the  Army  and  Navy  thereof,  do 
hereby  proclaim  and  declare  that  hereafter,  as  heretofore, 
the  war  will  be  prosecuted  for  the  object  of  practically  re- 


storing the  constitutional  relation  between  the  United  Stat<>s 
and  the  people  thereof  in  those  States  in  which  that  rela- 
tion is,  or  may  be,  suspended  or  disturbed ;  that  it  is  my 
purpose  upon  the  next  meeting  of  Congress  to  again  recom- 
mend the  adoption  of  a  practical  measure  tendering  pti-ii- 
niary  aid  to  tne  free  acceptance  or  rejection  of  all  the  slave 
States,  so  called,  the  people  whereof  may  not  then  be  in  re- 
bellion against  the  United  States,  and  which  States  may 
then  have  voluntarily  ailopted,  or  thereafter  may  voluntar- 
ily adopt,  the  immediate  or  gradual  abolishment  of  slavery 
within  their  respective  limits,  and  that  the  effort  to  colonize 
persons  of  African  descent,  with  their  consent,  upon  the 
continent  or  elsewhere,  with  the  previously  obtained  con- 
sent of  the  government  existing  there,  will  be  continued ; 
that  on  the  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-three,  all  pers<ms 
held  as  slaves  within  any  State,  or  any  designated  part  of 
a  State,  the  people  whereof  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against 
the  United  States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and  for- 
ever FREE ;  and  the  military  and  naval  authority  theivof 
will  recognize  and  maintain  the  freedom  of  such  pers<»ns, 
and  will  do  no  act  or  acts  to  repress  such  persons,  or  any  of 
them,  in  any  efl!orts  they  may  make  for  actual  freedom : 
that  the  Executive  will,  on  the  first  day  of  January  afore- 
said, by  proclamation,  designate  the  States  and  parts  of 
States,  if  any,  in  which  the  people  thereof  respectively  shall 
then  be  in  rebellion  against  the  United  States ;  and  the  fact 
that  any  State,  or  the  people  thereof,  shall  on  tliat  day  U? 
in  good  faith  represented  in  the  Congress  of  the  Uniteil 
States  by  members  chosen  thereto,  at  elections  wherein  a 
majority  of  the  (j[ualified  voters  of  such  State  shall  have  par- 
ticipated, shall,  m  the  absence  of  strong  countervailing  tes- 
timony, be  deemed  conclusive  evidence  that  such  State  and 
the  people  thereof  have  not  been  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  States. 

That  attention  is  hereby  called  to  an  act  of  Congress  en- 
titled "An  act  to  make  an  additional  article  of  war,"  ap- 
S roved  March  13, 1862,  and  which  act  is  in  the  words  and 
gures  following : 

*'  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  the  LTnited  States  of  America,  in  Congress  assemble*!. 
That  hereafter  the  following  shall  be  promulgated  as  an  ati- 
ditional  article  of  war  for  the  government  of  the  Army  of 
the  United  States,  and  shall  be  observed  and  obeyed  as  such : 

"Article — .  All  officers  or  persons  of  the  military'  (»r 
naval  service  of  the  United  States  are  prohibited  from  em- 
ploying any  of  the  forces  under  their  respective  command;* 
for  the  purpose  of  returning  fugitives  from  service  or  Ial>»r 
who  may  have  escaped  from  any  persons  to  whom  such  serv- 
ice or  la'bor  is  claimed  to  be  due  ;  and  any  officer  who  shall 
be  found  guilty  by  a  court  martial  of  violating  this  article 
shall  be  dismissed  from  the  service. 

"  Sec  2.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  this  act  shall 
take  effect  from  and  after  its  passage." 

Also  to  the  ninth  and  tenth  sections  of  an  act  entitled 
"An  act  to  suppress  insurrection,  to  punish  treason  and  re- 
bellion, to  seize  and  confiscate  property  of  rebels,  and  for 
other  purposes,"  approved  July  It,  1862,  which  sections  are 
in  the  words  and  ngures  following : 

"  Sec.  9.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  all  slaves  of  {per- 
sons who  shall  hereafter  be  engaged  in  rebellion  against  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  or  who  shall  in  any  way 
give  aid  or  comfort  thereto,  escaping  from  such  persons  and 
taking  refuge  within  the  lines  of  the  army;  and  all  slaves 
captured  from  such  persons  or  deserted  by  them,  and  com- 
ing under  the  control  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  and  all  slaves  of  such  persons  found  on  (or  beiiu: 
within)  any  place  occupied  by  rebel  forces  and  afterwnn! 
occupied  by  the  forces  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  tleenuti 
captives  of  war,  and  shall  be  forever  free  of  their  servitude 
and  not  again  held  as  slaves. 

"  Sec.  10.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  no  slave  escap- 
ing into  any  State,  Territory,  or  the  District  of  Columbia, 
from  any  of  the  States,  shall  be  delivered  up,  or  in  any  way 
impeded  or  hindered  of  his  lil)erty,  except  for  crime  or  some 
offense  against  the  laws,  unless  the  person  claiming  said 
fugitive  shall  first  make  oath  that  the  person  to  whom  the 
labor  or  service  of  such  fugitive  is  alleged  to  be  due  is  hi-* 
lawful  owner,  and  has  not  been  in  arms  against  the  Unite«i 
States  in  the  present  rebellion,  nor  in  any  way  given  aid  or 
comfort  thereto ;  and  no  person  engaged  in  the  military  or 
naval  service  of  the  United  States  shall,  under  any  preteni^"^ 
whatever,  assume  to  decide  on  the  validity  of  the  claim  of 
any  person  to  the  service  or  labor  of  any  other  person,  or 


82 


EMBALMING 


selyeB  profoundly  alter  the  tissaes  are  (1)  cold ;  (2)  the  disr 
placement  of  the  water  in  the  body  by  some  gum  or  resin ; 
^)  dr3ring;  (4)  saturation  of  the  tissues  by  antiseptics.  The 
durability  of  the  dead  body  will  then  depend  directly  upon 
the  time  during  which  tKe  conditions  antagonistic  to  the 
living  ferments  can  be  maintained.  That  cold  may  pre- 
serve indefinitely  is  shown  by  the  well-known  case  of  the 
extinct  hairy  mammoth  found  in  the  melting  ice  of  Northern 
Siberia*  the  flesh  of  which  was  so  fresh  that  it  was  eaten  by 
dogs  and  wolves.  Insects  in  amber  show  how  complete  ana 
permanent  the  preservation  may  l)e  when  the  water  of  the 
organism  is  replaced  by  a  resinous  substance;  and  every 
large  museum  of  natural  history  contains  specimens  of  great 
antiquity  in  which  the  preservation  is  due  to  complete  dry- 
ing, or  to  a  combination  of  drying  and  antiseptics,  or  to  the 
use  of  antiseptics  alone. 

In  the  historical  consideration  of  embalming  the  mind 
naturally  turns  to  ancient  Egypt  on  account  of  the  extent 
to  which  embalming  was  carried  in  that  country  and  the 
lar^  number  of  bodies,  or  mummies  as  they  are  called, 
which  remain  practically  as  they  were  deposited  in  the 
catacombs  thousands  of  years  ago.  It  is  thought  that  with 
the  Egyptians  the  custom  was  largely  due  to  a  profound  be- 
lief in  the  immortality  of  the  soiu,  which  would  in  some  of 
its  stages  need  the  body  again  for  perfect  development. 

Embalming  as  it  was  practiced  in  Egypt  is  sometimes 
said  to  l>e  a  lost  art.  In  the  sense  that  it  is  no  longer 
practiced,  this  is  true ;  but  the  way  in  which  it  was  done  is 
quite  well  known  from  the  descriptions  of  Herodotus  (484 
B.  c.)  and  Diodorus  Siculus  (44  b.  c),  as  well  as  by  ex- 
aminations of  the  mummies  themselves,  the  last  source  of 
information  being  the  most  satisfactory  in  many  respects,  as 
it  verifies  both  authors  and  gives  much  additional  informa- 
tion. The  process  consisted  in  its  simplest  form  of  desicca- 
tion, with  nttle  or  no  wrappings  or  a  light  smearing  with 
pitch.  In  the  more  elaborate  methods,  aromatics  and  the 
antiseptics  found  in  their  natron  beds  were  used  in  addition 
to  the  drying.  In  the  application  of  the  natron  (a  mixture 
of  8<Mlium  sulphate  and  chloride  and  potassium  nitrate)  a 
strong  brine  was  made  in  which  the  boay  was  soaked,  some- 
times as  long  as  seventy  da3rs.  In  many  but  not  in  all  cases 
of  the  best  embalming  the  abdominal  viscera  were  removed, 
and  in  part  pn*served  separately  or  after  preservation  re- 
tumeii  either  to  the  outside  or  the  inside  of  the  body.  The 
brain  was  in  many  cases  broken  up  and  removed  by  a  curved 
metal  rod  inserted  into  the  skull  through  the  nostrils.  In 
many  cases  the  hair  was  clipped,  but  in  others,  especiallj 
women,  it  was  left  in  tresses  or  arranged  on  the  head  as  is 
still  the  custom.  After  the  pickling  process  the  cavities  of 
the  body  were  often  partly  filled  with  aromatics,  cedar-wood 
dust,  and  dry  earth,  and  in  some  cases  parts  of  the  body  were 
gilded,  es[>ecially  the  nails,  and  artificial  eyes  were  inserted. 
The  body  was  then  wrapped  in  strips  of  linen  cloth  of  vary- 
ing degrees  of  fineness,  and  finally  it  was  desiccated.  S(jm*e- 
times  the  desiccation  precetled  the  wrapping,  as  shown  by 
the  charred  condition  of  the  mummy,  in  other  cases  part  of 
the  wrapping  at  least  preceded  the  drying,  as  indicated  bv 
the  charred  condition  of  the  wrappings  next  the  body;  both 
the  circumstances  just  given  show  that  artificial  heat  was 
used.  Finally  the  wrapped  and  dried  mummy  was  placed 
in  one  or  more  cases  or  coffins  and  then  in  the  perfectly  dry 
catacombs.  Instead  of  the  salting  process  just  described, 
some  of  tlie  mummies  were  embaluuHl  bv  soaking  or  prob- 
ably heating  them  in  pitch,  the  pitch  displacing  the  water 
and  furnishing  also  a  pmtective  covering.  These  mummies 
are  bhuk  and  heavy  and  the  features  scarcely  recognizable, 
while  those  previously  (le^^crilied  are  brown  in  color,  light, 
and  althouj^'h  very  ^'reatly  shrunken,  still  retaining  some 
resemblance  to  the  individuaL  If  one  considers  for  a  mo- 
ment the  principles  given  aliove  on  which  the  preservation 
of  the  \hm\\  (lefx'nds,  it  will  Ik*  <ieen  that  all  the  conditions 
were  fulfilled  by  the  Egyptian  ineth(Ki,  viz.,  the  use  of  anti- 
septics, flesiccatinn,  nie<hanical  protection  by  the  wrappings 
and  coffins,  and  finally  the  dry  catacombs. 

The  Peruvian  niuniniies  were  apparently  simply  desiccated 
by  expo^^ure  to  the  dry  cool  air  of  the  Andes,  by  covering 
them  with  «lry  sand,  or  by  burial  in  calcareous  earth.  In 
such  re<;ions  of  cont  inuous  sunshine  and  dryness,  septic  organ- 
isms are  almost  wholly  absent  from  the  air;  meat  dries  with- 
out l)econiing  tainte<f,  and  wounds  heal  without  the  compli- 
cations known  and  feare<l  in  a  less  pure  atmosfihere.  For 
jH.'rmanence  in  such  situations  mechanical  protection  is  all 
that  is  needed,  and  c«Ttainly  sune  of  the  mummies  of  Peru 
retain  the  featuro  of  the  individual  in  a  condition  as  per- 


fect as  most  of  the  elaborately  preserved  mummies  of  Egypt. 
There  is.  however,  a  certain  weirdness  in  the  appearance  of 
the  Peruvian  mummies,  due  to  their  sitting  posture. 

In  modern  times  the  desire  to  preserve  the  distinguished 
dead,  or  those  especially  beloved,  as  well  as  the  need  of  pre- 
serving the  bodies  of  animals  and  of  men  for  scientific  pur- 
poses, has  made  constant  demand  for  some  means  for  tem- 
porary or  pennanent  preservation,  and  as  the  knowledge  of 
the  causes  or  conditions  under  which  putrefaction  tak<>5 
place  have  been  determined  with  greater  certainty,  so  much 
the  more  perfect  have  been  the  results  obtained,  b^au*^ 
all  the  organs  are  left  intact  and  much  of  the  natural  full- 
ness of  the  body  is  preserved.  The  best  examples  are  tho;** 
saturated  with  and  preserved  in  some  antiseptic  liquid  like 
alcohol.  Such  bodies  are  as  permanent  as  the  vessels  and 
the  liquids  that  contain  them.  If  they  receive  proper  care 
there  seems  to  be  no  end  to  their  permanence,  as  may  be  seen 
by  specimens  in  the  great  museums  of  the  world.  There  are 
also  great  numbers  of  specimens  first  saturated  with  soiim 
antiseptic,  like  alcohol,  mercuric  chloride,  zinc  chloride, 
arsenic  or  some  of  the  essential  oils,  or  by  a  combination  of  tv^  o 
or  more  of  the  above,  then  dried  and  varnished.  Such  dry 
specimens  have  shown  less  tendency  to  deteriorate  in  the 
museums  of  moist  climates  like  that  of  Elngland  than  t  he 
Egyptian  mummies.  For  the  most  permanent  and  perf^ni 
preservation,  the  method  of  nature  in  imbedding  insects  in 
amber  must  be  imitated.  This  is  done  on  a  great  scale  in 
every  biological  laboratory  in  the  world.  The  water  of  the 
specimen  is  displaced  by  alcohol  or  carbolic  acid,  etc.,  and 
then  more  or  less  indirectly  by  the  use  of  turpentine,  oil  of 
cloves,  etc. ;  the  object  is  filled  with  Canada  balsam,  dammar, 
shellac,  etc.,  and  inclosed  in  the  same.  With  a  large  \xn\y, 
like  that  of  a  man,  the  process  would  be  somewhat  ex[>ensive 
and  require  considerable  time ;  but  the  time  and  ex(H-it^- 
would  be  far  less  than  that  attributed  to  the  best  Eg}})tian 
embalming  (seventy  days'  time ;  cost,  $1,0(X)  to  $1,500)'  while 
the  results  would  be  far  superior.  A  body  prepared  in  this 
way  would  require  only  mechanical  protection  to  render  a 
indestructible. 

Most  of  the  embalming  of  human  bodies  at  the  present 
day  is  not  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  them  permanent, 
but  to  preserve  them  in  their  natural  color  and  lulliiesi^  un- 
til arrangements  can  be  made  for  a  funeral  or  during  th*- 
time  necessary  for  transportation  in  case  of  death  away  frMi:i 
home.  The  permanence  depends  on  the  thoroughness  wuh 
which  the  body  is  saturatea  with  the  antiseptics,  and  the 
permanence  of  the  antiseptics  themselves.  As  ordinarily 
accomplished  the  body,  except  the  eyes,  which  becMmie 
greatly  sunken  unless  specially  preservea,  retains  its  natural 
appearance  for  weeks  or  mohtns  if  sealed  in  an  air-ti;:lit 
coffin,  to  prevent  evaporation  and  shrinkage.  A  b<Kly  lim*^ 
embalmed,  if  it  were  slowly  dried,  would  retain  far  gn-at^^r 
naturalness  than  most  of  the  Egyptian  mummies  |)osn<^>. 

The  method  for  temporarily  embalming  the  dead  is  v(  r\ 
simple.  As  it  is  necessary  to  saturate  all  the  tissues  with 
the  antiseptic,  a  solution  is  made  and  injected  slowly  intotht 
arteries  (method  of  Ruvsch  and  William  Hunter).  A  \vui 
is  opened  to  allow  the  blood  to  escape  and  to  aid  in  <ieter- 
mining  when  the  system  is  filled.  The  injection  Is  iisuaih 
continued  till  the  embalming  liquid  runs  out  of  the  vein.  It 
is  usually  better  to  inject  part  of  the  required  amount  an«! 
then  the* remainder  after  several  hours.  After  the  arterin; 
injection  the  thorax  is  filled  through  a  hollow  needle  pas>e<i 
through  the  body  wall,  and  by  the  same  means  any  uas  or 
liquid  in  the  abdomen  or  any  of  its  organs  is  drawn  off  an  i 
the  abdominal  cavity  filled  with  the  antiseptic.  The  with- 
drawal of  gas  and  the  injection  of  the  liquid  into  the  al*- 
domen  may  need  to  be  repeated.  For  an  adult  from  2  to  4 
quarts  of  embalming  liquid  usually  suffices.  Very  si>t>n  aft*— 
the  arterial  and  other  injections  all  odor  of  decomj>*iMtio:. 
will  disappear,  for  the  antiseptics  will  destroy  the  putrvfa^.- 
tive  ferments,  and  thus  cut  off  the  possibility  of  their  furt  h.  r 
action.  If  the  body  is  to  be  kept  for  a  considerable  tiuir , 
all  but  the  face,  neck,  and  hands  are  wrapped  or  bantiai>it 
with  strips  of  cloth  saturated  with  the  antiseptic  To  pn  - 
vent  the  sinking  of  the  eyelids,  thin  shelb  of  wax  (**  eye  c«J'^  " 
are  put  under  the  lids. 

Tne  substances  used  for  teniporary  embalmment  are  mer- 
curic chloride  (introduced  by  (Jhaussier  about  1800),  arstr.i. 
(introduce<^l  by  Tranchina,  of  Naples,  1835),  zinc  chloride  air- 
troduced  by  Sucquet,  about  1840).  In  the  publishe<l  U  r- 
mulae  of  embalming  fluids  two  or  more  of  the  ahi»ve  an- 
usually  employed.  Sodium  chloride  or  common  salt  is  aS 
an  ingredient,  and  instead  of  water  alone  as  a  solvent,  ^-.^  • 


I 


84 


EMBIOTOCID^ 


EMBROIDERY 


less  than  three  years  of  penal  servitude,  or  else  by  impris- 
onment at  hara  labor  for  a  fixed  period.  In  the  civil  law 
embezzlement  is  recognized  as  a  wrong,  subjecting  him  who 
commits  it  to  an  action  for  damages  or  other  proceeding  by 
way  of  reparation.  A  salvor  may  forfeit  his  share  of  sal- 
vage compensation  by  embezzlement;  the  forfeited  share 
accrues,  not  to  the  other  members  of  his  class,  but  to  the 
owner  of  the  property  saved.  T.  W.  Dwioht. 

Embiotoe'ldn  fderiv.  of  Embiotoea^  the  typical  genus, 
from  Gr.  If/i^ios,  living  +  rUos,  offspring] :  a  remarkable 
familv  of  fishes  limited  to  the  Northern  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
especially  represented  on  the  shores  of  the  U.  S.,  and  dis- 
tinguished by  their  vivinarity.  It  belongs  to  the  order 
TeleoeephaliMiii  sub-oraer  Acanthopteri,  The  body  is 
compressed  and  oblong ;  the  scales  are  cycloid  and  of  mod- 
erate size,  and  cover  the  entire  trunk  as  well  as  head :  on 
the  back  they  form  a  sheath  of  from  one  to  three  rows  wide 
at  the  base  of  the  dorsal  fin ;  this  sheath  diminishes  back- 
ward to  the  end  of  the  fin,  and  is  separated  from  the  back 
by  a  well-defined  groove ;  the  lateral  line  is  continuous,  and 
parallel  with  the  back ;  the  head  is  compressed  and  moder- 
ate ;  the  nostrils  double ;  the  eyes  lateral ;  the  mouth  has  a 
moderate  or  slight  lateral  cleft ;  the  lips  simple,  and  more 
or  less  developed ;  the  teeth  are  present  on  the  jaws,  but  ab- 
sent from  the  palate ;  the  branchial  apertures  are  ample,  and 
continuous  below ;  branchiostegal  rays  five  or  six  on  each 
side ;  the  dorsal  fin  is  oblong,  and  modified  in  two  ways, 
severally  characteristic  of  distinct  sub-families;  the  anal 
fin  is  oblong,  and  armed  in  front  with  three  slender  spines ; 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  anal  fin  is  developed  in  a  pecul- 
iar way  as  a  conduit  for  the  milt  and  eggs ;  tne  pectoral  fins 
are  produced  and  more  or  less  angulated,  and  the  ravs 
branched ;  the  ventrals  are  inserted  behind  the  bases  of  the 
pectorals,  and  each  has  a  spine  and  five  branched  rays ;  the 
vertebral  column  has  an  increased  number  of  vertebne ;  the 
lower  pharyngeal  bones  are  confiuent  together ;  the  stomach 
is  simple,  and  pyloric  caetca  are  absent.  The  family  exhibits 
two  distinct  modifications  of  structure;  in  one  (Emhioto- 
cifUB)  the  dorsal  has  its  spinous  portion  rather  less  developed 
than  the  soft,  and  only  composed  of  from  nine  to  eleven 
spines.  In  the  other  {ffyaieroearpiiue)  the  dorsal  has  the 
spinous  portion  much  longer  than  the  soft,  and  sustained  by 
about  fifteen  or  more  spines.  (1)  The  EmbiotocincB  are  by 
far  the  most  numerous  m  forms,  and  the  species  are  marine. 
By  American  naturalists  fourteen  genera  are  admitted — viz., 
Ditrema,  Jlypsunia,  Phanerodon,  Emhiotoca^  Tmniotoca^ 
Damaliehthys,  Rhacochilus^  Amphistichus^  Uolconotuf^  Cy- 
matogaster^  Hypocritichihya^  Hyperprosopon^  Brachyistius^ 
and  Abeona,  (2)  The  Hyaterocarpincp  are,  as  far  as  known, 
represented  by  but  one  species  {Hyaierocarpua  traakii)^ 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  fresh  waters  of  the  Sacramento 
river.  All  the  species  are  viviparous,  and  the  young  are 
develope<l  in  small  number  in  special  uterine  sacs.  Some 
of  the  species  are  among  the  most  common  of  the  Califor- 
nian  fishes,  and  are  brought  to  the  markets  in  large  numbers ; 
they  are  known  to  the  inhabitants  by  the  name  of  perch,  al- 
though they  have  no  relation  whatever  with  the  perches 
properly  so  called  of  Europe  and  the  Eastern  U.  S.  On  the 
whole,  they  are  mostlj  nearly'  related  to  the  LabridcB  and 
Gerrid(By  but  their  differential  characters  are  very  positive. 

Theodobe  Gill. 

Embla :  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  first  woman  on 
earth.  Usually  explained  as  derived  from  o/m,  German 
Ulme^  English  elm. 

Emblazonry :  See  Heraldry. 

Emblem  [from  Ijat.  emble'ma^  mosaic  work,  inlaid  work, 
ornament  =  (ir.  I^AT^fw,  insertion  ;  iv,  in  +  3aXfir,  throw] : 
a  figurative  representation  which  by  the  power  of  associa- 
tion suggests  to  the  mind  some  idea  not  expressed  to  the 
eve  ;  a  symlx)! ;  a  tyi>e ;  thus  a  balance  is  an  emblem  of  jus- 
tice. In  bibliograpny,  the  book  of  emblems  is  a  book  con- 
taining a  series  of  plHti-s  or  pic'tun»s  of  emblematic  subjects, 
with  explanations,  as  the  poems  of  Jacob  Cats. 

EmblementR  [O.  Fr.  emblnemeni,  deriv.  of  emblaer^  sow 
with  grain  :  Ital.  imbiadnre  :  ().  Fr.  blef  >  Mo<l.  Fr.  W^, 
wheat  <  Lat.  abln'tum,  what  is  carried  from  the  field, 
grain] :  the  growing  crof)s  of  cereal  grains  and  vegetables 

Srodiice<l  annually,  not  spontaneously,  but  by  labor  and  in- 
ustry.  By  the  common  law  a  tenant  for  life,  or  other  ten- 
ant, whose  estate  depends  on  an  uncertain  event,  is  entitled 
to  the  emblements,  although  his  lease  may  terminate  before 
harvest-time.     If  a  tenant  for  life  die,  his  personal  repre- 


sentatives may  after  his  death  claim  the  products  of  hbt 
labor.  But  if  a  term  be  brought  to  a  close  by  the  volantar> 
act  of  the  tenant,  he  is  not  entitled  to  the  emblements. 

Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allbn. 

Em'blica  offlclna'lis  [for  etymolog^y  of  embliea  cf.  Pers. 
cmUhf  Skr.  dmalaka^  the  name  of  this  tree] :  a  species  of 
trees  of  the  natural  order  EuphorbiacetB ;  a  native  of  India 
and  the  Malay  Archipelago.  It  produces  a  small  round 
fruit,  which  is  very  acid,  nas  medicinal  properties,  and  is 
used  to  make  pickles.  The  wood  is  hard  and  valuable. 
The  bark  is  usea  for  tanning  and  for  dyeing  cotton  black. 

Embolism  [from  Gr.  i/ifioXiff/tSs,  intercalation ;  iw,  in  •«- 
3aXcir,  throw] :  in  the  calendar,  an  intercalation  of  a  day,  as 
Feb.  29  in  leap-year,  or  of  a  lunar  month,  as  in  the  Greek 
and  Hebrew  calendars. 

Embolism,  in  patholo^,  is  the  presence  of  any  foreign 
substance  (emboluaX,  being  usually  a  portion  of  a  clot  of 
blood  in  the  circulating  blood.  EmlK)li  frequently  come 
from  the  heart,  where  blood  clots  are  common  and  the  bl<KMi 
is  much  agitated.  Embolism  in  the  brain  is  a  recogniz(><l 
cause  of  apoplexy.  An  extensive  embolism  of  the  lungs 
may  lead  to  sudden  death ;  a  smaller  one  may  lead  to  local 
pneumonia,  abscess,  pyaemia,  or  gangrene.  When  air  enters 
the  veins  through  wounds  or  other  paths,  it  circulates  as  an 
embolus  and  has  frequently  caused  sudden  death.  Embtv 
lism,  though  frequently  fatal,  is  sometimes  followed  by  re- 
covery. The  best  treatment  is  the  frequent  administration 
of  concentrated  food  and  stimulants,  keeping  the  patient  in 
fresh  air,  and  allaying  irritation  by  opiates. 

Revised  by  William  Pkpper. 

Embolite:  a  chloro-bromide  of  silver,  found  in  the  silver 
ores  of  Mexico  and  Chili. 

Embossing  [from  deriv.  of  0.  Fr.  boce  >  Mod.  Fr.  6o*v, 
boil,  swelling  :  Ital.  bozza  :  Span,  bocha ;  borrowed  from 
Teutonic ;  cf.  M.  H.  Genu  butze^  lump] :  the  raising  of  parts 
of  a  surface  in  relief  above  the  other  parts,  usuauv  for  or- 
namental purposes.  The  term  is  usually  limitea  to  the 
beating  up  of  thin  plates  or  sheets  of  metal,  or  the  molding 
of  leather,  moistened  paper,  or  the  like,  rather  than  to  re- 
lief cut  in  marble  or  stone  or  cast  in  plaster  or  sulphur.  It 
is  also  applied  to  embroidery  in  which  the  pattern  is  raised 
above  the  surface  of  the  stuff.  See  Chasing,  Relikf,  and 
Repouss^  Work.  Russell  Sturois. 

Embracery  [from  O.  Fr.  embraser,  set  on  fire] :  in  law, 
the  offense  of  endeavoring  to  corrupt  or  bribe  a  jury  or  t4» 
infiuence  a  jury  by  anjr  corrupt  motive.  This  offense  is 
punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment. 

Embrasare  [deriv.  of  embraaer,  ebraaer^  to  splay,  cham- 
fer] :  in  fortification,  an  opening  made  in  the  parapet  of  a 
fortified  place  or  the  breastwork  of  a  battery  througn  which 
the  guns  are  pointed.  The  embrasures  are  usually  mnd«' 
about  2  feet  wide  at  the  interior  extremity  or  neck^  and  half 
as  thick  as  the  parapet  at  the  exterior  crest.  The  sole  or 
lower  surface  is  at  the  height  of  about  2^  feet  above  the 
platform  on  which  the  carriage  of  the  gun  is  placed.  The 
object  of  such  embrasures  is  to  shield  as  much  as  possible 
the  interior  of  the  place,  and  yet  leave  space  for  the  free  ac- 
tion of  the  gun. 

Embroidery  [from  0.  Fr.  embroder,  deriv.  of  a  subst.  ap- 
pearing in  Ital.  bordo,  Fr.  bord,  border,  hem,  outer  e<lge.  a 
loan-word  from  Teutonic ;  cf .  0.  II.  Germ,  bort] :  needle- work 
upon  textile  material,  leather,  or  the  like,  with  which  are 
sometimes  combined  applied  pieces  of  colored  material, 
feathers,  jewels,  or  even  pieces  of  looking-glass.  The  obj«H*i 
of  embroidery  is  usually  decoration,  but  names  and  initials 
are  often  worked  upon  articles  of  clothing,  etc.,  for  conven- 
ience, and  heraldic  bearings  and  other  (ievices,  who^e  pur- 
pose is  only  in  a  secondary  sense  decorative,  have  often  bevn 
embroidered.  In  the  nineteenth  century  embroidery  has 
been  much  in  use  at  times  for  women*s'  garmcntj«,  an<l  at 
others  almost  wholly  abandoned,  except  that  done  witli 
linen  thread  on  undergarments,  which  has  never  gone  out 
of  fashion  altogether.  The  colored  embroidery  which  ha> 
been  used  the  most  commonly  and  for  the  greatest  length  of 
time  during  the  nineteenth  century  is  that  of  India  shawls, 
called  Kashmir  shawls,  and  often,  erroneously,  oamels*-hair 
shawls.  Apart  from  these,  women  of  European  race  some- 
times use  embroidery  in  color  on  gowns  or  other  outer  gar- 
ments of  silk  or  other  un washable  material,  sometimes  em- 
broidery in  crewels  on  cotton  or  linen,  and  sometimes  white 
embroidery  on  white;  but  none  of  these  fashions  is  lastinLT. 
At  times  it  is  considered  elegant  to  have  curtains  embnud- 


EMBRYOLOGY 


1y  known  aa  the  maluralion  of  Iht  oeum. 
These  phenomena  take  place  while  the  egg  is  still  withm 
the  ovfU7,  and  consist  ussentititly  of  a  repeated  vcrv  unequal 
diviaioH  o(  the  germinal  vesicle  or  nucleus,  resulting  in  the 


Fro.  S. — Unlmprenuted  on 
exiMiMl  tnembnuie  nr  u 

Mpulsion  from  the  ovum  of  two  minute  particles,  thepolar 
bodies,  whose  significance  is  still  uncertain.  The  ongiosl 
germinal  vusiclu  is  replatcd  by  a  new  body  known  as  the 
female  pronvclea*;  alter  the  eitrusion  of  the  ^Jar  bodies 
and  Ihe  appearance  of  the  pronucleus,  the  oTum  b  ready  for 
the  reception  of  the  male  element.  Maturation  takes  place 
in  every  completely  developed  ovum,  irrespective  of  the  pos- 
Bibility  of  future  impregnation. 

Concrplion  or  terlilization  of  the  ovum  follows  the  union 
of  the  ripe  egg  with  the  spermatozoon  under  favorable  con- 


^^iEuft 


lacuUu    A  ihowaap- 
,  alDirle  Bpennatic  Ala 

IB  underjiol  uj;  chuic« 

ditions.  This  union  probably  takes  plaio  in  the  human 
subject  in  the  upper  third  of  the  oviduct,  or  Fallopian  tube, 
the  impregnated  egg  subspijuently  passing  into  Ihe  uterus  to 
form  the  attachments  est^ntiol  for  the  nutrition  of  the 
embryo  during  its  development  within  the  mother.  When 
conception  is  alnrnt  to  take  place,  the  male  clement  pene- 
trates the  envelopes  of  the  ovum  and  within  the  vitellua 
gives  rise  to  the  mate  pronueUaa ;  this  t>ody  a|mroaches  the 
previously  formeil  female  prowielni*.  the  two  tinally  fusing 
to  produce  a  new  structure,  the  seamenMioH  niielfus.  the 
immediate  element  in  which  the  formation  of  the  future 
embryo  begins.    The  new  being  therefore  originates  from  a 


'■  BttfT  fprtfllzatkin  ;  ak  and  ek.  the  mote  and 


cell  which  results  from  Ihe  fusion  of  the  sexual  elements  of 
AoM  piir«n<ii.  and  which  cnnlain4  the  potcntialitieacontribntcd 
by  both  father  and  mother.  In  the  history  of  conception. 
OS  now  understood,  is  found  the  explanation  of  the  striking 


transmission  to  the  offspring  of  the  characteristics  of  both 
parents  which  often  seems  so  remariiable. 

In  all  instances,  without  exception,  the  first  indicaliun  of 
the  commencing  formation  of  the  embryo  in  the  ovum  is 


the  establishment  of  eeffmenlation.  whereby  the  original  cell 
becomes  divided  by  repeated  cleavage  into  innumerable 
smaller  elements  from  which  are  derived  the  various  tis.Mii--' 
and  the  organs  of  the  new  being.  This  process  consist."  in 
the  separation  of  the  aegmentaiion  nudeut  into  two  smaller 
nuclei,  the  division  bein^  occomimnied  Irr  a  corresponding 
constriction  and  separation  of  the  cell-body  or  the  vitcllus 
into  segmentnliuH  spheres  bv  the  appearance  of  a  furrow  run- 
ning arounil  the  vitelliis  like  an  equator,  which  graduallv 
devjiens  until  it  has  com|)lc1cly  separated  the  two  hemi' 
spheres  from  each  other.  At  the  same  time,  or  a  Lttle  latrr, 
a  second  furrow,  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  first,  run' 
around  the  viteltus  in  another  direction  ;  and  thus  the  Iwu 
secondary  globules  are  divided  into  four.  By  a  reiiciiiiun 
of  this  process  the  oriKinal  cell,  which  hod  the  form  of  a 
simple  sphere,  becomes  converted  into  an  agf^gation  of 
ugmenlation  spheres,  which  from  its  external  appeBnui<« 
is  known  as  the  morula,  or  mulberry  mass. 


Fig.  T.— DiOKnun  o       . .     . 

area  ;  C.  enloderm  ;  D, » „. 

uUr  ka;er  ot  Rauber'l  cetlB  (ifler  Bonne 

The  compMe  and  practically  equal  srgmentation  of  tho 
mammalian  ovum  results  in  the  production  of  a  holliiw 
sphere.  Ihe  Maslodermie  remcle,  which  in  its  eariy  sta|>i'  t> 
composed  of  two  cell-layers,  a  complete  external,  and  an  in- 
complete inner  stratum.  Within  a  limited  tifid  known  oji 
the  germinal  area  the  elements  composing  Ihise  layers  un- 
dergo proliferation,  which  process  results  in  a  marked  Ihii-k- 
ening  of  the  blastoderm.  Coincident  with  these  chonct^  a 
Ihini  stratum  ot  cells  appears  between  the  outer  and  Ih.' 
inner  layers;  these  now  constitute  the  eonlinol  embrT<iti»l 
formative  tracts,  the  eeloderm.  the  rttlodrrm.  and  the  nrjio- 
lUrm.  From  the  establishment  of  these jjrmtmi^  layerti  thi- 
future  history  ot  the  embryo  consists  essentially  la  the  un- 


EMBRYOLOGY 


during  embrjonio  lite  which  will  require  a  Turther  descrip- 

The  fltst  of  these  is  kDOwn  as  tlie  umbilical  regieU.  In 
the  process  ot  development,  as  already  deBcribod,  the  ab- 
dominal walls,  growing  together  upon  the  median  line, 
inclose  direclly  the  whole  of  the  vitelline  oarity,  which 
aubaequentir,  ot  course,  becomes  the  cavity  of  the  intes- 
tine. But  ID  many  of  the  fishes  and  reptiles,  and  in  all 
birds  and  maramHle,  the  abdominal  walls  approach  each 
other  before  thev  have  embraced  the  whole  of  the  vilellus, 
BO  that  the  vitelline  cavity  is  thus  .separated,  by  a  kind  of 
constriction,  into  two  parts.  The  internal  part,  which  is 
fuUf  embraced  by  the  abdominal  walla,  is,  as  before  men- 
tioned, the  cavity  of  the  intestine ;  but  the  external  part, 
which  is  left  by  this  constricti<in  outside  the  abdomen,  is 
the  umbilical  vesicle.  This  name  is  given  to  it  because  it 
is  really  a  vesicle,  containing  some  of  the  remains  of  the 
vitcltus,  and  because  it  still  cotninunicates  with  the  cavity 
of  the  intestine  through  the  umbilicus  or  navel.  This  com- 
munication is  at  first  short  and  wide ;  but  as  development 
Kroceeds,  the  umbilical  vesicle  gradually  retreats  farther 
'om  the  alxlomcn,  while  the  passage  of  communication  be- 
comes converted  into  a  comparativoly  long  and  narrow 
canal.  In  many  mammals  and  in  the  human  species  this 
canal  is  partially  obliterated  at  an  early  period,  so  that  the 
umbilicaJ  vesicle  then  forms  an  isolated  cavity  or  sac,  coii- 
neot«d  with  the  abdomen  only  by  a  slender  solid  pedicle. 
In  the  earlier  stages  blood-vessels  run  out  along  this  pedicle, 
and  ramify  upon  the  surface  of  the  umbilical  vesicle. 

Another  important  accessory  organ  of  the  embryo  is  the 
amnion.  This  is  a  delicate  anil  transparent  membrane, 
which  turns  up  from  the  edges  of  the  body  walls  over  the 
back  of  the  embryo,  and  thus  envelops  it  in  a  secondary 
cavity  called  the  "sac  of  the  amnion":  the  albuminous 
protective  liquid  which  it  contains,  and  in  which  the  embryo 
IS  bathed,  is  called  the  "  amniotic  fiuid."  The  amnion  is  ac- 
cordingly an  extension  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  blastoder- 
mic membrane,  and  Is  continuous  with  the  integument  of 
the  embryo  at  the  umbilical  orifice.  In  other  words,  the  ex- 
ternal layer  of  the  blastodermic  membrane  in  these  cases 
develops  into  two  different  parts ;  that  which  immediately 
ests  the  body  of  the  embryo  is  its  integument,  while  that 


The  amnion  at  first  closely  embraces  the  body  of  the  em- 
bryo, but  afterward  it  expands  more  rapidly  with  the  in- 
crease of  the  amniotic  Quid,  so  that  the  young  animal  may 
move  freely  within  its  cavity  when  the  muscular  system  be- 
gins to  exhibit  signs  of  activity. 

The   third   accessory  embryonic  organ   is  the  allanlois, 
so  called  from  the  Greek  iuiu,  iuuroi,  a  "sausage,"  be- 
cause of  its  elongated  cylindrical  form  In  some  cases.    The 
allantois  is  an  outgrowth  from  the  hind-pit  or  lower  part 
of  the  intestine.     It  shows  itself  where  typically  developed, 
but  not  in  the  human  embryo,  as  a  small  bud  or  diverticu- 
lum, shaped  somewhat  like  the  finger  of  a  glove,  which  pro- 
trudes  from   the  abdominal   opening  in   front,   and   then 
rapidly  expands  in  every  direction  until  it  has  entirely  en- 
veloped the  embryo,  as  well  as  the  amnion,  in  a  second  ex- 
terior covering.    Laterits  waits  are  exceedingly  vascular;  by 
thr  time  the  allantois  has  become  completely  formed,  the  ex- 
ternal surface  of  the  embryonic  mass  forms  a  continuous 
vascular      membrane,      in 
which  the   blood-vessels  of 
the  embryo  ramify  in  great 
abundance. 

This  anatomical  feature 
will  serve  to  Indicate  the 
usefulness  and  the  function 
of  the  allantois.  It  is  the 
I  organ  of  nourishment  and 
respiration  for  the  embryo. 
In  the  fowl's  egg  the  allan- 
tois. which  is  plated  imme- 
w,^   lo     irn.k™nn».   1.1  1.™.!..   diately  undenicHth  the  cal- 

'^''■..'i:::?"i?7?,''T'^.y*'^??."L*  c«r(Hiussh..iUti,i«hpii-,„i.n,- 


■e  during 


^   of   i  lieu  I  ml  Ion.      It  atisorbs 
oxygen   from   the    external 

air  throuiih  the  porous  egc-shell,  and  exhales  tsrimnic  acid, 
thus  s>-rving  to  re-iovale  and  ari(-riHli?:e  the  bloml  ns  the 
lungs  will  <lo  in  Ihe  young  chick  after  being  hutched.     In 


mammals  the  allantois  is  still  more  important.  The  ovum 
in  these  Aiimals  being  of  minute  size,  without  any  abund- 
ant store  of  nutritious  material,  and  being  retained,  after 
fecundation,  within  the  body  of  the  female  parent,  the  you nir 
embryo  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the  maternal  system  both 
for  respiration  and  nourishment.  The  vascular  allantois 
here,  enveloping  the  embryo,  comes  in  contact  with  the 
vascular  lining  membrane  of  the  uterus,  and  thus  the  blool- 
vesscls  of  the  embryo  constantly  absorb  from  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  mother  the  substances  requisite  for  its  nour- 
ishment and  growth.  In  many  kinds  of  animals  the  allan- 
tois even  contracts  a  more  or  less  intimate  adhesion  with  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  uterus  at  particular  spoCa.  resulting 
in  the  formation  of  the  pioftnta,  where  the  process  of  »>>- 
sorption  and  transudation  is  carried  on  witii  greater  rapiililv. 

In  the  human  species  the  allantois  commences  its  growt'h 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Inferior  animals,  but  very 
soon  exhibits  certain  modifications  in  its  subsequent  de- 
velopment. In  man  the  allantois  never  exists  as  a  free  sac, 
but  grows  out  largely  as  a  solid  structure  which  early  par- 
ticipates in  the  formation  of  a  continuous  vascular  envelope. 
the  chorion. 

The  human  chorion  at  an  early  period  becomes  ihu;gy  or 
velvety  by  the  growth  of  a  muhitude  of  minute  fllaihen- 
tous  projections  or  d'Hi  upon  Its  outer  surface.  These  pro- 
jections become  branched  and  divided,  forming  so  manv 
tufted  filaments,  which  greatlv  favor  absorption.  S"tiii 
after  tlie  first  month,  however,  the  villi  cease  their  growth 
over  about  three-quarters  of  the  surface  of  the  chorion. 
which  parts  thus  become  smooth  and  bald ;  while  over  the 
remalnmg  quarter  they  grow  more  rapidly  than  before,  be- 


coming excess!  velv  developed  both  In  numbers  and  in  ramifi- 
cation and  vascularity,  so  that  the  chorion  here  becomp^i 
converted  into  a  thicliened  and  spongy  mass,  penetrate^l 
everywhere  with  an  abundance  of  looped  and  ramifyiiii: 
blood-vessels.  The  union  of  this  portion  of  the  cho'ri'>n 
with  the  maternal  tissues  of  the  ulerine  walls  when  fully 
developed  forma  a  distinct  organ,  the  plaemfa.  The  pla- 
centa, accordinglv,  is  the  e3|iecutl  organ  of  nourishment  for 
the  embrvo.  It  nas  become  well  developed  and  easily  disi- 
tinguishable  from  the  remaining  portions  of  the  chorion  bv 
the  end  of  the  tliird  month  of  embryonic  life. 

The  amnion  and  the  chorion,  although  termed  "  mem- 
branes"and  "appendages."  are  in  reality  connerted  with 
the  body  of  the  embryo.  The  placenta  includes  also  a  por- 
tion of  the  tissues  of  the  mother;  for  at  the  same  time  Ihnt 
the  chorion  is  becoming  excessively  sha^Qr  and  vascular  at 
the  spot  at  which  is  afterward  lo  be  the  pttuvtitA.  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  uterus  also  assumes,  at  (he  correspond  I  nfr 

C Dint,  a  similar  increased  development.  In  bolh  cases  th(> 
lood-vcBsels  preponderate  over  the  remainine  tissues,  the 
existing  maternal  vascular  channels  especi^y  becomltitr 
enormously  enUrged  and  Intimately  unite<l  with  the  fofliU 
constituents  of  the  placenta— I  he  vascular  villi  of  the  chorion. 
Thus  the  placenta,  when  fully  formed,  is  a  double  oi^n, 
containuig  both  embryonic  and  maternal  veswis,  present- 


90 


EMBRYOLOGY 


The  aseinal  generation  develops  from  the  lertilized  egg- 
cell  much  more  direcllj,  but  Btill  there  is  a  distinct  emlirj- 
onic  stage,  ciinsbting  of  an  elongateil  moBS  of  growing  c^tls 
(Pig.  4(.  This  eventuatlf  develops  into  the  stalked  sporo- 
earp  with  its  complex  structure. 


I,  a  Bp.ire  of  a  ina»  IFunaria  hmmaietrici'i  beglniiliig  lo 
ilnal*:  B  and  C.  Kerminnlion  further  Bdvuiii^ed  ;  D.  proto- 

uB-^  wilh  twn  biidB  ral  (.),  from  which  K^afy  shoots  wiH  grow  : 

E.  (Unbrjo  of  awiual  ploiib  of  Ihe  Hame  moBB. 

In  the  Kemworta  upon  the  gerniinalion  of  the  spore  a  suc- 
cession of  embryonic  stages  is  pas.-ied  before  the  sexual 
pUnt  attains  its  adult  form  (Fig.  5,  A).     The  asexual 


5,  B)  consisting  o(  eijtht  ceils,  from  one  of  which  ae 
the  stem,  from  another  the  cotjledon,  from  still  another 
the  root,  while  one  produces  a  temporary  structure,  the  foot 
(an  o^ptn  of  suction  which  remains  in  the  archegone).  In 
the  Oymnosperros  the  sexual  generation  is  still  a  mass  of 
tissue  of  consiilerable  size,  but  as  compared  with  the  pri>- 
thallium  of  ferns  or  the  oSpbore  of  Bryophytes  it  must  be 
regarded  as  embryonic.  It  develops  from  the  macrospore 
(embryo-sac)  by  continued  subdivision,  resulting  in  an  ovoid 


! oospore)  by  the  subdirision  of  the  Utter,  resulting  in  the 
onuation  of  several  long,  tortuous  filaments,  the  true  ends 
of  which  give  rise  to  cell-musses,  one  of  which  increases  in 
sije,  becomes  cylindrical,  and  eventually  produces  a  whorl 
of  leaves  (the  cotyledons)  at  one  end  and  the  primary  root 
at  the  other.  After  the  young  plant  is  free  from  the  seed- 
coats  its  successive  nodes  produce  more  iierteclly  fornied 
leaves,  while  the  structure  of  the  slem  liceomes  more  com- 
plex. 

In  Aneriosperms  tlie  sexual  generation  (oJiiihorc)  is  still 
more  nidimentary  than  in  Qymnnsj>erms,  and  it  imdergocs 
this  interesting  modification,  that  its  development  is  actu- 
ally delayed  until  after  Ihe  egg-cell  is  fertilized,  when  the 
two  generations,  oOphorc  and  sporophore,  develop  simulta- 


levelop 

I ..         s  represonti'd  by  little 

more  tban  the  egg-cell  (oilspherc}.  but  after  the  Fertill: 


Iletore  tlilK  the  oflphor 


of  the  latter  the  macrospore  (embryo-sac)  develops  a  ir 


The  asexual  gencruti 
fertilized  egg-cell  by  a 
the  production  first  of  a 


1  the  Gymnos|ierms.  anil  which 
endosperm. 

I  (sporophore)  develops  from  the 
;ries  of  subdlvisiuns.  resulting  in 
jw  of  more  or  less  elongated  cells, 


tually  forms  a  short 


The  Huspensor  cells   make   i 


with  endosperm  (Bibuminous),  and  without  endosperm  (ex- 
albuminous).     See  ENtHispBBH. 

The  young  plant  upon  emerging  from  the  seed  in  ger- 
mination has  root,  stem,  and  leaves,  but  these  arc  vet  of 
much  simpler  structure  than  in  the  adult  plant.  This  Ls 
well  seen  in  the  leaves  which  appear  successively  u^Hin 
the  stem,  the  earlier  ones  differing:  much  from  the  later.  En 
compound- leaved  plants  Ihe  earlier  leaves  are  simple,  ami 
even  the  first  compound  leaves  are  smaller  and  simpler  than 
those  which  follow. 

This  brief  sketch  of  plant  embryology  is  all  that  can  lie 
given  here.  It  will  serve  to  show  that  in  all  plants  the 
l>eginning  is  a  single  cell,  and  that  the  development  of  the 


omed). 


;  L,  young  embryo  ot  pea  <• 


(the  higher  plants)  go  fartber,  others 
lower  plants)  go  a  shorter  distance. 
LiTEBiTURE. — W.   Hofmeirter,   The  Oerminaiion,  Drrr 


Entwiekehmg  de»  Ktiines  drs  jfonocoiylm  and  Dienlulnt 
(1870);  F.  Hagelmaier,  VfrgUichendt  Inlrrmithtingni  uf'^r 
Entwiel-rlung  dieolylrdonrn  Krime  (IrtTS);  E.  StrasljurK-r. 
Urbfr  Brfruchting  iind  Zelll/>filii»g  (18TB) ;  J.  Ve«iuc.  /W- 
vetoppftnenl  dii  Sar  Embn/onnaire  des  Phanetvffamrji  An- 
gioHuermfH  (18T8-7B);  E.  finignard,  RrehtrehM  d'Embrgt^- 
genie  Vegilate  Comparfe  (18H1-1»2), 

D.  H.  Campbell  has  studied  the  embryology  ot  manv  Pte- 
ridoplytes  1885-93  {Bot.  Oaietle,  Am.  A'o/iirWwr/,  Annalt 
of  Sotany).  Chaki-bs  K.  Bkssky. 


92 


EMERSON 


EjMEjRY 


led  to  some  excesses  and  affectations,  but  was  on  the  whole 
aTaluable  impulse  toward  many  good  thin^.  The  four 
volumes  of  The  Diai  contain  a  lasting  memorial  of  that  im- 
portant seed-time  of  thought. 

Mr.  Emerson's  Essays  were  collected  and  published  in 
two  volumes  in  1841  and  1844,  and  his  Poems  in  1846.  His 
miscellaneous  addresses  remained  uncollected  till  1849,  in 
the  U.  S.,  though  they  had  been  reprinted  collectively  in 
England  in  1844.  Visiting  the  mother  country  in  1847,  Mr. 
Emerson  found  awaiting  him  a  large  circle  of  admirers, 
whose  allegiance  he  always  retained.  In  1850  he  published 
Representatii'e  Men,  given  previously  as  a  course  of  lectures 
in  Boston.  In  1852  hie  took  part  in  preparing  the  memoirs 
of  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli.  tlis  English  Traits  appeared  in 
1856,  The  Conduct  of  Life  in  1860.  and  May-Day  and  other 
Poems,  and  Society  and  Solitude  in  1869. 

Though  Mr.  Emerson  is  often  assigned  to  the  class  of 
metaphysicians  or  "  philosophers/'  yet  the  actual  traits  of 
his  intellect  clearly  rank  him  rather  among  poets  or  literary 
men.  All  his  methods  were  literary  rather  than  scientific, 
although  he  won  some  of  his  warmest  admirers  among  scien- 
tific men,  as  in  the  case  of  Prof.  Tyndall.  His  statements 
are  sometimes  subtle,  sometimes  profound,  sometimes  noble 
and  heroic,  but  scarcely  ever  systematic.  He  rested  in  his 
intuitions,  rarely  attempted  even  the  rudiments  of  method, 
but  constantly  recognized,  in  his  own  words,  "  the  oppo- 
site negations  between  which,  as  with  cords,  our  being  is 
swung." 

In  viewing  Mr.  Emerson  simply  as  a  literarv  artist,  the 
reader  must  still  complain  of  this  tantalizing  iragmentari- 
ness,  this  disregard  of  all  the  unities,  this  structural  defect. 
Even  in  his  poems  his  genius  is  like  an  solian  harp  that 
now  gives,  now  willfully  withholds,  its  music ;  while  some  of 
his  essays  seem  merely  accidental  collections  of  loose  leaves 
from  a  note-book.  Yet  as  one  makes  this  criticism,  one  is 
shamed  into  silence  by  remembering  many  a  passage  of  prose 
and  verse  so  majestic  in  thought  and  rhythm,  of  quality  so 
rare  and  utterance  so  delicious,  as  to  form  a  permanent  ad- 
dition to  the  highest  literature  of  the  human  race. 

Mr.  Emerson  wrote  in  1844  that  all  the  books  read  in  the 
U.  S.  were  European,  that  "  we  are  sent  to  a  feudal  school 
to  learn  democracy  ";  and  demanded  that  his  fellow-country- 
men should  advance  out  of  all  hearing  of  others'  censures, 
out  of  all  regrets  of  their  own,  into  a  new  and  more  excel- 
lent social  state.  More  than  any  previous  literary  man,  he 
set  the  example  of  ignoring  European  traditions,  methods, 
and  literary  properties  wherever  these  could  be  better  super- 
seded by  home  products.  He  drew  his  habitual  illustrations 
from  the  society  and  manners  of  the  U.  S.,  and  was  more 
ready  to  write  of  the  pine  woods  and  the  humble-bee  than 
of  the  nightingale  and  asphodel.  It  seems  hardly  credible 
that  this  should  have  been  ridiculed  by  the  critics  as  "  a 
foolish  affectation  of  the  familiar";  but  the  fact  of  the 
ridicule  shows  the  need  of  the  innovation.  If  that  state  of 
things  has  now  passed  by,  and  if  the  literature  of  the  U.  S. 
is  no  longer  provincial,  it  is  to  Mr.  Emerson  that  it  is  most 
indebted. 

It  is  well  known  that  his  position  on  religious  questions 
was  that  of  a  philosophical  radical,  and  that  he  became  en- 
tirely detached  from  the  church  or^nizations  of  the  time. 
He  took  this  position,  once  for  all,  in  a  sentence  which  at- 
tracted much  attention  in  his  Divinity  Hall  Address :  "  The 
as.suni[)tion  that  the  age  of  inspiration  is  past,  that  the  Bible 
is  clobed,  the  fear  of  degrading  the  character  of  Jesus  by 
representing  him  as  a  man,  indicate  with  sufficient  clearness 
the  falsoliood  of  our  theologv."  His  precise  attitude  as  to 
the  conception  of  a  Deity  and  the  belief  in  personal  immor- 
tality might  be  harder  to  define.  He  dec^res  eloquently, 
however,  in  one  of  his  orations,  that  "  there  is  a  sublime  and 
friendly  Destiny  by  which  the  human  race  is  guided— the 
race  never  dying,  the  individual  never  spared — to  results 
affecting  masses  and  ages." 

Though  Mr.  Emerson  was,  like  Goethe,  a  prophet  of  Self- 
Culture,  he  never  held  himself  aloof,  like  Goethe,  from  the 
immediate  public  agitations  of  his  time,  but  always  prac- 
tically recognized  the  truth  of  his  own  formula,  "  ^o-a&y  is 
a  king  in  disguise."  He  always  lent  his  voice  in  behalf  of 
any  momentous  public  interest.  He  was  always  frankly 
identified  with  tne  anti-slavery  movement,  and,  though 
averse  to  extemporaneous  speech,  and  ill  at  ease  in  that 
form  of  service,  ne  often  took  part  in  the  meetings  of  the 
abolitionists.  In  1844  he  gave  an  elaborate  and  remarkable 
address  on  the  anniversary  of  emancipation  in  the  British 
West  Indies.    He  signed,  with  his  wife,  the  call  for  the  first 


National  Woman's  Rights  Convention  in  1850.  He  wa&(  a 
vice-president  of  the  Free  Relipous  Association,  and  sev- 
eral times  addressed  its  conventions.  He  was  also  an  ov(>r- 
seer  of  Harvard  University,  and  received  from  that  institu- 
tion the  degree  of  doctor  oi  laws  in  1866.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  of  the  Amer- 
ican Philosophical  Society,  and  of  the  Massachusetts  His- 
torical Society. 

Mr.  Emerson  was  twice  married — in  1829,  to  Ellen  Louisa 
Tucker,  of  Concord,  N.  H.,  who  died  in  1881 ;  and  in  1835, 
to  Lidian  Jackson,  of  Plymouth.  He  had  three  children, 
two  daughters  and  one  son.  The  son,  Edward  Waldo,  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  College  in  1866,  and  afterward  pursued 
the  study  of  medicine.  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  died  at  Con- 
cord, Apr.  27,  1882.  See  his  authorized  Life  by  J.  Elliot 
Cabot  (2  vols.,  1887);  also  biographies  by  0.  W.  Holmes, 
George  W.  Cooke,  Richard  Gamett,  and  Alexander  Ireland : 
Conway's  Emerson  Abroad  and  at  Home\  The  Genius  and 
Character  of  Emerson,  edited  by  F.  B.  Sanborn;  E.  B.  Em- 
erson. Emerson  in  Concord ;  D.  G.  Haskins,  Emerson's  Ma- 
ternal Ancestors ;  Correspondence  between  Carlyle  and  Em- 
erson, edited  by  C.  E.  Norton.  T.  W.  Hiooinson. 

Emerton,  Ephraih  :  professor  of  history ;  b.  Feb.  18, 1851, 
at  Salem,  Mass. ;  educateu at  thepublic  schools, and  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1871.  He  spent  two  years  in  journal- 
ism and  the  study  of  law,  and  was  m  Europe  187^76,  spend- 
ing two  years  at  the  universities  of  Berlin  and  Leipzig,  from 
the  latter  of  which  he  received  (1876)  the  degree  Ph.  D.  In 
1876  he  became  instructor  in  History  at  Harvard,  and  in 
1882  received  the  appointment  of  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical 
History.  He  has  published  Synopsis  of  the  History  of  Con- 
tinental Europe ;  The  Study  of  Church  History ;  Sir  Wiil- 
iam  Temple  und  die  tripleaUianz  vom  iahre  1668',  The 
Practical  Method  in  Higher  Historical  Instruction  (in 
Methods  of  Teaching  History,  ed.  by  G.  Stanley  Hall,  2d 
ed.  1885) ;  An  Introauction  to  the  Study  of  MeduBval  His- 
tory (1888-93). 

Emery  [from  Fr.  im^ri  <  O.  Pr.  esmeril  <  Lat.  ^smiri  - 
lis,  from  Gr.  afupis,  <r/Aiipif ,  a  polishing  powder] :  one  of  the 
hardest  minerals  known,  ranking  next  to  the  diamond  in  its 
power  of  cutting  or  abrading  hard  substances.  It  is  a  va- 
riety of  the  species  corundum  or  sapphire,  of  a  dark  rerl- 
dish-brown,  black,  or  ^ay  color,  and  consists  of  nearly  pun* 
alumina  and  oxide  of  iron.  Sapphire  contains  97^  per  cent, 
of  alumina,  and  corundum  about  92  per  cent.  The  percent- 
age in  emery  ranges  from  60  to  78,  with  25  to  35  per  i^ent. 
of  oxide  of  iron,  and  a  few  per  cent,  of  silica  and  of  water. 
Emery  is  found  in  large  masses,  and  much  resembles 
fine-grained  iron  ore,  for  which  it  has  often  been  mis- 
taken. It  is  obtained  chiefly  from  Asia  Minor  and  the 
island  of  Naxos  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  The  chief 
supply  of  foreign  emery  in  the  U.  S.  comes  from  Turkey, 
about  70  miles  from  the  port  of  Smyrna,  where  it  c*osts 
about  $22  per  ton.  It  has  also  been  found  at  Chester. 
Mass.,  where  it  was  at  one  time  mined.  A  better  qual- 
ity of  stone,  properly  called  corundum,  but  serving  the 
same  economic  purposes  as  emery,  has  been  found  in 
Georgia  and  the  Carolinas,  and  an  important  industry  Ims 
sprung  up  in  Rabun  co.,  Ga.,  and  Macon  co.,  N.  C.  The 
production  in  1890  was  1,970  tons,  valued  at  $89,395.  In 
the  same  year  imports  of  crude  rock  amounted  to  3,867  tons, 
valued  at  $97,939,  and  crushed  rock  to  534,968  pounds,  valued 
at  $20,382. 

Emery  is  scarcely  inferior  to  the  sapphire  or  ruby  in 
hardness,  and  it  will  not  only  cut  the  hardest  steel  or 
chilled  castings,  but  will  wear  away  quartz,  a^ate,  topaz, 
and  other  gems,  being  for  the  last-named  purpose  the 
chief  reliance  of  the  lapidary.  It  was  used  by  the  ancient  s. 
for  cutting  gems.  Dioscorides  mentions  it  uiider  the  name 
of  sniyris  as  the  stone  with  which  engraved  gems  are  \nA- 
ished ;  and  there  is  even  a  rabbinical  tradition  which  indi- 
cates that  the  *'smyris"  was  used  for  gem-engraving  in 
the  time  of  Moses.  '  How  far  it  was  known  and  used  in 
prehistoric  times  must  be  left  to  conjecture,  but  the  many 
neatly  cut  and  polished  stone  implements  and  ornament's 
indicate  the  use  of  a  material  not  less  hard  than  emery. 
Theophrastus  mentions  whetstones  made  of  the  mineral 
ase<l  to  engrave  gems,  and  mentions  Armenia  as  furnishiii|? 
the  best  kind.  Naxian  whetstones  are  also  mentione<l  by 
ancient  authors,  and  Pliny  speaks  of  polishing  marble 
statues  and  filing  down  gems.  The  backs  of  antiquo  iii- 
tagli  have  deep  furrows  uf)on  them,  indicating  that  they 
were  filed  into  shape  by  rubbing  with  an  emery-stone.      It 


94 


EMIGRATION 


rope,  the  former  crossing  the  Rhine  and  the  latter  pourine 
through  the  Rhsetian  Alps.  These  incursions  were  checked 
by  the  victories  of  Claudian,  Aurelian,  and  Probus  (270- 
282),  but  the  Qoths  established  themselves  during  the  fol- 
lowing century  on  the  borders  of  the  Euxine,  and  spread 
through  Thrace  toward  Italy.  Between  376  and  410  was 
the  chmax  of  the  movement  of  Northern  races.  The  Huns, 
a  nation  of  Tartar  origin,  coming  down  from  the  Ural 
Mountains  and  the  table-lands  of  Siberia  under  Balamir, 
established  an  empire  at  the  expense  of  the  Goths,  whom 
they  drove  out  of  the  countries  N^  of  the  Danube ;  the  latter, 
soon  afterward  marshaled  under  Aiaric.  after  ravaging 
Greece,  descended  upon  Rome,  effecting  its  capture  a.  d. 
410.  During  the  same  period  the  Vandals  from  between 
the  Elbe  and  the  Vistula,  with  tbe  Sueves  and  Burgun- 
dians  of  kindred  origin,  and  the  Alans  from  the  Caucasus, 
swept  through  Italy,  and,  thence  withdrawing,  through 
Southern  France  into  Spain  ;  the  Burgundians  alone  stop- 
ping in  the  valleys  of  tne  Vosges,  the  rest,  pressed  by  the 
Goths  who  followed  them,  finally  reaching  Andalusia.  In 
429  Moorish  tribes  from  the  base  of  Mt.  Atlas  were  ravag- 
ing Northern  Africa ;  in  439  the  Vandals  and  Alans  from 
Spain,  under  Genseric,  following  in  the  path  of  the  Moors, 
extended  the  kin^om  of  the  Vandals  over  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  then  crossing  into  Italy, 
captured  and  sacked  Rome  in  455.  During  the  rise  of  the 
Vandal  kingdom  the  Huns  under  Attila  (435-450J  swept 
down  on  the  western  provinces,  and  made  an  irruption  into 
Gaul,  but  being  defeated  at  Chalons  in  451  they  afterward 
withdrew  to  the  £.  of  the  Carpathian  range.  After  Attila's 
death  (458)  the  bulk  of  the  remaining  Huns  retired  to  the 
shores  of  the  Volga.  During  the  same  period  the  Saxons 
from  between  the  Baltic  and  the  Elbe,  witn  the  Angles  to  the 
N.  of  them,  and  the  Jutes  of  Jutland,  became  dissatisiied 
with  their  homes,  and  in  449  descended  on  the  coasts  of 
Great  Britain,  establishing  themselves  on  the  island. 

Before  the  year  470  the  Slavi  had  overrun  what  are  now 
Prussia,  Poland,  and  Russia ;  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century  this  Slavic  territory — and  in  fact  the  whole  region 
from  Franconia  to  the  Caucasus,  from  Moscow  to  the  Dan- 
ube— was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Avars,  a  Tartar  tribe. 
They  unsuccessfully  besieged  Constantinople.  Thencefor- 
ward, and  indeed  until  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Byzan- 
tine empire  was  a  bulwark  against  the  Asiatic  races,  and 
prevented  their  penetrating  Europe  except  by  paths  N.  of 
the  Euxine  or  S.  of  the  Mediterranean.  Starting  from  Ara- 
bian deserts  in  632,  the  tide  of  Saracenic  invasion  rolled 
over  the  Levant  and  Northern  Africa,  entering  Spain  in 
711,  and  was  checked  on  the  Loire  by  Charles  Martel  in 
732.  The  Saracens  spread  from  the  Indus  to  the  Atlantic, 
from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  African  desert,  from  the  Caspian 
to  the  Red  Sea,  They  invaded  Sicily  in  826,  and  held  that 
island  265  years.  The  date  of  their  conquest  of  India  is 
1004.  Within  the  century  when  Europe  was  saved  from 
the  sword  of  the  Saracen  by  the  valor  of  Charles  Martel, 
the  victories  of  Charlemagne  and  his  lieutenants  (791-798) 
dislodged  the  Avars,  and  they  withdrew  to  the  eastward 
The  Bulgarians,  partlv  of  Tartar  extraction,  entered  on  a 
portion  of  the  deserted  territory.  The  Magyars,  a  Finnish 
tribe  from  the  Ural,  about  the  year  855  united  with  the  van- 

Siiished  Avars,  and  spread  in  camps  of  1,000,000  men  over 
le  Dacian  plain.    A  century  later  Otho  defeated  their  de- 
scendant's, and  they  afterward  settled  on  the  Danube. 

The  Danish  vikings  in  852  effected  a  permanent  settle- 
ment in  Russia,  but  not  till  980  did  they  become  ajQiliated 
with  the  native  Russians  and  Sarmatians.  The  incursions 
of  Danes  on  the  British  coasts  began  early  in  the  ninth 
century ;  in  1016  Canute's  kingdom  included  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  England.  The  Danish  and  Norwegian  vikings 
that  were  afterward  called  Normans  ravaged  the  French 
coasts  during  this  period,  and  settled  in  great  numbers  in 
Normandy  in  912:  they  effected  the  conquest  of  England 
in  1066,  and  by  1072  haii  overrun  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy. 
From  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  century  the  Tartars  rav- 
^ed  China.  In  1050  the  Uzzi  and  Cumani,  of  Tartar  ex- 
traction, overran  all  Southern  Russia ;  they  kept  possession 
for  170  vears.  From  1216  to  1250  the  Mongols  under 
Genghis  khan,  starting  from  the  frontiers  of  China,  created 
an  empire,  at  a  cost  of  14,000,000  men  slain  by  the  sword, 
that  extended  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Adriatic  and  the 
Baltic,  overrunning  all  Southern  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe. 
The  Mongols  were  probably  allied  to  the  Huns.  After  their 
victory  on  the  Kalka  in  1224,  they  held  Russia  subject  for 
two  and  a  half  centuries.    In  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth 


century,  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Mongols  from  Hungary, 
its  king  invited  immigration,  and  obtained  uiAuy  Italian. 
Flemish,  and  Saxon  settlers.  The  empire  of  Tamerlane 
(1363-1405)  again  spread  the  Mongolian  power  over  all 
Southern  Asia;  the  conquest  of  Hindustan  was  effected  in 
1399,  and  Delhi  afterward  became  the  capital  of  the  Great 
MoguL 

The  crusades  (1095,  1147,  1189,  1202,  1217,  1227,  1248, 
1270),  though  involving  great  emigrations,  created  no  per- 
manent states. 

The  Ottomans  had  partially  established  themselves  in 
Europe  in  1356;  by  1460  they  had  overrun  Turkey.  In 
1550  the  Turkish  power  was  at  its  zenith,  reaching  from  the 
Tigris  to  the  Carpathian  chain,  from  the  snows  of  the  Cau- 
casus to  the  deserts  of  Abyssinia.  The  expulsion  of  the  Mo- 
hammedans from  Western  Europe  was  an  affair  of  centuries. 
Thev  were  driven  out  of  Sicily  in  1091;  Valencia,  1238; 
Portugal,  1252  ;  Granada,  1492. 

From  1562  to  1577  the  Russians  pushed  their  conques-ts 
over  the  Mongolian  races  through  two  continents,  and, 
crossing  the  Pacific  to  a  third,  effected  settlements  in  North 
America,  which  in  1794  were  estimated  as  containing  50.000 
souls.  The  measures  which  culminated  in  the  Kevocatiun 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  caused  the  Huguenot  emigra- 
tion from  France,  which  numbered  from  250,000  to  300,000 
souls ;  Sismondi  assigns  even  a  higher  figure.  In  1739  India 
was  subjected  to  a  terrible  invasion  by  the  Persians ;  in 
1765  the  British  conquest  followed,  and  after  it  came  a 
steady  flow  of  Englishmen.  The  French  emigration  con>e- 
quent  on  the  revolution  of  1790  consisted  of  noble  familii'>, 
and  was  exceptional  in  this  characteristic.  The  czars,  U^ 
ginning  with  Peter  the  Great,  have  made  notable  and  suc- 
cessful efforts  in  inducing  foreigners  to  form  colonies  within 
their  domain  ;  and  the  last  important  movement  of  emigra- 
tion within  Europe  was  after  Napoleon's  wars,  when  Ru^^^ia, 
by  liberal  offers,  obtained  250,000  settlers,  principally  from 
her  Western  neighbors.  In  the  Franco-German  war*(187<h 
102,(XX)  Germans  were  expelled  from  France,  and  after  the 
war  there  was  a  large  movement  of  the  French  population 
from  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  and  subsequently  an  emigration 
thither  from  Germany. 

There  are  evidences  of  extensive  movements  among  the 
native  populations  of  America  before  the  advent  of  Colum- 
bus. The  Esquimaux — or,  as  they  call  themselves,  th«' 
Inuit — inhabiting  the  northern  and  northwestern  coasts  of 
America,  are  of  a  race  found  at  the  N.  in  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere. The  North  American  tribes  of  the  interior  were 
nomadic,  but  have  left  few  definite  records  of  their  wander- 
ing; the  mound-builders  spread  all  over  the  valley  of  tht» 
Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,  but  did  not  reach  the  At- 
lantic coast,  and  the  dates  of  their  progress  and  extinction 
are  alike  unknown.  The  Shawanese  within  historic  tinu^ 
moved  down  from  the  Northern  Alleghanies  along  their 
western  slope,  and  penetrated  nearly  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
There  are  records  of  many  of  the  great  movement's  of  tht» 
races  in  the  southern  portion  of  North  America.  Tonjui-- 
mada,  among  earlier,  and  Clavigero,  among  later  historian >. 
have  shown  that  the  Toltecs,  who  during  104  years  wen- 
advancing  into  Mexico  from  a  re^on  to  the  N.  W.  of  it. 
founded  the  kingdom  of  Toltecan  m  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixth  century.  A  famine  nearly  destroyed  this  nation  in 
1052  ;  it  was  replaced  in  the  next  century  by  the  iessr-eivil- 
ized  Chichimecas,  and  in  the  century  following  by  <>th»'r 
races  from  the  N.  and  N.  W.,  including  the  Aztecs  of  Mexi- 
cans from  California.  During  the  supremacy  of  the  Tolte<-s 
in  Mexico  their  fifth  king  invaded  Guatemala,  and  tber^ 
established  a  dynasty  of  Toltec  sovereigns,  of  whom  iho 
eighteenth  was  reigning  when  the  Spaniards  arrive<l.  In 
South  America  the  Toupis  emigrated  from  the  northern 
borders  of  the  Amazon,  spread  to  the  Caribbean  Sea  an«i 
most  of  its  islands,  and  advanced  southerly  along  the  At- 
lantic coast  to  S.  lat.  82°.  penetrating  inland  to  the  head- 
waters of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata;  through  all  this  vast  region 
one  native  language  was  spoken.  The  origin  of  the  n».f.^i» 
that  entered  Peru  and  buut  the  monuments  around  Laiki- 
Titicaca  is  unknown. 

With  the  progress  of  civilization  the  large  movements  <  >f 
population  en  masse  have  been  lessened,  but  the  aggrecr&te 
movement  of  individuals  greatly  increased.  Large  numX»*T> 
of  Europeans,  in  particular,  have  moved  to  other  part2>  *>f 
the  world,  either  in  organized  bodies  to  found  states  of  their 
own — colonization — or  to  become  citizens  of  states  alrt^&iiT 
established — immigration.  Of  the  aggregate  amount  vTf 
such  colonization  or  immigration  it  is  naM  to  obtain   full 


96 


KMMKNSITK 


EMPKDOCLKS 


one  cif  the*  App<»Anincf«  of  ChriM  on  tb<*  day  of  his  rmurrrc- 
titm  (Luke  xxix.  i:)>.  It  wu  d(<9(troT(yl  by  an  e*rth()Uiike  in 
131  A.  u,  and  wku^n  M>uiU  in  th<*  thini  ti^ntunr  wa»  calUnl 
Nu^»|M»h4.    It  IS  now  cmlr  •  ^nml\  viIIa^,  the  mfuforn  AmwaA. 

Kaai^ri^ll.  <*tn  mi*r-irh  (anr.  Kmhrwa):  town  (»f  Pruti^ui: 
cm  thr  ri^ht  tmnk  of  the  Khine;  aUmt  5()niileM  X.  N.  W.  of 
DawrMorf  mui\  20  luilm  S,  K.  of  Amht^im,  with  both  of 
whu'h  it  t*  r«>iiii(*t't4'<il  by  •  niilw«y  («i«v  mm{*  of  (ftrman  Km- 
|urr,  t^t,  4-<\  It  hmn  •cu«»toin-h«»u««e.  f^ymnaiuunt.  and  »ev- 
rrml  rhun*hf**,  al«i  manufju*tun^  of  inm,  ^Imut*^  w<xtlon  cloth, 
iinrn^  h<w«UTy.  eic^  and  an  atUve  tnuic  in  wine.     Pop.  ( I8W)) 


Kaaet,  R^mnrr:  natnoc  am)  orator;  b.  in  C<irk,  Ireland, 
tn  177H:  *»n  of  a  phr'^ioian,  and  for  a  lime  a  Mudi'nl  in 
Trimly  lV>lU«jrp,  I>ublin.  Mr  wai  a  Iwwior  of  the  Tnit^Hl 
ln«hrorn.  wh«»  ilr^in-ii  i4>  IilM«rat4»  their «N>untry  fn»m  Bnli'^h 
domination,  and  ri<%it«M|  FmiKv  in  Xf^ti  in  UOmlf  of  tho 
cauM*.  Harini;  *?«»n*tlT  cMtlhi^twl  ann»  and  |H»wdi'r  in  l)ul>- 
Un  and  formiMl  a  o»n«*|»jr»<'y.  ht»  and  hu  fri«'fid«»  n'vnlitMl  in 
July,  IHIM,  The  in^ur^frntB  killwl  thr  rhu*f  justht*.  U^nl 
KtlwanlfU.  but  wen*  *«»n  di^iicrntNl  by  a  |»rty  of  w>Idi(TS. 
Kmnirt  (\r%i  t4t  the  W  irk  low  Mountainn,  Init  having  ri'tumed 
to  vuit  thr  daiiirhtcr  of  J<ihn  FhiltMit  l*umui.  tiio  orator, 
wa*k  am-^t**!  and  inwl  for  trvaiitm.  He  pleatb'd  hi-*  own  cauM* 
tn  a  lonjf  an*!  rrrr  «*l«wjurnt  *j»w'4*h,  which  has  Ui-n  |»n*»4»rve<i, 
but  hi*  wa«  cNinviVt«Ml  ami  citn^uted  S*(>t.  dU,  iNKt.  llix  fate 
and  hi«  aiTt^ttion  for  Mi»  Curran  an*  the  «»ul»jtM'iii  of  two  of 
M<M>rr'<i  InMh  MeUmitr*,  St^  Mat! den,  Litts  of  thf  I'mtni 
Inthm^H  M  •rrie^  Toi.  iiu  1H46). 

Emael.  Thi»ma*  Ai»i»i%  LI*.!),:  lawyer;  a  brother  of 
Rob<*rt  Krnmot ;  U  in  Cork  m  I  TIM,  Hr  irnwluatt**!  at  Trinilr 
i'oitt*^^,  Ihiblin.  and  wa.4  admittcvl  tAPtht*  I>ublin  tuir  in  179f, 
•iMin  attaininic  «li<*tin4-tion,  but  wa^  a  Irwlrr  of  the  riiit4*d 
In«hmt*ii,  aui)  an  «U('h  wa^  arr»*<*tc«i  m  171^.  mud  confiniHl  in 

Cnmm  f«ir  nc-arly  thrw  y<^r*,  IIi«  i^entc^no**  wa.*  c<tmutut<*<i 
ilo  fiilr,  and  hr  «*iiii>:r»tt^l  in  1WI4  !••  Nvw  Yorkcitv,  wht-rt* 
he  jifaftHMMi  law  with  ili*tinrtii»n,  lie  wa^  i*ItM-i«*d  altomey- 
irrneraJ  id  thr  Matt*  of  New  York  in  1H|2.  He  wa*  an  elo- 
ouvnt  a«l«iH«tr>.  aii<l  hail  f^rrml  (|UA)itie<i  ait  an  <»rator.  S<»me 
iikrt*-ht*«  of  ln«h  hf^tonr  b«  Mr.  Kininet  are  inrliidtnl  in  Me- 
Ne%ur«  IStTf  of  Iri*\  lltsior^  tNew  York^  1H07).  D.  in 
New  York,  Nof.  14.  lKi7. 

Eaa^UbariT :    city  and    railway   junHion  {f«mnde<l   in 

lH<fr<i;  r»{iital  of  Palo  Alt^i  e*>,.  la.  (for  l<Ma!i'»n  of  e^Minty, 
•re  ma^i  of  lowa.  ref.  Ij-K);  «»n  tho  lKi»  Moine-t  river;  W 
mile4  N.  N.  W.  of  F«'rt  iKulffr  and  25  niil«*n  W.  of  Aip>ria. 
It  ha*  .1  ehurt'h*^  i^  *  hun-h  ^tKU'tH-^K  J<  i»ubli»'-«»<'h«*»l  bmld- 
In^^^  •  l*r)p'  |ia*'kiiiir-hiniM*,  fl«»unrij:-n»ill.  watrr-work^  et<\. 
auil  u  thr  iYHtor  of  a  dajnriiit;  and  MtM-k-raKUif^  di^trii't. 
Poji.  <l*^>»  l,uM;  tlHW)  nfjwial  tviiMii.  'i.iWWi. 

KlM'niR  or  "  REFoaTER.** 

EamltabviT:  vilU^;  on  rail  war;  KrtNlrnrk  <<«».,  Md. 
(f«»r  liMati'in  or  iN.untr.  iw-r  map  of  5far%lniitL,  ref.  2-1));  H 
mil«*«  N.  <»f  Mr><'hani<-*t4>«ii«  1  tiiiU'  from  Mawm  and  Uixon'ft 
lin#*.  and  |0  miU*^  fn»m  tJHti^bur):.  Pa.  It  w»i«  Uid  out  by 
Wi  harn  Kmniitt,  it*  f«»'indtT,  alN»ut  tht>  ynr  1773.  The 
i»ru':iu»l  •tf.ltm  m-re  N«>t«h  and  In'^h.  Mt,  St.  MaTk*^ 
('  .it,-r  vat  retail  i-i,>^\  ii««r  M  in  l**>9  by  Kev.  J<ihu  I)uU>K 
Bi'*i*i»of  New  Y«»rk:  it  i»  a  Koiiian  (aihnlu'  institution, 
otir  of  ibr  larvTi'^t  in  thr  l'.  S.  .M  Jo*«'ph'*  Aiii'b  inv.  aUmt 
half  a  nuir  fr»ra  town.  wa<»  r-i.ibli^h*'*!  in  l**10.  (»\  Mn*. 
K.i/a  \r»n  >>«  !'»n,  of  NfW  York.  It  i^  the  iH";hrr-hou«*f  of 
tJi*  >!•!*  r»  i»f  rhanti  in  the  l*.  S.,  nurnUp*  2.'>*W  ni«riil>rp«, 
axid  ha.*  otir  of  tht'Iar,^«t  t-«liii-«lionai  buildiii^  tn  Mary- 
laii'l.     pop  i\***t  H4;;  (1'<»Mh44. 

EamlB*.  I'luw*:  h.o*<r).«n :  b.  at  (intth.  in  thr  |in»tin«f 
of  <Hi  Kru**aii'l.  Hoi^aihI.  iKf.  .'i.  1'>47.  Hr  Muiht-*!  nt  Km- 
ti»n  Hrrnifii.  N..ri«rt.  ••.■!  U-'^ti-  k  b.it  r%*l.)rn«d  to  Ui*  iia- 
tnr  t..»ri  iti  I^T'i  III  l'»74  h»-  ••'1  "tit  liti  «  n«  •  tnp  throij^'h 
tlx  Hl.!».»" ''^•ui.!  r.»  * 'I  w  n  to  III  ti' ^  .1  wlti-n  h*-  w  \^  « -trji .  r1* 
*•!  by  It* /4  U»  Pr  •'■*i''.«in.  H  n  ii,;  nt.rTi.d  ilir-^i^'h 
'Krar.i**.  h*-  w  »•  iti  1  Ml*  ".ail*  n»  ''-r  of  i  tir  *  h'««i  i»f  N'titih  a. 
I»'it  r*f'i«»»liii  I  V*?  to  •  iti^  r.*i»   \\tt  I  'tnfi***: '11  Iff  A»u*"l'<iru. 

attd  w««  *■  I  *••)'!♦ '<*  »  «  IJ*  .  .-it  it\  thi-  I/iMji  TAliV  ill  l.V.*l 
h»    w«*    rr,^  1«-    ■!.•■»»♦   -r  of    *h"     *  •  1  •  ^***  ••'    K  •  r*     I'.-l   Hi  II  ft  » 

V  •»■•  h*  !•  vi*  I  •■  of  it.i  rn<^*  «  .« 'i*-»*i.|  I -1  .•  ,i:  i>**i.it  in* 
•t.'  i'i"*i*  III  H  .  %'i  1  Aim-  •  t!  K.«  w  'fk*  «'»•  tff'H*  i  ^t^"H4^~ 
U  ^%  wn  i».  'H"^  *  IP  t..t.k*i  n.  1*1  ■'•'.  an  at'* 'lip!  i'  a  i  hn  ii«»- 
l  „•  a.  *r*%»i^Tfin  ii*  of  ri  *\>'T\  fn  tn  4  ri  a:i"n  .  I  ^'w*  ^»rifri*i 
i.itaa/rtj.'j   tl>»tj.  ji,    IfiJfii,  ^  *  iTal   tirn**   r  pnntfil  .   It*  nr%- 


ginf  e/  ontiqHifnfp  Frimomm  ((Jrvrntnireo,  l^fft):  Rrr%m 
FriMiearum  Hiniorin  (Fmneker,  15M),  a  work  whirh  *•• 
oountereil  rtmMilerable  opposition  on  acooont  of  tU  ir.i»r< 
tivea  aKaintt  tho  Koioaii  Catholic  Cburrh.  l>.  at(tn•r•^ 
t^-n,  I)w. ».  163«. 

EaaoBR,  Nathamakl.  P.  D. :  tbeolotpan ;  b.  at  Rw*  H*: 
dam,  Conn.,  Apr.  30,  174«5;  ^n^uat^Hl  at  Yale  t'oilr^t  .• 
1767.      He   wai«    onlained    pastor  of    the    ('onicTi*i3:f  m 
c'hurrh  in  Kranklin,  Majv.,  in  1778,  and  wa^  itn  \mi^x**r  «r\ 
hi*  death,  and  it."*  !H>Ie  |ia.stor  for  fifty- four  year*.     In  *: . 
ti<m,  he  trained  fiftr-seTcn  vounu  men  for  the  mtri  **n 
many  of  whom  liecaine  eminent.     He  wan  al*<»  a  pr<ri  ■     • 
advotrate  of  fon'ijoi  minsionn  and  of  the  anti-*tla«rri  -*-* 
Hi»  theolofncal  views  were  nearly  tho*  of  hi*  fn«f»i  l»r 
Samuel  Hopkins.     The  diMinctive'  tenrtu  of  hi«  fty^trTit  ^r* 
**  Holiness  and  sin  otmsi*!  in  free,  roluntary  exenl**"*.    V'*i 
a4't  freely  under  the  divine  ajfencr.     The  rra«t  traiisr^-"  '• 
of  the  di%ine  law  deserved  eternal  punbihment.     U*tc  it  *-.! 
wronfc  are  founded  in  the  nature  of  thint:^     <ti«l  tx*n  «•« 
mere  yc^tAx  in  pardoning  or  Juntifyinjc  |»«'nitr«t   l^-li. tf-i 
Ihrouirh  the  atonement  of  Chn-rt,  and  mere  (o*»«lni^»  il  •* 
warding  them  for  their  fC^^A  works.     N<»twith*tanitin,r  tr. 
t<nal  depravity  of  sinners  (JimI  has  a  ripht  to  re<juin  t* 
t<»  turn  from  sin  to  holineas.**     His  sermoa*  wen*  d  •*  • 
fished  by  lop<-a]  thought   and  bv  di^itv  aii«l  jM>mfr    ' 
1  style,     I). 'in  Franklin.  Maw*,,  S^-pU  22<.   IMO,     III*  ■- '^i* 
(sermons,  essays,  etc. L  publi!«he<i  at  different   timc^  il  .".'** 
his   life,  were  after  nis  death   piiblisho<l  U^^^ton.  iHi.*     - 
M'vrn  and  afterwanl  (And<«ver.  1H61|  in  six  toIuttk-v  «  • 
niemoirn  of  hi"*  life  br  J.  Ide,  I).  I).,  in  the  ^r<  rtliti.-n,  *;  i 
a  full  bioi^raphy  by  Prof.  K.  A.  Park  in  the  netiuuL 

Emory,  Jonx.  D.I).:  bi^thop  of  the  Meth««ili«t  Kft«   vaj 
Chureh;  b.  in  i^ueen   Anne  c<».,   Mtl.,  Apr.  11.  17>»1»-.  ^r.y 
uateil  at  Wawhington  I'oUeice.  Md.,  IWM;  wa*  aftntiU'*;   • 
the  l»ar,  IHOH,  but  l>e<*ame   a  MrtluMhi%t  iiri-a*  hrr  in  1*1' 
prea4'hed  f<»r  many  years  thrtm^h  the  Muldlr  Statr*.  %i, 
was  Heiit  as  deU'i^ate  of  liii*  deiuiminatioii,  in   1*«'JIK  ti  '  < 
Britiidi  Wesley  nil  confen»nee.     He  wa»  eh'4t4Ml    in    1^J4  M 
Hi<«taut  book  a^Mit  at  New  York,  mgi*nX  in  IkJm.  an^l   t-t*     | 
in   1H32.      In   1H17   he   had  a  (laniithlet   i^>ntro%«r«>    w  «{ 
Bishop  White,   of   Philailelphia.     lie   wai»   authi*r   of  7% 
Divinity   of  ChrijU   Vindiratfd,   Dffrnse   of  th^r    /'i.M^-i 
and  other  publieatiiins«  which  nhow   miwh   lomi  al   a' 
and  a  pun*  and  %i»:orous  stvle.     U.  at   K«'i%ter<«<wrn,  M  i 
\h'<\  !«,  1835.     S-e  his  Life  \)y  his  *>n  Kt>tiert  (Nrw  Y.  H 
1K40). 

Eaorj.  WiixiAM  Hkhm^ky:  V.  S.  armT4»fTl<^r;  «n  •-•.•  \ 
John  Kimiry ;  b.  in  Quwn  Anne  n*^  Mil-.  .*^*fH.  V.  I*!  I 
cnuluated  at  Wi««t  Point  in  iKtl,  and  wat  ap|H  iti**-«l  i 
tenant  of  artillery;  wrvwl  chiefly  at  draiMirt*  in  lb--  V^m 
ern  Statr^  and  in  the  Crerk  nation  IKil-^i*^;  *i»|- '  *« 
tlrst  liriiti'iiant  toiioirmphieal  «*iicinr4T«  1M3H;  «iri  •Xm£ 
Oen.  Kraniy  in  (  alifoniia  aiwl  during  the  Mrttt^an  «« 
a«tn*rioiiirr  of  U»un«lary  Itrtwtvn  Califoniia  ai>*l  Mt  i  i 
1K4H-«V{;  and  e4iii)int^ii*itrr  and  a^^trononirr  lH.Vl-^%7  •)  -•  ^ 
lieutrnant-eoU»nrl»;  re*tii:no«l  in  lh01.  and  was  n*«i>f*<  •:.'  < 
npfiointetl  brik'iwlier-jfriH'ral  of  Tolunt^-em  m  lN«ti .  .  < 
innntbHl  a  di\i«ion  untler  (trn.  Banks  in  I^otit^tAjia  tH 
and  a  corm  m  1h64;  in  1H«H  fou^'ht  tilth  tU^tiiif  t>  -. 
Plra^ant  liill,  OjHHjuan  ('n^'k.  anti  at  CfHUrl'rr^k  .'-ii 
llmJor-(^'nrml^ :  in  t^nnmantl  of  dii^nrtnirnt  »if  W«-*.  \ 
mnia  1H6.V-66,  iif  dt  i^rtMHiit  of  Wa»(uni,t4«n  \^A^  71,  ai  i 
:  d<  |»artment  «)f  the  (lulf  1^71-75  :  n  tin*«l  with  rank  *  .f  I  •  j 
I  dier-jceneral  Xt^VS,     D.  in  Wa5hHi>:t4»n,  I).  t'„  lK<-.  I,  :-*^  , 

Eaonr  Collf^:    an  inMitution  (»f  Iranitnir    !•««*• 
(>xf«*rfl.  ua. ;   41   milr*  R  of  Atlanta  and  a  noi*    ff 
<t«<<*rKia  linilway.     Thr  <  ollrtj»»  waa  ehartrntl   in     l*v  7    ( 
wa*  i»|M*nril  m   1*<W  undrr  the  itrr^idriu^   of  th*-    K'  * 
mitm*  A-  Krw,  I).  I»„  LI*.  I).     Tnr  roUri^- »  urn»  ti  luni  .•  I 
in  ailthr  «lr|kartinriit«   tau^'ht    in    t)ra-4  law   Ui%l.»ut  \ 

thr  r.  S,     Tnrrr  an*    15  uhiiiUt*  in  the   faf-ti.iy.  a 
t  nn^lhitent  ft»r   l*<M  W  nuiiilM>nii  2HI  Mi^bnl^       1 
.I'Cr  L<«  wrll  •upplltil  With  btitldlliC*  r*>r  U-^  i\mXv*n    a*.  | 

u*4-«.      It   ha«  ati  riidoa  tiiriit   of   ^.T^'i.tKMI.  inu*  h  ■  f   .*    »m 
!h«' ^nft  of  Mr.  <ir«»r»;r  I.  ?vin\.  pn^hlrnt  of  thr  M«  t  r-     . 
lUiiik,  Nrw  York.     U  arrrti  A. «  arutlrr,  I).  I>.,  h^  l-^  :        i 
d' nt  -in"-*' .lutir.  l*o^M,     Th«   in*.iiliiti.-ii  i«ur»il4rtr^    \ 
a^'t' tif  llir  M«  lh<>*ll*>t  Kjil^  o|ial  riiUP  II  N'Uth.  iKJt    «|    i* 
aii<t  broojl   «tioiit;ri  t4>  {ta%r  );.«tlirntl  fttuilrut*  fr>ct»    ^         i 
t  ktAnt  di  noiniiiati'>n^. 

EMfe^'orlMi  till  4tr  ^C^vslMAafi:  (innek  pl..:«  ««-f  ^.\ 
it  A^'r.tn*ntiirfi  111  Sii  ilr  ;  ti^nl  alM»ut  45t)  a.  f .     Ii«*  ^       j 


98  EMPORIA 

adarned  vitli  paintings  by  QioKo ;  also  manufactures  of 
cotton  tabricB,  straw  huts,  etc.     Pop.  7,500. 

EmpoiiA ;  citj  and  railway  center ;  capital  ot  L;on  co., 
Kan.  ((or  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Kansas,  rof.  <-I); 
6  miles  above  the  junction  ol  the  Neosho  and  Cottonwood 
rivers,  in  a  tine  a^icultural  and  stock-raising  region :  has  a 
Stat«  normal  school,  the  College  of  Emporia  (Presbyterian), 
endowed  by  the  synod  of  Kansas,  excellent  graded  schooK 
a  business  college,  coDservatory  of  music,  a  canning-factory, 
street  railways,  gas,  and  electric  lights,  excellent  water- 
works, etc.     Pop.  (1880)  4,631 ;  (1890)  7.551. 

Editok  of  ■'  Republican." 

Emporlnm :  borough  and  railway  junction  ;  capital  of 
Cameron  Co.,  Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Penn- 
sylvania, ref.  3-D);  »B  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Williamsport.  It 
has  iron-worhs  and  an  important  trade  in  lumber  and  coal. 
In  the  vicinity  are  valuable  salt-wells.  Pop.  (1880)1,156; 
(1890)  2,147.  Editor  of  "Camekon  Counts  Pkess." 

EmpBOii,SirRicnABD:  the  est«rtionate  minister  of  Henry 
VII.  and  associate  of  Edml'nd  Dudley  (a.  v.)  in  lev^-ing  the 
taies  and  collecting  the  fines  imposed  by  the  kmg:  was 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1491,  and  subsetjuently 
held  other  important  offices.  He  was  brought  lo  trial  soon 
after  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.,  and,  in  spite  of  his  de- 
ten.se  claiming  the  strict  legality  of  all  his  acts,  wo.''  con- 
victed of  constructive  treason  an^  executed  with  Dudley  on 
Tower  Hill,  in  Aug.,  1510. 

EntB,  (anc.  Amitia  or  Ami'aius):  n  river  of  Germany; 
rises  in  Pru^an  Westphalia,  near  Paderbom.  Its  general 
dirtction  is  northward.  Afler  a  course  of  about  300  miles 
it  enters  the  Dollort,  on  inlet  of  the  North  Sea,  near  the 
town  of  Emden.    It  is  connected  by  a  canal  wilh  the  Lippe. 

Ems  (anc.  Amitia),  or  Bad-Ems.  baal'ems'  (i.  e.  bath  of 
Ems):  a  watering-place  in  Hesse  Nassau.  Germany;  on  the 
river  Lalin ;  about  7  miles  S.  E.  of  C'Oblentz  (see  map  of 
German  Empire,  ref.  5-D).  It  is  surrounded  by  picturesque 
scenery,  anil  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley  among  wooded 
hills.  Hero  are  warm  mineral  saline  sjirings,  the  temper- 
ature of  which  varies  fn)m  93°  to  135'  P.  It  has  ^x>d 
hotels,  and  is  frequented  by  many  visitors,  both  native  and 
foreign.  In  1785  the  Archbishops  of  Treves,  Mayence,  Co- 
logne, and  Salzburg  formed  an  agreement  here,  called  the 
Punctation  of  Ems.  in  which  they  demanded  in  twenty- 
three  articles  the  change  of  several  papal  privileges  in  favor 
of  the  German  archbishops.  The  real  object,  however,  was 
the  establishment  of  a  national  German  Church.  But  in 
consequence  of  the  opposition  of  their  own  bishops  and  the 
firmness  of  the  pope,  Ihev  were  compelled  to  submit  to  the 
authority  of  the  pope  within  a  year.  On  July  13,  1870,  the 
French  ambassador.  Count  Benedetti,  had  at  Enis  the 
famous  interview  with  King  William  of  Prussia  which  pre- 
cipitated the  outbreak  of  the  great  war  between  France  and 
Germany.     Pop.  (1B901 6,350. 

Em'ser.  Hiero.nvmus  :  Roman  Catholic  theologian  and 
adversary  of  Luther;  b.  at  Ulm,  Germany,  Mar.  86,  1477. 
He  studied  at  Tubingen  and  Basel;  accompanied  Cardinal 
Raymond,  of  Petrandi,  on  his  tour  of  visitation  through 
Gi-fmany ;  lectured  afterwanl  in  the  true  humanist  man- 
ner at  Erfurt,  where  he  ha<l  Luther  among  his  hearers; 
and  finally  became  private  secretary  to  Duke  Georg  of 
Saxony  and  the  incumbent  of  several  rich  benefices.  Bis 
first  literary  efforts  were  some  essays  on  the  propriety  of 

e 'ring  toasts  when  drinking,  on  the  improvement  of  wine, 
er,  and  vinegar,  etc  Inen  followed  a  life  of  Bishop 
Bonno."  which  is  found  in  the 
Ada  Sanctorum,  His  prin- 
ciinl  work,  however,  is  his 
notes  on  Luther's  translation 
of  the  llible,  which  Luther 
approved  in  many  cases.  His 
own  translation  (1527)  from 
the  Vulgate  is,  however,  de- 
pendent   on   Luther's.     See 

-  eililion    of    his   writings  by 

-  Eiiders  (Hiille,  IWKl).     D.  at 
:    Drcsien.  Nov.  8.  1527. 

Emn.  or  Emen :   a  large 

j-iim  Australian    binl    [Dromaiun 

nora  liiillanclim).  belonging  lo 

the  taluilv  l>r(imaiitl<F  and  onler  CVixHiirti,  and  allied  to 

the  oslrich  and  ciL-^iowttry.    It  dilTere  from  Ihe  caswiwary 

in  being  taller,  having  the  bill  horizontally  depressed,  and 


EMYDID.£ 

in  being  destitute  of  the  bony  crest  and  pendent  wattli-<. 
When  full-grown  it  is  of  a  brown  color,  mottled  with  grav. 
It  has  only  rudimentary  wings,  but  is  exceedingly  fleet  in 
running.  The  eggs  are  dork  green,  and  at>out  seven  in 
number.  Both  the  eggs  and  fiesh  are  esteemed  excellent  for 
the  table.  Its  plumage  is  long  and  almost  hair-like.  Thi' 
plumes  are  readily  dyed  of  various  colors,  and  appear  to 
some  extent  in  commerce  as  a  substitute  for  ostrich-feath- 
ers. The  emu  has  become  rare  in  the  more  settled  parts  of 
Australia,  having  been  hunted  for  the  sake  of  its  oil,  which 
the  skin  contains  in  large  quantities.  It  feeds  mostly  on 
fruit,  herbage,  etc,  and  is  easily  domesticated. 

Emn  Wren:  a  passerine  bird  (S/ioifuru^  malathuniM] 
of  Australia;  a  member  of  the  thrush  family  {TuTdid<F\ 
The  genus  includes  about  a  dozen  Australian  species.     This 


bird  haunts  marshy  districts,  never  alighting  on  high  trii-«, 
and  seldom  taking  to  flight,  but  running  rapidly  alHiut  ll^i' 
grass  with  its  long  tail-feathers  erect.  It  takes  its  iiume 
from  the.-ic  feathers,  which  are  six  in  number  and  from  I  !,.■ 
looseness  of  their  barbs  suggest  those  of  an  emu.   F.  A.  L^ 

EmnlslD  (Synaptaet):  an  albuminous  substance  fouii-1 
in  almonds.  It  acts  a.s  a  ferment  upon  the  glueosiile  amvi;- 
daliti  of  bitter  almonds,  transforming  it  into  bitter  b1ri<>ii<1 
oil  (hydride  of  benzoyl),  hydrocyanic  (prussic)  acid,  and  (:lu- 
cose  (grape-sugar). 

Emydldn  [deriv.  of  £mys,  the  typical  genus ;  from  I,«t. 
emgs,  Gr.  i/iit.  fresh-water  tortoise] :  a  family  nt  tiinl*?- 
containing  the  majoritj-  of  the  smalter  fresh-water  anil  Imul 
turtles;  in  all,  some  sixty  sjiccics.  The  up|ier  and  mul.T 
shells  (carapace  and  plastron)  are  well  develo[icd  ;  th*'  fv.i 
are  usually  webbeil  and  adapted  for  both  walking  and  siviiii- 
ming:  and.  with  few  exceptions,  there  ore  five  claws  nn  th.- 
fore  feet,  four  on  the  hind.  Some  species  ot  (be  faiiiil\. 
like  the  box-turtle  (Cisluiio.  or  Terra^tit  rarolinn).  arv  «\- 
clusively  terrestrial,  and  have  the  high,  arched  bai-k,  l.tii 
not  the  club  feet  of  the  tnie  tortoises.  A  few  dwell  in 
brackish  water,  but  the  majority  are  found  in  the  fr.'^h 
waters  of  the  north  temperate  and  tropical  regions.  Th,--.- 
turtles  are  rather  omnivorous,  feeding  on  various  |ilnni-. 
fl.shes,  and  worms.  The  tiimily  numliers  among  its  in.'in. 
bers  some  which  are  quite  extensively  used  for  finti).  \]„. 
most  noted  being  t  lie  diamond-back  terrapin  (Afalofnc/frnrn'.f 
paliislris)  of  the  Southern  U.  S.  By  some  authoril  ics  i  ti.- 
^niutJiWie  are  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Te»ludtniil,r, 
while  others  consider  the  box-turllo  as  forming  a  alisiiii.t 
fainilv,  the  Vialudinida.    See  Testudisata. 

F.  A.  Luf  AS. 


100 


ENCHATITES 


ENDERMIC  METHOD 


sequently.  He  also  found  that  its  period  was  about  1,200 
days  (3*303  years),  its  successive  returns  being  accelerateci 
and  its  period  shortened  by  a  minute  interval  of  time.  It 
has  the  shortest  period  and  the  least  aphelion  distance  of  all 
the  known  comets. 

En'eratites  [Or.  'E^k^otitcu,  the  self-controlling],  also 
called  Hydroparastatie,  from  their  substitution  of  water  for 
wine  in  the  Eucharist:  an  heretical  sect  dating  from  the 
second  century,  which  inculcated  and  practiced  total  absti- 
nence from  flesh,  wine,  and  marriage.  Subsequently  the 
name  was  applied  to  the  ascetic  Onostics  generally. 

Encrinite  [deriv.  of  enerinu^ ;  Or.  ^i^,  in  +  Kplpov,  lily] : 
the  popular  name  for  crinoids,  radiated  animals  which  form 
an  oruer  in  the  class  Echinodermata,  The  encrinites  com- 
prise many  genera  and  species,  nearly  all  of  which  are  fossil. 
They  abound  in  the  Palaeozoic  rocks,  and  are  quite  numer- 
ous in  the  Mesozoic  formations.  Encrinites  are  exceed- 
ingly rare,  and  for  many  yeArs  only  one  species  {Peniacri- 
ntM  caput  medusm  of  the  West  Indian  seas)  was  known. 
Deep-sea  dredging  expeditions  brought  to  light  two  or 
three  more.  Uamatula  in  its  earij  st^age  of  existence  so 
much  resembles  the  encrinites  that  it  was  described  as  a  cri- 
noid  {Pent(terinus  europmus)^  but  in  Comaiula  the  stem  is 
temporary,  in  the  crinoids  permanent.  The  stem  consists  of 
disks  like  button-molds  in  form,  set  in  a  pile  together,  and 
in  the  living  animal  has  some  flexibility.  It  is  mostly  round 
or  ()entagonal,  and  is  often  finelv  sculptured  on  the  articu- 
lating surfaces.  Elach  joint  of  the  arms  is  furnished  with 
two  cirri  or  appendages,  which  the  animal  uses  in  capturing 
its  prey.  The  number  of  joints  in  the  Pentacrinun  hriareus 
is,  according  to  Buckland,  about  150,000.  Immense  num- 
bers of  these  animals  lived  in  the  seas  of  the  Palaeozoic 
ages.  Revised  by  J.  S.  Kinoslet. 

Encnmbraiice :  See  Incumbrance. 

Encyclopn^dift,  or  Cyclopaedia  [encyclowBdia  is  from 
Or.  #yiriMrXovai^^  a  questionable  compound  for  iynvkkwi 
voiSfio,  regular  (course  of)  education,  the  liberal  curricu- 
lum] :  a  compilation  usually,  but  not  always,  in  alphabetic 
arrangement,  which  professes  to  impart  information,  more 
or  less  complete,  upon  the  whole  circle  or  range  of  human 
knowledge.  The  most  noted  of  the  earlier  cyclopiedic  works 
were  the  work  of  Speusippus  (the  nephew  of  Plato,  d.  b.  c. 
339),  not  now  extant ;  the  great  collections  of  Varro,  of  the 
Elder  Pliny,  of  Stobapus,  Suidas,  Isidorus,  and  Capella, 
crude  summaries  of  the  then  known  arts  and  sciences ;  the 
Speculum  Majus^  in  four  parts,  of  Vincent  de  Beauvais  (3 
vols.,  1264) :  and  other  similar  compilations.  The  work  of 
Alfarabi,  of  Bagdad  (d.  a.  d.  950)  is  also  worthy  of  mention. 
The  Chinese  in  the  course  of  their  long  history  have  com- 
piled and  issued  many  remarkable  and  usually  ver^  volumi- 
nous encyclopiedias.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the 
Tai-ping-yu-lan  in  1,000  b^ks,  compiled  by  order  of  the 
second  emperor  of  the  Sung  dynasty,  and  completed  in  983. 
In  1568  a  new  edition  of  500  sets  was  printed  from  movable 
type,  and  a  later  one  in  1812.  In  the  reign  of  the  second 
emperor  of  the  Ming  dynasty  another  great  cyclopaedia, 
called  the  Yung-ld-ta-tien,  was  compiled  in  22,877  books 
(with  60  books  of  tables  of  contents).  It  comprised  the 
whole  round  of  Chinese  learn ing^lassical,  historical,  philo- 
sophical, and  literary,  embracing  astronomy,  geography, 
medicine,  the  occult  sciences,  Bdddhism,  Taoism,  and  the 
arts.  Over  2,000  scholars  were  engaged  in  the  work,  which 
WHS  finished  in  1407,  and  ready  for  printing  two  years  later. 
Xo  complete  copy  is  now  in  existence.  In  the  period  K'ang- 
hi,  the  second  of  the  present  dynasty,  another  greaX.  cyclo- 
pieiiia,  the  T'u-shu-tMeih'Ch'in-g^  in  10,000  books,  forming 
5,020  volumes,  was  prepared,  and  printed  at  Peking  by  im- 
perial command,  from  movable  copper  ty|)e  (in  two  sizes)  in 
the  following  rtngn  (1?26).  A  copy  of  this  immense  and 
valuable  work  was  secured  in  1877  lor  the  British  Museum 
in  Ijondon.  Its  subjwts  are  arranged  in  six  categories  and 
thirty-two  stn-tions,  under  6,109  headings.  The  indexes  ex- 
tend to  twenty  vohinu's  more. 

The  earli»'st  mcxlern  oncyclopaMlia  was  that  of  J.  H.  Alsted 
(b.  1588,  d.  16'J8),  whit-h  HJ)|M'Hre<l  in  Jio  IxKjks  in  the  year 
1630.  L.  Moreri's  Grand  Diciioniuiire  appeared  in  167iS; 
H(>fmann*s  Lexinm  Vnivernnle  (2  vols.)  in  1677;  T.  Cor- 
ni'ille's  Dirtionnftir^  des  Arts  (2  vols.)  in  1694;  and  P. 
Bayle's  Diet ionna  ire  Iliatoriijue  et  Critique  (4  vols.)  in  1697. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  the  principal  works  were  J.  Har- 
ris's LejriMH  Technxcum  (2  vols,  folio,  Londim,  1710);  Eph- 
raim  Chambers's  Cyriopadia  (2  vols,  folio,  1728);  Zedler's 
Universal- Lrj-ikon  (64  vols.,  Leipzig,  1732-50);  the  French 


Encyel^idie  of  the  ''Encyclopedists"  Diderot,  d*Alembert, 
Voltaire,  Rousseau,  Orimm,  ana  Helvetius  (28  vols.,  1751-72 ; 
7  vols.,  1776-80);   the  EneydopcRdia  Britannic^  (3  vols., 
1771 ;  2d  ed.  in  10  vols.,  1776-83;  8d  ed.  in  18  vols.,  1797) ; 
the  Deutsche  Encyklopddie  of  K5ster  and  Roos  (1778-1804) ; 
and  the  EncyclopSdte  Mithodique  par  Ordre  des  Matihrts 
gOl  vols.,  1781-1832).    In  the  nineteenth  century  the  first 
European  work  was  Dr.  A.  Ree's  Cyclopcedia  (45  vols,,  1802- 
19).    A  work  called  the  British  JSncvclopcedia,  edited  by 
Thomas  Dobson,  was  published  in  Philadelphia,  1798-1804*: 
Dr.  Brewster's  Edinburgh  Encyclopadia  (i8  vols.,  1810-:iO) 
followed.  The  Conversatians-Lexikon  of  F.  Brockhaus  ( Leip- 
zig, 1813),  of  which  thirteen  editions  have  appeared,  was  the 
basis  of  many  other  cyclopKidias.    The  Encyciopo'dia  Metr«>- 
politana  (30  vols.  4to,  1818-45)  was  a  series  of  scientifii- 
treatises,  as  was  also  Lardner's  Cyclopcpdia.    The  Encyrlo- 
p(edia  Americafia  (1829-33,  13  vols.,  and  supp.  vol.,  l'S4Si, 
edited  by  Prof.  Lieber,  was  based  on  the  Conversctiions-L^x- 
ikon.     The  Penny  Cyclopaedia  (28  vols.,  1833-43),  sulise- 
quently  rearranged  in  four  divisions  and  twenty-seven  vol- 
umes as  the  English  Cydopoidia;  the  Encydopcsdia  Bri- 
tannica  (4th  to  9th  editions,  of  which  the  nintn  appeanMi 
in  24  vols,  and  index  vol.,  1875-89) ;  the  London  EncyrUt- 
pcedia  (22  vols.,  1829) ;  and  Messrs.  W.  &  R.  Chamber^t's  En- 
cyclofKBdia  (10  vols.,  1859-68;    new  ed.  1888-92).  are  the 
principal  British  cyclopapdias  of  the  nineteenth  centiirv. 
The  Aclgemeine  Encyklopddie  of  Erst^h  and  Oruber  (160  v<iN., 
1818,  seq.);  Meyer's  Grosse  Conversations- Lexikon  (52  vol>.. 
1840-55):    Pierer's   Universal- Lexikon  (34  vols.,    1840-46: 
5th  ed.  19  vols.,  1867-71);  Brockhaus  (13th  ed.  188^-87)  and 
Meyers'  Conversations- Lexikon  (16  vols,  and  2  supps..  IHKV- 
91)  are  the  best  cyclopiedias  in  Oennan.     Of  the    snmll 
encyclopiedias,  the  Hand-Lexicon  of  Meyer  (2  vols.,  18U2- 
93)  is  by  far  the  best.    The  French  have  Eneyelop4die  des 
Gens  du  Monde  (22  vols.  8vo,  ia33-44);   Encyclopidie  Mod- 
erne  (36  vols.  8vo,  1848-57);  EncyclopMie  Caiholique  (18 
vols,  and  sup.);  and  Larousse,  Grand  Diciionnaire   Uni- 
verselle  du  XIX"**  Siecle,  published  in  fifteen  volumes,  lar^r** 
quarto,  with  two  supplementary  volumes  of  the  same  si/«-. 
This  work  was  intended  to  replace  the  famous  Encyclopf^tiit 
of  the  eighteenth  century  (Paris,  1865-W).    The  later  cy- 
cloptt'dias  published  in  the  U.  S.  have  been  The  iVVir  Amrr- 
ican  Cyclojpcedia  (IQvois,^  1857-63),  revised  as  The  American 
Cydopcedia  (16  vols.,  1873-76) ;  Zell's  Encyclopasdia  (2  vol>. 
large  4to,  1869-72;  an  abridgment  in  1  vol.  4to,  1872);   77./ 
National  Encyclopcedia   (8vo,  1872,  se^.);   an   ^ition    of 
Chambers's  Encyctopcedia,  printed  from  imported  plates  (lo 
vols.   8vo);    Schem's   German- American  Eneyclopcedia    (S 
vols.,  1869);  Johnson^s  New  Universal  CydojicBdia  (4  imp, 
8vo  vols.,  1874-77) ;  People* s  Cydopcedia  of  Universal  Kmnrf- 
edge  (3  vols.,  1881-83) ;  Johnson's  New  General  Cyclopa  ti  in 
and  Copper-plate  Iland^atlas  of  the   World  (2  vols,  Mvo. 
1885) ;  International  Cydopcedia  (16  vols,,  8vo,  prepare<l  nu 
the  oasis  of  a  former  ed.  of  Chambers's);  Johnson's  Uni- 
versal Cydopcedia,  Bevised  (1893, 8  vols.).   See  also  Diction- 
ary, Lexicon,  Bibliography,  and  Biographical  Diction- 
aries. Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Eiidele^chins,  Severus  Sanctus:  Christian  Latin  \nn'X. 
perhaps  from  Oaul,  who  taught  rhetoric  at  Rome  ti>warti 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  He  is  the  author  of  uii 
amoebean  pastoral,  relative  to  a  murrain  among  cattle  {Ih 
Mortibus  Bourn).  Tityrus  ascribes  the  preservation  of  his 
herd  to  the  sign  of  the  cross  impressed  upon  their  fore- 
heads. See  Riese's  Anthologia,  893,  and  a  sepsLrate  chH- 
tion  by  J.  A.  Oiles  (London,  1838).  M.  Warren. 

Endellionite :  See  Bournonite. 

• 

Endemic  [from  Or.  ^i^,  in  -h  Siyfiof ,  people]:  peculiar  t«» 
some  locality;  often  occurring  in  a  particular  region  :  said 
of  diseases.  The  investigations  of  endemic  influenci*$  i\x\\\ 
with  climate,  topography,  geolopy,  water-supply,  pers<triai 
habits  and  character,  moral,  religious,  and  political  comli- 
tions,  and  (since  the  origin  of  the  germ-theory  of  du^Hset 
with  the  study  of  minute  animal  and  vegetable  organism^. 
The  study  of  endemic  influences  has  given  rise  to  the  n»'w 
science  of  medical  geography.  See  Altlhry,  Noso-€we*Hjra- 
phie  (2  vols.) ;  Boudin,  Tratti  de  Gio^raphie  et  de  Siaf%At\q^,f 
Medicates,  et  de  Maladies  Endemtques  (2  vols.,  185 7>;  Ssr 
Ranald  Martin,  On  the  Influence  of  Tropical  Climute ;  th»- 
British  Army  Medical  Reports,  annual  since  1859. 

Endermic  Method  [endermic  is  from  Or.  4p,  in  +  6^pua, 

skin] :  a  manner  of  administering  medicines  formerly  ^ttiit- 
times  employed,  by  which  the  skin  was  made  to  abs^>rb  th< 
remedy  used.     In  some  instances  a  blister  was  raises  I,  nnc 


I 


102 


ENERGY 


Energrj  [from  Gr.  Mpy^uiy  force,  activity,  deriv.  of  iytpyfis, 
active ;  ^.  m  +  ^pyw^  work] :  an  ideal  physical  quantity 
which  serves  as  a  common  measure  of  ceitain  forces  or  re- 
sults of  action  in  nature.  There  is  a  remarkable  analogy 
between  the  ideas  of  energy  and  of  matter,  in  that  neither  of 
them  can  be  created  or  destroyed.  When  matter  disappears 
from  sight,  for  example,  when  water  evaporates,  its  form  is 
merely  changed  into  thiat  of  an  invisible  vapor,  which,  if 
condensed,  will  again  turn  into  the  original  Quantity  of 
water.  At  first  sight  it  would  seem  that  other  things  than 
matter  can  be  created  out  of  nothing,  and  la{ise  back 
a^ain  into  nothingness,  without  any  change  of  form.  Mo- 
tion is  an  example  of  this.  A  stone  allowed  to  drop  ac- 
quires motion ;  when  it  reaches  the  ground  the  motion 
ceases.  So  far  as  ordinary  observation  goes,  nothing  has 
been  expended  to  make  this  motion,  nor  has  the  motion 
yielded  anything  that  can  afterward  be  used.  So  electricity 
can  apparently  be  made  out  of  nothing  by  rubbing  two 
bodies  together.  When  thus  created  it  can  apparently  be 
destroyed  without  producing  any  result. 

Modem  research  seems  to  indicate  that  these  conclusions 
are  not  true,  but  that  all  physical  effects  are  subject  to  the 
law  of  causation;  that  tney  can  not  be  produced  except 
by  expending  or  using  up  a  proportional  quantity  of  some 
active  agent,  which  may  then  be  regardeci  as  their  cause. 
Thus  arises  the  idea  that  the  expenditure  of  the  cause  in 
producing  an  effect  is  siipply  a  transformation  of  one  thing 
mto  another,  like  that  which  takes  place  when  water  is  trans- 
formed into  vapor.  This  idea  has  been  developed  histori- 
cally in  the  following  way :  When  mechanics  was  reduced 
to  a  science,  by  applymg  mathematical  analysis  to  Newton's 
law  of  motion,  tne  following  general  theorem  was  discov- 
ered :  Let  there  be  any  number  of  bodies  (for  example, 
those  ^hich  compose  the  solar  system)  moving  under  the 
influence  of  their  mutual  gravitation,  but  never  coming  into 
actual  collision.  Conceive  the  following  two  quantities  to 
be  formed:  (I)  the  sum  of  all  the  prwiucts  obtained  by 
multiplying  the  mass  of  each  body  into  half  the  s<|uare  of 
its  velocity;  (2)  the  sura  of  the  quotients  obtained  by 
dividing  the  products  of  every  pair  of  masses,  taken  two 
and  two,  by  their  mutual  distance.  In  algebraic  language, 
if  we  represent  by  Wi,  Wa,  mi,  etc.,  the  masses  of  the  bodies, 
the  unit  of  mass  being  taken  as  that  quantity  of  matter 
which  will  attract  an  equal  quantity  with  unit  force  at  unit 
distance :  V|,  t'a,  Vt,  etc.,  the  velocities  with  which  the  several 
bodies  are  moving  at  any  instant ;  rn,  rn,  rja,  etc.,  the  dis- 
tances apart  of  the  first  body  from  the  second,  of  the  first 
from  the  thinl,  of  the  second  from  the  third,  etc. ;  then  if 
we  represent  the  first  quantity  above  defined  by  T  and 
the  second  by  P,  their  algebraic  expressions  will  be 

T  =  i  (miVi*  -f-  msVj*  +  mtv^*  +  etc.) 
r  = + 4- +  etc. 


ri. 


ri% 


rit 


In  modem  physics  the  quantity  T  is  called  the  kinetic 
energv  of  the  system  of  bodies. 

Owin^  to  the  continually  varying  velocities  of  the  bodies 
and  their  varying  distances,  the  two  quantities  T  and  P  are 
continually  varying,  but  the  conclusion  of  the  theorem  is 
that  their  difference  never  varies  so  long  as  no  external 
force  acts  on  the  bodies.    Thus  we  may  write  the  equation 

T  —  P  =  a  constant, 
or  T  =  P  -I-  C. 

If  the  negative  of  P  be  regarded  as  the  representative  of 
another  quantity,  called  the  potential  energy  of  the  body, 
putting 

E  =  potential  energy  =  —  P 
then  T  +  E  =  a  constant, 

so  that  whenever  T  increases  the  potential  energy  will 
diminish  by  the  same  amount,  and  ince  versa.  Thus  arises 
the  conception  that  through  all  the  motion  of  the  bodies 
there  is  a  transformation  of  one  of  these  forms  of  energy 
into  the  other  without  any  gain  or  loss.  Such  was  the  idea 
as  developed  by  the  geometers  of  the  time  of  Lagrange  and 
Laplace. 

An  apparent  exception  was  seen  to  occur  if  two  of  the 
bodies  came  into  collision.  It  was  shown  that  then  the 
kinetic  energy  T  would  l)e  lost,  without  any  potential  energy 
being  gaine<l.  so  that  there  would  be  an  apparent  loss  in  the 
sum  of  the  two.  Hut  Rum  ford  showed  that  in  such  a  case, 
although  energy  disappeart'd.  something  else  took  its  place — 
namely,  heaf.  That  is,  he  showed  that  hy  using  up  energy, 
or  the  forces  which  could  be  «'hang«Ml  into  energy,  a  corre- 


sponding amount  of  heat  could  be  produced.  Thus  if  II 
be  put  for  a  quantity  proportional  to  heat  produced,  there 
will  result  the  equation 

T  +  E  +  H  =  constant. 

Subsequently  Joule,  and  after  him  a  number  of  experi- 
menters, determined  the  exact  amount  of  energy  which  had 
to  disappear  in  order  to  obtain  a  given  amount  of  he;it. 
To  explain  the  constant  relation  thus  arising,  the  relation 
between  energy  and  work  must  be  shown. 

Work  is  saia  to  be  done  whenever  a  force  acts  \i]Km  a 
body  in  motion.  The  amount  of  work  is  equal  to  the  prod- 
uct of  the  force  into  the  distance  through  which  the  Iwxly 
is  moved  under  its  action.  For  example,  if  a  weight  «if 
1  lb.  is  raised  to  a  height  of  16  feet,  an  amount  of  work  La 
done  which  may  be  called  16  foot-pounds.  Suppose  tliat 
the  effect  of  this  work  is  undone  or  annihilated  oy  letting 
the  body  fall  back  through  the  16  feet.  Apparently  wIumi 
it  reaches  the  ground  the  work  is  undone  without  any 
effect  being  produced.  But  really  a  certain  quantity  of  heat 
has  been  generated  by  the  blow  in  striking,  and  there  is  an 
exact  correlation  between  the  amount  of  the  fall,  the  ener^'v 
with  which  the  body  struck  the  ground,  and  the  amount  of 
heat  generated.  This  relation  may  be  expressed  by  saying 
that  the  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  bottom  of  Xiagjtra 
Falls  must  be  a  quarter  of  a  degree  Fahrenheit  higher  tlian 
at  the  top,  in  consequence  of  the  energy  product  by  t  he 
fall  being  changed  into  heat.  The  amount  of  heat' gen- 
erated or  absorbed  in  various  processes  may  be  accural  tly 
measured,  and  a  common  measure  is  that  necessary  to  rai^^^ 
a  kilogramme  of  water  from  0°  C.  to  VC.^  called  a  Calorie 
{q.  v.).  The  instrument  used  in  measurement  is  called  a 
Calorimeter  {q.  v,). 

There  are  two  fonns  of  potential  energy — ^the  one,  that  al- 
ready described,  dependent  on  the  positions  of  bodies,  the 
other  dependent  on  their  internal  constitution  or  eheniicul 
combinations.  For  example,  let  us  touch  with  a  flame  a 
mixture  of  oxygen  and  hvdrogen.  An  enormous  amount  of 
heat  is  instantly  produced,  apparently  out  of  nothing.  Hut 
the  mixture  of  gases  is  changed  into  water,  or,  more  j>re- 
cisely,  into  steam.  We  therefore  conclude  that  oxygen  and 
hydrogen,  as  pure  gases,  have  stored  up  in  them  a  definite 
quantity  of  potential  energy  which  is  spent  or  transfornied 
into  heat  when  they  combme  to  form  water.  The  truth  <»f 
the  theory  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  water  requires  the 
expenditure  of  a  corresponding  amount  of  energy  in  some 
other  form  to  be  decomposed  into  its  elements.  If  it  is  tie- 
composed  by  an  electric  current  from  a  djmamo,  then  t )»»» 
amount  of  work  done  by  the  dynamo  is  the  exact  equivalent 
of  the  heat  which  was  evolved  by  the  combination  of  the 
gases  and  a  condensation  of  the  steam  which  they  fonne<l. 

There  is  still  a  fourth  form  into  which  the  three  form** 
already  described  may  be  transformed,  namely,  electricity. 
To  produce  electricity  of  a  given  potential,  one  of  the  i>ther 
forms  of  energy  must  be  expended,  or  work  of  some  kind, 
internal  or  external,  must  be  done. 

The  general  principles  of  the  subject  having  been  illu?- 
trated,  certain  more  exact  numerical  statements  resf>ooting 
it  are  necessary.  The  various  forms  of  the  physical  quant  it  y 
called  energy  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

(1)  Actual  or  kinetic  energy^  exhibited  whenever  a  IkxIv 
is  set  in  motion,  and  measured  by  the  product  of  the  xnas.^  t>f 
the  body  into  half  the  square  of  its  velocity.  (2)  Patent inl 
e^iergyy  which  means  a  quantity  dependent  on  the  p<>!^itn>n 
or  internal  state  of  a  boay,  of  such  a  nature  that  it  chan^t  •» 
by  a  certain  amount  whenever  that  condition  or  posit  i<  in 
changes.  (3)  Work  done,  which  has  alreadv  been  defintMi  a^ 
the  product  of  a  force  acting  upon  a  body  into  the  disiante 
through  which  the  body  moves  m  the  direction  of  the  fon-e. 
Strictly,  however,  work  should  not  be  regarded  as  a  distinrt 
form  of  energy;  it  is  simply  the  process  of  changing  the 
amount  of  potential  energy.  (4)  Electricity^  or,  to  spt  uk 
more  exactlv,  electric  potential.     (5)  Heaf, 

Each  of  these  quantities  may  he  taken  to  have  a  oertnin 
value  or  price  in  nature,  as  measured  by  the  others*  Their 
production  and  expenditure  is  then  subject  t^  the  law  th,i* 
no  one  of  them  can  be  produced  except  at  the  exwnse  «tf 
one  or  more  of  the  others,  and  can  never  t>e  annihilntt^l  ex- 
cept by  producing  one  or  more  of  the  other  four.  Thoy  wen* 
formerlv  called  forces^  and  the  relations  between  thoiu  wt-ro 
called  the  correlation  of  forces. 

The  law  that  no  energy  is  created  or  destroyed  is  calltMl 
the  law  of  conservation  of  energy.    See  Energy,  Conskrv  ^- 

TION  OF. 


ENO  AND  CHANG 


Eng  (right)  and  Chan;  (left);  the  Siamese  Twins;  b. 
at  Bsneesttii,  SJam,  Apr.  IS,  1811.  the  offspring  of  a  Clii- 
neae  father  anil  a  ( 'hino-Siamese  mother.  Thej  were  broup;ht 
to  the  U.  S.  in  1839,  and  after  a  number  of  tours  of  exhibi- 
tion lired  about  twenty  years  as  Eag  and  Chang  Bnnker 
near  Ml.  Airy,  N.  C.  and  died  in  Jan..  1874.  They  differed 
wiitely  in  appoarante.  character,  and  strength,  performed 
their  physical  fiineticms  separately,  and  were  addicted  to 


Edb  iwiJ  Chang  itbx  Siaiiiesf  Tirlna). 
different  habits.  ChanK  being  intemperate  and  irritable,  Eng 
sober  and  palicnl.  Both  were  married  and  had  large  fam- 
'  ilies  ol  children,  a  number  of  whora  die<l  ^oung,  but  none 
exhibited  any  maUorination.  Chan;r  received  a  paralytic 
strokein  Aug.,  1870.  He  died  uneipncl«dly  while  his  brother 
was  asleep,  and  Eng  died  a  fev  hours  afterward,  prolwblv 
chiefly  from  the  nervous  shock  on  learning  Ihc  sudden  death 
of  his  bnrthor.  They  are  the  best  known  of  the  "double 
monsters"  on  record,  none  others  of  whom  ever  lived  to  the 
advanced  age  of  siity-three. 

The  ctmuection  of  the  Siamese  twins  was  near  the  navel. 
The  connecting  band  was  a  tew  inches  long,  after  having 
elongated  a  little  during  the  long  life  of  tiie  twins,  and  8 
inches  in  circumfervnce  (2^  in  diameter).  Inside  the  skin 
there  was  normal  subcutaneous  and  muscular  tissue,  poi^ 
tions  of  the  muscles  of  one  crossing  those  of  the  other. 
The  intJ^riiir  was  occupied  bv  ilie  prolongations  of  the 
[leritoneum  crossing  from  one  to  the  other. 

Tlie  livers  of  the  twins  were  located  in  close  proximity  to 
the  connecting  band,  and  connected  with  each  other  by 
small  bliMHl-vnttiels,  which  were  lined  with  a  thin  layer  of 
genuine  liver  tissue.  It  is  possible  that  by  operation  the 
twins  might  have  been  sepwuted.  though  the  necessary  in- 
jury to  the  peritoneum  of  ooth  and  the  division  of  the  con- 
necting blood-vessels  and  accompanying  liver  tissue  might 
easily  have  lead  to  a  fatal  result. 

Revised  by  WiLUAH  Peppbk. 

Engadino,  en-ga-deen,  or  Engadin :  the  upper  part  of 
the  valley  of  the  river  Inn.  in  the  canton  of  Orisons,  Switz- 
erland 1  about  65  miles  long,  with  an  average  wi<ltb  of  1^ 
miles ;  separated  by  the  noble  Ilemina  Mountains  from  the 
Valtelline.  For  30  miles  the  mean  height  is  S,500  feet  above 
sca-lcvel.  while  the  village  of  St.  Moritz  on  the  banks  of  the 
Inn  is  at  a  height  of  6.000  feet.  The  climate,  which  is  very 
cold,  even  in  the  summer,  has  been  found  very  beneficial  to 
certain  classes  of  invalids,  and  the  Rngadiiie  nas  become  a 
popular  ri'sort  for  Euro|)ean  tourist-s  who  are  attracted  as 
well  by  the  great  beauty  of  the  valley,  esjiecialty  of  the 
Upper  Engadine.  The  inhabitants,  a  jiiiius,  simple  class  of 
pt^ssants  mostly  of  the  Protestant  faith,  number  about 
12.000,  and  speak  a  peculiar  Komanic  dialect,  called  Ladin. 
The  young  meu  are  Known  througlioul  Buropc  a«  good  con- 
feclionen  and  coSee-house  keeiiern.  Tliey  uxualty  amass  a 
competence,  and  return  to  enjoy  their  small  fortunes  in 
their  native  valley.    The  government  is  a  pure  deniotraey. 


ENG ELBERT 

Engano,  en-gaa'no:  an  island  of  the  Malay  Archipelago; 
lat.  5^21'  S.,  Ion.  102'  20  E. ;  75  miles  from  the  southwiAi. 
coast  of  Sumatra.  It  has  an  area  of  138  sq.  miles,  and  is 
rather  high  and  well  wooded.  The  people  are  of  Malar  rai-e. 
and  are  included  in  the  Dutch  Sumatran  government  of 
Benkulen.  The  Island  has  a  gowl  harbor,  but  is  mostly  sur- 
rounded by  coral-reefs.     Pop.  6,400. 

Engedl,  en-ged'e'u  [Heb.  Eyn  (iedi.  spring  of  the  king] :  a 
town  several  times  mentioned  in  the  Bible  (e.  e.  Josh.  iv.  82 ; 
Song  i.  14 ;  Ezelt.  ilvii.  10),  and  also  called  llatfzon-tnmar 
(citj  of  palm-trees.  Qen.  xiv.  7),  alluding  to  its  palni-lrees, 
which  have  now  disamieared.  It  stood,  as  its  ruins  show, 
on  the  we«t  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  at  a  point  about  equallv 
distant  from  its  north  and  south  extremities,  and  in  a  very 
fertile  spot  near  the  fine  fountain  which  gave  it  a  name- 
There  are  numerous  caves  in  the  vicinity.  These  served  as 
hiding-nlaces  for  David  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  1-4)  ond  his  followed 
in  the  days  of  their  outlawry  during  tiie  reign  of  SauL 

Eag'el.  Ebnst:  statistician;  b.  in  Dresden,  Germany 
Mar.  28,  1821 ;  studied  in  Freiburg  and  later  in  Paris;  had 
charge  of  the  bureau  of  statistics  in  Dresden  for  nearly  a 
decade;  in  1860  became  a  director  of  the  bureau  of  statistics 
in  Berlin ;  and  in  1663  presided  at  the  International  StalL''- 
tioal  Congress  in  Berlin.  He  published  the  ZeiltehTifl  dm 
ttatiatiarhen  Bureau  (begun  in  I860);  the  Jahrbtieh  fur  dir 
amtliche  Slati»tik  des  Preuaaiselitn  S(oa/e«  (1865-76) ;  Prrun- 
MKcAeStaftXiit  (begun  in  1801);  and  numerous  other  statisti- 
cal works.  He  retired  from  Prussian  service  in  1682.  anil 
removed  to  Oberlftssniti,  near  Dresden. 

Engel,  JoBANH  Jakob:  author;  b.  at  Parchim, in  Meck- 
lenburg, Germany,  Sept.  11,  1741;  educated  in  Rostock, 
BUtzow,  and  Leljalg ;  became  Professor  of  Belles-Lcttres  in 
Berlin  in  1778.  Among  his  works  are  Idem  zu  finer  Itimie 
(2  vols..  1766).  and  I^rem  Stark  (1785).  a  romance  which 
was  very  popular.  His  works  are  characterized  by  a  refiiitHl 
lastc  and  elegance  of  diction.  D.  at  Parchim,  June  :in, 
1802. 

Engel,  Joseph  ;  anatomist;  b.  in  Vienna,  Jan.  90,  1F4I6; 
educated  in  Vienna:  became  Professor  of  Descriptive  An- 
-' at  the  University  of  Zurich  in  1844,  Professor  of 


lilzes  (1850);  Compendium  der  lopographisehen  Anatumir 
(1859) ;  and  AUgemeine  palhologiaehe  Anaiomit  (1885). 

En^elberg.  eng>l-bftreh :  village  of  the  canton  of  I'nter- 
walden,  Switzerland;  in  Engleberg  valley,  at  the  foot  of 
Mt.  Titlis  (see  map  of  Switzerland,  ref.  5-F).  It  is  famous 
for  its  school,  which  is  connected  with  a  stately  Benedictine 
abbey,  Mom  Angtlorvm,  founded  by  Pope  Calixtus  II.  ii 


cheese-cellar  of  great  extent.    Pop.  (1888)  1,873. 

Encelbert :  a  Benedictine  author  of  noble  parentage :  ab- 
bot of  Admont  in  Styria ;  b.  about  1250 ;  educated  at  Pragui> 
and  Padua ;  became  abbot  in  1207,  Of  his  numerous  works 
the  most  important  was  a  Roman  history,  De  orfu,  progreaxu 
el  fine  imperii  Romani,  publtehed  in  1553,  1810,  and  later. 
Several  theological  tractates  of  his  production  have  been 
published  by  Pez,  with  a  biography  and  a  full  list  of  his 
works.     D.  in  1331. 

-  Engelbert,  Saint  :  son  of  Engelbert,  Count  of  Berg,  and 
of  Margoretha,  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Geldem;  b.  in 
1185;  studied  at  Cologne;  was  chosen  cathedral  provost  in 
ll»9,butwasde[)(>sedm  1208  and  not  restored  for  two  years. 
He  I'epentcd  of  his  lax  life  and  became  strict.  In  1218  he 
became  Archbishop  of  Cologne  and  elector  of  the  empire 
of  Germany,  having  when  twentf-two  years  old  declined  the 
bishopric  of  Mtkister.  He  paid  off  the  debt  of  the  electorate, 
enlarged  its  territories,  and  reformed  its  administration. 
When  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  went  to  Italy,  Engelbert 
was  the  principal  regent  in  Germany.  He  reformed  tlie 
corrupt  clergy,  check^  the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  zeal- 
ously advanced  that  of  the  Church.  His  energy  and  rigor 
made  many  enemies,  and  he  was  murdered  by  his  own  nephew 
at  Gevelsberg,  near  Schwelm,  Westphalia,  Nov.  7, 1235.  The 
murderer.  Count  von  Isenburg,  was  broken  on  the  wheel,  and 
his  accomplices,  the  Bishops  of  Dsnabrilck  and  MUnster,  re- 
ceived excommunication.  St.  Engelbert  is  one  of  the  char- 
acteristic figures  of  German  medisval  hiatorj.  recalling 
Saints  Dunstan  and  Thomas  Becket,  but  be  Mems  to  have 


106 


ENGINEERING 


ENGINEERING.  EXPERIMENTAL 


This  usually  implies  a  practical  knowledge  and  even,  in  some 
departments,  experience  in  the  f^rt  so  applied.    It  is  for  this 
reason  customary  to  teach  something  oi  the  arts  subsidiary 
to  engineering  as  an  advanced  system  of  **  manual  training 
in  the  schools  of  engineering.  R.  H.  Thurston. 

Engrineeringr :  the  art  of  construction.  During  the  ear- 
lier periods  of  the  history  of  engineering  all  constructions 
were  directed  by  men  of  rank,  who  were  also  necessarily  sol- 
diers, and  were  usually  military  officers,  but  as  civil  construc- 
tions became  more  general,  and  as  the  military  element  fell 
into  the  background,  the  art  was  more  and  more  generally 
applied  to  the  provision  of  the  needs  of  the  people  in  times 
of  peace,  and  nnally  came  to  be  divided  into  two  grand  de- 
partments, civil  engineering  and  military  engineering.  Up 
to  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  civil  engineering 
included  the  building  both  of  structures  and  of  machinery, 
and  Smeaton,  the  greatest  engineer  of  his  time  and  a  con- 
temporary of  Watt,  constructed  roads,  bridges,  aqueducts, 
canals,  harbors,  and  other  hydraulic  works,  and  also  became 
famous  for  his  success  in  the  building  of  steam-engines. 
The  extensive  intro<luction  of  the  now  familiar  forms  of 
motors,  as  heat-engines  and  water-wheels,  and  the  innu- 
merable machines  i^ed  in  the  textile  manufactures  rendered 
the  extent  of  the  art  too  great  for  any  one  man  to  compass, 
and  it  gradually  came  to  be  recognized  that  civil  engineer- 
ing must  be  further  divided,  and  mechanical  engineering 
became  known  as  the  division  relating  to  the  construction 
of  all  kinds  of  machinery,  the  designation  civil  engineering 
becoming  thus  restricted  to  that  department  which  has  to 
do  with  static  as  distinguished  from  dynamic  constructions. 
Still  later,  the  development  of  the  applications  of  electric 
energy  and  the  construction  of  electrical  apparatus  and 
machinery  have  led  to  the  separation  of  this  branch  from 
the  older  division  of  mechanical  engineering,  and  "  electrical 
engineering  "  has  come  to  be  another  important  subdivision 
of  the  art  of  engineering.  The  following  classifications  may 
meet  the  requirements  of  modern  times  as  logically  as  any, 
but  the  continual  increase  in  the  complexity  of  construction 
is  constantly  modifying  the  relative  extent  and  character  of 
these  various  branches  of  the  great  constructive  profession, 
and  it  is  impossible  to  say  what  will  be  their  final  form : 

Military  Enaineering. — The  construction  of  works  for 
offensive  and  defensive  warfare,  including  the  two  main 
divisions,  army  or  military  engineering  proper,  and  naval 
engineering,  including  the  construction  of  engines,  ships, 
and  armor,  and,  in  both  sections,  the  construction  of  ord- 
nance, which  last  is  almost  a  profession  by  itself. 

Civil  engineering,  now  restricted  largely  by  the  assign- 
ment of  other  branches  to  special  departments ;  the  con- 
struction of  "  public  works,"  as  railroads,  canals,  harbors, 
and  bridges. 

Mining  Engineering. — That  department  which  assumes 
charge  of  all  mining  construction  and  operations  from  the 
preliminary  location  to  the  final  operation  of  the  completely 
organized  and  working  establishment. 

Mechanical  Engineering, — The  designing  and  construc- 
tion of  all  forms  of  machinery.  This  is  sometimes  termed, 
in  contradistinction  with  the  preceding,  "  dynamic "  engi- 
neering, as  having  to  do  only  with  moving  structures,  while 
civil  engineering,  concerned  mainly  with  pennanent  struc- 
tures, is  sometimes  called  **  static  "  engineering. 

ElectricaZ  Erhpineering. — A  modern  branch  or  offshoot  of 
mechanical  engineering,  dealing  with  the  design,  construc- 
tion, and  operation  of  the  mechanism  employed  in  the  pro- 
duction, transmission,  and  utilization  of  electrical  energy, 
as  derived  by  transformation  from  some  other  form  of  en- 
ergy, through  an  appropriate  system  of  "  prime  motors." 

Architecture  should  probably  be  classed  as  a  branch  of 
engineering,  in  which  are  combined  the  arts  of  carpentry 
and  general  construction  with  the  fine  arts,  which  latter  are 
essential  in  all  successful  architecture  in  decoration.  Civil 
engineering  and  architecture  are  often  classed  together. 

The  profeAHion  of  engineering  thus  has  for  its  province 
the  construction  of  all  classes  of  important  works,  whether 
static  or  dynamic,  civil  or  military,  public  or  private.  It 
has  for  its  basis  the  constructive  aris^  and  for  its  c<xle  the 
principles  of  applied  mechanics  and  the  physical  sciences. 
Its  origin  dates  back  to  the  prehistoric  perio(l  when  smiths, 
in  the  person  of  Vulcan,  were  deified,  and  to  the  days  of 
Tubal  Cain,  "  who  was  an  artificer  in  brass  and  in  iron." 
The  Temple  of  Karnac,  the  Egyptian  pyramids,  the  Roman 
roaiis  and  water-works,  the  Saracenic  constnictions  of 
Southern  Euro|)e.  and  later  public  works,  illustrate  the  prog- 


ress of  the  art  and  its  sciences.  In  the  earlier  days  engi- 
neering was  monopolized  by  the  rulers  of  nations  for  tht- 
purposes  of  promoting  their  conquests,  and  military  engi- 
neering thus  antedated  the  engineering  of  civil  life.  WhiK* 
the  engineer  of  modem  times  is  neither  an  artificer  nor  a 
man  of  science,  yet  he  is  required  to  be  so  familiar  with  th<* 
arts  and  trades  that  he  may  direct  constructions  and  distin- 
guish good  work,  and,  if  needs  be,  show  how  he  expects  work 
to  be  done.  He  is  also  expected  to  be  so  familiar  with 
mathematics  and  the  physical  sciences  that  he  may  reailily 
make  application  of  the  principles  of  the  scienc^  to  tin- 
purposes  of  the  work  in  hand.  This  is  well  illustrated  iti 
the  case  of  electrical  engineering,  for  example,  by  the  fact 
that  the  engineer  must  in  this  case  be  an  electrician  a^ 
well ;  in  marine  engineering  the  engineer  must  be  familiar 
with  the  principles  of  wave-motion,  of  fluid  friction,  and  of 
resistances  of  "  ship-shape  "  forms,  as  well  as  with  the  art 
of  ship-building  and  marine-engine  desiring,  embodying, 
as  does  the  latter,  the  principles  of  chemistry,  of  heat-pro- 
duction, and  of  applied  thermodynamics,  as  well  as  of  tht> 
strength  and  proportions  of  the  elements  of  machinery. 

The  training  of  the  engineer,  in  modem  times,  is  begun  in 
the  technical  schools,  and  he  is  there  taught  the  scieiir**^ 
and  often  something  of  the  arts  which  underlie  his  profes- 
sion. These  schools  usually  offer  more  difficult  and  en- 
grossing courses  of  instruction  than  the  older  institutions  nf 
learning,  and  exact  severe  work  of  their  students,  the  g«*n- 
eral  result  being  the  elimination  of  those  unfitted  for  thr 
work  and  the  final  entrance  into  the  profession  of  but  a 
small  proportion  of  all  aspirants  entering  them.  The  i)rt)- 
fession  has  come  to  be  fully  the  equal,  in  respect  to  prepara- 
tion by  special  education,  of  the  other  so-called  **  learned 
professions,"  and,  in  respect  to  adaptation  bv  selection,  is  in 
advance  of  either  of  its  older  congeners.  Specialization  l< 
going  on  so  rapidly,  in  consequence  of  the  development  of 
the  arts  and  sciences  and  their  more  general  application  to 
the  purposes  of  modem  life,  that  the  subdivision  above  indi- 
dicated  is  continually  becoming  more  and  more  marked, 
and  even  in  any  one  branch,  as  civil  engineering,  a  pni<-ti- 
tioner,  as  a  rule,  is  compelled  to  confine  himself  to  some 
single  subdivision,  as  to  bridge-building,  to  railway  work, 
to  canal  construction,  or  to  harbor  improvement,  arid  hav- 
ing himself  comparatively  little  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
building  mechanisms,  commonly  goes  to  the  mechanical  en- 
gineer for  his  machinery.  In  mechanical  engineering,  sim- 
ilarly, the  practitioner,  who  as  a  rule,  has  little  **exfH»rt 
knowledge  of  roads  or  canals,  takes  up  as  a  specialty 
either  the  design  or  construction  of  the  steam-«ngiue.  t  he 
building  of  hydraulic  motors  and  machinery,  the  construc- 
tion of  locomotives,  or  the  application  of  energy  thn^ufrli 
electrical  transmissions  from  tlie  prime  motor.  Only  the 
specialist  in  engineering  is  usually  fully  successful 

R.  H.  Thurston. 

Engineering,  Experimental:  the  investigation  of  pmlv 
lems  arising  in  the  jJractice  of  the  engineer.    Since  al)i»ut 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  this  has  become  a  tlt- 
partment  of  professional  work  of  exceptional  important**', 
and  researches  in  applied  science  are  reganled  as  esseiit  iul 
to  success  in  the  improvement  of  the  arts  subsidiary  to  i"ii- 
gineering.    In  modem  technical  schools  the  course  of  in- 
struction, where  systematically  arranged,  usually  inclutli-v 
investigations  in  regard  to  the  strength  and  other  valualde 
properties  of  the  material  employed  in  engineering  con- 
struction and  in  the  operation  of  machines,  e.  g.  wood  and 
the  metals,  oils  and  the  fuels;  investigations  in  reganl  t«' 
the  effect  of  stress  and  strain  upon  stmctures  or  on    th. 
elements  of  structures  and  machines;  test-trials  of  ht'at- 
engines,  water-wheels,  dynamo-electric  machinery,  and  of  her 
apparatus,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  distribntion  and    th»» 
extent  of  the  utilization  or  waste  of  energy  in  their  ofn*  ra- 
tion under  known  conditions,  etc. 

At  first  work  of  this  kind  was  carried  on  in  what  wt^n 
known  as  "mechanical  laboratories"  attache<l  to  a  ff»w  of 
the  older  technical  schools,  mainly  for  research  and  com- 
mercial gain  rather  than  for  purposes  of  instmcticm.  Thr 
first  in  the  U.  S.  was  established  by  the  writer  in  a  small 
way  in  1H?2,  and  results  of  researches  were  made  public  in 
18f3.  At  the  organization  in  1885  of  the  Sibley  College  of 
Mechanical  Engineering  and  the  Mechanic  Arts  at  C<»riu*'.! 
University,  experimental  engineering  was  made  a  part  of 
the  courses  of  undergraduate  instmction,  and  now  all  im- 
portant technical  schools  include  such  courses  of  in.<«tni<'ti«>iK 
Some  Euroi)ean  laboratories  have  been  longer  est-ahlislit«  I 


108 


ENGLAND 


which  we  may  mention  Mounts  Bay,  the  harbor  of  Fal- 
mouth, and  Plymouth  Sound ;  the  last  is  protected  by  a  mag- 
nificent breakwater,  and  the  celebrated  Eddystone  light- 
house points  out  the  way  to  it.  The  remamder  of  the 
south  coast  of  England  is  generally  level.  The  Bill  of  Port- 
land, a  rocky  promontory  joined  to  the  mainland  by  the 
Chesil  Bank,  bounds  the  roaastead  of  that  name  to  the  W. 
The  only  other  secure  harbors  on  the  south  coast  are  those 
of  Southampton  and  of  Portsmouth,  opposite  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  the  latter  the  most  important  naval  station  of  Great 
Britain.  Spithead  is  a  secure  roadstead  between  it  and  the 
Isle  of  Wight'.  Farther  to  the  E.  the  South  Downs  grad- 
ually approach  the  coast  and  form  the  bold  Beachy  Head 
(564  feet).  The  coast  then  again  becomes  level  and,  at 
Dungeness.  marshy,  but  from  Sand^te  to  the  North  Fore- 
land it  is  formed  of  white  chalk  cliffs.  These  '*  white  cliffs 
of  Old  England  "  have  become  proverbial,  though  their  ex- 
tent is  very  limited.  They  owe  their  prominence  in  the 
popular  estimation  principally  to  the  fact  of  their  first 
meeting  the  eye  of  a  traveler  coming  from  the  Continent.* 
There  are  no  natural  harbors  along  this  coast  (that  of  Dover 
has  been  created  artificially),  but  the  roadstead  called  the 
"  Downs,"  lying  between  the  land  and  the  Goodwin  Sands, 
offers  some  shelter  to  shipping.  The  estuary  of  the  Thames 
is  bounded  by  low  coasts,  and  sandbanks  render  its  naviga- 
tion exceedingly  intricate.  The  estuary  of  the  Medway, 
which  opens  into  it,  forms  one  of  the  most  secure  harbors, 
and  has  oeen  strongly  fortified.    See  Chatham. 

Relief. — The  surface,  as  a  rule,  is  undulating.  Toward 
the  sea  the  country  occasionally  broadens  out  into  plains, 
while  furze-clad  hills  of  no  inconsiderable  height  rise  in  the 
north,  in  Wales,  and  in  the  southwestern  parts  of  the 
country.  Loveliness  rather  than  grandeur  Ls  the  distinc- 
tive feature  of  English  scenery — verdant  plains,  careful- 
ly kept  fields  inclosed  within  living  hedges,  clumps  and 
groves  of  trees,  and  numerous  genuy  flowing  rivers  and 
rivulets. 

Northern  England,  from  the  foot  of  the  Cheviots  (which 
separate  it  from  Scotland)  to  the  middle  of  Stafford  and 
Derbyshire,  is  intersected  by  a  range  of  mountains  forming 
the  water-parting  between  the  German  Ocean  and  the  Irish 
Sea.  By  geographers  these  mountains  are  called  the  Pen- 
nine chain ;  locally  they  are  known  by  a  great  variety  of 
designations.  The  depression  which  separates  this  liilly 
region  from  the  Cheviots  is  marked  by  the  line  of  the  old 
Roman  wall  which  extended  from  Carlisle  to  Newcastle,  and 
only  rises  445  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Pennines 
divide  themselves  into  two  groups,  separated  by  a  depression 
at  the  heads  of  the  rivers  Ribble  and  Aire,  where  the  Liver- 
pool and  Leeds  Canal  crosses  them  at  an  elevation  of  500 
feet.  The  northernmost  of  these  groups  culminates  in  the 
Cross  Fell  (2,892  feet),  and  is  but  loosely  connected  with  the 
picturesc^ue  Cumbrian  Mountains  toward  the  W.,  which 
abound  m  lakes,  shady  woods,  and  rich  pastures.  Scafell 
Pike  (3,216  feet),  the  highest  summit  of  the  Cumbrian 
Mountains,  is  at  the  same  time  the  culminating  point  of 
all  England.  The  southern  group  of  the  Pennine  chain  is 
far  less  elevated  than  the  northern,  and  the  Peak  of  Derby- 
shire, its  culminating  point,  only  rises  to  a  height  of  2,080 
feet.  It  terminates  with  the  Weaver  Hill,  in  lat.  53"  N. 
(1,154  feet).  The  region  of  the  Pennine  Mountains  is  one  of 
the  most  sterile  of  England,  and  its  moorlands  are  of  great 
extent.  In  the  rest  of  England  there  are  no  hill-ranges  equal 
in  importance  to  the  Pennine  chain,  and  the  general  level 
of  the  central  portions  of  the  country  even  but  rarely 
exceeds  500  feet  in  height.  The  bands  of  lias  and  o51ite 
which  extend  from  Yorkshire  to  Dorset  form  a  series  of 
hUls,  interrupted  by  table-lands  or  plains,  and  having  gen- 
erally a  steep  escarpment  to  the  W.,  and  sloping  down 
gently  towara  the  E.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
the  North  York  moors  (1,489  Feet),  to  the  N.  of  the  Ouse ; 
the  Lincoln  Heights,  to  the  S.  of  it;  the  Cotswold  Hills 
(1,134  feet),  to  the  E.  of  the  Severn ;  and  the  Dorset  Heights. 
The  valley  of  the  Thames  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  S.  by 
chalk  hills,  affording  generally  excellent  pasturage.  Those 
on  the  N.  extend  from  Wiltshire  into  Suffolk,  and  attain  an 
elevation  of  904  feet  in  Wendower  Hill.  The  southern 
chalk  hills  are  known  as  the  Downs,  and  attain  scarcely  an 
elevation  of  1,000  feet;  Inkpen  Beacon  (1,011  feet),  on  the 
boundary  of  Hants  and  Berks,  is  their  culminating  point. 
The  Northern  Downs  (Leith  Hill,  965  feet)  extend  from  it  to 

*  The  name  **  Albion  *^  which  fa  bestowed  sometimea  upon  Qreat 
Britain  m  not  derived  from  aUmt.  white,  but  from  the  Gaelic  eUbainn, 


which  means  "  mountain  island 


■;; 


the  coast  of  Kent,  at  Dover,  where  they  form  white  cliffs ; 
the  Southern  Downs  terminate  in  the  Beachy  Head  (564 
feet),  on  the  coast  of  Sussex.  These  two  ranges  bound  a 
fertile  region  called  the  Weald,  formerly  a  forest  of  oak,  at 
present  one  of  the  most  productive  agncultural  districts  uf 
the  country.  Geologists  describe  the  Weald  as  a  valley  of 
denudation,  and  fre(][uently  refer  to  it  in  illustration  of 
that  kind  of  geological  action.  The  Mendip  Hills  (1,067 
feet),  near  the  mouth  of  the  Severn,  are  already  beyond  the 
chalk  region  of  Southern  England,  for  they  consist  of 
mountain  limestone,  and  the  Exmoor  (1,407  feet),  a  range 
on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Bristol  Channel,  consist-s  af 
Devonian  rocks,  which,  with  members  of  the  Carboniferous 
series,  occupy  the  greater  portion  of  Devonshire  and  Corn- 
wall, and  are  intruded  by  granite  and  other  igneous  rook>. 
To  this  intrusion  is  due  the  origin  of  the  so-called  "  Dart- 
moor Forest,"  a  desolate  moor  region  rising  in  Yes  Tor  to  a 
height  of  2,077  feet.  The  fertile  plain  of  Cheshire  and 
the  valley  of  the  Severn  form  the  natural  boundary 
between  England  and  the  mountain  region  of  Wale^s,  next 
to  Scotland  the  most  considerable  in  the  British  islandi<.  It 
is  frequently  distinguished  as  the  "  Cambrian  Mountains,'* 
though  "  Welsh  Hills "  is  the  more  popular  designation. 
The  nighest  summit  is  Snowdon  (3,571  feet),  close  to  the 
Menai  Strait.  A  natural  depression  at  the  head  of  the 
Severn  divides  North  from  South  Wales,  and  the  hills  of 
the  latter  are  particularly  distinguished  by  their  barrenne^5^. 
their  highest  range  being  known  as  Black  Mountains  (Breck- 
nock Beacon,  2,910  feet),  from  the  color  of  the  heather  whi<li 
covers  them.  The  Welsh  Hills,  toward  the  E.,  merge  int4> 
the  table-lands  of  Salop,  Hereford,  and  Gloucester,  where 
several  outlving  hill-ranges  rise,  among  which  may  Ih» 
mentioned  the  Malvern  Hills  (1,395  feet),  the  Clee  IIill> 
(1,805  feet),  and  the  isolated  Wrekin  (1,342  feet)  in  the  cen- 
ter of  Shropshire.  Several  of  the  valleys  of  this  Cambrian 
region  are  distinguished  for  their  loveliness,  and  amon^ 
these  that  of  the  Wye  in  the  S.  and  of  the  upper  Dee  in  the 
N.  carry  off  the  palm  for  beauty. 

Hydrography. — The  rivers  of  England  are  mere  brooks  if 
compared  with  those  of  America,  but  as  they  all  carry  an 
abundant  sui^ply  of  water  throughout  the  year,  and  many  of 
them  are  navigable  for  a  considerable  distance  of  their  c*ourse, 
they  are,  nevertheless,  of  considerable  ii^ portance  to  com- 
merce and  industry.  They  belong  to  four  oceanic  drainage 
basins,  viz.,  those  of  the  German  Ocean  (Tyne,  Humber,  Ous*- 
and  Trent),  the  English  Channel,  the  Bnstol  Channel  (Sev- 
ern), and  the  Irish  Sea.  The  most  considerable  of  tlit»s«^ 
rivers  are  the  Humber  (catchment  basin  9,293  so.  miles, 
length  204  miles),  Severn  (8,119  sq.  miles,  186  miles), Thames^ 
(5,935  sq.  miles,  215  miles),  the  Great  Ouse  (2,766  sq.  mile^. 
156  miles),  and  the  Mersey  (1,722  sq.  miles,  85  miles). 

The  Mersey  rises  on  the  confines  of  Cheshire  and  Derby- 
shire, and  forms  a  wide  estuary  at  its  mouth,  on  which  is 
situated  Liverpool,  the  first  shipping-port  of  Europe.  It** 
tributary,  the  Irwell,  is  navigable  for  barges  as  far  as  Man- 
chester, and  canals  connect  it  with  the  principal  rivers  of 
the  rest  of  England.  The  Severn  rises  on  the  slope  of  Plyn- 
limmon  in  Wales,  and  becomes  navigable  at  Welshpool.  170 
miles  above  its  mouth.  It  traverses  the  fertile  plain  of 
Shrewsbury  and  the  vale  of  Gloucester,  and  enters  the 
Bristol  Channel  below  the  town  of  that  name.  The  tides  at 
its  mouth  are  of  tremendous  height  (60-70  feet),  and  the 
country  is  protected  against  them  by  embankments.  It2> 
most  important  tributaries  are  the  Wye  and  the  Avon. 
Bristol  is  situated  on  the  latter. 

The  Thames  rises  at  Thameshead,  376  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  enters  the  German  Ocean  at  the  Nore  Light, 
between  Shoeburyness  and  Sheerness.  At  its  mouth  it  is 
5  miles  wide,  at  London  bridge,  46  miles  above  it>  692 
feet,  and  as  far  as  the  latter  it  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  3(Xl 
tons.  Its  most  important  tributary  is  the  Medway,  which 
forms  an  excellent  harbor.  The  Ouse  rises  in  Northamp- 
tonshire,  and  is  navigable  from  Retford,  46  mile«t  above  it^^ 
mouth.  It  enters  the  Wash  at  King's  Lynn.  The  Humber, 
properly  speaking,  is  an  arm  of  the  sea.  into  which  the 
Trent  and  Yorkshire  Ouse  pour  their  waters,  and  extends 
37  miles  inland.  Hull,  an  important  commercial  town,  is 
situated  on  its  north  coast  at  the  mouth  of  the  small  river 
Hull.  The  Trent  rises  in  the  moorlands  of  Staffordshire, 
intersects  an  exceedingly  fertile  district,  and  becomes  navi- 
gable at  Burton-upon-Trent.  Small  sea-going  vessels  can 
ascend  it  as  hi^h  up  as  Gainsborough.  The  Ouse  descends 
from  the  Pennine  chain,  and  is  navigable  for  small  craft  as 
far  as  York.    Still  higher  up  the  coast  are  the  Tees  and  t>it^ 


B^^ 


.1 


— s s 

1=^  -  nj  (^  ♦  10 


THE  NEV7  YORK 
PUBLIC    LIBRARY 


Ti.  O    N  FOlNDA    IONS. 


110 


ENGLAND 


Education. — Elementary  education  has  made  consider- 
able strides  in  advance  since  an  act  passed  in  1870  compelled 
each  locality  to  provide  school  accommodation  for  all  chil- 
dren between  the  ages  of  five  and  thirteen,  and  provided  for 
the  election  of  school  boards  in  all  those  districts  where 
this  accommodation  had  not  been  provided  by  voluntary 
agencies.  These  public  elementary  schools  are  annually 
inspected  by  Government  officials,  and  they  receive  grants 
in  aid  out  of  the  public  treasury,  in  addition  to  what  they 
may  raise  by  rates  or  receive  from  voluntary  contributions. 
All  schools  supported  from  the  rates  are  undenominational, 
and  no  dogmatic  teaching  is  permitted.  In  1891  there 
existed  19,508  elementarv  schools :  viz.,  4,7t58  under  school 
boards;  11,957  connected  with  the  Church  of  England;  951 
Roman  Catholic ;  1,842  others.  There  were  present  at  the 
inspection  4,426,060  children ;  but  the  average  attendance 
was  only  3,749,956.    See  Common  Schools. 

Middle-class  education  is  mainly  left  to  private  enterprise. 
There  are  4  universities  (Oxford,  Cambridge,  Durham,  and 
Manchester)  and  15  colleges,  with  924  professors  and  13,940 
students,  besides  4  university  colleges  for  ladies,  medical 
schools  attached  to  the  hospitals  of  most  of  the  large  towns, 
and  a  large  number  of  tecnnical  and  art  schools.  London 
University  is  merely  a  board  of  examiners. 

Local  Government. — By  the  Local  Government  Act  of 
1888  England  was  divided  into  122  administrative  counties, 
inclusive  of  62  county  boroughs,  all  of  which  have  over 
50,000  inhabitants.  The  crown  is  represented  in  each  county 
by  a  lord-lieutenant,  a  sheriff,  ana  justices  of  the  peace. 
The  duties  of  the  lord-lieutenant  are  at  the  present  time 
merely  nominal,  while  the  justices  of  the  peace,  who  not 
long  ago  carried  on  nearly  the  whole  of  the  local  adminis- 
tration outside  the  municipalities,  now  exercise  hardly  any 
but  judicial  functions.  Each  county  has  its  county  council, 
consisting  of  a  chairman  (mayor),  aldermen,  and  councilors. 
The  councilors  are  elected  by  the  ratepayers  for  three  years ; 
the  aldermen  by  the  councilors  (not  necessarily  out  of  their 
own  number).  Smaller  towns  still  retain  a  large  measure  of 
administrative  independence.  The  whole  of  the  administra- 
tion of  the  poor  laws  is  intrusted  to  fi;iiardians  elected  by  the 
ratepayers,  while  elected  school  boards  administer  the  public 
schools.  Women  have  votes  in  the  election  of  these  local 
authorities,  and  can  themselves  be  elected  guardians  or  mem- 
bers of  school  boards,  but  not  county  councilors.  There  ex- 
ist, in  addition  to  the  above,  rural  sanitary  authorities,  high- 
way boards,  draina^  and  embankment  authorities,  harbor 
ana  pilotage  authorities,  etc.  The  total  receipts  of  the  local 
authorities  (1890)  amounted  to  £57,360,957,  inclusive  of  an 
exchequer  contribution  of  £6,531,000.  Out  of  the  expendi- 
ture, £8,439,180  was  for  paupers,  £5,607,896  for  schools.  The 
local  debt  at  the  close  of  1890  amounted  to  £198,871,312. 

Administration  of  Justice. — The  judicial  systems  of  Eng- 
land and  of  the  U.  S.  are  very  similar.  A  distinction  is  made 
between  common  and  statute  law,  and  only  occasionally, 
in  admiralty  and  ecclesiastical  crises,  is  recourse  had  to 
Roman  or  canon  law.  Four  ancient  corporations  or  "  inns  " 
enjoy  the  privilege  of  calling  persons  to  the  bar.  Queen's 
council,  as  well  as  judges,  are  appointed  by  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  who  likewise  appoints  many  of  the  inferior 
judges,  and  thus  exercises  a  considerable  amount  of  political 
patronage.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature,  with  twenty- 
nine  judges,  none  of  whom  is  paid  less  than  £5,000  a  year, 
includes  a  court  of  appeal,  a  chancery  division,  a  queen's 
bench  division,  a  court  of  probate,  divorce  and  admiralty 
cases,  and  a  court  of  arches  (for  ecclesiastical  cases). 
Thrice  a  year  these  judges  go  on  circuit,  and  hold  assizes  in 
the  principal  towns.  A  central  criminal  court  exists  for  the 
especial  benefit  of  the  metropolis,  and  is  presided  over  by 
the  recorder  and  the  common  sergeant  of  the  city  of  Lon- 
don. The  justices  of  the  peace  (magistrates)  are  appointed 
by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  receive  no  salary.  Tney  hold 
petty  and  Quarter  sessions ;  these  latter  are  frequently  pre- 
sided over  by  a  paid  recorder.  In  London  there  are  sixteen 
police  courts.  The  seventy  county  court^j,  whose  judges  are 
paid  from  £1,500  to  £1.800  a  year,  exercise  only  civil  juris- 
diction, while  the  coroner  with  his  jury  holds  inquests  into 
the  cause  of  all  violent  or  suspicious  deaths.    See  Courts. 

The  police  force  of  England  numbers  3s^680  men  (in  Lon- 
don, 15,975).  Of  11,695  {)ersons  committed  for  trial  in  1891, 
9,055  were  found  guilty. 

History. — England  first  became  known  to  the  Western 
world  through  the  Phoenicians  and  Massilians,  who  traded 
with  it  for  tin;  but  its  real  history  does  not  begin  until  the 
establishment  of  the  Koman  rule  by  Csesar  in  55  b.  c.    The 


rule  of  the  Romans,  who  called  the  present  island  of  Great 
Britain  Britannia^  lasted  till  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, when  they  withdrew.  (See  Britannia.)  In  const- 
quence  of  the  inroads  of  the  Picts  and  Scots  from  the  north, 
and  the  quarrels  of  the  British  chiefs  among  themselvo, 
the  country  appears  to  have  soon  become  a  prey  to  complete 
anarchy.  A  British  Prince  of  Kent,  Vortigem  (Gwrtheyrn). 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  secure  the  aid  of  two  Saxon 
chiefs,  commonly  called  Hengist  and  Horsa,  in  his  struggles 
against  the  northern  invaders.  The  statements  as  to  the 
first  appearance  of  the  Saxons  in  England  are  conflicting 
and  untrustworthy,  and  even  the  names  of  their  leaders  an? 
considered  fabulous.  Certain  it  is  that  in  the  course  of 
about  130  years  the  Stixons,  Jutes,  and  Angles  completetl 
the  conquest  of  the  greater  part  of  Englemd,  establishing 
three  Saxon  kingdoms  (Sussex,  Wessex,  and  Essex),  one 
Jutish  (Kent),  and  four  Anglian  (Bemicia,  Deira,  East  An- 
glia,  and  Mercia).  The  British  maintained  for  a  somewhat 
longer  period  five  states  (Strath-Clyde,  Cumbria,  North  and 
South  Wales,  and  Cornwall).  Egbert,  King  of  Wessex,  b* 
commonly  believed  to  have  become  the  first  King  of  all  Eng- 
land. During  his  reign  began  the  invasions  of  the  Danes 
about  830,  who  for  a  period  of  twenty-four  years  (1017- 
42)  became  masters  of  the  kingdom.  In  1042  the  crown 
again  devolved  on  an  Anglo-Saxon  prince,  Edward  the 
Confessor,  but  his  authority  was  little  more  than  nominal, 
six  powerful  earls,  Danes  and  English,  dividing  the  country 
between  them. 

Tht  Norman  Conquest. — Edward  the  Confessor  died  child- 
less in  1066,  and  Harold,  the  son  of  Goodwin,  was  eleeto<l 
by  the  nobles  to  the  throne ;  but  in  the  decisive  battle  of 
Hastings  (Oct.  14,  1066)  against  another  claimant  to  the 
throne,  William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  he  was  defeated  and 
killed.  With  the  reign  of  William,  surnamed  "the  C<»n- 
queror,"  a  new  era  of  English  history  begins.  The  lands 
were  divided  among  600  tenants  in  capite,  all  followers  of 
the  Conc^ueror  as  feudal  lords,  and  thus  on  the  solid  Imws 
of  extensive  landed  estates  the  firm  foundation  was  laid  of 
a  powerful  aristocracy,  which  amid  the  social  revolutions  of 
centuries  has  more  successfullv  defended  its  ascendency  than 
that  of  any  other  country  of  Europe.  The  population  of 
England  at  this  time  appears  to  have  been  at  most  2,UOO.U00, 
and-about  100  boroughs  were  governed  by  municipal  customs 
or  under  the  protection  of  the  kings,  nobles,  or  prelat*s, 
from  whom  in  after  times  thej  purchased  their  franohise>. 
In  the  course  of  time  the  distinction  between  the  Norman 
conquerors  and  the  conquered  Saxons  passed  away,  an<l 
from  their  union  arose  the  English  people  as  it  now  exists 
The  Norman  line  gave  to  England  only  three  kings — William 
I.  and  his  two  sons,  William  II.  and  Henry  I.  The  death  of 
the  latter  in  1135  was  followed  by  a  war  of  succession  betwi-en 
Stephen  of  Blois,  his  nephew,  and  his  only  daughter,  Matilda, 
who  was  married  to  Geoffrey  Plantagenet.  In  1154  the  s<m 
of  Matilda,  Henry  XL,  was  generally  recogrnized  as  King  of 
England.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  house  of  Plantagenet, 
which  in  direct  line  ruled  in  England  until  1485.  Henry 
possessed,  besides  England,  the  provinces  of  Anjou,  T(m- 
raine,  and  Maine  in  France,  to  which  he  added  Guienne 
and  Poitou  by  marriage  and  Brittany  by  conquest.  He 
conquered  Ireland  in  1171,  and  by  the  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon  in  1164  curtailed  the  privileges  of  the  Church, 
but  was  forced,  in  consequence  of  the  assassination  of  Arch- 
bishop Becket,  to  make  his  peace  with  the  Church.  He 
was  in  1189  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Richanl  I.  (Cu'ur 
de  Lion),  who  distinguished  himself  in  the  crusades,  but 
could  not  prevent  the  nobility  from  increasing  their  powir 
at  the  expense  of  the  crown.  The  reign  of  his  youiigvr 
brother,  John  (Lackland,  1199-1216),  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
glorious in  the  English  annals.  He  lost  nearly  all  the  \My>- 
sesj^ions  of  the  English  sovereigns  in  France,  and  in  V2VS 
consented  to  hold  the  English  crown  as  a  gift  from  Romt-. 
His  weakness,  however,  had  some  good  results  for  the  people 
of  England. 

The  Beginnings  of  Consfitnfional  Liberty  and  Representa- 
tive Government. — The  separation  of  the  Normans  of  Kng- 
land  from  those  of  France  hastened  the  consolidation  of  t  h«» 
English  nation;  and  when  involved  in  disputes  with  the 
pope,  J(»hn  had  to  conciliate  the  barons,  who  were  backed  by 
the  j>eople,  by  tlie  concession  of  the  celebrated  Great  Charter 
{Magna  Charta),  signed  at  Runnymede  in  1215.  The  char- 
ter secured  to  the  English  people,  in  advance  of  any  either 
pecmle  of  Eurojie,  two  great  rights — that  no  man  should 
suffer  arbitrary  imprisonment,  and  that  no  tax  shoul<l  lie 
imposed  without  the  consent  of  the  council  of  the  nation. 


112 


ENGLAND 


**  supremacy  *'  and  Protestants.  (See  England,  Chuech  of.) 
His  only  son,  Edward  VI.  (1547-63),  succeeded  at  the  age  of 
nine  years,  and  the  country  thenceforth  was  governed  by  a 
council  of  regency  favorable  to  the  Reformation,  which  now 
advanced  from  questions  of  government  to  questions  of 
doctrine.  The  Duke  of  Northumberland,  who  had  cause<l 
one  of  his  sons  to  marry  Lady  Jane  (Jrey,  great-grand- 
daughter of  Henrv  VIL,  induced  Edward  to  bequeath  the 
crown  to  his  daugnter-in-law ;  but  the  reign  of  Lady  Jane 
lasted  only  ten  days  when  "bloody"  Marv  (155^-58),  the 
daughter  of  Henry  VIIL  and  his  first  wife,  Catharine  of 
Aragon,  ascended  the  throne.  Mary  was  a  devout  Cath- 
olic, who  obtained  the  consent  of  her  Parliament  to  re- 
peal (1553)  the  legislation  of  Edward  VI.,  and  that  (1555) 
of  Henry  VIIL,  thus  re-establishing  the  papal  authority. 
When  tne  chiefs  of  the  Protestant  party  opposed  the 
counter-reformation  290  of  them  suffered  at  the  stake,  in- 
cluding Cranmer,  Ridley,  and  Latimer.  Her  marriage 
with  Philip  II.  of  Spain  did  not,  however,  save  to  the 
Catholic  Cnurch  its  ascendency  in  England,  for  Mary  died 
in  1558  without  issue,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  cost  Eng- 
land the  last  possession  in  France,  Calais,  which  was  taken 
by  the  Duke  of  Guise.  Mary  was  succeeded  by  her  half- 
sister,  Elizabeth  (1558-1603),  the  daughter  of  Henry  VIIL 
by  his  second  wife,  Anne  Boleyn.  She  was  strongly  opposed  to 
tne  supremacy  of  the  pope,  by  whom  she  had  been  declared  to 
be  a  bastard.  Parliament  in  1559  restored  the  royal  suprem- 
acy of  the  Church,  which  by  the  adjustment  of  the  Prayer- 
book  and  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  substantially  received 
the  form  in  which  it  still  exists.  The  power  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  England  was  completely  broken;  and  when 
most  of  them  emoraced  the  cause  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scot- 
land, who,  on  seeking  an  asylum  in  England,  had  been  im- 
prisoned, Elizabeth  ordered  Mary  to  be  executed.  Abroad 
she  aided  the  Protestants  of  France  and  the  Netherlands, 
and  the  crushing  defeat  of  the  Spaniards,  whose  armada 
was  destroyed  in  1588,  elevated  England  to  a  higher  posi- 
tion among  the  countries  of  Europe  than  she  ever  had  held 
before.  Ireland  was  reduced  to  a  state  of  entire  submission, 
and  the  commerce  and  naval  power  of  England'  received  a 
wonderful  impulse  by  the  establishment  of  commercial  in- 
tercourse with  India  (East  India  Company  chartered  1600). 
Elizabeth  was  the  last  sovereign  of  the  house  of  Tudor; 
she  was  succeeded  by  James  VI.,  the  son  of  the  unfortunate 
Mary.  Thus  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  became 
united  under  one  sovereign,  and  although  the  legislative 
union  with  Scotland  was  not  consummated  until  1707,  and 
that  of  Ireland  not  until  1800,  the  three  countries  were  in 
fact  one  empire. 

The  Struggle  between  Parliamentary  Privilege  and  Royal 
Prerogative, — James  VI. — or.  as  he  was  called  after  his  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  of  England,  James  I. — was  proclaimed 
Mar  24,  1603,  crowned  July  25,  assumed  the  title  of  King  of 
**  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ireland  "  Oct,  24,  and  reigned  till 
Mar.  27, 1625.  He  had  received  a  good  education,  and  showed 
great  interest  for  science  and  literature,  but  he  was  pedantic 
and  inconsistent.  After  the  discovery  of  the  Gunpowder 
Plot  (Nov.  5,  1605)  he  banished  the  Jesuits  and  seminary 
priests  from  England,  and  afterward  wrote  several  treatises 
nimself  in  defense  of  pure  Protestantism.  But  he  failed  to 
give  his  son-in-law,  the  elector  palatine,  from  whom  descends 
the  house  of  Hanover,  the  aid  he  had  promised  him ;  and 
one  of  the  principal  reasons  why  he  disappointed  his  Prot- 
estant allies  in  Germany  was  his  eagerness  to  marrv  his  son 
to  a  Roman  Catholic  princess  of  Spain.  In  his  time  tlie  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  into  English  and  the  colonization  of  Vir- 
ginia and  New  England  took  place.  Meanwhile  the  political 
tendencies  which  at  this  time  were  carried  out  with  such 
great  success  in  France  by  Richelieu — namely,  the  consolida- 
tion of  the  royal  power  and  the  concentration  of  idl  author- 
ity in  the  crown — also  began  to  show  themselves  in  England. 
During  the  time  of  James  I.  there  was  much  talk  about  "  the 
king  by  God's  grace,"  and  hardly  had  his  son.  Charles  I. 
(1625-49),  ascencled  the  throne  when  the  conflict  actually  l)e- 
gan  between  the  king  and  the  Parliament.  He  had  declared 
that  he  would  not  be  a  Venetian  doge,  and  his  two  first  Par- 
liaments he  dissolved.  But  the  third,  which  sat  in  1628, 
passed  the  so-called  Petition  of  Right,  in  which  the  consti- 
tutional rights  of  an  Englishman  are  clearly  defined,  and 
the  king  was  compelled  to  give  his  consent  to  the  petition. 
After  this  event,  however,  he  convoked  no  Parliament 
for  eleven  years,  but  ruled  as  arbitrarily  as  if  tliere  had 
never  been  a  Parliament  or  a  constitution.  Justice  was 
administered    by  the    Star    Chamber,    money   was   levied 


C'l*^"*- 


Ni 


by  proclamations,  and  the  Puritans  and  other  Nonconform- 
ists were  cruelly  persecuted.  Charles  wished  to  introdurn 
the  liturgy  in  Scotland  (1637),  but  the  Scottish  people  rojje 
in  arms,  subscribed  the  National  Covenant,  invaded  Eii^'- 
land.  and  defeated  the  royal  troops  at  Newbum-on-Tynr. 
In  Nov.,  1640,  the  Long  I^arliament  assembled,  and  bepm 
business  by  impeaching  Strafford  and  Laud.  The  Star 
Chamber  was  broken  up,  the  dis|>ensing  power  abolished : 
but  when  the  Parliament  went  further  and  demanded  that 
the  king  should  give  up  his  right  to  dissolve  Parliament,  and 
even  resign  the  supreme  military  command,  open  war  broki- 
out  between  the  king  and  the  Parliament. 

The  Civil  War.— Jn  the  beginning  the  king  was  suc( 
ful,  gaining  several  small  victories;  but  in  1&4  he  was  dt 
feated  at  Marston  Moor,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was 
thoroughly  beaten  at  Naseby  that  he  had  to  ffee  for  h\»  WW, 
and  finally  gave  himself  up  to  the  Scottish  army,  which  gavr 
him  into  the  hands  of  the  English  Parliament.  A  hi^'li 
court  was  appointed,  before  which  King  Charles  was  trieil. 
He  was  convicted,  and  beheaded  Jan.  30, 1649.  Oliver  Cmm- 
well,  who  commanded  the  right  wing  in  the  battle  of  Na-^c-hy 
and  contributed  much  to  the  victory,  controUed  the  anny, 
which  belonged  to  the  party  of  the  Independents;  and  after 
the  so-called  Pride's  Purge,  in  Dec,  1648,  when  forty-om- 
Presbyterian  members  were  driven  out  of  the  Parliament,  he 
also  controlled  that  assembly.  In  1649  he  went  to  Ireland  as 
lord-lieutenant,  and  put  down  the  royalist  rel^Uion  there 
with  extreme  severity.  In  1650  he  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  against  the  Scottish  rising  in  favor  of  Charles  II., 
and  subdued  the  rebellion  after  the  battles  of  Dunbar  and 
Worcester.  He  was  now  the  most  powerfiU  man  in  the  king- 
dom, and  in  1653  he  assumed  the  title  of  Lord  Protector  of 
the  Commonwealth,  and  governed  as  a  monarch  till  hi-^ 
death,  Sept.  8, 1658. 

The  Restoration, — Cromwell  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  but 
almost  immediately  after  his  death  a  strong  royalist  react  i(»n 
set  in,  and  in  1660  Charles  II.  returned  to  England  and  wa< 
hailed  with  great  enthusiasm.  His  reign  (1660-85)  was  one 
of  the  most  shameful  periods  in  English  history.  The  court 
was  dissipated  and  licentious,  and  moral  contamination 
spread  from  it  into  the  upper  strata  of  society.  The  Par- 
liament, which  was  very  subservient  at  first  and  afterwanl 
only  feebly  contending  against  the  evil,  was  broken  up  int4> 
faciions  and  corrupted  by  bribery.  With  respect  to  a  for- 
eign policy,  the  king  and  the  country  as  well  became  ^uh- 
servient  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  The  two  wars  with  Hol- 
land (1665-67  and  1672-74),  which  brought  the  English  arms 
very  little  glory,  were  carried  on  in  the  French  interest.  The 
king  in  1675  received  500,000  crowns  from  Louis  in  order  to 
prorogue  Parliament,  and  for  several  years  he  also  recei vt^l  an 
annual  pension  in  reward  of  his  subserviency  to  the  French 
policy.  As  base  was  his  internal  policy.  He  had  given  the 
most  binding  promises  of  amnesty  and  loyalty.  Neverthe- 
less, in  1662  the  Presbyterian  divines  were  ejecte<l  fr<iin 
their  livings.  This  act,  however,  did  not  cause  any  gre^t 
excitement.  Indeed,  Parliament  itself  voted  that  the  b<.><lit^ 
of  Cromwell,  Bradshaw,  and  Ireton  should  be  disiiiterr»Hi 
and  hanged  upon  the  gibbet  of  Tyburn.  But  when  in 
the  same  year  ne  issued  his  declaration  of  indulgenct*  to 
the  Roman  Catholics,  people  became  suspicious ;  and  when 
his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  heir-apparent  to  the  cn»wn. 
openly  professed  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  a  bill  for  his  ex- 
clusion from  the  succession  was  brought  into  Parliament 
and  passed  by  the  House  of  Commons.  It  was  rejpcte<L 
however,  by  the  House  of  Lords,  and  on  the  death  c'f 
Charles  II.,  James  II.  succeeded  (1685-88). 

The  Revolution  of  1688. — It  was  evidently  James's  inten- 
tion to  overthrow  the  constitutional  system  of  England  and 
restore  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  For  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  first  purpose  he  meant  to  create  a  large  stand- 
ing army,  and,  in  spite  of  the  great  difficulties  he  had  tt> 
encounter  on  this  point,  he  partly  succeeded.  For  the  r^-^ 
toration  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  he  first  allie»J 
himself  with  the  Episcopalians,  afterward  with  the  piss<^nt- 
ers.  But  he  was  much  less  successful  on  this  point,  ami 
when  in  1688  he  issued  a  declaration  of  indulgence  to  thf 
Roman  Catholics,  and  ordered  it  read  in  all  the  churcht»-i, 
the  crisis  came.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  six 
bishops  |)etitioned  the  king  against  the  order,  but  were  s«nit 
to  the  Tower  and  tried  on  the  charge  of  libel.  Ant>ther 
event  of  decisive  imjKirtance  took  place  just  at  the  same 
time.  James  II.  htwl  hitherto  had  no  son,  and  it  was  hoi»od 
that  on  his  death  his  Protestant  daughter  Mary,  marrie«i  to 
William  of  Orange,  would  succeed  to  the  throne.     But  on 


114 


ENGLAND,  CHURCH  OP 


it  was  met  with  freauent  and  vigorous  opposition — not  only 
in  England,  but  also  in  the  other  kingdoms  of  Europe. 
Appeals  to  Rome  had  been  prohibited  m  England  from  a 
very  early  period,  and  a  vacancy  in  an  episcopal  see  was 
apt  to  lead  to  a  protracted  controversy  between  the  pope 
and  the  reigning  sovereign,  neither  of  wnom  was  willing  to 
admit  the  pretensions  of  the  other. 

When  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  the  Church  and  Par- 
liament of  England  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  appeals  to 
Rome,  and  to  the  claims  of  the  pontiffs  to  a  right  to  confirm 
the  nominations  of  bishops  (wnich,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, had  been  stretched  into  a  claim  to  nominate  in  the 
first  instance),  they  conceived  that  they  were  merely  re-as- 
serting those  ancient  rights  of  the  Church  of  England  which, 
though  they  had  been  suffered  to  fall  into  disuse,  had  never 
been  abandoned.  This  position  was  t-aken  with  great  una- 
nimity, and  was  adhered  to  consistently  bv  Bishop  Gardiner 
and  the  national  (or,  as  it  might  now  be  called,  the  old 
Catholic)  party  in  England.  The  king  was  drawn  into  the 
violent  measures  of  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  and 
the  spoliation  of  the  Church  by  other  counselors. 

The  efforts  of  the  Church  of  England  to  regain  its  ancient 
liberties  were  contemporaneous  with,t.hough  distinct  from, 
the  continental  Reformation.  That  event,  nowever,  was  not 
without  its  influence  in  England,  and  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward VI,  men  who  sympathized  with  Luther  or  Calvin,  or 
even  with  the  teachings  of  Zwingli,  had  gained  control  over 
the  English  Church,  and  nation.  Under  their  influence 
England  was  becoming  rapidly  Protestantized,  and,  in  all 
likelihood,  had  not  their  career  been  cut  short  by  the  death 
of  the  king,  the  religious  condition  of  England  would  have 
been  much  the  same  as  that  of  Switzerland  or  Scotland. 

The  accession  of  Queen  Mary  led  to  a  violent  reaction. 
The  Protestant  school  of  Cranmer  and  Ridley  was  forcibly 
suppressed,  and  the  national  party,  of  which  Gardiner  was 
the  leader,  was  compelled  to  chan^  its  ground.  The  au- 
thority of  the  pope  was  restored  m  more  than  mediieval 
plenitude.  Attempts  were  made  not  only  to  revive  the  state 
of  things  which  existed  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.,  but  actually  to  destroy  the  ancient  liberties  of 
the  Church  of  England.  It  is  a  grave  question  among 
historians  whether  Edward  or  Mary,  both  acting  doubtless 
from  the  most  conscientious  motives,  would,  had  tneir  reigns 
been  prolonged,  have  done  more  serious  injury  to  the 
Church. 

Queen  Elizabeth,  on  coming  to  the  throne,  found  herself 
encompassed  with  difficulties.  There  were  then  three  schools 
or  parties  in  the  English  Church :  first,  that  of  Gardiner  and 
his  followers,  which  had  changed  its  ground,  and  was  now 
disposed  to  maintain  the  papal  supremacy,  with  all  that  it 
involved ;  second,  that  of  Parker,  which  went  beyond  the 
former  national  school  in  its  desire  to  reform  what  it  be- 
lieved to  be  abuses;  and  third,  the  Protestants,  many  of 
whom  had  taken  refuge  in  Switzerland  during  the  reign 
of  Mary,  and  these  returned  full  of  admiration  of  the  form 
of  religion  which  they  found  established  tliere,  and  anxious 
to  introiluce  it  into  England.  The  private  opinions  of  the 
queen,  if  indeed  she  had  any,  were  not  distinctly  known, 
and  it  was  for  some  time  doubtful  to  which  school  she 
would  give  her  infiuence  and  approbation.  It  may  seem 
strange  to  minds  educated  in  the  ideas  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury that  the  religious  bt'lief  of  great  nations  should  have 
been  directed  or  influenced  by  the  private  opinions  of  their 
sovereigns;  but  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  even  later, 
the  Church  formed  a  part  of  the  constitution  of  the  nations 
of  Western  Europe.  There  was  no  idea  that  there  could  be 
more  than  one  religious  society  in  a  nation,  and  therefore 
no  idea  of  toleration  or  religious  liberty.  The  history  of 
England  in  the  sixteenth  century  is  not  different  from  that 
of  other  European  states.  If  the  civil  authority  could  carry 
out  a  reformation  of  religion  in  England  and  Sweden,  it 
could  suppress  it  in  France  and  Spain  and  Italy. 

Thus  it  was  the  purpose  of  any  party  that  might  succeed 
in  gaining  the  favor  of  the  (jueen  to  become  not  merely 
dominant  but  exclusive.  Its  peculiar  views  were  to  be 
forced  on  all  men.  The  Protestant  (or,  as  it  was  soon  after- 
ward called,  the  Puritan)  school  speedily  put  itself  out  of 
the  question  by  the  fact  that  its  teachings  would  have  led 
to  the  destruction  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  new  form  of  religion  upon  the  plan  adopted 
at  Geneva.  Various  circumstances  tended  to  alienate  the 
queen  from  the  papal  (or,  as  it  began  to  be  styled,  the 
Roman  Catholic)  party.  The  haughty  discourtesy  with 
which  Pope  Paul  I V.  received  the  information  of  her  acces- 


sion, which  she  sent  to  him  in  the  usual  form ;  the  assump- 
tion of  the  title  of  Queen  of  England  by  Mary  of  Scotland, 
with  the  great  probability  that  France  and  Spain  would 
proceed  to  assert  the  claims  of  the  Scottish  queen  by  force 
of  arms;  and  the  persistent  attitude  of  opposition  to  all  re- 
forms maintained  by  the  Marian  bishops,  compelle<l  Eliza- 
beth to  put  herself  in  the  hands  of  the  national  or  reform- 
ing party,  of  which  Matthew  Parker  was  the  acknowledgwl 
leader.    Like  the  national   party  in   the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  this  school  was  prepared  to  remove  the  jurisdiction 
which  the  pope  had  exercised  within  the  realm  of  England. 
Like  those  earlier  leaders,  it  desired  to  preserve  the  faith 
and  discipline  of  the  Church  unaltered,  but  it  went  beyr>nd 
them  in  proposing  to  remove  certain  abuses  of  teaching  and 
practice  which  it  conceived  had  led  the  people  into  sufxr- 
stition.     These  were  the  use  of  images,  the  invocation  of 
the  saints,  the  popular  idea  of  purgatory,  and  the  pocuILar 
definition  of  the  manner  of  the  Real  Presence  in  the  bless<yl 
saorament  which  is  known  as  transubstantiation.      The^e 
were  doubtless  developments,  but,  in  the  view  of  the  schtx)! 
of  thought  which  became  dominant  in  England,  unlawful 
developments  of  true  doctrines.  The  Reformers  thought  thni 
they  could  trace  the  progress  of  variation  from  the  simpder 
teachings  of  the  earlier  Church,  and  their  purpose  was  to 
carry  back  the  Church  of  England,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to 
its  primitive  simplicity.    Whether  they  succeeded  or  not  is 
a  question  which  need  not  be  now  discussed ;  it  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  say  that  they  proceeded  to  carry  out  their  plans 
with  promptitude  and  vigor,     Parker  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  the  place  of  Pole,  who  had  died  almost  at 
the  same  time  as  Queen  Marv.    The  majority  of  the  l»i>h- 
ops,  refusing  to  co-operate  with  hiin,  were  removed  or  rt^ 
signed  their  sees,  and  their  places  were  fiUed  by  men  whoiu 
he  could  trust.    Attention  was  at  once  given  to  the  reform 
of  the   service-books  of  the  Church.    Two  prayer-b<M)k5, 
compiled  partly  from  the  old  Latin  Uses  of  tne  Chun^h  nf 
England,  had  been  set  forth  in  1549  and  1552,  but  had  U't^u 
suppressed  in  the  reign  of  Mary.    After  much  delil)eratit>n. 
it  was  determined  to  make  the  second  of  these  the  ba^is  of 
the   Prayer-book,  which  was  henceforth  to  be  in  English. 
The  reforms  in  doctrine  to  which  allusion  has  been  nia^li* 
were  indeed  carried  out,  but  care  was  taken  to  avoid  touch ini: 
any  part  of  the  common  faith  of  Christendom.     The  fam<»us 
pnnciple  of  Vincent  of  Lerins,  of  universal  acceptance  »-i 
the  test  of  Christian  truth,  was  affirmed,  and  the  authority 
of   general   councils  was   acknowledged.    These    arranir*^ 
ments  received  the  approbation  of  Convcxsation  and  Parlia- 
ment.    Concessions  nad  been   made  to   both  the  extPt^ne 
parties — to  the  Puritans,  in  adopting  the  second  instead  «»f 
the  first  praver-book  of  Edward  VI.;  to  the  Roman  (ath«»- 
lics,  in  leaving  out  certain  expressions  which  were  justly 
obnoxious  to  them — and  it  was  thought  that  religious  unity 
would  thenceforward  prevail  in  England. 

This  settlement,  the  joint  work  of  Convocation  and  Par- 
liament, was  accepted  by  the  great  body  of  the  nation  ;  nrni. 
since  all  men  continued  to  frecjuent  the  parish  churchtv^  fi  ^r 
about  ten  years,  it  was  ho[)ed  that  the  unity  of  the  Entrli-^ti 
Church  would  continue  unbroken.  In  1576,  however,  aft*  r 
the  excommunication  of  Queen  Elizabeth  by  Pius  V.,  i  h*- 
party  afterward  called  Roman  Catholics,  acting  un<ler  t  ht* 
direction  of  the  pope,  separated  from  the  church.  In  tho-^* 
ages  {X)litics  and  religion  were  so  singularly  intermingltHl  in 
Western  Europe  that  any  religious  agitation  commonly  in- 
volved plots  and  treasons  against  the  state,  and  somet'inu'^ 
open  war.  In  this  respect  England  was  no  better  nor  woi^»- 
tnan  other  countries;  and  in  this  condition  of  affairs  the 
true  motive  is  to  be  found  for  the  strin^nt  laws  which  wt^n- 
enacted  and  put  in  force  against  "  popish  recusants."  Th*- 
penal  laws,  however,  were  the  work  oi  the  state  rather  thHii 
of  the  Church ;  and  they  were  intended  not  as  a  measure  •  .f 
unnecessary  persecution,  but  as  a  precaution  against  tli*" 
plots  for  the  destruction  of  queen  and  government,  whirh 
followed  one  another  in  quick  succession. 

Some  of  the  extreme  Protestants  followed  the  example  of 
separation  in  1580  under  the  leadership  of  Robert  Br<»wn. 
who,  however,  returned  to  the  Church  and  died  in  its  <m>iu- 
munion.  They  were  at  first  called  Brownists  or  SejvirMt  i--t  <. 
afterward  Independents,  and  finally  Congregational i>t-*. 
Others  remained  in  the  Church  and  demanded  a  further  ret*  »r- 
mation  ,which,  however,  has  never  been  conceded.  The  Pra>  »'r- 
book  has  indeed  been  twice  revise<l,  but  the  tendency  »>n 
both  occasions  has  been  to  bring  it  into  nearer  accon.ra)ii  e 
with  the  first  book  of  Edward  V  I.,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
contained  the  true  sentiments  of  the  earlier  Reformers, 


116 


ENGLAND 


ENGLISH   LANGUAGE 


Centuries  of  th^  Church  of  England  (Oxford,  1881).  Espe- 
cially on  chureh-law,  see  Blunt  and  Phillimore,  Law  of  the 
Church  of  England  (2  vols.,  London). 

Beverley  R.  Betts. 
Revised  by  William  Stevens  Perry. 

England,  John,  D.  D. :  ecclesiastic ;  b.  in  Cork,  Ireland, 
Sept.  23,  1786,  lie  was  educated  at  Car  low  College,  and 
took  orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1808.  He 
was  soon  after  appointed  lecturer  at  the  North  Chapel  and 
chaplain  of  the  ]prisons,  and  in  1809  he  began  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Religious  Repertory,  a  monthly.  He  was  greatly 
distinguished  for  his  zeal,  his  benevolence,  and  his  bold 
championship  of  Catholic  emancipation.  He  was  also  a 
prominent  journalist,  and  was  once  fined  £500  for  his  bold- 
ness in  discussing  political  questions.  In  1820  he  became 
Bishop  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  there  founded  the  Catholic 
Miaceilany,  the  first  journal  of  his  Church  in  the  U.  S.  His 
works,  in  five  volumes,  appeared  in  Baltimore  1849.  Bishop 
England's  heroic  behavior  during  an  epidemic  of  vellow  fever 
in  Charleston  endeared  him  to  all  classes  of  cftizens.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  energy  and  profound  learning.  D.  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  Apr.  11,  1842. 

England.  Sir  Richard,  G.  C.  B.  :  general ;  b.  in  Detroit, 
Mich.,  in  1793;  son  of  Lieut-Gen.  Sir  Richard  England,  an 
officer  of  Irish  origin,  distinguished  in  the  British  service 
during  the  Revolutionary  war  in  North  America.  The 
younger  Sir  Richard  entered  the  British  army  at  the  age  of 
sixteen,  and  served  against  Napoleon  I.  He  subsequently 
gained  distinction  in  South  Africa,  India,  Afghanistan,  and 
the  Crimea,  and  was  made  a  full  general  in  the  army  in 
1863.  He  also  became  a  grand  omcer  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  colonel  of  the  Forty-first  Foot,  etc,    D.  Jan.,  1883. 

Envies,  William  Morrison,  D.  D.  :  author ;  b.  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Oct.  12,  1797 ;  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1815.  In  1820  he  became  pastor  of  the 
Seventh  Presbyterian  church  in  Philadelphia ;  m  1834  editor 
of  the  Presbyterian ;  and  in  1863  president  of  the  Presby- 
terian Board  of  Publication.  He  published  Rexiords  of  th^ 
Presbyterian  Church  (Philadelphia,  1840) ;  a  Bible  Diction- 
ary (1850) ;  Sailor's  Companion  (1857) ;  Sick-room  Devotion 
(1846);  Soldier's  Pocket-book  (1861);  and  other  works,  chiefly 
devotional.    D.  in  Philadelphia,  Nov.  27,  1867. 

Englewood,  eng'1-wdbd :  town  and  railway  junction,  now 
incor|)orated  in  Chicago  ;  Cook  co..  111.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  2-C).  It  is  the  site  of  the 
county  normal  school  (opened  in  1868),  which  has  a  normal 
department,  a  training-school,  and  a  high-school  depart- 
ment. Editor  OF  "  Call." 

Englewood:  town;  Bergen  co.,  N.  J.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref.  2-E) ;  on  railway ;  14 
miles  N.  of  New  York  city,  near  the  Palisades  of  the  Hud- 
son river.  The  township  was  organized  in  1871  from  part 
of  Hackensack.    Pop.  (1880)  4,076 ;  (1890)  4,785. 

English :  a  term  used  in  billiards.    See  Billiards. 

English,  Earl  :  rear-atimiral  U.  S.  navy ;  b.  in  Burling- 
ton CO.,  N.  J,,  Feb.  18,  1834 ;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midship- 
man Feb.  25,  1840.  He  was  in  the  engagement  with  the 
Barrier  forts  at  the  entrance  to  the  Canton  river,  China,  in 
1856,  and  during  1862  and  1863  commanded  several  vessels 
of  the  Gulf  blockading  snuadron.  In  1864  and  1865  he 
commanded  the  steamer  Wyalusing  of  the  North  Atlantic 
blockading  squadron,  and  m  Oct.,  1864,  took  part  in  the 
capture  of  Plvmouth,  N.  C.  Retired  Feb.  18, 1886.  D.  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  July  16, 1893. 

English,  George  Bethune:  a<lventurer  and  author;  b. 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Mar.  7,  1787;  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1807;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  next  was  licensed  to  preach ; 
published  in  1813  The  Grounds  of  Chrinfiatnty  Ejramined, 
a  work  favoring  Judaism,  which  was  replied  to  by  Edward 
Everett  and  others,  and  was  followed  on  English's  jwirt  by 
Five  Smooth  Stones  out  of  the  Brook  (1815).  After  editing 
a  newspaper  for  a  short  time,  English  entered  the  U.  S. 
navy,  but  soon  resigned  to  enter  the  Egyptian  servicte,  and 
gained  distinction  as  an  officer  of  artillery.  Subse(juently  he 
was  U.  S.  agent  in  the  Levant ;  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  1827. 
Among  other  works  published  by  him  was  a  ^'nrrative  of  the 
Erpedition  to  Dongola  and  Sennaar  (1823).  I),  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Sept.  20,  1828. 

English,  James  Edward:  statesman  ;  b.  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  Mar.  13,  1812 ;  became  a  successful  mcrchiint  and 
manufacturer;  Democratic  member  of  Congress  1861-65; 


Governor  of  Connecticut  1867-69  and  1870-71.    He  was  ap- 

Sointed  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  caused  by  the 
eath  of  Orris  S.  Ferry,  Nov.  21, 1875,  and  was  nonunat»Ml 
for  Governor  of  Connecticut  by  the  Democrats  Aug.  18.  IfcftSO. 
D.  in  New  Haven,  Mar.  2,  1890. 

English,  Thomas  Dunn  :  poet,  lawyer,  and  physician  ;  b. 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  June  29, 1819 ;  graduatea  at  the  medi- 
cal school  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  1839 ;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Philadelphia  bar  in  18fe  ;  e<litcd  some  Kht»rt- 
lived  periodicals ;  became  in  1859  a  medical  practitioner  n^ar 
New  York  city.  Among  his  works  are  several  succi'ssful 
dramas,  numerous  novels,  among  them  Walter  H'oo//e  ( 1 S44 1. 
a  volume  of  poems  (1855),  and  American  Ballads  (1n*^2). 
The  best  known  of  his  poems  is  the  popular  balla<l,  Ii»^h 
Bolt.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

English,  William  Hayden  :  lawyer  and  politician ;  l>.  at 
Lexington,  Ind.,  Aug.  27, 1822 ;  educated  at  South  Hamivcr 
College;  practiced  law,  and  was  postmaster  of  Lexington, 
Ind. ;  clerk  of  Indiana  House  of  Representatives  in  1H43 : 
was  four  vears  in  the  U.  S.  Treasury  department;  secretary 
in  1850  of  convention  at  Indianapolis  to  revise  the  constitu- 
tion of  Indiana;  member  of  Indiana  Legislature  in  1H51. 
and  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  in  1852 ;  was  thnn* 
times  re-elected  to  the  latter,  retiring  in  1860 ;  was  presi<lonl 
of  First  National  Bank  of  Indianapolis,  and  resignetl  t  hat 
office  in  1877  on  account  of  ill  health.  He  was  nominatcni 
for  Vice-President  of  the  U.  S.  by  the  Democratic  eonv»*n- 
tion  at  Cincinnati,  0.,  June  24,  1880.  He  is  president  of 
the  Indiana  Historical  Society,  and  the  author  of  a  work  on 
the  constitution  of  that  State  (Indianapolis,  1887). 

English  Channel  (in  Fr.  La  Blanche,  the  sleeve) :  that 
portion  of  the  Atlantic  which  separates  England  from 
France.  It  extends  on  the  English  side  from  Dover  to 
Land's  End,  and  on  the  French  from  Calais  to  the  island  of 
Ushant.  On  the  E.  it  communicates  with  the  German 
Ocean  by  the  Strait  of  Dover,  21  miles  wide,  and  on  th»'  \V. 
it  opens  into  the  Atlantic  by  an  entrance  100  miles  widt\ 
Its  greatest  width  is  about  150  miles.  On  the  English  sid»». 
off  the  coast  of  Hampshire,  lies  the  beautiful  Isle  of  Wi^ht. 
Guernsev,  Jersev,  ana  the  other  Channel  islands  are  situat<'<i 
off  the  north  coast  of  France.  The  channel  has  a  curn-nt 
that  sets  from  the  westward,  and  it  is  noted  for  its  rough- 
ness, which  causes  its  passage  to  be  dreaded  by  tourists. 

English  Gothic,  or  Gothic :  See  Fan  Vaulting. 

English  Harbor:  one  of  the  finest  ports  in  the  Wot 
Indies;  on  the  south  side  of  the  island  of  Antigua;  in  Int. 
17'  3'  N.,  Ion.  6r  45'  W.  It  is  capable  of  receiving  vessels 
of  the  largest  class,  has  a  dockyard  and  a  naval  hospital, 
and  is  perfectly  sheltered  in  all  winds. 

English  Language:  the  language  of  the  people  d«^- 
scended  from  the  Germanic  tribes  which,  in  the  fifth  ct-ii- 
tury  or  earlier,  took  |x>ssession  of  the  greater  part  of  tin* 
island  before  known  as  Britain.  From  the  time  of  th«ir 
settled  possession  of  that  country  their  language  was  calli-il 
English,  and  their  land  England,  at  home  and  abroad.  The 
term  Anglo-Saxon,  employed  before  the  year  1000  to  tli*.- 
tinguish  the  Saxons  of  Eingland  from  those  of  the  Cmiti- 
nent,  but  never  to  designate  their  language,  was,  on  the  re- 
vival of  Old  English  learning  after  1600,  employed  by  his- 
torians and  philologists  to  denote  the  entire  English  peopU^ 
and  language  before  the  Norman  conquest.  The  name 
Anglo-Saxon,  properly  understood,  never  signified  a  union  « »f 
Angles  and  Saxons,  but,  as  stated  al)ove,  English  Sax«>nv- : 
it  is  important  to  bear  this  fact  in  mind,  since  the  opjM»>iti' 
view  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that  the  invaders  of  England 
were  chieiiy  composed  of  two  tribes,  the  Angles  and  th«» 
Saxons,  with  whom,  in  smaller  numbers,  were  another  triln* 
called  the  Jutes,  of  whom  little  more  is  known  than  thtir 
name.  As  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained,  the  Saxons  caiiu- 
from  the  region  VJetween  the  Ell)e  and  the  Rhine,  the  AngU  ^ 
from  the  district  still  called  Angeln,  in  the  south  of  S<^hli-s- 
wig.  and  the  Jutes  from  the  north  of  Schleswig. 

Affinities  of  Native  Enalish. — These  tril^es  were  an  otT- 
shoot  of  that  branch  of  the  lnd(vEuropean,  or  Aryan,  raot* 
known  as  the  Gennanic  or  Teutonic  family,  which  its»'lf 
branched  into  two  divisions — the  East  Germanic  ami  tht- 
West  Germanic.  To  the  East  Germanic  branch  are  assign *•  1 
the  Scandinavian  tongues,  subdivided  into  East  and  Wt«.t 
Scandinavia,  and  the  Gothic.  The  Scandinavian  divi<i«»n 
went  northward;  its  representatives  are  now  the  peoph*^  of 
Norway,  Sweden,  Iceland,  and  Denmark.  The  Gothic  brarn-  \ \ 
was  the  southernmost.    It  has  perished  by  absorption,  aii*! 


118 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 


is  a  phenomenon  which  appears  in  no  other  language,  at 
least  in  anything  like  so  gi^ac  a  degree.  It  makes  modern 
English  a  two-sided — and,  as  we  have  words  of  both  classes 
tor  many  nearly  identical  thoughts  and  things — almost  a 
double-faced  language. 

Influences  Affecting  Old  Ejigliah. — The  English  language, 
as  it  was  taken  into  Britain  by  the  men  who  were  to  sup- 
plant the  Britons  and  to  change  the  very  name  of  the  coun- 
try, was  simple  and  unmixed,  except  for  a  small  proportion  of 
Latin  words,  acquired  by  our  continental  ancestors  through 
their  intercourse  with  the  Romans ;  and,  for  the  most  part, 
it  so  remained  for  centuries.  The  Celtic  dialect  of  the  sub- 
dued Britains  had  but  little  influence  upon  the  sturdy 
speech  of  the  Teutonic  invaders,  who  ere  long  filled  the 
whole  island  from  the  Grampians  to  the  English  Channel 
with  their  language  as  with  themselves. 

More  influence  was  exerted  by  the  Latin,  which  was  con- 
stantly being  read,  translated,  and  imitated  by  learned  men, 
who  were  then  almost  exclusively  the  clergy.  Soon  after  the 
landing  of  Augustine  and  the  missionaries  accompanying 
him  (a.  d.  597),  excellent  schools  were  established,  and  the 
culture  of  the  time,  largely  contained  in  the  works  of  the 
Christian  Fathers,  but  to  some  extent  also  in  classics  like 
Vergil  and  Horace,  was  enthusiastically  fostered  in  England. 
In  the  year  669  Archbishop  Theodore,  a  native  of  Tarsus,  in 
company  with  Abbot  Hadrian,  an  African  by  birth,  arrived 
at  Canterbury,  and  immediately  established  a  school.  The 
historian  Bede  relates  of  them  (bk.  4,  ch.  ii.) :  **  And  foras- 
much as  both  of  them  were,  as  has  been  said  before,  well 
read  both  in  sacred  and  secular  literature,  they  gatherwi  a 
crowd  of  disciples,  and  there  daily  flowed  to  them  rivers  of 
knowledge  to  water  the  hearts  of  their  hearers ;  and  together 
with  the  books  of  Holy  Writ,  they  also  taught  them  the  arts 
of  ecclesiastical  poetry,  astronomy,  and  arithmetic.  A  testi- 
mony of  which  is  that  (here  are  still  Umng  at  this  day  some 
of  their  scholars^  who  are  as  well  versed  in  the  Oreek  and 
Latin  tongues  as  in  their  own,  in  which  they  were  bom,** 
The  same  statement  is  explicitly  made  concerning  Abbot 
Albinus  (bk.  5,  ch.  xx.)  and  Bishop  Tobias  (bk.  5,  ch.  xxiii.). 
The  consequence  is  that  there  is  found  in  the  Old  English 
writing  no  inconsiderable  number  of  Latin  words,  chiefly 
those  m  ecclesiastical  use.  many  of  which  had  been  natu- 
ralized from  the  Greek.  Prof.  Lounsbury  savs  {History 
of  the  English  Language^  p.  34) :  *'  Before  tfie  Norman 
Conquest  six  hundred  wonls  at  least  had  been  introduced 
from  Latin  into  the  Anglo-Saxon,  some  of  them  occurring 
but  once  or  twice  in  the  literature  handed  down,  others  met 
with  frequently.  Were  this  list  of  borrowed  terms  to  in- 
clude the  compounds  into  which  the  borrowed  terms  enter, 
the  whole  number  would  be  swelled  to  three  or  four  times 
that  above  given.  It  is  also  to  be  marked  that  not  only 
were  nouns  directly  borrowed,  but  also  adjectives  and  verbs, 
though  to  a  far  less  extent."  This  computation  doubtless 
includes  the  words  which  our  ancestors  brought  with  them 
from  the  Continent,  and  which  have  only  recently  been  dis- 
tinguished from  the  later  borrowings  (Paul,  Grundriss  der 
Oertnanischen  Philologie,  vol.  i.,  p.  309  fif.),  but  a  goodly 
residue  will  still  be  left,  including  words  not  confined  to 
ecclesiastical  usage,  but  yet  familiar  to  the  monks  and 
clergy.  From  these  classes  may  be  instanced  such  as  nuesse, 
mass  (Lat.  missa)\  preost,  priest  (ha.t.  presbyter);  mynster, 
monastery  (Lat.  monasterium) ;  sealm,  psalm  (Lat.  psalmns) ; 
seol,  school  (Lat.  schola);  popmg,  poppy  (Lat.  papaver); 
pihten,  comb  (Lat.  pecten) ;  rose^  rose  (Lat.  rosa) ;  aihtiany 
compose  (Lat.  dictare),  etc.  But  the  influence  of  Latin 
upon  Old  English  was  not  confined  to  the  vocabulary.  It 
must  also  have  had  a  considerable  effect  upon  the  syntax, 
though  the  latter  has  not  been  sufficiently  investigated  to 
enable  positive  and  specific  statements  to  be  made. 

Less  important  wns  the  Scandinavian  influence  due  to 
the  incursions  and  settlements  of  the  tribes  which  history 
ccmveniently  comprehends  under  the  general  title  of  the 
Danes.  They  began  tlieir  inroads  near  the  close  of  the 
eighth  centurv.  and  effected  a  permanent  s<»tt lenient  as 
early  as  855.  i'hey  at  last  distributed  themselves  over  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  island,  and  even  obtained  control 
over  it,  under  Cnut,  for  about  fifty  years.  When  they  were 
driven  out  as  a  ruling  power  they  left  behind  them,  of 
course,  many  descendants,  and  also  memorials  of  their 
presence  in  many  words  which  had  been  taken  into  the 
language,  and  in  *  man  v  names  of  places.  The  termination 
by,  as  in  Derby,  Whitby,  Naseby,  Holdenby,  etc.,  marks 
their  presence,  but  so  do  also  a  number  of  words  (xjcurring 
in  Late  Old  English,  esi»ecially  in  the  English  Chronicle 


and  the  Laws.  Examples  are  eorl,  earl  (Old  Norse  jart) ; 
cntf  knife  (0.  N.  kmfr) ;  utlaK  outlaw  (O.  N.  utlagr) ;  teratig. 
wrong  (O.  N.  iTang).  A  full  list  of  the  wonls  thus  far  dis- 
covered may  be  found  in  Paul,  Orundriss  der  Oermanittrht^ 
Philologie,  vol.  i.,  pp.  786-787,  though  this  by  no  means  rep- 
resents all  that  must  have  been  borrowed  before  the  Nor- 
man conquest,  since  literature,  and  especially  if  scanty  in 
amount,  is  but  an  imperfect  record  of  speech,  and  the  lar^- 
number  of  Scandinavian  words  found  in  the  Middle  English 
period  points  to  the  same  conclusion. 

A  Specimen  of  Old  English  Prose, — Before  stating  the 
grammatical  characteristics  of  Old  English,  a  short  s|H»ci- 
men  will  be  given  of  the  language  in  its  Late  Old  English 
stage: 

"{)a-5a  hig  ferdon,  5a  comon  sume  fta  weardas  on  5m 
ceastre,  and  cySdon  5»ra  sacerda  ealdrura  eaUe  5a  5ing  5<' 
5ier  gewordene  wieron.  ©a  gesamnodon  5fi  ealdras  hig  and 
worhton  gemot,  and  sealdon  5(em  ])egnum  mycel  feoh,  and 
cwfi'don,  Secgea5  5oet  hys  leorning-cnihtas  comon  nihtes, 
and  forstfiplon  hyne,  5a  we  slepon." 

This  passage  is  not  to  be  understood  by  any  reader,  hf»w- 
ever  intelligent  and  well  instructed,  who  has  not  matle  a 
special  study  of  the  language  in  which  it  is  written,  although 
its  meaning  is  familiar  to  almost  every  person,  literate  or 
illiterate.  Only  three  words,  and,  we,  aiid  hys,  would  s<>#'ni 
to  him  at  all  vernacular,  and  yet  it  was  the  everyday  Eng- 
lish of  English  people  who  lived  in  England.  It  is  the  Old 
English  version  of  verses  11, 12,  and  13  of  Matthew,  ch.  xxviii. 
with  our  present  version  of  which  it  would  be  well  to  com- 
pare it : 

"  Now  while  they  were  going,  behold,  some  of  the  piard 
came  into  the  city,'  and  told  unto  the  chief  priests  all  t  fie 
things  that  were  come  to  pass.  And  when  they  w»»n' 
assembled  with  the  elders,  ana  had  taken  counsel,  they  gavf 
large  money  unto  the  soldiers,  saying,  Say  ye  his  dik*iph»< 
came  by  night  and  stole  him  away  while  we  slept." 

Strange  and  foreign  to  us  as  at  first  the  passage  seems — 
as  foreign  as  French  or  German — a  brief  examination  of  it 
will  make  clear  to  any  person,  although  entirely  tinac- 
quainted  with  Old  English,  that  it  is  written  in  a  toiiKiJ** 
with  the  accents  of  which  he  is  not  entirely  unfamiliar. 
Ferdon  is  fared,  went;  comon,  came;  sume, some;  iteardaA, 
wartis,  watch  ;  ceastre,  caster,  city  (as  in  Lancaster) ;  sacfrdn, 
priests  (sacred  persons) ;  ealdrum,  elders  ;  ealle,  all;  tnfrou, 
were;  worhton,  worked;  gemot,  a  meeting;  sealdvn,  sohl. 
gave  ;  ^egnum,  thanes ;  mycel,  mickle,  much  ;  feoh,  fee,  i «y, 
money;  secgec^,  say;  leomina-cnihtas,  leaming-kniplitV, 
disciples;  nihtes,  (o')  nights ; /&r«/(?/on,  stole;  hyne,  him; 
slepon,  slept.  It  thus  appears  that  almost  all  the  wonls  in 
this  passage  are  essentially  English  now,  though  it  mu^t  Ih^ 
borne  in  mind  that  the  Modem  English  word  is  not  in  all 
ca.ses  the  direct  descendant  of  the  Old  English  word  hen- 
given  (e.  g.  worhton  gives  tcrouaht  rather  than  tcorked,  nnd 
him  and  slept  come  from  collateral  forms  of  hyne  nnd 
slepon,  that  is  from  the  dative  him  and  the  weak  prettMii 
slcepton).  In  the  lapse  of  eleven  hundred  years  they  havr 
changed  somewhat  in  form,  and  somewhat,  but  not  vitall> . 
in  meaning. 

Pronunciation  of  Old  English, — The  vowels  sounded 
nearly  as  in  German  :  a  as  in  far,  but  shorter ;  a  as  in  /a r  : 
a>  as  a  in  glad ;  (g  as  a  in  dare ;  <»  as  in  /c/ :  e  as  in  they :  # 
as  in  dim ;  i  as  ee  in  deem ;  o  as  in  opine ;  o  as  in  holy ;  n  .hs 
in  full ;  u  as  00  in  fool ;  v  like  the  French  u  or  the  German 
U ;  y  the  same  sound  prolonged. 

The  diphthongs  ea,  eo,  ie,  both  short  and  long,  are  pn>- 
nounced  like  combinations  of  the  respective  vowels;  but  the 
stress  is  always  upon  the  first  vowel  of  the  combination,  the 
second  reducing  to  a  neutral  sound,  scarcely  more  than  h 

flide.  The  consonants  are  pronounced  nearly  as  in  modem 
Inglish.  Still,  it  must  be  ooserved,  c  is  sometimes  k,  some- 
times nearly  ch ;  /  between  vowels,  occasionally  elsewhere, 
has  the  sound  of  v,  s  of  z,  and  5  (p)  of  th  in  the  (oiherwi^* 
as/,  s,  and  th  in  thiji);  g  is  sometimes  hard  g,  sometirnv** 
nearly  y  ;  eg,  which  stands  for  ag,  almost  like  ag  in  bridge ; 
h,  when  not  initial,  sounded  Hkc  ch  in  German  ich,  atich. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  there  are  no  silent  letters  in  Olil 
English;  every  vowel  and  consonant  was  pronounced, 
though  the  vowels  of  unstressed  syllables  had  a  less  distinc»t 
sound. 

Phonology  of  Old  Enalish. — The  phonological  system  of 
Old  English,  or  the  relations  of  its  s{)eech-sound's  anions 
themselves  and  to  those  of  its  sister  languages,  is  too  compli- 
cated for  exposition  here.  The  most  important  modi ficat ion*-* 
to  which  vowels  are  subject  through  ttie  influence  of  other 


120 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 


Plural. 
Nom.  Ace.  5S 

Gen.  6*ra  (5ara) 

Dat.  5&m  (5&in) 

The  demonstrative  5e«,  this,  is  thus  declined : 

Singular, 

MASC.  NEUT. 

Nom.        5es  5is 

Gen.  5isses 

Dat.  5issum 

Ace.         5isne  Sis 


FEM. 

5§os 
5isse 
ftisse 
5fis 


Nom.  Ace. 

Gen. 

Dat. 


Plural, 

5&S 

5issa 

5issum 


The  interrogative  ^ira,  huHBt,  who,  what,  is  thus  declined : 


Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Inst. 


MASC.  FEM. 

hw& 


hwone 


hwaes 

hw£m  (hwam) 


NEUT. 
hW8Bt 


hwaet 
hwy 


There  is  no  inflected  relative  pronoun  other  than  the  de- 
monstrative, which  sometimes  assumes  its  function. 

There  are  a  number  of  indefinites,  which  are  mostly  de- 
clined like  strong  adjectives. 

Inflection  of  Verba, — Verbs  have  four  moods,  the  indica- 
tive, optative,  imperative,  and  infinitive;  two  principal 
tenses,  the  present  and  preterit,  the  former  being  frequently 
emj)loyed  for  the  future.  The  passive  voice  is  formed  by 
auxiliary  verbs,  much  as  in  Modem  English.  Verbs  are 
divided  into  strong  and  weak. 

Strong  verbs  change  the  radical  vowel  to  form  the  differ- 
ent tense-stems,  like  the  verbs  called  irre^lar  in  Modem 
English.  As  in  Modem  Enjjlish  the  verb  drive  has  the 
preterit  drove  and  past  participle  driven,  so  in  Old  English 
the  same  verb  has  the  preterit  singular  draf  and  past  par- 
ticinle  drifen.  However,  instead  of  the  three  tense-stems  of 
Modern  English,  there  are  four  in  Old  English  for  strong 
verbs,  the  preterit  being  subdivided  into  preterit  singular 
and  preterit  plural.    The  four  stems  of  drlfan,  drive,  are : 


PBESEXT. 

drif- 


PRET.  SINO. 

draf 


PRET.  PLUR. 

drif- 


which  are  usually  cited  under  the  forms — 


INFINITIVE. 

drifan 


PRET.  8IN0.      PRET.  PLUR. 

draf  drifon 


PAST  PART. 

drif. 


PAST  PART. 

drifen 


Of  such  strong  vertw  there  are  seven  classes  in  all,  besides 
three  classes  of  weak  verbs. 

Weak  verbs  in  some  cases  have  a  variation  of  vowel  be- 
tween the  present  and  the  preterit,  but  their  distinguishing 
characteristic  is  that  the  preterit  is  formed  by  the  addition 
to  the  stem  of  -de  for  the  singular  and  -don  for  the  plural, 
and  the  past  participle  by  the  addition  of  -ed.  Sometimes 
these  endings  take  a  vowel  before  them,  and  sometimes  a 
neighboring  sound  converts  the  d  into  /;  but  this  does  not 
affect  the  essential  nature  of  the  distinction  between  them 
and  the  strong  verbs. 

The  conjugation  of  a  strong  verb  may  be  represented  by 
that  of  hindan,  bind : 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  sing.    1.    binde 
o  J  bindest 
'•  {  bintst 
binde5 
bint 


8 


Plur. 


■I 


binda5 


Pret.  sing.    1.  band 

2.  bunde 

3.  band 
Plur.  bundon 


OPTATIVE. 

binde 
binde 

binde 

binden 

bunde 

bunde 

bunde 

bunden 


Imper.  sing.,  Hnd\  plur.,  bind(^\  infin.,  bindan;  pres. 
part.,  bindende ;  past  part.,  bunden ;  gerund,  to  bindanne. 

The  typical  scneme  for  the  conjugation  of  a  weak  verb 
may  be  inferred  from  that  of  the  strong,  if  the  mode  of 
forming  the  preterit  and  piist  participle  is  home  in  mind. 

There  are  a  few  preteritive  presents  from  which  are  de- 
rived the  modem  auxiliary  verbs  way,  can,  etc.     Their 


present  is  an  old  preterit,  and  their  new  preterit  is  formal 
as  if  the  verb  were  weak. 

The  optative  is  used  for  our  potential  and  imperative,  as 
well  as  for  the  optative  proper.  Relics  of  these  uses  are  in 
English :  //  were  a  grievous  fault  =  It  would  be  a  grievous 
fault ;  Be  it  ao  =  Let  it  be  ao.  But  a  periphrastic  potential 
with  the  auxiliaries  may,  can,  must,  might,  etc.,  is  used  in 
Old  as  in  Modem  English.  The  infinitive  is  regularly  with- 
out to,  hence  forms  with  auxiliaries  still  reject  it,  as' do  fa- 
miliar idioms  in  which  the  infinitive  is  the  object  of  a  verb, 
and  to  is  not  needed  to  express  purpose  or  the  like. 

There  was  a  verbal  noun  ending  in  -ing,  -una,  whirh 
seems  to  have  been  confused  with  the  participle  m  -end*-, 
and  given  form  to  our  present  participle. 

The  two  tenses  given  above  answer  for  all  times — one  f«ir 
all  past  time,  the  other  for  present  and  future;  but  forms 
with  auxiliaries  are  also  used.  Bcebbe,  have,  for  the  perfwt, 
and  haefde,  had,  for  the  pluperfect,  are  in  full  use :  A«  ha  fh 
mann  geworhtne,  he  has  made  man. 

For  the  future,  aceal,  shall,  and  wille,  will,  are  common, 
though  seldom  free  from  some  meaning  of  duty,  promise,  de- 
termination, such  as  indeed  goes  with  them  in  English.  The 
present  distinction  between  ahall  and  will  in  the  different 
persons  is  not  established  in  Old  English.  The  future  i»er- 
lect  is  not  discriminated. 

Adverba, — Adverbs  are  frequently  formed  from  adiectiv#'s, 
less  frequently  from  nouns.  From  adjectives  they  are 
formed  by  the  addition  of  -e :  wid,  wide — ujide ;  of  -/i>e : 
heard,  hard — h^ardlice;  of  -unga:  ecUl,  all — eallunga,  en- 
tirely ;  or  an  oblique  case  of  an  adjective  is  employed  as  an 
adverb;  thus  the  ace:  aenog,  enough;  the  gen.:  micrl, 
much — miclea,  very ;  the  dat. :  mielum,  very.    Of  nouns  the 

fen.  is  used :  dceg,  d&j—dcBgea,  by  day ;  or  the  dat.  plur. : 
ropm€elum,  drop  by  drop ;  or  rarely  the  inst :  adr,  son? — 
adre,  sorely.  Another  important  class  is  adverbs  of  plactf, 
such  as  5ar,  there,  hider,  tJiither,  the  latter  being  represent- 
ative of  those  formed  from  pronominal  stems. 

/Syn^aa;.-- There  is  nothing  in  which  Old  English  differs 
moi-e  from  Modern  English  than  its  syntax,  which  is  that  <»f 
a  highly  inflected  language  like  Latin  or  Greek.  The  mo>i 
general  laws  are  common  to  all  speech;  a  much  larger 
number  are  common  to  all  Indo-European  tongues.  The 
frequencv  with  which  different  combinations  are  used  by 
each  makes  the  great  difference  between  them.  Appar- 
ent anomalies  of  English  syntax  may  often  be  easily  under- 
stood by  study  of  the  Old  English  from  which  they  sprang : 
Me  thinka  I aaw  him,  seems  strange;  but  in  Old  EnplL-h 
the  thinka  is  found  to  be  a  different  verb  from  the  commun 
English  think,  and  to  mean  aeem,  and  govern  a  dative ;  it 
aeetna  to  me  =  methinka.  He  taught  me  grammar — tabca^n, 
teach,  ffovems  an  accusative  and  datixe^taught  to  me.  I 
asked  him  a  oueation — ascian,  aak,  ^ovems  an  accusative  of 
the  prson  asked.  Be  went  a-hunting — a  is  the  preposition 
on  m  Old  English.  /  loved  him  the  more—the  is  in  Uhl 
English  the  instmmental  case  of  the  demonstrative  (5t,  Ae), 
meaning  bv  that.  And  so  examples  might  be  given  withvmt 
end.  No  diflBcult  point  in  Enghsh  syntax  can  be  safely  dis- 
cussed by  one  who  does  not  know  its  history. 

Metre. — Old  English  verse  reposes  on  stress  and  allitera- 
tion, rime  being  only  an  occasional  ornament.  There  are 
at  least  four  stressed  syllables  to  each  verse,  two  in  each  half- 
line,  the  half -lines  being  divided  by  a  c»sura.  Two  of  the^i*' 
stressed  syllables  in  the  first  half-line  and  one  in  the  sect  mil 
begin  with  the  same  consonant  sound  or  combination,  or 
else  with  a  vowel.  Instead  of  three  alliterative  soundji  to 
the  line,  there  may  be  only  two,  one  to  each  half-line,  or 
four,  two  to  each  half-line,  and  exceptionally  more.  This 
metrical  stmcture  may  be  illustrated  by  a  few  lines  from 
the  poem  of  Judith  (202-206),  in  which  the  alliterative  let- 
ters are  printed  in  Italics : 


/oron  to  ge/eohte 
hsdleb  under  ^elmum 
on  5a?t  dmgred  sylf ; 
Alude  Alummon.' 
imilf  in  tralde, 


/or5  on  gerihte 
of  5»re  Ml^ran  byrig 
djned&n  scildas, 
Bips  se  Manca  gefeah 
and  se  u^anna  hrefo. 


The  effect  of  which  may  be  radely  represented  by  the 
lowing  version : 


fol- 


J'ared  to  the  fight 
heroes  with  Aelms, 
At  the  day-</awning ; 
i?ang  and  resounded. 
The  wolf  in  the  trood. 


forth  by  the  straight  road. 
from  that  Aoly  city, 
shields  loudly  efinned, 
Then  reveled  the  lank  one. 
with  the  wan  bird,  the  ravVn. 


122 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


ages.    Truly  inflected  case  and  personal  endings  are  pre- 
served only  in  the  pronouns. 

Words  Derived  from  the  Latin, — But  the  changes  which 
the  language  underwent  in  the  course  of  its  transformation 
to  modem  English  were,  as  has  been  seen,  not  wholly  in- 
flectional. A  large  number  of  new  words  were  introduced, 
the  most  of  them  being  from  the  Latin.  As  this  foreign 
element  is  the  most  important,  a  few  words  may  be  devoted 
to  its  consideration.  The  words  which  came  directly  or  in- 
directly from  the  Latin  language  are  of  three  sorts :  First, 
those  which  came  through  the  Norman-French,  and  which 
are  ours  by  inheritance  from  the  Normans  who  800  years 
ago  made  England  their  home,  and  who  in  the  course  of 
two  centuries  became  fused  with  the  English  people;  of 
which  castle,  faith,  spy,  person,  poor,  custom,  sermon,  voice, 
place,  and  rage  are  examples.  Secondly,  words  of  general 
use  formed  by  scholars  in  later  years  directly  from  the  Latin, 
or  from  some  one  of  the  Romanic  languages,  or  which  have 
been  adopted  without  modification  from  those  languages ; 
examples  of  the  first  sort  under  this  class  bein^  index,  con- 
sul, circus,  opera ;  of  the  second,  trait,  chagrin,  porimafi- 
teau,  puisne,  or  puny.  Thii-dly,  words  common  to  science 
in  several  languages,  which  have  come  into  simple  or  meta- 
phorical use  in  English  by  reason  of  the  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge and  the  immediate,  everyday  connection  of  science 
with  the  affairs  of  common  life.  Examples  of  this  class  are 
zenith,  diameter,  tangent,  ellipse,  fulcrum. 

Growing  Depth  and  Richness  of  English, — Any  discus- 
sion of  English  which  leaves  out  of  account  its  increasing 
capacity  to  express  subtle  distinctions  of  thought  and  the 
whole  range  of  emotion  is  necessarily  incomplete.  This 
power  has  largely  resulted  from  the  miiltiplication  of  meta- 
phorical and  other  now  senses  of  words,  from  the  formation 
of  new  phrasal  combinations  upon  the  analogy  of  existing 
ones,  from  an  imitation  of  such  excellences  of  other  tongues 
as  could  be  conformed  to  English  idiom,  and,  in  general,  by 
the  greater  flexibility  imparted  by  thought  to  its  chief  in- 
strument and  medium.  The  history  of  these  changes  is  the 
history  of  English  literature,  in  whicn  there  is  no  considerable 
author  who  has  not  added  something  to  the  stores  bequeathed 
him  by  his  predecessors.  To  trace  this  progress,  though  in 
the  barest  outline,  is  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  article, 
and  for  suggestions  under  this  head  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  subjomed  bibliography  and  to  the  article  on  English 
Literature. 

Bibliography. — General  History, — T.  R.  Lounsbury,  ITiS' 
toru  .of  ths  English  Language  (New  York,  1879);  Fried- 
rich  Kluge  (assisted  by  D.  Behrens  and  E.  Einenkel),  Ge- 
schichte  der  Englischen  Sprache,  forming  pp.  780-930  of 
Paul's  Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie,  bd.  i.  (Strass- 
burg,  1891),  the  most  scientific  survey  of  the  subject ;  James 
Hadlev,  A  Brief  History  of  the  English  Language,  revised 
by  G.  L.  Kittredge,  in  the  International  Dictionary,  Richard 
Morris,  Historical  Outlines  of  English  Accidence  (London, 
1873) ;  Henry  Sweet,  A  History  of  English  Sounds  (Oxford, 
1888),  and  A  New  English  Grammar,  Logical  and  Histor- 
ical, part  i.  (Oxford,  1892);  Eduard  Matzner,  Englische 
Grammatik  (3d  ed.  3  vols.,  Berlin,  1880-85 ;  English  trans, 
by  C.  J.  Grece,  3  vols.,  London,  1874) ;  F.  Koch,  Historische 
Grammatik  der  englischen  Sprache  (Gottingen,  1863-69) ; 
Walter  W.  Skeat,  Principles  of  English  Etymology  (Oxford, 
1887-91);  J.Schinper,^/i^Zi/*r/ie  Jfe/rtA-(Bonn,  1881-89);  J. 
A.  H.  Murray,  A^ew  English  Dictionary  (Oxford,  1884-  ) ; 
The  Century  Dictitmary  (New  York,  1889-90) ;  L.  Kellner, 
Historical  Outlines  of  English  Syntax  (New  York,  1892). 

Old  English. — Eduard  Sievers,  An  Old  English  Gram- 
mar, translated  and  edited  by  Albert  S.  Cook  (2ti  ed.  Boston, 
1887) ;  Francis  A.  March,  A  Comparative  Grammar  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Language  (New  York,  1870),  for  syntax  only ; 
Bosworth-Toller,  An  Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary  (Oxfonl, 
1882-  );  R.  Wttlker,  Grundriss  der  atigelsdchsischen  Lit- 
terafur  (heipziR,  1884);  James  W.  Bright,  An  Anglo-Saxon 
Header  (New  \  ork,  1891) ;  Henry  Sweet,  An  Anglo-Saxon 
Reader  (4th  ed.  Oxford,  1884) ;  Henry  Sweet,  A  Second  An- 
glo-Saxon Reader,  Archaic  and  Dialectal  (Oxford,  1887); 
C.  W.  M.  Grcin,  Bihliothek  der  angeisdchsischen  Poesie, 
Texten  mit  Glossarium  (Gottingen,  1857-64),  of  which  a 
revision  by  R.  WUlker  is  in  progress;  H.  Sweet,  The  Oldest 
English  Texts  (London,  1885) ;  A.  L.  Mayhew,  Synopsis  of 
Old  English  Phonology  (Oxford,  1891);  Albert  S.  Cook,  A 
First  hook  in  Old  Engli.ih  (Boston,  1893). 

Middle  English. — Bemhardten  Brink,  Chauc-er's  Sprache 
und  VerskuuMt  (Leiozig,  1HH4);  F.  II.  Stratmann,  ^  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Middle  English  Language,  revised  by  H. 


Bradley  (Oxford,  1891) ;  Mayhew  and  Skeat,  A  Concise  Dic- 
tionary of  Middle  English  (Oxford,  1888) ;  Henry  Sweet,  A 
First  Middle  English  Primer  (Oxford,  1884),  and  Second 
Middle  English  Primer  (Oxford,  1886);  Morris  and  Skrat. 
Specimens  of  Early  English,  part  L,  1150-1300,  part  iL,  1298- 
1393  (Oxford,  1886);  Eduard  MStzner.  ^//ena/tW*^  Sprach- 
prohen,  vol-  i.,  Sprachprohen,  vol.  ii.,  Wdrterbuch  (Berlin. 
1878-  ),  the  best  dictionary  of  Middle  English  up  to  nearly  the 
middle  of  the  alphabet ;  Forshall  and  Madden,  WycXtffe  and 
PiinWsNew  Testament  (Oxford,  1879) ;  E.  EinenkeU'iVr^iT- 
zUge  aurch  die  mittelenglische  Syntax  (MUnster  i.  W.,  1887) ; 
L.  Morsbach,  CTeber  den  Ursprung  der  neuenglisehen  Schrift- 
sprache  (Heilbronn,  1888). 

Shakspeare.—FAlwin  A.  Abbott,^  Shakespearian  Gram- 
mar (London,  1870) ;  Alexander  Schmidt,  Shakespeare- lexi- 
con (Berlin  and  London,  1886). 

Modem  Efialish.—F,  Hall,  Modem  English  (London. 
1873) ;  John  Earle,  Enalish  Prose,  its  Elements,  History, 
and  Usaae  (London  and  New  York,  1891). 

Periodicals.^ Englische  Studien,  ed.  by  E.  Kolbing  (Heil- 
bronn, since  1876);  Anglia,  ed.  by  Eugen  Einenkel  and 
Ewald  FlUgel  (Halle,  since  1878);  Modem  Lanmiage  yotrA, 
ed.  by  A.  M.  Elliott  (Baltimore,  since  1886) ;  Transactiunn 
of  the  Philological  Society  (London);  Transactions  of  thf 
American  Philological  Society  (since  1869) ;  Publications  of 
the  Modem  Language  Association  of  America  (Baltimore, 
since  1884) ;  Publications  of  the  Early  English  Text  Society. 

Revisedf  by  Albert  S.  Cook. 

English  Literature :  the  written  or  printed  expression 
of  the  thought  of  English-speaking  races,  wherever  pn>- 
duced.  The  subject  is  divided  according  to  historicHl 
periods,  Old  or  Early  English  literature,  comprising  all 
prose  and  vei-se  written  before  the  Norman  conquest  of 
England,  or,  to  speak  with  definiteness,  from  a.  d.  450  t<» 
1066,  being  classed  as  Anglo-Saxon.  See  Axolo-Saxon 
Literature. 

middle  ENGLISH. 

The  Norman  conouest  not  only  made  a  break  in  the  natu- 
ral growth  of  English  speech,  but  brought  in  new  intel- 
lectual influences  and  novel  literary  forms.    The  Engli-h 
language  was  displaced   from   many  of    its  former  u«♦*^, 
From  1066  to  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  th«* 
learned  literature  of  the  country  was  mostly  in  Latin  and 
the  polite  literature  in  French. '  English  did  not  cea?^  to 
be  a  written  tongue,  but  its  extant  remains  down  to  tht' 
year  1200  are  few  and  unimportant,  if  we  except  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  which  was  carried 
on  to  1154.    After  1200  English  came  more  and  more  inXo 
use  in  books,  but  mainly  at  first  ,in  translations  and  imita- 
tions from  the  French.    The  Normans  were  the  most  brill- 
iant race  of  mediaeval  Europe,  and  their  literature  refiecte«l 
their  chivalrous,  adventurous  character,  their  passion  f»»r 
prowess  and  courtesy,  their  love  of  pleasure  and  ma^iiti- 
cence.     A  people  fond  of  exploits  and  devoted  to  deeds  nf 
knight-errantry  naturally  took  delight  in  the  narrative  of 
such    deeds.    Chronicles  in   Latin   prose,  history  mingKtl 
with  fiction  and  put  into  Norman-French  verse*  (cAan^o«/< 
de  geste),  and  fflbuious  tales  of  marvelous  adventure  {romauf. 
d'aventures)  were   their  favorite  reading.    These   metrical 
romances  or  chivalry  stories  were  the  most  characteristi*.- 
contribution  of  the  Normans  to  English  poetry.     They  wen- 
sung  or  recited  by  minstrels  and  wandering  jongleurs,  ami 
numbers  of  them  were  turned  into  English  verse  during  the 
thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries.    Some  of  the 
earliest  English  romances  were  Havelok  the  Dane,  Kintj 
Horn,  and  Sir  Tristram.     The  heroes  of  some  of  these  n>- 
mances  were  from  national  history  or  legend,  as  Ricbarti 
Canir  de  Lion,  Guy  of  Warwick,  and  Bevis  of  Hampton. 
Others  were  of  various  times  and  places,  as  King  Alexander. 
Sir  Troilus  of  Troy,  and  Charlemagne.    Still  others  were 
entireh'  fabulous,  as  in  the  romances  of  William  of  Palermo , 
The  iLing  of  Tarsus,  Amis  and  Amiloun,  etc.     The  nativ«« 
alliterative  verse  was  now  generally  abandoned  for  PVeiK^h 
meter  and  rhyme,  the  commonest  form  in  the  romaiic**»*< 
being  the  eight-syllabled  couplet. 

The  favorite  Anglo-Norman  romance  hero  was  that  rayt  h- 
ical  Arthur  of  Britain  whom  Welsh  legend  had  celebratt^^l 
as  the  most  formidable  enemy  of  the  Saxon  inva^lern. 
Arthur  had  figured  among  other  fabulous  British  kings  in 
tlie  Historia  Britonnm,  a  Latin  pseudo-chronicle  produiHti 
alx)ut  1135  by  Geoflfrey  of  Monnimith,  a  Benedictine  monk, 
seemingly  of  Welsh  descent.  In  1155  the  Norman  Wac-v 
turned  Geoffrey's  history  into  French  verse  under  the  till.* 


124 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


Vision  of  Piers  Ploughman^  to  which  some  other  writer 
afterward  added  The  Creed,  is  a  satirical  poem  written  in 
alliterative  verse.  Together  they  form  a  national  work,  the 
first  great  original  work  in  Engrlish  literature.  Neither  the 
Vision  nor  the  Creed  has  mucn  coherence  of  plan,  but  the 
latter  has  more  than  the  former.  Langland  was  a  humane 
satirist,  and  his  purpose  was  to  set  forth  the  wrongs  of  his 
humbler  countryinen,  suffered  at  the  hands  of  nobles  and 

griests  and  lawyers,  but  chiefly  at  those  of  the  priesthood. 
[e  gave  voice  to  the  sorrow,  the  shame,  and  the  subdued  in- 
dignation of  a  deceived,  oppressed,  and  pillaged  people. 
The  tiller  of  the  soil,  from  whose  labors  nearly  all  wealth 
springs,  and  who  then,  as  often  since,  starved  amid  the  food 
tnat  he  raised  for  others,  found  in  him  an  advocate,  and  the 
grasping  noble  and  tne  corrupt  churchman  a  just  judge  and 
a  pitiless  satirist.  The  pathos  and  the  humor  of  his  work 
are  not  less  remarkable  than  its  causticity.  It  is  in  these 
respects,  as  in  all  others,  thoroughly  English  in  its  tone 
ana  character ;  and  as  an  exposition  of  popular  feeling,  and 
no  less  a  picture  of  contemporary  manners,  it  has  not  a 
superior  in  the  whole  range  of  literature.  The  following 
brief  passages  *  are  characteristic  of  the  author's  style  and 
of  his  subject-matter : 

And  thanne  cam  Coveitise  *  kan  I  hym  naght  discry ve, 
So  hungrily  and  holwe  •  sire  Hervev  hym  loked. 
He  was  bitel-browed  *  and  babber-fipped  also,. 
With  two  blered  eighen  •  as  a  bljmd  hagge ; 
And  as  a  lethem  purs  *  lolled  hise  chekes 
Wei  sidder  than  his  chyn  •  thei  cheveled  for  elde ; 
And  as  a  bondman  of  his  bacon  *  his  herd  was  bi-draveled. 
With  an  hood  on  his  heed  *  a  lousy  hat  above 
And  in  a  tawny  tabard  •  of  twelve  wynter  age, 
Al  so  torn  and  baudy  •  and  ful  of  lys  crepyng 
But  if  that  a  lous  couthe  *  ban  lopen  the  bettre. 
She  sholde  noght  han  walked  on  that  wolthe  *  so  was  it 
thred-bare.  Vision,  Passus  v. 

And  as  I  wente  by  the  way  •  wepvnge  for  sorowe 
I  seigh  a  sely  man  me  by '  opon  the  plough  hongen. 
His  cote  was  of  a  cloute  •  that  cary  was  y-called ; 
His  hod  was  ful  of  holes  '  and  his  heare  oute 
With  his  knoppede  shon  •  clouted  ful  thykke ; 
His  ton  toteden  out  *  as  he  the  lond  tredede  ; 
His  hosen  over-hongen  his  hok-shvnes  *  on  everiche  a  syde 
Al  beslomered  in  fen  *  as  he  the  plow  folowed. 
Tweye  myteynes  as  meter  •  maad  al  of  cloutes. 
The  fyngres  weren  for-werd  •  and  ful  of  fen  hongec' 
This  wit  waseled  in  the  feen  *  almost  to  the  ancle 
Poure  sotheren  hym  bvforne  •  that  feble  were  worthi : 
Men  mighte  reknen  icli  a  ryb  *  so  senful  they  weren. 
His  wiif  walked  hym  with  •  with  a  long  gode, 
In  a  cuttede  cote  *  cutted  ful  heyghe. 
Wrapped  in  a  wynwe  shete  •  to  weren  her  fro  wederes 
Bar-iot  on  the  bare  iis '  that  the  blod  folwede. 
And  at  the  londes  ende  lyth  *  a  little  crom-bolle. 
And  thereon  lay  a  lytel  chylde  *  lapped  in  cloutes 
And  tweyne  of  tweie  yeres  olde  •  opon  another  syde 
And  al  they  songen  o  songe  *  that  sorwe  was  to  heren  ; 
They  crieden  alle  o  cry  •  a  kareful  note 
The  sely  man  sighed  sore  •  and  seyde,  Children,  beth  stille. 

The  Creed,  etc. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  first  great  work  in  Eng- 
lish literature  was  written  in  a  language  formed  neither  by 
scholars  nor  courtiers,  but  by  the  people  at  large,  and  that 
it  was  a  protcvst  against  wrong*,  against  fraud,  against  priest- 
craft and  hypocrisy — a  demand  for  the  recognition  of  hu- 
man rights,  lor  personal  freedom  and  liberty  of  conscience. 
Wyclifff. — The  KiWouand  the  Creed  of  Piers  Ploughman 
bear  the  stamp  of  a  great  historical  periwl.  At  the  time  of 
their  production  John  Wycliffe  and  his  followers  were  dis- 
turbing the  established  religion  of  England  at  its  verv  founda- 
tions, and  the  author  or  authors  of  Piers  Ploughman,  if  not 
openly  attached  to  the  Lollartl  party,  must  be  reckoned  as  of 
it.  As  regards  the  Creed,  this  fact  was  recognized  in  the 
most  emphatic  manner  by  the  ministers  of  the  prevailing  re- 
ligion, for  they  caused  the  copies  of  it  to  be  so  thoroughly 
destroyed  that,  whereas  the  old  manuscripts  of  the  Vision  are 
many,  of  the  Creed  not  one  is  known  to  exist.  Piers  Plough- 
man, itself  eoually  valuable  as  a  record  of  the  condition  of  lan- 
guage and  religion,  was  thus  one  of  the  writings  that  ushered 

•  Ag  these  passasres  are  quoted  for  their  matter,  and  not  for  their 
language,  I  have  cho«en  the  text  edited  by  Wright,  and  with  him 
have  modernized  the  )>  and  the  ^,  in  preference  to  following  the 
more  accurate  but  less  generally  readable  text  of  Rkeat. 


in  that  great  work,  itself  e<|uaUy  important  as  to  reli>:.- n 
and  language,  the  Wycliffite  translation  of  the  Bible.  Th:- 
was  made  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  by  Wycliffe  and  somr  i.f 
his  followers  about  1380.  No  other  single  work  ever  ox*  r- 
cised  so  much  influence  upon  the  political,  moral,  literar\. 
and  linguistic  future  of  a  people  as  the  Wycliffite  Bibh*  dm. 
except,  perhaps,  Luther's  translation  of  the  same  SctI]*!- 
ures  into  High  German  nearlv  200  years  afterward.  I* 
was  the  beginning  of  a  revolutwm  which  freed  EnglLsiimtn 
from  the  rule  of  a  foreign  hierarchv,  and  ended  in  the  •im- 
position of  the  Stuarts  and  in  the  Bill  of  Rights.  AhhouL'li 
It  added  little  to  the  English  vocabulary,  it  enriched  En;:li-t- 
expression — we  might  almost  say  English  idiom — with  h 
strong  and  peculiar  phraseology  which  sprang  from  ti* 
contact  between  Hebraic  thought  and  English  sjmh-*  ii, 
and  which,  having  been  preserved  through  300  y('ttr>. 
even  to  the  revised  translation  of  1611,  and  having'  b<>t^r] 
read  and  listened  to  and  taken  to  heart  by  so  many  genfm- 
tions  of  Englishmen,  came  to  affect  in  a  measure  the  wh'h 
popular  cast  of  thought  and  of  speech.  It  was  the  Wyelitliif 
version  that  did  this ;  for  although  there  was,  as  has  brt  n 
seen,  an  Old  English  version  of  the  Bible,  this  did  !!•.' 
spread  among  the  English  people ;  and  bein^  almost  forgott*  t. 
and  quite  incomprehensiDle  to  the  English  people  at  lit*- 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  centurv,  there  was  no  such  (^n- 
nection  between  it  and  the  Wycliffite  version  as  there  vkh> 
between  the  latter  and  the  received  translation ;  in  imx. 
there  was  no  connection  at  all.  This  translation,  conij>It'ti-ii 
about  1380,  was  revised  by  John  Purvey,  a  learned  \\  ydii!- 
ite  writer  who  had  made  the  subject  of  translation  a  pro- 
found study,  and  who  sought  to  render  this  version  nior- 
exact  and  more  conformed  to  English  idiom,  which  end  )i'- 
attained  with  admirable  skill,  finishing  his  work  about  1H'.k». 
Apart  from  the  peculiar  Anglo-Hebraic  phraseology  \wU>t* 
'mentioned,  this  translation  tended  to  modernize  the  lar.- 
guage.  It  was,  as  to  simplicity  of  forms  of  words  and  the 
untrammelled  construction  of  the  sentence,  in  advanct*  (>{ 
the  general  English  writing  of  its  day  ;  and  its  unparailrK-l 
literary  influence  led  to  the  confirmation  of  this  fretHlon. 
from  grammatical  restraint  amone  all  English  people,  (vir- 
ticularly  those  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes. 

Chaucer, — Geoffrey  Chaucer  was  a  younger  contemporary 
of  the  author  or  authors  of  Piers  Ploughman,  as  he  wa>  Uiri'i 
about  1340,  and  died  about  1400.  He  was  connected  n^ith 
the  court,  having  married  the  sister-in-law  of  John  of  Gaun? . 
the  father  of  Henry  IV.  He  was  pensioned,  employwi  u, 
diplomacy,  and  made  comptroller  of  the  customs.  As'Ijhh^'- 
land*s  poems  were  addressed  to  the  middle  and  lower  cla>>»>, 
and  written  in  their  interest,  so  Chaucer  wrote  for  the  nc»Mt-> 
and  gentrv;  and  the  tone  of  his  poems  was  suited  to  th*- 
temper  of  his  audience. 

Cnaucer  was  a  voluminous  writer,  but  his  chief  work*  »rv 
The  Canterbury  Tales,  Troilus  and  Creseide,  and  The  R"- 
maunt  of  the  Rose.    Of  these  the  Canterbury  Tales  are  ihr 
most  original  and  the  most  characteristic  of  his  geniu^s  al- 
though Troilus  and  Creseide  is  as  fine  a  narrative  poem,  m  i 
of  the  heroic  cast,  as  exists  in  any  literature.    Cnauter   i^ 
essentially  a  narrative  poet.    He  is  the  earliest  poet  siiu  v 
the  revival  of   literature  after  the   Dark  Ages   who  ha> 
awakened  an  enduring  svmpathy  in  the  characters  and  i  lit- 
feelings  and  the  fate  of  his  personages.    He  is  the  firsU  in- 
deed, who  portrays  real  individualitv  of  character,     l-^h 
one  of  the  personages  in  the  pilgrimage  to  Canterbun. 
which  is  the  occasion  of  the  Tales,  exists  to  this  day    in 
the  minds  of  his  readers  as  a  living  character  that   has  ii> 
real  and  independent  a  being  as  any  creature  of  flesh  anti 
blood  that  is  met  in  one's  daily  life.    In  this  respect  he   i> 
a  rival  of  Scott  (in  his  novels),  and  almost  of  Snaksi>earv>. 
Like  the  former,  he  paints  them;  like  the  latter,  he  niakt^ 
them  unconsciously  paint  themselves.    He  is  English  in  all 
the  traits  of  his  mina  and  his  stvle ;  and  in  nothing  mow  >*  • 
than  in  his  humor.    So  early  (also  in  Piers  Pl<mghmau)  <ittl 
this  peculiar  trait  of  Encrlish  literature,  in  which  it  is  un- 
rivalled by  that  of  any  other  people,  appear,  and  with  all  itx 
inexpressible  and  humanizing  charms  m  fullest  bloom  aii<i 
subtlest  fragrance.    As  an  historical  picture  of  the  tiuit*  in 
which  they  were  written,  the  Canterbury  Tales  are  as  if  thf 
veil  of  five  centuries  were  lifted  and  we  looked  in  upi>ii   » 
gathering  of  our  forefathers  in  the  free  enjoyment  of  e^ub 
other's  society.     But  above  ail  Chaucer's  other  charms    i> 
that  of  his  strong  and  clear  imagination.      What  he   dt^ 
scribed  he  saw  in  his  mind's  eye  as  clearly  as  if  it  appeare<(i 
before  him  in  the  body.    We  see  with  him  the  very  personal 
traits  and  tricks  of  the  people  that  he  sets  before  us,  no  U*^^ 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE 


125 


ih«n  the  idTentures  through  which  they  pass  or  which  they 
n-Ute.  There  is  all  the  freshest  charm  of  nature  in  hira, 
jviioni  with  the  elegance  of  an  accomplished  man  of  the 
Torid,  So  in  his  langua£e  there  lingers  some  of  the  homely 
niQi^ness  of  early  English,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is 
.<p»nslT  marked  with  the  dainty  splendor  of  the  speech 
tlut,  liie  some  other  pretenders,  came  over  with  the  Con- 
•t'lfmr.  Chancer  stands  alone,  not  only  in  his  merits  but 
k  hi*  literary  position.  He  had  no  fellows;  few  contem- 
{•>nnfs  worth  mentioning;  and  after  his  period  a  dark- 
t'-e*  fell  upon  English  literature,  through  which  glimmered 
4  few  dim  and  struggling  lights  whose  only  function  was  to 
'  \Mke  darkn«ss  visible. 

6'tf«r.— John  Gower,  a  barrister  (b.  about  1325 ;  d.  1408), 
•is  the  chief  of  Chaucer's  contemporaries.  His  reputation 
ra$  irreat  Chaucer  himself  speaks  of  him  with  deference, 
and  calls  him  the  **  moral  Gower."  But  the  dull,  dead  weight 
-  r  hi»  <jk  has  sunk  him  out  of  sight,  and  left  only  his  name 
1<«tinz'opon  oblivion.  His  Confessio  Amantis  (Confession 
4  the  LoTer)  is  a  long  nondescript  poem,  to  read  which  re- 
(jTiire*  the  patient,  self-sacrificing  courage  of  a  conscientious 
mre^isator  of  the  history  of  our  older  literature.  It  has 
j'lle  cUim  to  attention  even  as  a  contemporary  record  of 
EiaoDen  and  moraK 

Bar^oHr.—Ot  all  the  poets  of  Chaucer's  day,  John  Barbour 
•w  the  only  one  worthy  even  of  comparison  with  him.  Bar- 
btMir  (b.  aboat  1316 ;  d.  1395)  was,  according  to  the  political 
dirisioo  of  the  country,  a  Scotchman.  But  political  oivisions 
bare  nothing  to  do  with  literature  or  with  language,  and 
Barhonr  merely  wrote  in  Northern  English  as  Chaucer  wrote 
.0  SoQthem.  Barbour  and  his  neighbors  rightly  called  their 
ao^uge  English,  and  so  it  continued  to  be  called  until 
tjwaid  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  local  pride 
jod  political  jealousy  caused  it  to  be  called  Scotch — a  change 
t<  destination  which  has  been  the  cause  of  much  misappre- 
AHBion  and  confusion.  Nothing  more  truly  English  in 
«(^h  or  in  spirit  was  ever  written  than  this  passa^  from 
Barhoor's  principal  work — a  long  epic,  or  at  least  historical 
aimtiTe  poem.  The  Bruce  : 

Ah !  fredome  is  a  noble  thing 
Predome  roayss  man  to  haiff  liking 
Fredome  all  solace  to  man  giffis 
He  levys  at  ess  that  frely  levys. 
A  noble  hart  may  haiff  nane  ess, 
Na  ellys  nocht  that  mav  him  pless, 
Gyff  fredome  failvhe:  for  f re  liking 
Is'  yhamyt  our  all  othir  thyng. 
Na'  he  that  ay  hass  levyt  f re 
May  nocht  knaw  well  the  propyrte. 
The  anger  na  the  wretchyt  dome 
That  i»  cowplyt  to  foule  thyrldome. 
But  gyff  he  had  assayit  it 
That  all  percjuer  he  suld  it  wyt ; 
And  suld  think  fredome  mar  to  pryss 
Than  all  the  gold  in  warld  that  is. 

Book  /.,  11.  225-240. 

No  leas  remarkable  than  the  sudden  uprising  of  such  a 

Crt  as  Chaucer,  and  one  may  even  say  of  Barbour,  is  the 
■*  that  within  their  century  there  appeared  no  writers  of 
Cher  poetry  or  prose  who  were  worthy  of  being  called  their 
fc^><^efa,  and  that  for  nearly  200  years  after  the  death  of 
Haocer  the  standard  of  literature  was  low.  For  this  there 
^f*"  two  reasons  that  can  now  be  seen — perhaps  others  hid- 
*«  by  the  distance  of  time.  The  first  is  the  violent  re- 
F*^*>a  of  all  free  thought  which  was  brought  about  by 
•*  efforts  of  the  Church  to  crush  Ijollardisra  and  extin- 
pish  the  very  embers  and  sparks  of  the  fire  kindled  by  the 
•jrliifites;  next  the  desolating  civil  War  of  the  Roses, 
»^'^»  broke  out  in  1455,  and  afflicted  England  with  its  con- 
»H*rftcrs  for  quite  half  a  century,  although  the  war  itself 
*«*«i  but  thirty  years.  Of  the  anti-Wycliffite  writers  the 
»*•«  eminent  was  Bishop  Pecocke,  who'  had  some  vivacity 
^  *y1e  if  no  strength  of  thought.  The  most  remarkable 
IJ*^  book  of  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  is  the 
*vit  4' Arthur  oi  Sir  Thomas  Mallory  (b.  about  1430).  com- 
H-^  and  translated  from  the  French  about  1470— a  work 
■--h  in  its  animation,  and  sometimes  its  simplicity  and 
^||*^'^»  of  style,  does  something  to  relieve  the  liferar>' 
**'T*iiiew  of  its  century.  Mallory  s  language  is  remarkable 
**  *»  b^edom  from  Romanic  words,  to  which  fact  it  owes 
■*;*  of  its  directness  and  its  strength. 

Vj*'*°*- — At  this  period  printing  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
•4  by  William  Caxton,  who  in  1474  printed  his  first  book, 


a  History  of  Troy^  translated  from  the  French.  Caxton  was 
a  translator  and  an  adapter  as  well  as  a  printer,  but  not 
even  his  wonderful  mechanical  art  had  at  first  much  influ- 
ence upon  either  literature  or  language.  Of  poets,  or  writers 
of  rhyming  verse,  in  this  period  we  have  Occleve  (about 
1370-1454)  and  Lydgate  (about  1370-1450),  whose  names 
only  need  be  mentioned  in  a  sketch  like  this. 

It  was  in  the  North  that  the  best  literary  work  was  done 
at  this  period,  although  Andrew  of  Wyntoun,  a  clerical 
chronicler  in  verse  who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  is  little  more  than  a  rude  rhymester, 
the  value  of  whose  work  is  chiefly  historical.  But  James  1.  of 
Scotland,  in  his  King's  Qttair,  shows  fancy,  fine  conceit,  and 
the  fruit  of  a  careful  study  of  Chaucer,  whose  works  soon 
began  to  exercise  a  great  infiuence  upon  poetical  litera- 
ture. Robert  Henryson  (or  Henderson)  not  only  studied 
and  imitatefl  him,  but  also  wrote  a  continuation  of  Trotlua 
and  Creseide,  which  he  called  7%«  Testament  of  Fair  Cre- 
seide^  which  has  been  with  some  reason  deemed  not  unwor- 
thy of  being  printed  in  company  with  Chaucer's  poem.  Of 
all  the  extreme  Northern  English  poets,  Henryson  and 
James  I.  show  most  the  influence  of  the  Southern  language 
and  literature.  Henryson,  who  lived  until  about  1^)0,  is 
the  author  of  other  poems  of  merit,  among  them  the  beauti- 
ful pastoral  Rohin  and  Maktyne,  which  was  reprinted  in 
the  Percy  Collection.  A  poet  known  as  Henry  the  Minstrel, 
or  Blind  Harry,  composed  a  long  poem  of  which  the  life  of 
William  Wallace  was  the  theme.  It  is  a  genuine  strong 
piece  of  poetical  **  making,"  quite  Homeric  in  a  rude  and 
numble  way,  and  full  of  hatred  of  "  the  Saxon  " ;  Blind  Harrv 
himself  being  probably  as  good  a  Saxon  or  "  Anglo-Saxon  *' 
as  there  was  to  be  found  south  of  the  Tweed.  After  this  pe- 
riod the  so-called  Scots  literature  shows  a  wider  divergence 
in  spirit  and  in  form  from  that  of  the  South,  or  of  Eng- 
land proper. 

MODERN  ENGLISH. 

More. — The  flrst  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  produced 
in  Sir  Thomas  More  (1478-1536),  King  Henry  VIII.^s  second 
lord  chancellor,  the  first  English  prose-writer  of  merit  after 
Chaucer,  whose  prose  was,  like  his  poetry,  the  best  of  its  kind 
that  England  saw  for  more  than  a  century.  More  was  a  man 
of  learning  for  his  time,  wise,  humorous,  penetrative,  and  of 
noble  impulse  and  purpose.  He  wrote  many  controversial 
works  of  timely  interest,  and  in  Latin  his  famous  Utopia. 
Of  his  English  writings  the  most  important  is  his  Life  and 
Reign  of  Edward  V.  (called  his  Life  of  Richard  III,).  In 
this  his  narrative  power  and  his  characterization  of  the  per- 
sonages whom  he  sets  before  us  give  him  a  conspicuous  as 
well  as  an  early  place  in  the  true  historical  English  litera- 
ture. His  writings  were  produced  between  about  1515  and 
1535,  when  he  was  beheaded.  About  the  same  time  Sir 
Thomas  Elyot  (b.  before  1490 ;  d.  1546)  wrote  his  political 
work.  The  uox'emour. 

Tyndale. — It  was  theology,  however,  which  gave  new  life 
to  English  literature,  upon  which  William  Tyndale  and 
his  followers  conferred  a  benefit  only  inferior  in  degree  to 
that  which  they  bestowed  upon  the  cause  of  freedom  of  con- 
science and  purity  of  religion.  Tyndale  (b.  about  1484; 
burnt  at  the  stake  1536)  ma^e  the  first  translations  of  parts 
of  the  Bible  into  English  from  the  ori^nal  Hebrew  and 
Greek.  But  although  he  went  to  the  original  tongues,  he 
did  not  lay  aside  the  Wycliffite  version,  but  on  the  contrary 
he  kept  it  in  mind,  if  not  before  his  eye,  and  seems  to  have 
endeavored  to  preserve  its  phraseology  as  far  as  was  consist- 
ent with  a  faithful  rendering  of  the  original  text  and  a 
necessary  conformity  to  the  general  speech  of  his  own  day. 
To  this  endeavor  is  due  the  continued  life  of  that  grand, 
strong,  simple  phraseology  which  English-speaking  men 
recognize  at  once  as  **  the  language  of  the  Bible,"  andwhich 
has  for  more  than  450  years  exercised  an  elevating  and  puri- 
fying influence  upon  the  English  language  and  literature. 
Tyndale's  translation  is  the  most  important  literary  and  phil- 
ological fact  between  the  time  of  Cnaucer  and  tfiat  known 
as  the  Elizabethan  period.  Tyndale  was  also  a  voluminous 
writer  in  commentary  and  controversy,  and  a  stout  and  a 
successful  disputant  with  Sir  Thomas  More.  His  English, 
like  his  thought,  is  notably  vigorous,  manly,  and  clear,  and 
he  with  his  followers — among  whom  John  Frith  (b.  about 
1503),  a  Kentishman,  was  conspicuous — were  the  salt  of  Eng- 
lish literature  in  the  first  part  of  the  sixteenth  centuiy. 
These  men  wrote  in  a  simpler,  homelier  style,  and  in  more 
nearly  unmixed  English  words,  than  any  writers  after  the 
beginning  of  the  third  quarter  of  their  century.    Arch- 


126 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


bishop  Cranmer  (1489-1556),  and  notably  Bishop  Latimer 
(b.  about  1485;  d.  1555),  were  in  their  sermons  and  contro- 
versial writings  apostles  of  simple  English  as  wcp  as  of  gos- 
pel truth.  Latimer  preached  to  the  common  people  in  their 
daily  speech  and  witn  the  most  unstudied  homeliness  of  dic- 
tion and  illustration.  About  this  time  there  was  an  effort 
at  English  purism.  Sir  John  Cheke  (1514-57),  one  of  the 
few  (Jreek  scholars  in  England,  began  a  translation  of  the 
New  Testament,  in  which,  as  in  his  other  writings,  he  was 
studious  to  represent  Greek  words  by  English  emiivalents. 
and  went  so  far  as  to  e^in  such  words  as  fore-snewera  fur 
prophets,  hundredera  for  centurions,  and  againrbirth  for  re- 
generation. 

Ascham, — Cheke's  friend  Roger  Ascham  (1515-68)  wrote 
his  Toxophihia  less  to  teach  hfc  countrymen  how  to  draw 
the  bow,  which  they  had  drawn  pretty  well  at  Hastings, 
than  to  show  them  an  example  of  a  pure,  idiomatic,  and 
elegant  Enelish  style,  which  he  did  most  effectually.  In 
this  effort  he  was  seconded  by  Thomas  Wilson  (d.  1581)  in 
his  Arte  of  Rhetoricke  (1553),  and  thirty  years  later  by 
George  Puttenham  in  his  Arte  of  English  Poesy, 

The  Northern  poet,  Gawin  Douglas  (b.  about  1474),  de- 
serves a  passing  notice  for  his  translation  of  the  j^neid, 
said  to  be  the  first  version  of  that  classic  published  in  Brit- 
ain. Next  come  the  poets  and  prose-writers  who  were  to 
usher  in  the  brightest  period  of  tne  world's  literature  since 
that  outburst  of  Greek  genius  which  took  place  in  the  age  of 
Pericles. 

Skelton, — John  Skelton,  Lord  Surrey,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Wyat  (1503-42)  were  almost  contemporarv  poets,  but  the 
first  was  singularly  unlike  the  last  two.  SSkelton  (b.  about 
1460;  d.  1529)  was  the  more  learned,  and  in  his  day  had 
the  greater  reputation,  Erasmus  having  styled  him  the  light 
and  ornament  of  English  letters.  But  ftrasmus  doubtless 
had  in  mind  only  his  Latin  verses,  which  are  esteemed  by 
scholars  as  remarkably  pure;  for  anything  written  in  a 
"  vulgar  " — i.  e.  a  living — tongue  was  even  then  regarded  as 
much  unworthy  the  consideration  of  such  a  scholar  as  Eras- 
mus. Skelton's  English  poetry  is  fantastic,  extravagant, 
sometimes  so  incoherent  as  to  be  almost  incomprehensible, 
and  often  so  coarse  as  to  l)e  repulsive.  But  he  introduced 
liveliness  of  movement  and  freedom  of  versification,  much 
needed  in  English  poetical  literature,  and  with  all  his 
coarseness  he  was  not  without  brightness  of  fancy  and 
grace  of  expression.  His  Philip  Sparrow^  a  poem  of  nearly 
1,400  lines,  has  many  passages  distinguished  in  these  re- 
s|)ects. 

Wyat. — Sir  Thomas  Wyat,  a  traveler,  courtier,  satirist, 
and  writer  of  Ivric  poetry,  was  bom  in  1503.  He  and  Lord 
Surrey  (Henry  Howard,  b.  about  1516)— -who  translated  part 
of  the  ^neidf  introduced  blank  verse  into  English  poetry, 
and  first  wrote  English  sonnets — were  the  first  true  refiners 
of  modern  English  style.  They  became  the  models  of  grace 
an<l  elegance  to  their  contemporaries  and  immediate  suc- 
cessors. They  died  within  a  short  time  of  each  other,  the 
former  in  1542,  the  latter,  on  the  block,  in  1547.  Wyat's 
poems  were  published  in  1557. 

Thomas  Tusser  (1527-80)  wrote  A  Hundred  Points  of  Good 
Husbandries  but  his  verses  have  value  only  as  bucolical  an- 
tiquities ;  George  Gascoigne,  a  dramatist,  satirist,  and  critic 
of  merit,  who  was  one  of  the  earliest  Enjrlish  writers  of  blank 
verse  (d.  1577) ;  and  Tliomas  Sackville,  Earl  of  Dorset  (1527- 
1608),  the  author  with  Thomas  Norton,  of  the  first  regular 
English  tragedy,  Gorboduc,  or  Ferrex  atid  Porrex,  which 
was  also  written  in  blank  verse.  But  more  than  a  passing 
notice  must  be  taken  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (1552-1618), 
whose  bright  intellect,  daring  spirit,  and  clieckered  life 
make  him  one  of  tlie  most  conspicuous  figures  in  English 
history  and  literature.  He  was  praised  by  Spenser,  and  his 
praise  abided  to  SjKjnser's  glory.  His  poetry  is  i-emarkable 
for  manly  simplicity  and  freshness  of  feeling,  mingled  with 
sententiousness;  his  p>litical  writing  for  sagacity  and 
knowledge  of  mankind ;  and  his  History  of  the  World  is 
full  of  wisdom,  and  closes  with  one  of  the  grandest  passages 
in  p]nglish  prose. 

Sidney. — Somewhat  like  Raleigh  in  the  circumstances  of 
his  life,  although  not  in  the  character  of  his  mind,  was  Sir 
Philip  Sidney  (1554-86).  A  younger  scion  of  a  noble  fam- 
ily, he  too  was  a  soldier,  a  courtier,  a  scholar,  and  a  poet. 
According  to  all  accounts,  he  was  the  most  accomplished, 
the  most  admirable,  and  the  most  lovable  among  English 
gentlemen  of  his  day.  He  wtis  a  patron  of  literature  as  well 
as  a  man  of  letters.  His  claim  to  notice  as  an  author  in  the 
history  of  English  literature  rests  ujKjn  his  Arcadia^  a  col- 


lection of  romantic  and  chivalric  tales  bound  together  with 
a  slender  threa<l  of  plan,  somewhat  extended  and  ^^enri- 
some,  but  full  of  graceful  and  animatetl  passages:  souic 
poems,  generally  cold  and  deceitful,  but  in  a  few  instancf> 
lofty  in  tone  and  lovely  in  imagery;  but  chiefly  upon  hi'v 
Apoloyie  for  Poetry ^  the  earliest  example  of  lesthetic  criti- 
cism in  English  literature,  and  admirable  for  the  beauty  of 
its  style  and  the  soundness  of  its  critical  judgments,  few  «if 
which  have  been  set  aside  or  superseded. 

Spenser, — Sidney  probably  deserves  the  credit  of  haviutr 
made  possible  the  poetical  career  of  one  of  England^s  great- 
est poets,  Edmund  Spenser.  Spenser,  bom  about  1552, 
after  having  written  The  Shepherd's  Calendar,  it  is  su|)- 
posed  at  Ponshurst,  the  seat  of  the  Sidneys,  where  his 
friend  Sir  Philip  took  him  to  reside  for  some  years,  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  3,000  acres  of  crown  land  in  Ireland, 
whither  he  went  and  where  he  wrote  the  first  three  books  of 
his  Fairie  Queen,  when,  going  to  London  to  have  them 
printed,  Raleigh  presented  him  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  who, 
m  consideration  of  his  poem,  gave  him,  in  addition  to  his 
lands,  a  pension  of  £50,  quite  equal  to  $1.5(X)  now.  Therv 
and  then  he  wrote,  among  other  poems.  Mother  Hubbard'^ 
Tale,  Returning  to  Ireland  in  1592  he  wrote  two  more 
books  and  two  cantos  of  a  third  of  his  great  poem ;  hi^ 
series  of  eighty-eight  sonnets,  Amoretti,  celebrating  his 
courtship  of  the  lady  whom  he  married;  his  Ejnthalamion 
on  his  marriage ;  Colin  ClouVa  Come  Home  Again,  AMfn*- 
phel,  and  other  poems.  He  returned  to  London  in  ITjlw. 
and  died  there  in  1599.  If  not  the  greatest  of  the  poets  of 
the  Elizabethan  period  (which  may  be  regarded  as  includ- 
ing the  half  century  from  1575  to  1625),  Spenser  was  seiond 
to  one  only,  and  he  was  the  greatest  of  all  those  who  livttl 
entirely  in  Elizabeth's  reign.  Among  all  English  {xx^ts  he 
has  but  two  superiors — Shakspeare  and  Milton — altliough  it 
is  only  in  the  elevation  of  his  aim  and  in  the  fine  and  lumi- 
nous name  of  his  fancy  that  he  surpasses  Chaucer.  S|>enM-r 
is  the  most  purely  poetical  of  all  English  poets.  His  groat 
work,  The  Fairie  Queen,  is  poetry,  and  nothing  else.  It  i< 
not  dramatic,  or  theological,  or  satirical,  or,  strictly  s|»eak- 
ing,  narrative;  and  although  it  did  fashion  "the  tw«*I\f 
moral  Virtues,"  it  is  not  didactic  after  the  weary  fashion  of 
most  moral  poems.  It  is  allegorical,  but  its  peculiar  nn-rit 
is  not  in  the  allegory ;  rather  is  the  allegory  somewhat  of  a 
hindrance  to  the  reader  who  is  not  capable  of  setting  thr  di- 
dactic purpose  of  the  poem  aside  and  enjoying  for  itvvlf  ih*- 
golden  wealth  of  its  rich  fancy.  The  language  empl<»yj'd 
was  somewhat  old-fashioned  for  Spenser's  own  day.  He 
used  words  that  were  not  then  familiar  household  w»>rd>. 
and  forms  and  inflections  that  had  passed  away — for  in- 
stance, the  old  plural  in  en. 

Among  the  Elizabethan  writers  a  theologian  like  Richard 
Hooker  (about  1553-1600)  must  at  least  be  mentione*!.  lli-^ 
sagacity  and  the  logical  clearness  of  his  thought  gaiiuHl  h'wu 
the  title  of  "  the  judicious,"  and  his  style  places  him  hi.:h 
among  the  masters  of  English  prose. 

Lyly. — The  writings  of  John  Lyly  (about  1554-1606)  murk 
a  change  in  the  character  of  that  prose.  He  intnxlu<'*Ml  .hu 
almost  fantastical  style  of  writing.  He  affected  fine  {)hra^ -, 
and  wrote  for  courtiers  and  those  who  would  have  lin*r 
bread  than  is  made  of  wheat.  The  title.  The  Euphuint  o.n** 
who  speaks  well),  is  derived  from  his  principal  work.  Ku- 
phues  and  his  England,  which  had  much  influence,  and  cv.-n 
brought  about  a  style  of  speech  and  writing  calletl  euphui-m. 
But  it  would  be  very  wrong  to  assume  that  this  w*»rk  i>  a 
mass  of  fanciful  folly  in  affected  language.  The  b*H»k  i> 
full  of  good  sense  and  knowledge  of  the  world.  He  ai>4> 
wrote  six  court  comedies,  which  have  little  genuine  dram  at  io 
interest,  but  which  are  very  elegant  and  highly  finished  |>n>- 
ductions  of  their  kind. 

Fulke  Greville,  Lord  Brooke  (1554-1628),  "  friend  to  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,"  a  poet,  dramatist,  and  critical  writer,  wln>-t 
style  is  cumbrous,  but  whose  thought  is  far-reaching  niu\ 
weighty,  can  only  be  thus  mentioned. 

In  the  galaxy* of  poets  that  lighted  up  the  Elizal»ethan 
sky  even  a  merely  superficial  glance  distinguishes  Winiuin 
Warner  (b.  about'l558:  d.  1609),  Samuel  Daniel  (1562-l«li»», 
Michael  Drayton  (1563-163U  Bishop  Joseph  Hall  (1574- 
1656),  Joshua  Sylvester  (1563-1618),  and  George  Chapman 
(1557-1634),  the*  first  translator  of  the  whole  of  Hoiutr-* 
poems  into  English,  and  whose  version,  often  inexact  and 
nide,  has  an  occasional  sinewy  strength  and  pithiness  kikI  u 
felicity  of  phrase  which  his  more  polished  and  schi>l>irly 
successors  have  not  attained.  Chapman  was  also  a  draniH- 
tist,  but  his  dramatic  work,  although  always  indicative  of 


128 


ENGLISH  LITEUATURE 


there  is  do  evidence  in  the  writings  of  either  that  he  and 
Shakspeare,  the  two  brightest  intellects  of  modem  times, 
strictly  contemporaries  and  living  in  the  same  place,  knew 
of  eacn  other's  existence ;  the  reason  of  which  strange  fact 
is  that  one  was  a  statesman  and  a  philosopher,  the  other  a 
player  and  a  playwright. 

Burton. — In  the  reign  of  James,  Robert  Burton  (1577-1640) 
produced  the  Anatomy  of  Melaiuiholy^ti  compound  of  curious 
teaming,  made  piquant  by  the  spice  of  splenetic  humor  and 
jocular  sneers  with  which  the  quoted  passages  are  seasoned 
to  bring  out  their  flavor.  It  is  so  fillea  with  Latin  that  it  is 
hardly  an  English  book,  but  it  is  a  typical  specimen  of  a 
school  or  fashion  of  learned  writing  which  prevailed  about 
this  time ;  and  notwithstanding-  its  pedantic  air  it  has  been, 
and  ever  will  be,  a  source  of  delight  and  a  quarry  of  sugges- 
tion to  a  large  class  of  highly  cultivated  readers,  and  greatly 
90  to  those  wno  themselves  are  writers.  The  names  of  Donne 
(1573-1631),  a  metaphysical  poet ;  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury 
(1581-1613),  the  author  of  The  Wifs;  of  Richard  Sibbes 
(1577-1635),  a  Puritan  divine ;  of  John  Hales  (1584-1656),  a 
theologian  and  the  author  of  Golden  Remaxnea\  and  of 
William  Drummond  of  Hawthornden  Q585-1649),  a  Scotch 
poet  of  merit  and  a  historian  of  Scotland — must  be  men- 
tioned in  an  attempt  to  give  a  view  of  English  literature 
at  this  period. 

A  notably  important  fact  in  regard  to  the  Elizabethan  era 
in  literature  is  that  the  English  language,  which  was  fully 
formed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  used 
in  that  era  with  a  freedom  from  formal  restraint  that  since 
then  has  been  unknown.  The  parts  of  speech  changed 
places  at  the  wiU  of  the  writer.  Not  only  were  adverbs 
used  as  adjectives,  and  adjectives  as  adverbs,  but  adverbs 
as  nouns,  and  not  only  nouns,  but  even  pronouns  were  used 
as  verbs.  A  like  freedom  reigned  as  to  other  parts  of 
speech  and  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence.  Thus  was 
bom,  in  full  strength  and  activity,  the  genius  of  the  Eng- 
lish language,  which  is  that  the  nature  and  quality  of  a 
word  depend  not  upon  it«  form,  but  upon  its  place  in  the 
sentence  and  its  logical  relation  to  other  words.  Thus 
the  P]nglish  of  the  Elizabethan  period  was  more  truly  and 
absolutely  English  than  that  of  any  periotl  before  or  since. 
This  freedom  prevailed  most  remarkably  in  the  writings  of 
the  poets  and  the  dramatists  of  the  period,  and  chiefest  of 
all  the  latter.  But  it  pervaded  all  writing  and  all  speech. 
That  it  was  prevented  from  degenerating  into  chaotic  li- 
cense is  probably  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  preparation 
and  diffusion  of  the  revised  or  King  James's  translation  of 
the  Bible,  which  was  published  in  1611. 

King  James's  Translation  of  the  Bible. — In  this  transla- 
tion, made  with  extremest  care  and  the  interchanged  la- 
bor of  forty-seven  of  the  most  competent  scholars  in  Eng- 
land, the  language  of  the  previous  versions  was  not  only 
kept  in  view,  but  retained  whenever  it  was  consistent  with 
the  original,  and  sufficiently  modem  to  be  comprehensible 
without  losing  the  dignity  which  pertains  to  antiquity,  or 
taking  on  the  strangeness  which  goes  with  novelty.  The 
translators  touched  the  sacred  old  structure  with  reverent 
hands,  and  while  they  renovated  and  strengthened  it  they 
did  not  whitewash  the  mellow  tints  of  time  with  glaring 
newness.  This  book  was  at  once  published  abroad  through- 
out England,  and  since  that  time  it  has  been  printed  and 
reprinted  and  scattered,  and  read  daily  by  people  of  English 
race  as  no  other  book  was  ever  read  by  any  other  people. 
Its  influence  upon  English  literature  nas  been  as  great  as 
upon  the  morality  of  English  life.  It  has  been  the  treasure- 
hcmse  and  the  stronghold  of  the  English  language.  It  con- 
tains the  best,  the  purest,  the  manliest,  and  the  sweetest 
En<j^lish  that  was  ever  written.  Its  narrative  style  is  be- 
yond that  of  all  other  writing  in  its  own  or  in  other  tongues 
for  siniplicity,  for  clearness,  and  for  strength.  No  exhorta- 
tion is  like  its  exhortation,  and  no  other  counsel  comes 
clothed  in  such  impressive  dignity  of  phrase.  In  it  the 
rich  and  glowing  diction  of  its  Oriental  original  is  pre- 
served, and  yet  tempered  with  something  of  the  cool  direct- 
ness, the  honesty,  and  the  homely  freshness  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  nature.  Its  influence  upon  the  English  language 
has  been  the  most  pervading  and  the  most  wholesomely 
conservative  that  was  ever  exercised  by  a  single  force.  Its 
authority  has  surpassed  that  of  any  possible  academy. 

After  the  death  of  Bacon  and  of  James  I.  a  few  names  of 
note  attract  attention  l)efore  the  period  of  the  (Commonwealth 
is  reached :  George  Wither  (1588-1667),  a  poet  chiefly  sacred, 
nervous  in  style,  and  remarkable  for  his  simple,  clear  Eng- 
lish; Thomas  Hobbes  (1588-1679),  who  wrote  upon  social 


and  moral  subjects  and  translated  Homer  into  halting  v«'rv»» 
— a  strong,  clear,  but  not  always  logical  thinker,  and  the 
first  English  master  of  regularity  and  symmetry  of  sty]t»; 
Thomas  Carew  (d.  about  1639),  a  tender  and  graceful  writer 
of  light  amatory  verse,  which,  based  upon  French  mo<lt'l>. 
has  the  merit  of  character;  Robert  Herrick  (1591-1674). 
who,  writing  both  sacred  and  amatory  verse,  is  known 
chiefly  by  the  latter,  in  which  he  clothes  his  exquisite  <-on- 
ceits  m  a  rich  style;  Isaac  Walton  (1593-1683),  a  meek  an<i 
pious  angler,  who  wrote  The  Complete  Angler  and  the  Iiv<*s 
of  Donne,  Hooker,  and  other  divines,  and  whose  love  of 
nature  and  simple  pedestrianism  of  life  and  style  win  him 
admirers  generation  after  generation ;  George  Herbert  (15S»;J- 
1633),  whose  collection  of  short  poems  called  The  TemiA*- 
had  an  amazing  popular  favor.  520,000  copies  having  bet-n 
sold,  according  to  his  biographer  Walton,  in  a  few  years. 
Herbert  belongs  to  the  metaphysical  school  of  Donne.  \\\> 
thoughts  are  almost  a  continued  succession  of  quaint  con- 
ceits and  are  steeped  in  ecclesiasticism ;  but  they  are  [mt- 
vaded  with  the  spirit  of  tme  piety  and  uttered  m  Enixli*ih 
notably  simple  and  manly. 

Waller, — To  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth  and  the  Res- 
toration belongs  Edmund  Waller,  who  was  born  in  1605,  and 
who  devoted  himself  to  politics  and  to  literature.  His 
verse  unites  grace  and  dignitv,  although  he  is  sometimes 
tempted  into  extravagance.  Efis  lines  On  a  Girdle  exf)n*ss 
one  of  the  most  exquisite  amatory  fancies  in  love-literature. 
He  had  a  charming  fancy,  but  little  imagination.  Contem- 
porary with  him  were  Thomas  Randolph  (1605-34),  whose 
poems  are  tame,  but  in  whose  plays  there  linger  echoes  of  thf 
Elizabethan  grandeur  and  freedom ;  Sir  William  Davenant. 
playwright  and  poet-laureate,  but  a  poor  creature ;  Sir  John 
Suckling  (1609-42),  a  dainty  poet  and  an  amorous;  and  the 
gallant  Richani  Lovelace  (b.  1618 ;  d.  1658),  whose  songs  give 
the  soul  of  chivalry  and  true  love  voice. 

Milton. — All  the  poets  of  this  period  were  eclipsed  by  th** 
grand  and  luminous  shadow  of  John  Milton  (160B-74). '  His 
prose  works,  chiefly  controversial,  and  chiefly  inspireii  by 
the  great  civil  war,  need  not  be  noticed,  except  by  name. 
Their  value  was  chiefly  for  their  time,  and  neither  in  them 
nor  in  any  other  of  his*  prose  works  did  his  genius  show,  ex- 
cept fitfully,  its  peculiar  power.    Indeed,  his  prose,  although 
strong  in  thought,  is  in  style  involved,  cumbrous,  and  awk- 
ward.   Of  these  the  ablest  are  Eikonoklastes,  A  Defence  of 
the  People  of  England,   Tetrachordon^   TTie  Doctrine  and 
Discipline  of  Divorce.  The  Tenure  of  Kings  and  Maqin- 
trates,  A  Tractaie  of  Education,  and  Areopagitica^  a  PUa 
for  the  Liberty  of  Unlicensed   Printing.    But  it   is  as  a 
poet  that  Milton  lives  in  the  world's  memory,  and  of  ino«l- 
ern  epic  poets  he  is  incomparably  the  greatest.    His  earlier 
and  minor  works  have  a  serene  and  lofty  grace  of  expre>- 
sion,  united  with  a  sustained  power,  that  preludes  the  com- 
ing epos.     But  their  merits,  great  as  they  are,  are  !♦*>"< 
imaginative  than  fanciful,  although  the  fancy  is  of  the  very 
highest  order.    L^ Allegro  shows  that  he  could  even  be  play- 
ful.    His  sonnets  have  been  much  praised,  particularly  sin<»e 
Wordsworth  said  of  him  that  in  his  hand  the  sonnet  "  lie- 
came  a  trumpet."    His  powers  were  better  displayed  in  his 
great  epic  poem.  Paradise  Lost,  which  has  the  singular  ad- 
vantage of  the  grandest  theme,  the  theme  most  interest  injr 
to  all  Christendom,  and  the  most  suggestive  of  sul>liiiio 
thought,  that  could  have  been  chosen.    The  style  of  thf 
Paradise  Lost  in  its  finest  and  most  characteristic  passap'-t 
has  an  almost  indescribable  grandeur  and  strength.   Its  \im^< 
are  adorned  with  a  wealth  of  illustration  compelled  from  all 
literature  and  all  history,  sacred  and  profane ;  and  it^  au- 
thor marches  along  his  royal  road  of  verse  like  some  gn'>it 
conqueror  whose  triumph  is  made  splendid  with  the  sp<ul> 
of  subject  peoples.    But  these  are  the  mere  tokens  and  de<*- 
orations  of  his  own  power.    His  thought  and  his  purf»ose  an» 
always  supreme.    In  the  Paradise  Lost  and  the  fiaradi^^ 
Regained  the  poet  worked  out  to  the  utmost  l)ound  of  jm^- 
sibility  mere  hints  in  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hebrews  an* I 
the  Christians,  and  thus  became  the  originator  of  many  of 
the  popular  "views  of  theology  since  his  aay.    Milton  is  iioi, 
properly  speaking,  an  English  poet,  or  an  English  prost*- 
writer.     His  stvle  and  the  very  character  of  his  thought  ar»» 
eminently  un-finglish.    His  spirit  is  Hebraic,  his  form  thjit 
of  Latin  and  Greek  models.    His  last  work,  and  one  of  his 
greatest,  Samson  Aaoniste.%  is  remarkable  in  this  resjx^ct. 
In  its  form  it  is  modeled  upon  jEschylus :  its  spirit  is  cauirht 
from  Joshua,  from  Ezekiel,  and  from  Isaiah.    In  one  i>^- 
markable  respect  Milton  is  eminently  un-En^i^lish :  he  is  en- 
tirely without  humor,  that  peculiarly  English,  or  at  leA.<n 


130 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


1640-1715) ;  and  the  Earl  of  Rochester  (1647-80),  the  most 
indecent  and  perhaps  the  most  ptted  of  them  all,  and 
the  author  of  the  best  epigram  (written  on  the  bed-chamber 
door  of  Charles  II.)  in  tne  language: 

Here  lies  our  sovereign  lord  the  king, 
Whose  word  no  man  relies  on ; 

He- never  says  a  foolish  thing, 
And  Aever  does  a  wise  one. 

Dryden. — The  chief  poet  of  this  period  was  John  Dryden, 
the  son  of  a  Puritan  gentleman  of  Northamptonshire.  He 
was  born  in  1631  and  died  in  1700.  He  began  to  write  as 
early  as  1649,  but  his  most  active  period  began  in  1662.  Dry- 
den began  his  poetical  career  in  the  school  of  Donne  and  Cow- 
ley, and  in  the  extravagant  absurdity  of  his  conceits  he  out- 
Heroded  Herod.  Whoever  wishes  to  learn  what  conceit  is 
in  poetry  may  best  learn  by  studying  it  in  the  form  of  mon- 
strous and  loathsome  caricature  in  Dryden's  Lines  on  the 
Death  of  Lord  Hastings,  But  there  was  other  stuff  than 
this  in  the  man,  who  merely  began  as  most  young  geniuses 
do,  whether  in  literature,  in  music,  or  in  painting,  by  imitat- 
ing some  one  of  their  predecessors.  Drvden,  however,  was 
nearly  forty  years  old  before  he  showed  nis  power,  which  is 
that  of  an  impetuous  flow  of  versification,  embodying  cogent 
argument,  stinging  satire,  or  graphic  portraiture.  Of  pas- 
sion, of  tenderness,  and  of  pathos  he  showed  none  in  his 
poetry,  having,  it  would  seem,  none  in  his  nature.  He  is 
fierce,  but  never  warm,  impetuous,  but  never  earnest.  He 
shows  great  strength,  but  not  the  greatest,  which  always  car- 
ries with  it  a  delicacy  of  touch  to  which  weakness  can  never 
attain.  His  sentiments  are  never  of  the  highest  or  the  purest 
kind.  He  belongs  to  the  race  of  time-servers  and  men- 
pleasers.  But  his  satirical  power  is  almost  equal  to  Juve- 
nal's, and  his  portrait*?  of  his  contemporaries — ^as,  for  instance, 
in  Absalom  and  Aehitophel^  the  best  of  his  more  impor- 
tant works — are  grand  nistoric  caricatures,  heroic  in  scale 
and  in  spirit.  Ilis  best  lyric  composition,  Alexander's 
Feast,  was  once  thought  the  finest  tning  of  the  kind  in 
English  literature,  but  time  has  been  g^radually,  and  surely 
ana  justlv,  diminishing  its  reputation.  He  wrote  thirty 
plays,  both  comedies  and  tragedies.  They  have  little  poetic 
merit  and  no  real  dramatic  power.  They  were,  however, 
written  as  many  of  the  best  works  in  literature  were 
written,  merely  for  the  money  they  would  bring.  But  in 
the  prefaces  to  some  of  these  plays  Dryden  stepped  upon 
the  field  of  dramatic  criticism,  of  which  he  showed  him- 
self a  master.  Thev  are  the  earliest  work  of  the  kind  in 
the  language,  and  tney  remain  among  the  very  best.  Dry- 
den was  not  a  great  poet,  but  he  seems  like  a  great  poet  in 
arrested  development.  The  perpetuity  of  his  fame  is  due 
to  the  splendor  of  his  style  and  tlie  vigorous  freedom  of  his 
versification.  He  was  in  these  respects,  and  by  his  power 
of  crowding  an  epigram  into  a  couplet  or  touching  off  a 
portrait  in  a  quatrain,  the  introducer  of  a  new  school  in 
poetry,  which  prevailed  during  the  early  part  of  the  century 
succeeding  his  death. 

The  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  adorned 
by  several  prose-writers  of  eminence  other  than  those  al- 
ready mentioned  :  Ralph  Cud  worth  (1617-88),  Andrew  Mar- 
vell — also  distinguished  as  a  poet  (1621-78),  Algernon  Svd- 
nev  (1622-83),  Sir  William  Temple  (1628-98),  Isaac  Barrow 
{imy-77\  John  Tillotson  (1630-94),  Robert  South  (1633- 
1716),  and  Gilbert  Burnet  (1643-1715);  as  to  whom,  how- 
ever,  there  is  room  enough  only  for  their  names. 

Locke. — One  man  of  this  period,  John  Locke  (1632-1704), 
demands  particular  attention  as  being  an  original  thinker 
and  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  England's  philosophical  writ- 
ers. Locke  is  indeed  the  father  or  political  and  social  ideas 
which  since  his  time  have  shaped  the  political  and  the  social 
development  of  the  English  race  in  Great  Britain  and  Amer- 
ica, In  his  Considerations  of  the  Conseouences  of  Lowering 
the  Interest  and  Raising  the  Value  of  Money  he  first  taught 
the  political  and  commercial  necessity  of  absolute  good  faith 
on  tne  part  of  government  as  the  creator  of  the  legal  repre- 
sentative of  value  and  the  medium  of  exchange  of  commod- 
ities, and  that  the  issue  of  a  deprwiated  currency  was  a 
breach  of  good  faith.  In  his  Letter  concerning  Toleratitm 
he  not  only  nobly  sustains  the  arguments  of  Milton  and 
Jeremy  Taylor  on  the  same  subject,  but  he  broaches  the 
theory  now  established  and  acted  u|x)n,  that  the  function  of 
government  is  to  make  secure  the  personal  liberty  and  the 
civil  interests  of  the  individual,  and  that  when  it  attempts 
to  do  more  it  oversteps  its  proper  limits.  His  Treatises  on 
Cii*il  Oovemment  develop  and  enforce  this  important  politi- 


cal theory,  resting  it  chiefly  on  an  implied  contract  between 
the  governing  power  and  the  governed.  His  Thoughts  con- 
ceming  Education  have  controlled,  and  wisely  contrulhMU 
the  action  of  the  English  peoples  almost  until  the  prevnt 
time,  although  the  cold  austerity  of  his  views  has  been  tmA- 
ified  by  a  warmer  infusion  of  parental  feeling.  But  it  is  hi** 
Essay  concerning  Human  Understanding  which  has  given 
him  his  most  enduring  fame  and  power,  in  that  he  was  ilw 
first  to  popularize  the  study  of  mental  philosophy,  and  to 
turn  the  mind's  eye  of  the  whole  world  inward  upon  it^'lf. 
To  John  Locke  more  than  to  any  other  writer  is  owing  Xh^ 
introspective  character  of  the  literature,  even  the  imagina- 
tive and  fictitious  literature,  of  the  nineteenth  century.  ( >f 
Locke  it  was  admirably  said  by  Mackintosh  that  ^*  his  writings 
have  diffused  throughout  the  world  the  love  of  civil  lil)erty. 
the  spirit  of  toleration  in  religious  differences,  the  dis|)o?iiti(in 
to  reject  whatever  is  obscure,  fantastical,  or  hypothetical  m 
speculation,  to  reduce  verbal  disputes  to  their  proper  valu»», 
to  abandon  problems  which  admit  of  no  solution,  to  distrust 
whatever  can  not  be  clearly  expressed,  to  render  theory  th«- 
simple  explanation  of  facts,  and  to  prefer  those  studies  whi<>l) 
most  directly  contribute  to  human  nappiness."  His  style  has 
the  fault  of  \>eing  in  spirit  unimaginative  and  in  form  \i*> 
diffuse  and  vague. 
Newton, — Contemporary   with   Locke   were   two   distin- 

f:uished  men  of  science,  one  of  them  very  eminent — RoU-rt 
looke  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Hooke  (1635-1703)  wcu«  an 
investigator  and  an  inventor,  but  chiefly  a  critic  and  a  <li>- 
putant,  presuming,  ill-tempered,  and  insolent.  He  did  n<>r 
hesitate  to  attack  I^ewton's  theory  of  light  and  colors.  New- 
ton (1642-1727)  is  admitted  to  have  been  the  greatest  master 
of  exact  science  that  ever  lived.  His  discoveries  of  the  law 
according  to  which  the  force  of  gravitation  acts,  and  of  tin* 
refraction  and  composite  nature  of  the  ray  of  light,  are  the 
most  important  in  their  kind  of  modern  times.  His  genius, 
although  sublime  and  far  reaching,  was  eminently  practicHl ; 
and  to  him  England  was  indebted  for  the  regulation  of  the 
dire  confusion  of  her  coinage.  His  works  banlly  e<inie 
within  the  range  of  pure  literature,  but  the  splendor  of  hw 
genius  and  the  ^ranaeur  of  his  fame  forbid  them  to  be  passt^l 
by  without  notice. 

Ijocke  and  Newton  were  the  great  literary  and  philosoph- 
ical ornaments  of  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary,  which  w(t> 
sadly  in  need  of  all  the  glory  that  could  be  shed  upon  it  by 
their  genius;  for  the  Revolution  of  1688  crushed  literatuTv 
far  more  effectually  than  that  did  which  brought  in  tb.- 
Commonwealth ;  one  reason  of  which  doubtless  b  that  X\\vt\- 
was  a  much  feebler  thing  to  crush.    For  twenty  years  tii*- 
annals  of  literature  are  bare  of  interest  except  that  which 
attaches  to  Locke  and  to  an  early  performance  of  Matthi-ii^ 
Prior's  The  Country  Mouse  and  City  Mouse,     But  Prii>r*> 
career  (1664-1721)  stretched  well  into  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, in  the  flrst  quarter  of  which  appeared  that  galaxy  of 
admirable  writers  known  as  the  wits  oi  Queen  Anne,  aniVkn*: 
whom  Prior  must  be  reckoned.   The  others  were  Swift,  Pop  •*% 
Steele,  Addison,  Gay,  Garth,  and  Arbuthnot,  of  whom  t  b»» 
last  three,  with  Prior,  may  be  passed  without  further  noli*  <-, 
^Siri//.— Jonathan  Swift  (1667-1745),  Irish  by  birth  \>n\ 
the  most  English  of  men  by  blood  and  nature,  first  appoari-d 
in  literature  by  the  publication  in  1704  of  his  Tnle  of  *i 
Titb  and  Battle  of  the  Books,  the  former  a  religious  sat  irv. 
the  latter  a  literary  one,  both  highly  flavored  with  a  coHrs*> 
kind  of  comedy.    The  success  of  these  works  was  verv 
great,  and    their    reputation  has   continued  even   to    xU*- 
present  day.     But  it  is  safe  to  say  that  only  their  repiiiu- 
tion  has  survived;  and  that  there  are  few  even  of  Xhv  nm^i 
cultivated  readers    nowadays  who  can  read  these  c<irin«- 
allegories  (for  such  they  are)  with  much  enjoyment  of  th.ir 
wit,  or  even  with  a  very  keen  appreciation  of  their  sAtir*-. 
But  their  writer  has  few  equals  as  a  wit  or  as  a  satirist    in 
any  literature.    When  he  stepped  upon  the  broad  fieltl   «»f 
human  nature  he  produced  that  which  will  bo  the  sourvf  .  f 
delight  and  instruction  until  human  nature  has  iK^^-ium* 
other  than  that  which  he  found  it.    It  is  as  the  author  «»f 
Travels  by  Lemuel  Gulliver  that  he  commands  the  wi«i,--» 
circle  of  readers.    This  pmduction  had  a  political  i)ur|>. .-..  . 
like  most  of  its  author  s  works,  and  contains  allusioii>    i . » 
and  caricatures  of  some  of  the  statesmen,  churchmen,  «Ti.i 
other  public  men  of  that  day ;  but  the  genius  of  its  aiit  h.  r 
iin()elleii  him  to  deal  with  mankind  even  more  than    ^i-i. 
party,  and  his  satire  is  upon  the  human  race.    This  i*^  i*.- 
cleed  the  weakness  as  well  as  the  strength  of  Swift's  wHtii- j- 
— his  contempt  for  his  fellow  men.    His  own  personal  ta^^t*  ^, 
no  less  than  liis  personal  feeling^s,  put  in  a  strong  apf  K>a.r 


132 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE 


as  a  literary  artist  he  had  the  grand  and  fatal  defects  of  a 
want  of  passion,  of  sentiment,  and  of  tenderness,  and  also  of 
any  remarkable  insight  into  character  and  power  of  portray- 
ing it.  His  Uiatory  of  the  Plague  is  as  real-seeming  as 
Robinson  Crusoe^  and  is  almost  as  purely  fiction.  Ilis  other 
works  are  now  little  read,  and  bis  satirical  poem.  The  True- 
bom  Englishman^  is  known  chiefly  by  name. 

After  Swift  and  Pope  and  Addison  and  Steele  had  ceased 
to  write  there  was  a  long  dearth  of  originality  in  English 
literature.  But  contemporary  with  them,  or  immediately 
following  them,  are  the  poets  Matthew  Prior  (1664-1742) ; 
Isaac  Watts  (1674-1748) ;  Edward  Young  (1681-1765) ;  Thomas 
Warton  (1687-1745) ;  John  Gay  (1685-1732) ;  William  Collins 
(1721-59),  whose  Odes  are  among  the  best  in  the  langua^; 
and,  far  superior  to  all  the  others,  yet  still  a  poet  of  the  third 
or  fourth  class,  James  Thomson  (1700-48),  author  of  The  Sea- 
sons and  The  Castle  of  Indolence,  Among  the  prose-writers 
of  the  period  the  following  demand  honorable  mention: 
Richard  Bentley  (1662-1742),  eminent  as  a  classical  scholar 
and  critic ;  Lord  Shaftesbuiy  (1671-1713),  whose  Character- 
istics is  elegant,  independent,  thoughtful,  but  not  profound ; 
George  Berkeler  (1684-1753^,  who  became  Bishop  of  Cloyne, 
and  who  broached  an  ideal  system  of  philosophy,  the  car- 
dinal principle  of  which  was  that  perception  is  all  that  is 
known  of  reality;  and  Lord  Chesterfield  (1694-1773),  the 
apostle  of  etiquette  and  good  breeding. 

Richardson. — In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
English  people  were  startled  by  the  appearance  in  fiction  of 
naiure^  an  element  which  had  been  previously  unknown. 
Defoe's  power  had  been  that  of  reality,  which  is  akin  to  na- 
ture, but  is  not  nature.  The  new  style  was  introduced  by 
Samuel  Richanlson  (1689-1761),  a  man  bom  in  humble  life, 
bred  to  a  mechanical  trade,  and  finally  a  bookseller.  At  the 
age  of  fifty-two  he  produced  Pamela^  which  was  followed  by 
Clarissa  Harlowe  and  Sir  Charles  Orandison.  The  success 
of  these  books,  particularly  of  the  first  and  second,  was  pro- 
digious. But  as  one  looks  back  at  them,  and  wades  through 
the  endless  succession  of  letters  from  and  to  their  high- 
strung,  sentimental  heroines,  he  wonders  at  the  avidity  with 
which  such  masses  of  moral  *'  spooning  "  were  devoured,  and 
can  attribute  such  appetites  only  to  a  long  course  of  star- 
vation. Or,  as  Scott,  in  his  explanation  of  this  phenomenon, 
says,  "  Had  we  been  acquainted  with  the  huge  folios  of  in- 
anity over  which  our  ancestors  yawned  we  should  have  un- 
derstood the  delight  they  must  have  experienced  from  this 
unexpected  return  to  truth  and  nature. '  Richardson  was 
minute,  like  Defoe,  and  his  personages  being  flesh-and-blood 
creatures  of  the  period,  and  nis  sentiment  genuine  of  its  kind, 
although  inordinate  in  quantity,  he  also  awakened  the  keen 
interest  which  always  watches  over  the  vicissitudes  of  those 
whose  experience  is  what  we  feel  that  ours  might  have  been. 
But  his  books  are  a  weariness  to  the  flesh.  It  may  be  possi- 
ble for  some  people  now  to  read  all  of  Pamela,  but  who  for 
two  generations  has  been  able  to  struggle  through  Clarissa 
Harlowe  and  Sir  (Charles  Grandison  ? — the  hero  of  which  is 
like  a  Washington  in  plain  clothes  turned  beau,  and  eternally 
bowing  over  the  hand  of  some  pretty  piece  of  female  pro- 
priety, who  worships  him  as  if  he  were  a  fetish.  But  Rich- 
ardson was  the  occasion  of  the  appearance  of  a  real  master 
of  human  nature.  Henry  Fielding  (1707-54),  a  gentleman 
by  birth  and  a  man  of  liberal  education,  was  tempted  to  write 
a  burlesque  of  Pamela ;  and,  as  in  the  case  of  some  other 
performances  of  like  motive,  the  burlesque  proved  more  true 
to  nature  than  the  original.  Fielding's  novel  was  Joseph 
Andrews:  and  as  Pamela's  chief  object  of  life  was  to  pre- 
serve through  six  or  seven  volumes  the  point  of  female  honor, 
so  Joseph,  her  supposed  brother,  devotes  himself  to  the  as- 
sertion and  preservation  of  his  continence  against  the  wiles 
of  the  opposite  sex.  The  vigor  and  si>irit  of  Fielding's  style 
and  his  creative  power  have  never  been  surpassed.  He  showed 
that  highest  ability  in  fiction,  the  power  of  creating  person- 
ages which  are  at  once  individuals  and  tyi)es.  His  Parson 
Adams,  Lady  Booby,  Squire  Western,  Tom  Jones,  and  Amelia 
have  a  vitality  and  a  truth  far  above  that  which  is  produc- 
ible by  the  most  elaborate  work  in  the  realistic  school.  They 
come  from  a  knowledge  of  the  real,  from  which  the  truth  of 
highest  art  eliminates  the  non-essential.  They  are  created 
from  within,  not  built  up  from  without.  Fielding's  humor 
is  rich,  free,  and  pervades  his  comic  scenes  like  the  natural 
atmosphere.  That  he  was  sometimes  coarse,  according  to 
modem  standards  of  taste,  is  the  fault  of  his  time.  Tobias 
Smollett  (1721-71),  who  soon  ai)peared  upon  the  field,  was  a 
much  coarser  artist.  His  object  seems  merely  to  tickle  his 
reader  into  laughter  by  a  succession  of  s<^'enes  which  seem 


like  farce  put  into  narrative  form.  But  he  has  fine  touches 
of  satirical  humor,  and  his  Peregrine  Pickls  and  Rodt-nek 
Random  and  Humphrey  Clinker  will  always  give  pleiL-ure 
to  readers  of  roV>ust  tastes  and  strong  stomachs.  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  he  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  histor> 
of  England  from  the  point  to  which  it  was  brought  down 
by  David  Hume. 

Hume. — David  Hume  (1711-76)  a  Scotchman,  first  af*- 
peared  in  the  field  of  philosophy,  in  which  he  showed  him- 
self an  original  and  daring  thinker.  H  is  philosophical  work  ^ 
are  a  Treatise  ofi  Human  Nature  (republished  as  Philosoph- 
ical Essays  concerning  the  Human  tJttderstanding),  An  In- 
quiry concern ing  the  Principles  of  Morals,  and  The  Natu- 
ral History  of  Religimi.  In  the  treatment  of  these  .sub- 
jects he  disregarded  authority  and  accepted  belief,  making 
fact  and  reason  his  only  guides.  He  was  by  nature  a 
doubter  and  an  inquirer.  These  works  placed  him  in  the 
front  rank  of  modem  moral  and  metaphysical  writer?,  aini 

groduced  an  effect  which  seems  destined  to  be  permanent. 
[is  views  as  to  the  possibility  and  the  necessity  of  mirach-s 
arrayed  against  him  all  the  theologians  of  his  day ;  but  a 
large  number  of  the  ablest  and  most  sincere  theologians  of 
the  present  time  accept  his  views  as  being  sound  in  the 
main  and  not  at  war  with  the  interests  of  true  religion. 
Having  taken  this  position,  he  turned  his  attention  to  hifj- 
tory,  and  wrote  in  three  instalments  what  is  known  as  hi> 
History  of  England,  bringing  his  work  down  to  the  Kevt)- 
lution  of  1688.  This  work  is  not  of  high  authority  as  to 
matters  of  fact,  and  it  is  strongly  tinctured  with  the  writ^-r's 
personal  prejudices.  But  its  happy  arrangement,  the  clear- 
ness and  vivacity  of  its  style,  its  charity  and  toleration  of 
spirit,  notwithstanding  the  obvious  prejudices  before  re- 
ferred to,  make  it  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  modem  his- 
tories, as  it  was  the  first  of  the  modem  school  of  historical 
writing.  Hume's  style  is  too  strongly  marked  with  North- 
em  peculiarities  to  be  regarded  as  a  good  example  of  stand- 
ard English. 

Gibbort. — Contemporary  with  Hume,  but  younger,  was  Kd- 
ward  Gibbon  (1737-94),  who  produced  between  1776  and 
1788  his  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Hownn 
Empire,  a  work  upon  which  he  was  engaged  for  twenty 
years.  The  magnincent  plan  of  this  history,  the  vast  extern 
of  time  which  it  covers,  its  colossal  erudition — it  being  thr 
fruit  of  original  investigation  of  facts  hidden  for  the  mi»''i 
part  in  the  dimmest  recesses  of  the  Dark  Ages — and  its  im- 
posing style,  make  it  the  greatest  work  of  its  kind  known  to 
literature.  Its  style,  however,  is  too  conscious,  too  preten- 
tious, too  much  infested  with  Romanic  words  and  Galli. 
forms  of  thought,  to  be  regarded  as  really  English. 

Contemporary  with  the  two  distinguisned  historical  writ- 
ers, though  not  as  eminent  as  they,  was  William  Robert <«»n 
(1721-93),  who  wrote  the  history  of  Scotland,  of  Charles  V.. 
and  of  America — works  of  sound  and  unpretending  merit, 
written  in  an  agreeable  style,  somewhat  too  strongly  inarkt*il 
with  Scotticisms. 

Gray. — The  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  adorn  t-d 
by  the  highly  finished  poems  of  Thomas  Gray  (1716-7 1>. 
whose  function  in  poetry  seemed  to  be  to  show  now  hi^rti  h 
point  could  be  reached  by  a  man  who  had  a  poetic  natiir»\ 
strong  poetic  feeling,  and  "an  exquisite  ear  for  rl^hm,  but  war- 
without  genuine  poetic  inspiration.  Gray's  Elegy  Wrifft  n 
in  a  Country  Churchyard  nas  probably  been  more  witit^lv 
read  than  any  other  poem  in  the  language,  and  it  has  i-tr- 
tainly  fumished  more  phrases  to  its  collection  of  honseh<  '1*1 
words  than  any  other  that  ever  was  written;  almi»st  the 
whole  of  it  has  become  a  part  of  familiar  speech.  It  is  a  I  k'uh - 
tiful  union  of  tender  thoughtfulness  and  graceful  expres^i*  n. 
Contemporary  with  Gray  was  William  Shenstone  (1714— 4>:t^. 
a  poet  of  considerable  merit,  whose  best-retuembered  "w^-rk 
is  The  Schoolmistress,  an  admirable  imitation  of  SjK'ns^.-rV 
style,  but  more  admirable  as  a  poetical  picture  of  a  tyf>e  it-ml 
of  a  time. 

Sterne. — To  this  period,  too,  belong  the  works  of  Laurviioe 
Sterne  (1713-68),  one  of  the  greatest  humorists  found  in  an y 
literature.  His  is  the  only  humor  that  could  be  iia.tnvri 
with  that  of  Shakspeare  or  of  Cervantes.  His  satire*  hi»- 
the  charm  of  a  delicacy  so  exquisite  that  it  seems  like  |>tin- 
gent  aroma  filling  the  atmosphere  of  his  thought.  Ilis  s-ty\ 
has  a  corresponding  daintiness,  although  it  is  soraetimt.*"*  iU^ 
figured  with  afl!ectation.  Admiration  of  The  Life'  *fi.-.' 
Opinions  of  Tristram  Shandy  and  of  A  Sentimental  •/'>**, 
ney  through  France  and  Italy  has  grown  with  the  p«i:ss^i;j^. 
of  each  year  since  their  first  ap{>earance. 

Johnson. — Throwing  the  shadow  of  its  sad  humaait^   a 


134 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE 


who  roused  the  colonists  to  resistance  to  the  tyrannical 
goYemment  of  G-eorge  III.,  and  finally  brought  about  the 
severance  from  the  mother  country — John  Adams  (1785- 
1826),  Thomas  Jefferson  (1743-1826),  Patrick  Henry  (1736- 
99),  Thomas  Paine  (1737-1809),  John  Trumbull  (1750-1831), 
Philip  Preneau  (1752-1882),  and  Alexander  Hamilton  (1757- 
1804).  Of  these,  Adams  was  sound  in  judgment,  logical  in 
reasoning,  a  lawyer,  and  a  man  having  respect  for  authority 
and  demanding  respect  for  it ;  Jefferson,  a  calm  but  earnest 
and  persistent  advocate  of  equality  before  the  law  in  all 
things,  whose  authorship  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
not  only  secures  him  immortality,  but  gives  him  some  claim 
to  having  helped  to  light  the  fires  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion ;  Patrick  Ilonry,  an  orator  of  masculine  tone  and  fervid 
phrase,  equally  daring  and  dexterous ;  Thomas  Paine,  an  in- 
tellectual iconoclast  and  a  rebel  against  all  authority,  whose 
Common  Sense  and  Bights  of  Man  have  done  more  to  spread 
skepticism,  if  not  to  quicken  it,  than  any  other  books  ever 
written  ;  Philip  Freneau,  a  poet  of  genuine  patriotic  feeling 
and  lyrical  skill ;  Hamilton,  a  statesman  oi  true  formative 
power,  who  was  endowed  with  the  ability  of  uttering  his 
schemes  and  putting  his  arguments  in  a  style  of  remarkable 
elegance  and  force.  He  was  the  principal  author  of  27ie 
Federalist,  a  series  of  papers  which  did  much  to  bring  about 
the  formation  of  the  American  Union.  But  the  place  of  all 
these  men  in  literature  is  not  a  notable  one,  and  is  very  in- 
considerable compared  with  that  which  they  filled  in  the 
^at  political  movement  of  their  time.  They  had  very  little 
mfluence  on  the  literary  tone  of  their  own  country,  and  are 
hardly  discernible  in  the  great  stream  of  English  literature 
which  now  flows  yearly  fuller  and  stronger  with  the  inpour- 
ing  of  its  American  tributary.  But  it  was  not  until  well  on 
in  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  Anglo- 
American  writers  showed  native,  independent  power. 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

The  period  succeeding  the  American  war  of  Independence 
and  the  French  Revolution  was  one  of  great  activity  in 
English  literature,  all  departments  of  which  were  filled  by  a 
throne  of  new  writers  who  sprang  up  with  the  spontaneous- 
ness  of  mushrooms,  but  not  with  their  shortness  of  life.  And 
now,  as  the  names  of  authors  increase — authorship  having 
become  so  common  that  everybody  writes,  learned  and  un- 
learned— and  as  a  period  within  tne  memory  of  living  men 
has  been  reached,  remarks,  even  upon  writers  of  eminence, 
must  be  more  brief  than  they  have  been  heretofore,  and  for 
the  sake  of  convenience  the  various  departments  of  literature 
will  be  considered  each  by  itself. 

Poetry, — ^The  bonds  of  continuity  between  eras,  however 
unlike,  are  .rarely  if  ever  entirely  wanting  unless  they  are 
broken  by  some  prolonged  as  well  as  violent  political  and 
social  convulsion,  such  as  has  been  remarked  in  the  case  of 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses;  and  the  link  that  binds  the  poetry 
of  the  eighteenth  century  to  that  of  the  nineteenth  is  (teorge 
Crabbe  (1754-18JJ2),  in  whose  works  both  the  form  and  the 
spirit  which  more  or  less  pervaded  English  poetry  from  the 
time  of  Pope  to  that  of  Wordsworth  are  so  manifest,  yet 
with  the  modification  proiluce<l  by  a  tendency  toward  the 
contemplation  of  simple  nature  and  of  the  reality  of  lowly 
life,  as  to  win  him  the  sobriquet  of  **  Pope  in  worsted  stock- 
ings." Crabbe's  poems  show  close  observation,  a  loving 
svinpathy  with  nature,  and  not  a  little  shrewd  humor. 
Walter  Scott  (1771-18:32),  who  followed  soon  after  him,  was 
very  unlike  him  in  the  choice  of  his  subjects  and  the  style 
of  his  versification.  Scott  is  the  poet  of  chivalry  and  ro- 
mance, and  the  story  of  his  jwems  is  always  removed  from 
modern  times ;  he  writes  loosely  and  freely,  but  with  great 
spirit  and  vivacity  of  movement ;  his  fancy  flies  low,  but  his 
imagination  is  strong,  and  his  love  of  nature  and  of  the  ex- 
ternal signs  of  man*s  presence,  as  churches,  castles,  and 
buildings  of  all  kinds,  is  very  great.  No  poems  ever  received 
so  quickly  so  large  a  share  of  public  attention  as  his.  They 
effected  an  entire  change  in  the  poetic  taste  of  the  time. 
After  working  his  peculiar  vein  out,  he  turned  his  pen  to 
prose  fiction. 

Byron. — Scott  was  replaced  in  favor,  as  a  poet,  by  Lord 
Byron  ((reorge  Gordon  Noel,  1788-1824),  who.  entirely'unlike 
him  in  the  spirit  of  his  poetry,  ha<l  strong  points  of  resem- 
blance to  him  in  the  form  and  structure  of  his  compjositions. 
Like  Scott's,  Byron's  {)rincipal  poems  are  narrative,  and 
have  a  free<lom  of  versificatitm  and  ea'^e  of  style  entirely  op- 
posed to  the  eighteenth-century  manner.  The  heroic  couplet 
and  the  epigrammatic  period  had  disiippeared  from  English 
literature,  perhaps  for  ever.     Byron's  style  is  rich,  sensuous, 


and  brilliant ;  his  motive  rarely  high  or  pure.  He  is  satirical, 
but  because  of  a  contempt  for  his  Kind  rather  than  a  hatn*<i 
of  what  is  bad  and  base.  H is  descriptions,  whether  of  nat  u  ml 
objects  or  human  action,  are  truly  splendid ;  and  in  some 
passages,  notably  in  his  greatest  work,  Childe  Harold,  he 
rises  into  the  higher  regions  of  poetry.  But  the  tendency 
of  his  writings  is  debasing,  less  because  of  their  sensual  and 
epicurean  tone  than  by  reason  of  their  derangement  of  t  h** 
moral  perceptions  and  their  deflance  of  the  moral  sens4>. 
His  heroes  are  unnatural  c^ombinations  of  incongmous  quali- 
ties; his  women  mere  compounds  of  beauty  and  unrestrained 
passions;  and  a  gloomy  and  flerce  egoism  pervades  his  writ- 
ing. But  he  is  the  richest  in  style  and  the  most  copious  in 
fancy  of  all  modern  English  poets.  He  was  followed  in 
public  favor  by  his  friend  Thomas  Moore  (1779-1852),  a  px^t 
of  Irish  birth,  who  wrote  Lalla  Rookhj  The  Loves  of  thr 
AnaelSy  and  Irish  Melodies,  but  whose  real  excellence  was 
in  lyric  compositions.  Moore's  songs  are  charming  in  their 
tenderness,  tneir  lively  fancy,  and  the  sweet  cadence  of  their 
verse,  but  they  do  not  rise  into  the  hiehest  range  of  lyric 
writing.  They  smack  of  society,  and  nave  about  them' the 
odor  either  of  the  drawing-room  or  the  dinner-table. 

Campbell. — Next  in  the  galaxy  of  poets  which  distinguished 
the  reign  of  George  IV.  comes  Thomas  Campbell  (1 777-1  k44>. 
a  Scotsman  by  birth  and  a  Celt  by  blood,  who  yet  stands  hij,'^h 
in  the  annals  of  English  literature.  His  Pleasures  of  Hof*^ 
and  Gertrude  of  Wyoming  are  his  longest  and  his  most  am- 
bitious poems.  They  are  full  of  bright  fancy,  generous  sen- 
timent, and  earnest  humanity  of  feeling.  But  his  Ivri* 
poems  are  his  best,  and  they  are  of  a  very  high  order.  T^h«  y 
nave  the  true  flre  and  energy  of  the  highest  lyric  schm4. 
mingling  in  rare  combination,  fancy,  passion,  and  refitn- 
tion.  His  critical  and  biographical 'wntings  added  large h 
to  his  literary  reputation.  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley  (1 792-1  N^i) 
and  John  Keats  (1795-1821)  should  be  noticed  here,  al- 
though greater  names  await  mention.  They  both  lived  un- 
completed lives,  ileither  of  them  producing  a  work  whirh 
attained  the  excellence  of  which  they  seemed  capable.  Shel- 
ley's life  was  one  of  revolt  against  society,  and  his  lonsr^^r 
poems  are  an  utterance  of  his  rebellious  spirit.  His  min<ir 
poems  express  the  exquisite  tenderness  ana  sweet  fancii>s  (^f 
a  really  lovelv  nature.  Keats's  Endymion  and  Ex*e  of  St. 
Agnes,  full  of  beautiful  passages,  lack  the  coherence  and 
consistency  of  style  requisite  in  poetry  of  a  high  order ;  but 
perhaps  it  may  justly  be  said  that  he  died  too  young  for  iis 
to  know  the  real  caliber  of  his  mind. 

Among  the  poetical  writers  of  this  period  these  must  In- 
mentioned :  the  brothers  Horace  (1779-1849)  and  Jani»»^ 
Smith  (1775-iaS9),  the  authors  of  the  famous  Rejrct^d 
^rfrfre«s6«,  parodies  or  burlesques  of  subtle  humor  and  in- 
herent merit;  Mrs.  Felicia  Ilemans  (1793-1835)  and  Mi*v^ 
Letitia  E.  Landon  (1802-38),  both  graceful  and  sentiment. ^1 
poets;  Robert  Montgomery  (1807-55),  the  author  of  Suttin 
and  other  religious  poems ;  Theodore  Hook  (1788-1841),  tht 
author  of  irreligious  poems  and  jests  that  belied  his  name  : 
Joanna  Baillie  (1762-1851),  known  as  the  authoress  of  an 
elaborate  series  of  Plays  on  the  Passions  which  could  n<»t 
be  played  and  are  never  read;  and  Sir  Thomas  Noon  Tal- 
fourd,  a  common-law  judge,  whose  one  tragedy.  Ion,  ma4lt' 
a  lasting  reputation  for  him  and  for  more  than  one  represent- 
ative of  its  title  part,  and  is  read  with  delight  by  thf>*^> 
who  eschew  the  theater. 

Wordsirorth. — At  this  time  appeared  what  was  styh»<i  tho 
Lake  school  of  poets,  the  first  of  whom  was  William  Won  I »«- 
worth  (1770-1850),  whose  poem.  An  Evening   Walk\   ati- 
dressed  to  a  Young  Lady  from  the  Lakes  of  the  \or(h   *jt' 
England,  was  probably  the  occasion  of  the  name  given    t.. 
him  and  his  imitators.    Wordsworth  began  to  write  in  t  hv 
old  style,  as  appears  by  some  poems  written  in  1786  whii-h 
he  preserved.    But  reaching  manhood,  he  broke  loose  f  n  Mr. 
this  style,  and  set  out  to  reform  English  poetry,  and    lu> 
effort  was  toward  an  admirable  end — simplicity  and  tniih 
to  nature.    One  means  by  which  he  hoped  to  attain    hi<« 
end  was,  in  his  own  language,  '*  fitting  to  metrical  arntiiiri'- 
ment  a  selection  of  the  real  language  of  men  in  a  statt- 
of  vivid  sensation.**    He  failed  in  accomplishing  this   t»iul, 
which  is  incompatible  with  the  requirements  of  any  iKH»tr%  ; 
and  one  result  of  his  efforts  in  this  direction  was  the    |Mit- 
ting  in  some  form  of  verse,  generally  a  sonnet,  alini»^t 
every  incident  of  an  externally  prosaic  life.    All  his   tn-^' 
works  had  their  excellence  (as  nis  friend  Colejidge    s^nt.i. 
in  a  tn^atment  entirely  at  variance  with  his  own  theory,  iii 
conforming  to  which  he  produced  of  what  was  pxxl  *oiiU 
some  short  and  simple  poems  of  a  remarkably  pictur>g>'K<ni,. 


136 


KN(JLISII   UTKUATURK 


iM'Ht  of  FIni;it«h  j»i>rt«'**wTs  wh«»«r  I\trtu4jvf*e  Stmnftn  (in 
which  ttH«  \*i\r  CT^twiuni  br  tluit  m»mAC'  i*  «*«uorr«i  by  a 
^rrr  trsn*i«nrnt  reih  arp  BiiMiimblr  fur  fi-nor  ntnl  fntNl^nn 
of  utt«'iurw<»,  urid  irh4«*  Aftrttfxt  Ijrujh  \%  m  fact  A  tiovfl  t>f 
ptM^t'iY   wroiiifht  ftkillfutiv  into  «  rhiinnini;  luuTBtive  |Hicm. 

/^/i^//.— Jtttfu^  Ku<%^ll  i»wfll  (tsiu  Ut)  anil  MiiUhrw 
Artioltl  tlHVJi-'^i  nrr  uiMMimmon  rx««iiii»Ur»  «if  the  union  «>f 
ttw*  fM«<ii4Aj  »ncl  the  critical  faiMiltr.  So  nnr  can  rrail  Mr. 
|>i«rn\  Ijfijrnd  of  tir%ttany,  hi*  .S'lr  lAiunfai,  hi*  ^'ow- 
m/ni««r(i/io«i  /^//,  antl  hin  minor  f^icm**  without  wi^hinf? 
ttiat  hf  hiMl  tnv<*n  hi*  life  to  the  (lrvrlo|itnfnt  and  th«*  |M*r- 
frv'tion  of  the  in^^t  natiirnl  |H»t*lic  ^ifl  «hirh  lUvy  indicatt*. 
A*  a  huiiion*t  hr  ha«  frw  cNfuaU.  and  ht*  i»  mo«t  wnlfW 
known  br  I  ho  H*'jtn$r  l\tfi^rM,  a  mtic^  f»f  huniMnMi^  satirical 
inwm*  in  the  ni*tn"  NVw  KiiLrlantl  tlialftt,  of  which  l>owrll 
U  a  J*  rfit  I  mivtcr.  Hi«  critical  <«f#«ay*,  i^juvially  lh<»v»  in 
Am'mti  my  li^MiLtt  nnd  J/y  Stfui^  WtnJotrn,  an*  rnarktHl  by 
■cantunt*  in«if{icn<lciiiv  i»f  th*>uicht  aiul  the  fntit<<  (»f  a  wide 
ranjfr  of  rva^iiin'.  enli\en«<«i  bv  t*>uch«**  of  hu*  rarr  and  racv 
humor.  Of  Matthew  Ani*»ld'«  |»i«**rn's  hi*  dramatic  S^thnth 
ami  HuMtum  i*  the  finest  exhibition  of  hi:*  {Ntwer  in  thin  di- 
rv<*ti>in.  It  iia*  th«  tnie  aniii|itr>  >rrandeur,  with  the  antique 
mmphcitr  and  »bre<'tnf*(s  \U-*  «-^>av*  and  critical  wntinjr*, 
nhich  an*  numeroii*,  an*  markt^tl  (ly  unuMial  nubtlcty  of 
thoii^'ht  And  ail  e\(]ui*>ite  tbii^h  of  M\)<^ 

Strtnhum^. — Alp'nn»n  Charh*^  Swinburne  {h.  IHI^T),  the 
m«*«t  pMtiiinent,  if  not  tiie  m«Mt  a«lininible,  of  the  youni^'r 
Knt?lc*h  |"H*t%  flr%t  (Niinmaiuleil  attention  by  hi.*  drama, 
Attii*tnt(%  in  CtMlvtittrt.  nMimrkublc  for  it**  eX4{uisite  fancy*  itn 
^    itth  of  lantnmiTe,  ant!  it*»  Mn>nf?  infu'^ion  of  the  old  ttrwk 


*i»int.  Hi*  other  dramntic  {Htems  althoiij;h  n«tt  e<{ual  to 
till*,  deli)(ht  admin*rM  tif  «in»iij;  i»af*"»ion  aiid  unn**<'i^ed  ut- 
terance, A  %«»luineof  i\H'mjniH4t  Hnllnds  exhibits  tlie  name 
quAlttif^  in  a  |fr»*ater  dcin^H*.  clothc«l  in  a  v**r.itication  the 
ritemal  rK'hne*^  and  Mn'tu^th  of  «hi<-h  comf>el  an  a<lttiira- 
tion  «)metime«  unwillingly  fpven  to  Mich  exhibitions  of 
DakeilrH^w  <»f  w»ul  and  UhW. 

Jl^r>rr»j.— Then*  af^  twolcindu  of  nakediifM:  of  f*»ul.  and 
of  Uidr ;  the  pun*r  kind  nerer  was  M^>n  in  a  mon*  alluring 
f«>rm  tmui  in  the  (inemtt  of  Willuun  Morrij*  (U  lK:i4),  wh«i«»e 
Jtimm  and  K^trtKJtf  l^tmtiim  hare  place*!  him  hii;h  in  the 
■rciind  rank  of  Kni;li*h  jxw't*.  Mom*  jp>e«  to  the  lejfcnd*  of 
art<  it-nt  (in*'*'^  and  of  the  Middle  A^**  f«»r  bis  *ubjiM-t*  ;  anil 
he  tetU  the^e  old  tali^  With  «uch  rivitlnt»i«i  of  inmiLn nation, 
•uth  |>i4  tun<«4|ue  and  *rnMii>uii  nchu<**rt  of  di**crii»tion- and 
•u«h  fcwrrt  «trnphi  ity  of  fr^'lmif  ttiat  he  n»newrt  and  freMietii 
ait  I  heir  old  U'autv  and  a<id*  to  it  a  chann  of  hm  own.  H19 
«er>il)i*ati  tn  i«  rvtnarka)»le  f<»r  it*  ea-^r  flow  and  for  tlie 
lu«-i*»u«  n<  ht»e*p*  of  It*  Mounti.  But  hi*  t?n*at  •'tn'mrih  lie* 
in  hi*  tma^Miatb^n.  He  ^n«^  U^fore  him  the  tiubj«M  t  of  hi*> 
^erw.  A*  a  narratne  i^wl  he  lia**  no  ^ui*eri<»r  or  e«|Ual  but 
I'haucer.  <»f  ahofii  he  pptfi-^u***^  hitn**elf  tne  *cholar. 

H'Air/i^r — 4^  the  |»<»'tji  of  minof  fame  John  (in-^'iileaf 
Whitti»*r  I  IHllT-W*  pnwlu«tMi  *itme  tine  etainplc^  of  tnie  Iwl- 
lail  [■••Iri— hiijh  pru-*',  for  the  true  tiallA«l,  «tne  of  the  m"*l 
cliAniiirii;  fornix  of  Unr  f*<*'ii|HiHiti<in,  ia  in  mo«b-ni  dn%* 
a/n<>ric  tbe  ran**l  of  iM^*ti<«l  pniiluction*;  and  tlie  aiith«ir 
of  /<*irr/ijy  of  Cry,  Mttuti  MuJi^r^  mini  H*%rhtir<%  ynrtrh%r^ 
aJ»a<»  ptirv,  frr^id.  autj  dini  t,  will  1k»  n'tnemU'riil  a  In-n 
ni*n«  a  in  •?>•  ^-'lu'iiifi-m*  and  aiiiJ»itiMU«  wri'cr  1*  forir«»tten. 
M*  II*  -n  ^ti'Mjid  aS*  !■*  ma<lr  «»f  rhomiff  Willi.iiri*  I'tip-*!!** 
fl*»ll*  !'.*!.  the  nii"*er  of  a  true  and  ^tn'Otf  |H<«-tic  uttemiM-e; 
J»  All  I  MO  ow  ;  Hret  H.»rte.  wh<»**'  huinonm*  (HH'tn<«  in  4liali'<'t 
h»»»  ■(•«»  'It*  re^k'^bil  aa  jiwuiiarly  "  AimTK  an  ** ;  lU\anl 
'\  \\  *r  \*^*.\  >»'  nho  ha»  fna*!*' the  Itr^t  trari-.tut-*»n  of /Viw«/ : 
K  '.  trd  H-  'iri  H»  -1  I  tnl,  tictTL-*'  Hfiir^  iV.k.T  ■  |h|J  t«»i,  K^t- 
n\  f  d  •  Uf  w  ••  Ni.-tiii  ui,  and  Wtlt  Whi'iuaii  1  l*»U>-  Kf^K  'iho 
a'M'l  •:«  .i|*«  of  f.i'M'ti  ttip  a'-r  nit»*i  *h  in  faiita«ltc  form  hii'* 
ij'i  ;  |««i  ^''n*   iiti*'*  w«i.'*it.«|  wi'h  t'l'Mijht  and  true  fct-lui;:. 

I '!••  p*""*!  iii^i  »Ir»Mi  fi  .*T*  of  the  run*  tf«'r.*h  i-w-ntur*  an* 
,l»,t'.«  *^l,«*  tti  K. '«!•"■  <  17**^4-l**»U't.  l»on  H»ii*i<nu!t 
•  I-,*-*  '.*»■.  I  I  Tt^I-r  i!**!;  *^>-.  and  T!."ma«  \N  t.l..iin 
K  u  r*  ••  !»*.••«  TI  t,  t  t|t  no  ofu-  of  thfiii  an  t*-  n  p!-»i  a  hii  It 
Ka-  *!.»  »aiin  *\  H  ut-tfi  irif  •t^O"  In  tt»e  Knu'ii"!!  l«n- 
J,*  .  *..*.  i' %  I*  I  *t  TA*  !*>•  M->i  tii«  ti>  ha\e  i*a*Mi(  to  e\i-tt, 
•:        ,-1    It'-        »    "^'•.  ' -Un   (ITM    l**trt     the  aii'l,.ir  «.f    />.* 

/»'•      •    •    **     1     /'  *v  '    -•.      *.>r    ,S.  •t'i-/'l/.  I"        »/!•*:    (•I'^l^    to  t  lie 

f  /'  '.t  'h  I  •,'  .r»,  t*  Km  '**•  "f  t'  *•  tlr.»'M.»'  ■  *.  h-H  1,  h  jt 
r  * .  I  »  •  -".•  1  .  *  a*^  •  <  "!•  ii-  *  'tf  »  it,  !»'  '  of  t  ti  »f  .»<  *•  r,  an  I 
•fit   •■♦  :•  %,a  If*  II  »t  "f  '^:.«  Ti  1  »n,  II- 1  .if  •  Jn   |- r»«'»^o'' » •»«» 

\  -'*/*    -  Jfi  ff»  ■!»  inJ^'M.  '.t  t.f   I  '♦  r»t  ir»    h<*»  the   Ml   n A*'^! 
ill**    .ft'^aj    a  *.».**    -f   tilt    (  .1,' ti  •  h'U  « . 'il'jr*    l»»«n    •**   *•*- 


piou.*Iy  manife^tfvl  as  in  that  of  pnM*o  fiction.    Tbean'.** 
of  m>vel9i  an«  to  be  numltervnl  nowaiUy*  by  tlie  hur,  i*. 
Mendy  metitionintr  the  namt^n  of  Hannah  M«»nr  M74VK- 
the  author  of  i\rUhn  in  S^arrh  of  a  H'i/>  ai^l  i»tliiT  w*-*. 
inf:»  of  a  pietiMic-fcicial  puruwie;  William  Beckfonl  ::♦ 
1H44),  whtw*»  Vnthfk^  orimnally  written  in  Freiwh,  <]<»«  r.  • 
for  it#  merit  (U'M'rve  a  notable  pla<T  in   Kn^jli'^b  litrr»i.* 
Anne   Kmbliffe  <lT64*lH*i^i)  and   Matthew   iirriri.n  Ui, 
(177.V1H1H)   (calhnl  "M<»nk"   l^ewift,  from  the  tiiir  ..'  ^ 
mof«t  oelebralwi  work),  *x»th  of   whom   rp>el«|   m  ^r'*-- 
and  mv*terit^;  and   the  two  siictrr^  Jane  (ITTU-KVi.  r 
Anna  Alaha  Porter  (ITHO-lKtt),  the  pnefil«*^*e«  of  ttK  c 
dt*<«  of  M>nt«ibility — all  of  whotn   Ud<»n(f  rather  in  »{  '•  %, 
they  do  much  in   time,  to  the  ri^hte«'nth  centurt-.*'    • 
|iAMn  to  the  con*ideration  of  the  later  and  *tn»n^'^rwr'  -^ 
tif  fiction,  only  the  m<*t  eminent  and  charic*ten*tic  of  a^  » 
can  1h'  notic«Hl  here. 

Srott. — The  great  novelist  of  the  century,  of  the  T.tc  ' 
laniruH^n* — and  it  i»  luA  too  much  to  iiar  of  the  wntM:-  • 
Sir  Walter  S<*<itt,  who,  a»  ban  l>een  «wn,  ^old*  al*«»  t»  '  ,-■ 
a  pla<*e  among  it*  |MM*tj*,  The  H'rttrr/^-y  Aof*/*.  «i  ,«  . 
fnun  the  title  of  the  flr»t  one  of  the  wriea,  an*  ilii-fli  • 
torical — that  Ik,  their  plot.*  are  interwo\cn  aith  hw*'.  * 
incitleiitn,  and  dome  of  their  princifial  la'ptonatre^  air  t:r>"^ 
taken  fn>m  hi-^tory.  In  corrprlne»  of  hi*>ifntaJ  «>  a. 
an  al«rf»  in  cNirre<'tne«  of  rtyle,  they  are  o(«*n  to  Mii«r« 
eritici-m.  But  triflea  of  that  kind  are,  or  iiu^rbt  to  u  - 
n'ganbMj  by  even  the  l>e«t-infonne<l  aiHl  m«p*t  ru.tna*  ■. 
n'H« ler*  aA  they  an*  Uime  onward  ujM»n  the  »tn«r.tf,  -t**' 
idrmm  of  the  rtory.  S<*ott  was  siniply  the  jn>-att-»t  ar-.* 
of  storie*  that  ever  livi'd.  Hi»  imaginatne  n-aJi/ati.  c.  ■  '  •  i 
|K*rHonagi*H,  and  hi*  dramatic  evolutiikn  of  th«  ir  r}iarto''*ii 
and  maiuig(*ment  of  their  intenMmr>*^  aith  ta«  h  t4t  '  m 
inferior  only  to  Shaks(K<«re'K,  fn*m  ahom,  in  in.a^  «  1 
writing,  cri'licinm  ina>  take  one  gn-at  bap  U%  »i  c.u  \i 
<»ther  writer  but  Shak«»|M'are  hai«  fllU-*!  the  aorUl  *  r.*-;  n 
with  fflich  a  thnmg  of  living  figure«i,  m>  rane«l  in  t*i«*  r  i<:«4| 
M>  lifelike  and  rvobM>4*min^  in  their  action.  Hr  *;•  .^ 
little  time  in  analyzing  motiv«*i«  and  in  cli<>^«e«tiitt:  1  Kara  '■*; 
Imt  with  stntng,  clear  touchea,  e^eri  one  of  wt.  t  iM 
meaning,  hi*  pbMX'S  the  man  or  the  woman  tvfore  i.a.  ai<.  •< 
kn<»w  them,  an  we  know  our  friemU  or  «»ur  ent  niir^  f  •'•H 
afttT,  anil  at  onc*e  we  lax^ime  inten*Me<l  in  tbt.r  f«*  ,1 
their  a<-t ion*,  their  ex|K*nem*e,  and  their  fate,  >t*'i  .•-  J 
Mntrulnrly  healthful  anter.  Tlien*  i»  in  hi»  aori*  Karl  •  j 
morbid  fMivioige  or  one  in  an\  i*en**  injuriou*.  ihw  n^-r^  f-  4 
them  n-frewluMl,  delijrhliti.  invigi)rateib  eie^ateil.  It  -a-n 
tive  power,  in  truthful  new,  in  pictures  {Ui-nem.  m  .  '  *i 
action,  in  the  clear  management  of  a  (N»mplii«tf«l  »•  i 
unittil  rtn-ngth  and  delicacy  t>f  jMirtraiture.  in  grai  ■  '  •( 
movement,  in  humor,  and  in  duuin  of  iii>U*  Lr  i*  a."  ^ 
a  ri\aL  Jane  Austen  (1775-lHlTK  «lio  followv^i  ^  1-.  m\ 
young»*r  <*t»ntemi»*trary,  ii*  one  of  the  U-nt  of  Ki.4r.i*h  ^  ^H 
lie  n«»%eliM**.  Her  workn  will  alwayi^  be  n-a<l  f.  r  lb- .•  1 
tnn«ic  inten*^t  and  ai*  faithful  and  jdeaiung  }  %*  t>i«>*  • '  M 
*««icty  of  her  time.  (itH»rge  I'.  K.  Janu^  tlF4it-«4)  ««»  ^ 
imitator  of  S-ott.  and  although  a  pn>ldb'  antrr  aii-t  a  U«  i 
ite  with  the  iniblic  of  hi*  day.  he  hai*  »haini  tl^  fa2*  .'  ^ 
imitatorx,  and  ta  ni»w  little  reait  But  the  auth*  r  •  f  /^>  | 
AuifuAtuA  and  ih%r  %na  Thu%isand  aa*  a  tH»ieU«t  <  f  b    &-4 

|Mtwer«. 

//w/irer.— Kilwanl  L]itti»n  Bulwer  (l>^W-7tl  ,  afl^^wiri 
I>tnl  L)tton,  in  \\\*,  no\el  I\lhttm  intn«lut^«l  tn  iJb^  «  H 
ahat  t*  di'*tinctivel>  known  a^  the  no\cl  uf  fi^hwr.^*  i 
ciety.  He  afteraanl  ext4ndt«d  hi*  fleM  and  wr«<*  hj^  '  I 
novel*.  •I'ntimental  novi-N.  n«*\rN  di-^-npt  arn)  fn  v  -^^  | 
A  man  of  hi;:h  cultnn-, of  \anou»  «i  tiuin  nient»,  ai.  I  a  •-  i 
tif  cofi-uierable  jH»wcr.  he  ctirninantlr'ti  fuc  in**  %  »*»r»  | 
ailmiratioti  of  a  aide  cm  le  of  rviaiier*.  But  h«  «a#  1 
aav  oru'inal ;  hi«  «MnlifniMit  aa**  ei^uaili  fal^*  ai*«l  •  \  •^  A 
hi«  %t\le  a  a*  artihcial:  he  liail  no  dnktnati*  (■  w.  r  v  1 
|i*r»>i>iiH^'>'«  ha^e  no  tnie  life  or  charai  tef,  b.it  ar*  »  *r  '  • 
rlolheo  with  •••trnel hiiig  in  ihtin  thai  talk*  ahat  l*«lBar.  .H 
aer  thotik'h!.  N«*  one  of  ihelii  lo  en  eX'^eiH  l*«  *ija  '  a*«  H 
hik'h  4  1a.««  diind\  of  tlw  lateM  iti^iririan  era.  H:«  t*^  a  i 
are  Tnt  (aitnnji  and  .l/y  AtttTi,  antten  m  i.-  .'a. 
.St. -rue 

/>i«r^i^/i— Benjamin  !>i«raidMlH<H-**lv_  ih(.  m^  *  ^ 
I>iT.M  ii  t  ITtW  lH|s,,  a  lb  bn  «  w1m»  aa*  4«  (i^t  n«'«:  (.  *  '.\ 
t.^ni'v.  and  aim  i*  anb  \\  known  a»  ttir  a  A*  r  «'f  7*'  | 
riitaiNr«  ttf  ls*tfr*itur*.  7A'  .4iW'ai/i*«  ••'  l,*!mr*%f^^*  i| 
7^1^  f 'ifAimi/ir«  «f^  .lu'Aor* — «a*  the  authwr  if  ««  «  rr^  •■     \ 

t  ►.•      »-rt'l:<*t     i.f    whi    h     I*     lie*!!*!     //'r^v    •!*»"-*»       «A*  I      *  | 

Lttti'^mi'tH  kX''^^'.     Hl^  at»rk«  are  britiUftitt.  a*   I   Ka««    ■  •{ 


138 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


The  Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel^  Bea/uchamp^s  Career,  and 
other  works,  takes  high  rank  for  vigor  ana  indiriduality, 
though  unknown  to  the  general  reader.  Richard  Dod- 
dridge Blackmore  (b.  1825)  has  produced  one  book  {Loma 
I)oone\  that  has  become  a  classic.  Walter  Besant  (b.  1888) 
has  dealt  with  social  problems  in  many  of  his  novels — in 
All  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men,  for  instance — ^and  given  a 
decided  impetus  to  the  work  of  social  reform.  John  Henry 
Shorthouse  (b.  1834),  the  author  of  John  Inglesant ;  Will- 
iam Black  (b.  1840),  the  author  of  A  Princess  of  Thule ; 
and  J.  M.  Barry  (b.  1860),  the  author  of  The  Little  Minis- 
ter, men  differing  widely  in  style,  have  acquired  great  pop- 
ularity. 

Hardy. —TYioms^  Hardy  (b.  1840),  the  author  of  The  Re- 
turn of  the  Native,  The  Hand  of  Ethdherta,  Tess,  and  a 
number  of  other  stories,  is  one  of  the  most  original  of 
English  novelists.  His  plots  are  distinguished  by  piauant 
situations,  the  talk  of  his  rustics  has  the  quaintness  of  bhak- 
speare's  simple  folk,  and  his  heroines  are  fallible  but  charm- 
ing. The  most  vivid  and  truthful  presentation  of  social  life 
in  the  U.  S.  in  the  center  of  its  wealth  and  commerce  that 
has  yet  appeared  is  Never  Again,  by  William  Starbuck 
Mayo,  M.D.  (b.  1812).  George  William  Curtis  (1824-92) 
also  wrote  one  novel,  Trumps,  but  he  will  rather  be  re- 
membered as  the  author  of  Prue  and  I,  a  series  of  confes- 
sions of  a  simple-minded  old  bookkeeper  of  exquisite  ten- 
derness and  sweetness  of  sentiment,  and  of  the  Potiphar 
Papers,  a  burlesque  of  New  York  society,  and  of  the  Howadji 
travels,  in  the  style  of  Kinglake's  Eothen.  The  latest 
school  of  society  nction  is  represented  in  America  by  Will- 
iam Dean  Howells  (b.  1887),  author,  of  A  Chance  Acquaint- 
ance, A  Modem  Instance,  The  Rise  of  Silas  Laj)ham,  etc. ; 
and  Henry  James,  Jr.  (b.  1843),  author  of  Daisy  Miller, 
The  Europeafis,  The  Bostonians,  etc.  Both  of  these  novel- 
ists are  subtly  anal3rtic  in  method,  dealing  largely  in  man- 
ners and  in  oelicate  shades  of  character,  and  d^arding  the 
old-fashioned  "  plot."  They  have  originated  "  internation- 
al "  fiction,  in  wnich  the  opposing  ideals  of  American  and 
foreign  society  are  brougnt  into  amusing  contrast.  In 
their  minuteness  of  observation  and  truth  of  detail  they 
sometimes  resemble  Trollope,  though  their  literary  prin- 
ciples ally  them  more  closely  to  recent  continental  fiction 
than  to  the  English. 

Essayists  and  Miscellaneous  Writers, — Pew  tasks  are 
more  difficult  than  the  classification  of  books  and  their 
writers.  Where  shall  be  placed  William  Cobbett  (1762- 
1835),  who  wrote  upon  pohtics,  gardening,  and  what  notf 
It  is  chiefly  as  a  political  essayist,  however,  that  he  will  be 
remembered.  His  writings  show  strong  common  sense, 
strong  prejudices,  independence  of  thought,  set  forth  in 
a  direct,  manly,  incisive  style.  William  Godwin  (1756- 
1836)  wrote  a  novel,  Caleb  Williams,  the  fame  of  which 
still  lives,  but  his  chief  distinction  was  that  of  a  political 
essayist  and  historian  of  robust  mind  and  strong  liberal 
tendencies.  His  wife,  Mary  Wollstonecraft  (1759-97),  by 
her  Vindication  of  the  Rights  of  Woman,  took  the  lead  in 
a  movement  which  seems  to  be  still  advancing.  Charles 
Lamb  (1775-1886)  will  be  always  read,  and  always  lo veil,  for 
the  gentleness  of  soul  and  the  exquisite  humor,  sometimes 
falling  into  mere  personal  whim,  which  appear  in  his 
Essays  of  Elia  ana  his  correspondence.  To  him  there 
could  not  be  a  stronger  contrast  than  Walter  Savage  Lan- 
dor  (1775-1864),  who  had  all  the  virtues  and  most  of  the 
faults  peculiar  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  and  embodied 
them  in  his  writings,  although  his  peculiarities  of  temper 
kept  him  so  at  war  with  his  Idndreu,  and  even  his  country, 
that  he  passed  most  of  his  life  in  voluntary  exile.  His 
Pericles  and  Aspasia,  Imaginary  Conversations,  Last 
Fruit  off  an  Old  Tree,  and  Dry  Sticks  show  a  wide  range 
of  learning  and  strong  criticiil  sense,  but  narrow  sym- 
pathies, and  an  absence  of  that  g^At  lubricator  of  the 
friction  of  life — humor.  John  Wilson  (1785-1854),  al- 
though he  wrote  some  poetry,  is  remembered  for  his 
Christopher  North  papers  upon  literature  and  sporting  sub- 
jects, which  were  published  in  Blackwood's  Magazine, 
of  which  in  its  earlier  years  he  was  editor.  His  critical 
taste  was  sound,  but  much  of  his  writing  is  mei-e  animal 
spirits  put  on  paper,  and  he  was  chief  of  a  school  all  of 
whose  pages  reek  with  the  fumes  of  whisky  and  tobacco, 
which  can  not,  however,  entirely  becloud  their  strong  sense 
and  their  scholarship. 

De  Quincey. — For  whisky  and  tobacco  Thomas  De  Quin- 
cey  (1785-1859)  substituted  opium,  to  which  we  owe  his 
Confessions  of  an  Opium-Eater,  and  perhaps  its  effects 


may  be  traced  in  Suspiria  de  Profundis  and  in  many  of 
his  subsequent  voluminous  writings,  which  are  crowded 
with  the  evidences  of  a  wide  range  of  desultory  scholarship, 
with  subtle  criticism,  rich  fancy,  and  a  peculiar  hunior. 
all  embodied  in  a  stvle  of  remarkable  richness  and  splendor. 
William  Hazlitt  (1778-1830)  lived  from  early  manhood  until 
his  death,  not  very  happily,  upon  the  miscellaneous  pnxl- 
nets  of  his  pen  as  a  contributor  to  various  periodical  publi- 
cations of  his  day.  He  was  conseauently  able  to  do  little 
as  we  may  be  sure  he  would  have  lixed  and  was  able  to  do 
it.  But  as  a  critic  of  literature  and  art  and  of  society  he 
holds  a  high  place,  which  he  owes  in  a  great  measure  to  his 
manly  and  thoroughly  English  style,  James  Henrv  LtML'h 
Hunt  (1784^1859),  another  writer  of  the  same  sort,  has  less 
force,  but  is  always  graceful  and  pleasing.  But  the  great 
modem  master  in  English  of  grace  and  ease,  and  of  a  lam- 
bent humor  much  like  that  of  Addison,  is  Washinj^ton 
Irving  (1783-1859},  whose  Sketch  Book,  Kniekerbochrti 
History  of  New  York,  and  Legends  of  Sleepy  HoUoir  do 
more  to  secure  his  enduring  fame  than  most  of  his  xnoiv 
ambitious  works,  including  his  Life  of  George  Washington. 

Carlyle. — Unlike  Irving  in  every  way  was  Thomas  Carlyle 
(1795-1881),  whose  style  is  rugged  and  whose  humor  grim, 
but  who  was  a  critic  of  the  first  class,  and  whose  Sartor 
Resartns  is  a  subsoil  plow  driving  deep  beneath  the  surface 
conventionalities  of  society.  A  hke  purpose  prevails  in  hi^ 
Latter-Day  Pamphlets  and  Hero-  Worship.  It  is  to  be  re- 
marked that  Carlyle's  peculiar  style — so  peculiar  that  it  \\^ 
been  called  "  Oarlylese  —-does  not  appear  m  his  earlier  w<^rk^. 
Mr.  Carlyle  the  reformer  appears  as  a  scornful,  seourginc 
critic,  and  in  that  spirit  he  wrote  his  historical  works.  Thr 
French  Revolution  and  Frederick  the  Oreat.  To  him  Ralfh 
Waldo  Emerson  (1803-82)  has  been  not  very  happily  com- 
pared. The  purpose  of  the  two  writers  may  be  the  same,  but 
their  manner  is  entirely  different.  Emerson  had  the  calm 
observance  and  the  serene  thoughtfulness  of  a  philo80|di»T. 
and  he  showed  a  strong  love  of  external  nature  of  which 
Carlyle  seemed  scarcely  conscious.  His  style  is  aphori.stic 
and  epigrammatic,  and  both  his  prose  and  his  poetry  an- 
full  of  wisdom.  Caroline  Elizabeth  Norton  (1808-77),  a  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  inherited  some  of  the  talent  of  her  gi^ud- 
father,  the  great  Sheridan. 

Smith  and  Jerrold, — Among  the  wits  of  a  past  generation 
two  were  pre-eminent — Sydney  Smith  (1771-1845)  and  Doug- 
las Jerrold  (1803-57),  but  their  wit  was  almost  their  only 
point  of  likeness.  Jerrold's  wit  was  a  scourge,  while  Syd- 
ney Smith's  was  the  genial  laughter  of  a  lover  of  his  kind. 
His  essays  touch  many  of  the  most  important  topics  in 
which  men  of  these  times  are  interested,  and  they  an*  htmleil 
with  sagacity.  His  style  is  remarkable  for  its  clearness  and 
manlv  dignity.  Another  wit  whose  wisdom  is  greater  thnn 
his  wit  is  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes.  M.  D.  (b.  1809),  of  who>o 
writings  his  Breakfast- Table  books — the  Autocrat,  the  P^et, 
and  the  Pro/(e««or— exhibit  his  mind  and  his  style  at  thiir 
best.  They  present  a  curious  and  careful  study  of  that  van- 
ety  of  human  nature  which  is  found  in  the  rJ^ew  England 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  are  threaded  through  an«l 
through  with  gentle  satire.  The  study  of  human  follies  and 
human  weakness  and  of  the  conventional  forms  of  nxNlem 
society  which  took  Holmes  to  the  breakfast^table  and  Syd- 
ney Smith  to  the  dinner-table,  drove  Henry  David  Thoreau 
(1827-62)  to  a  hermit's  life,  in  which  he  lived  in  a  cabin  of 
his  own  building,  chiefly  upon  beans  of  his  own  growing. 
He  studied  birds  and  beasts  and  inanimate  objects  for  the 
purpose  of  reflecting  severely  upon  man.  But  his  love  of 
nature  was  genuine,  his  love  and  knowledge  of  literaiiire 
great,  and  his  own  style  beautiful.  He  can  not  be  read  with- 
out forgiveness  for  his  gentle  mistaken  misanthropy. 

Helps, — Arthur  Helps  (1813-75)  won  for  himself  a  peculiar, 
and,  if  not  a  very  high,  a  long-enduring  place  in  literaturv. 
With  little  that  is  strikingly  new  in  his  thought,  he  com- 
mands the  respectful  attention  of  a  large  circle  of  the  v»^nr 
highest  class  of  readers.  This  he  does  by  the  very  clear  and 
earnest  way  in  which  he  brings  up  and'  presses  tionie  half- 
forgotten  truths  which  concern  the  daily  life  of  all  culti- 
vated people.  He  presented  homely  common  sense  in  ttJf 
most  elegant  dress.  He  wrote  two  novels,  Realmah^  ov»t 
which  his  Friends  in  Council  entertain  themselves  ami  his 
readers  with  wise  and  witty  chat,  and  /fvw  de  Hinm, 
Among  other  writers  of  this  class  in  America  even  such  a 
sketch  as  this  must  notice  Donald  Grant  Mitchell  (b.  18*i2), 
a  polished  satirist  of  socictv  and  an  observant  critic  of  rural 
life  ;  Thomas  Wentworth  lligginson  (b.  1823),  whose  essa>  ^ 
are  strong  protests  against  physical  and  mental  weakne: 


»5v> 


140 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE 


work  of  the  century.  Written  with  strong  partisan  preju- 
dices, it  not  with  a  partisan  purpose,  it  is  filled  with  masses 
of  moral  light  and  shade,  and  must  be  read  with  corre- 
sponding allowance  as  to  facts  and  its  representation  of  in- 
dividuals. But  in  its  grouping  of  facts,  in  its  pictures  of 
social  life,  and  in  the  si)lenaor  and  the  graceful  ease  of  its 
style,  it  is  without  a  rival  in  English  literature.  The  re- 
search upon  which  it  was  founded  and  the  minuteness  of  its 
picture-painting  made  it  impossible  for  the  author  to  bring 
it  down,  as  he  had  intended,  to  a  period  within  the  memory 
of  living  men.  Its  five  octavo  volumes  cover  a  period  of 
only  fifteen  years.  With  its  author's  essays  upon  the  char- 
acters of  Bacon,  Milton,  Addison,  Walpole.  Jonnson,  Byron, 
and  Hastings,  it  forms  a  body  of  historical  writing  of  almost 
unequaled  splendor  and  interest.    James  Anthony  Froude 

g}.  1818)  has  produced  a  very  valuable  historjr  of  England 
uring  the  times  of  the  Reformation.  His  investigations 
have  led  him  to  take  new  views  of  the  characters  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  Elizabeth,  which  the  authorities  quoted  by  him 
seem  to  support ;  but  upon  the  much-vexed  question  as  to 
the  characters  of  Mary  of  Scotland  and  Marv  of  England 
he  ranges  himself  at  the  head  of  their  conaemners.  On 
the  history  of  Ireland  he  has  also  written  vigorously,  and 
after  much  original  research.  Edward  Augustus  Freeman 
(1823-92)  is  the  author  of  a  History  of  the  Norman  Con' 
quest  written  from  an  entirely  new  point  of  view,  in  which 
he  presents  a  philosophical  appreciation  of  the  causes  which 
led  to  the  invasion,  of  the  condition  of  insular  and  conti- 
nental society  at  that  period,  and  of  the  social  and  political 
consequences  of  the  conquest.  Its  great  merit  gave  him  at 
once  a  high  position  in  historical  literature.  The  various 
biographical  works  of  Mr.  John  Forster  (1812-76)  have  so 
marked  an  historical  bearing  that  he  deserves  honorable 
mention  as  a  writer  in  this  department. 

Continental  history  has  been  illustrated  by  two  English 
writers  of  eminent  ability.  Thomas  Carlyle's  History  ofth^ 
French  Revolution  is  rather  an  expression  of  the  spirit  of 
the  time  of  that  great  event  than  a  record  of  its  facts,  a 
knowledge  of  which  is  almost  assumed  by  the  writer.  But 
it  is  perhaps  the  most  complete  and  characteristic  manifes- 
tation of  its  author's  peculiar  genius.  His  History  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great  is  truly  historical,  and  presents  new  results 
of  original  research.  It  is  written  in  *'  Carlylcse,"  and  is 
full  of  fantastic  and  grimly  humorous  passages,  but  its  truly 
historical  value  is  nevertheless  very  great.  John  Lothrop 
Motley  (1814-77)  has  taken  the  hi^est  position  as  the  his- 
torian of  the  Netherlands  and  the  Dutch  Republic.  To  the 
results  of  patient  research  and  logical  analysis  he  added  the 
attraction  of  a  fervid  style  and  an  enthusiastic  love  of  his 
subiect. 

Bancroft, — The  history  of  the  United  States  was  writ- 
ten by  George  Bancroft  (1800-91)  with  a  minuteness  of  de- 
tail which  often  produces  the  impression  that  he  looked  at 
small  and  commonplace  occurrences  through  the  glorify- 
ing medium  of  their  consequences.  His  style  may  also  be 
regarded  as  often  too  ambitious  for  the  subject  immedi- 
ately in  hand.  But  as  a  whole  his  work  is  worthy  of  the  ad- 
miration it  has  received  and  of  the  authoritative  position  it 
has  attained.  Richard  Hildreth  (1807-65)  wrote  his  History 
of  the  United  States  in  a  stjle  directly  opposite.  It  is  colcl, 
dry,  unpicturesque.  and  rigidly  judicial  But  as  a  clear  and 
well-connect«d  record  of  facts  it  is  of  great  value,  and  may 
be  safely  relied  upon.  James  Parton  (1822-91)  produced 
several  biographies  of  eminent  citizens  of  the  U.  S.  which 
have  an  historical  purpose  and  value,  John  Gorham  Pal- 
frey (1796-1881)  wrote  a  History  of  New  England  in  a  most 
interesting  and  impartial  manner,  and  John  Fiske  (b.  1842) 
has  further  enriched  the  history  of  the  Colonial  and  Revolu- 
tionary periods  of  the  same  section.  Francis  Parkman  (b. 
1823)  has  written  in  numerous  volumes  the  history  of  the 
French  explorations  and  settlements  in  North  America.  His 
pictures  of  Indian  life  and  wilderness  scenery  have  wonder- 
ful vividness  and  a  romantic  interest  not  inferior  to  the  fic- 
titious a<lventures  of  Cooper's  backwoodsmen. 

Prescotf. — Spanish  and  Spanish-American  history  has 
been  illustrated  by  William  Hickling  Prescott  (1796-1859), 
perhaps  the  most  charming  of  all  English  historical  writers, 
and  inferior  to  none  in  patient  research.  His  histories  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  of  Philip  II.,  and  of  the  conquest 
of  Mexico  and  the  conquest  of  Peru,  arc  a  most  fascinating 
series  of  works.  Arthur  Helps  (181Ii-75)  wrote  a  History 
of  Slavery,  which,  animated  by  a  thoroughly  humane  and 
loftily  philanthropic  spirit,  presents  his  subject  with  his 
characteristic  calmness  and  reserve. 


The  historjr  of  Greece  was  written  by  William  Mitfonl 
(1744-1827)  with  learning  and  the  feeling  of  a  true  scholar 
for  his  great  theme;  Bishop  Thirlwall  (1797-1875)  als*)  pro- 
duced a  valuable  history  of  the  Hellenic  peoples ;  but  the 
work  which  displaces  all  others  in  English  literature  u{K)n 
this  subject  is  that  of  George  Grote  (1794-1871),  who  seenu. 
to  have  penetrated  the  very  heart  of  Greek  life,  political, 
social,  moral,  and  intellectual.  His  History  of  Greece  and 
his  Plato  seem  to  present  all  that  one  can  hope  to  know  (if 
the  national  experience  and  the  best  intellectual  period  uf 
the  great  people  who  were  the  sources  of  modem  civiliza- 
tion. 

Arnold. — Roman  history  to  the  end  of  the  Second  Punic 
war  was  treated  by  Thomas  Arnold  (1795-1842),  a  worthr 
disciple  of  Niebuhr,  who  added  a  certain  simple  English 
tone  and  charm  to  the  manner  of  his  master.  His  Lectures 
on  Modem  History  are  also  admirable  in  the  same  whv. 
Charles  Merivale  (b,  1808)  wrote  a  History  of  the  Jiomam 
under  the  Empire^  which  supplements  acceptablv  Arnolds 
more  vifforous  work.  Henry  Hart  Milman  (17§l-186t<),  a 
poet  and  the  author  of  Fazio,  a  powerful  and  successful 
tragedy,  wrote  a  History  of  the  Jews,  a  History  of  Grt-t-k 
Christianity,  and  a  History  of  Latin  Christianity,  which 
form  an  admirable  trilogy  of  reli^ous  history. 

Of  war  histories,  the  two  most  important  are  the  Fifteen 
Decisive  Battles  of  the  World  of  Sir  Edward  Shephenl 
Creasy  (1812-78)  in  which  the  author  treats  only  of  sut  h 
battles  as  have  had  a  manifest  effect  upon  the  course  of 
civilization;  and  the  History  of  the  Crimean  War  by  Alex- 
ander William  Kinglake  (b.  1811),  which  as  to  fact  is'a  eUar 
result  of  careful  investigation,  but  which  in  spirit  is  a  fienv 
impeachment  of  the  Emperor  Louis  Napoleon.  Perhaj>s  the 
volume  of  William  Howard  Russell  (the  well-known  Lon- 
don Times  correspondent)  upon  the  same  subject  shoulil 
here  be  mentionea.  Of  the  histories  of  the  civil  war  in 
the  U.  S.  a  few  are  of  value ;  but  most  of  them  have  been 
writt/cn  by  partisans  living  too  near  the  events  which  tbej 
describe. 

Buckle. — An  entirely  new  kind  of  historical  writing  has 
been  produced  by  the  speculative  spirit  of  the  age.  It  is  the 
history,  not  of  nations  or  of  men,  but  of  man.  Pre-eminent 
in  this  department  is  the  History  of  Civilization,  left  un- 
finished by  Henry  Thomas  Buckle  (1821-62),  who  soujjhi. 
with  an  aomirable  if  not  a  perfect  measure  of  sucee^.  to 
discover  and  describe  the  successive  evolution  of  the  m<»ral 
influences  which  brought  about  the  changes  in  the  course 
of  the  history  of  the  modern  world.  Of  a  like  kind  are 
the  History  of  Rationalism  and  the  History  of  European 
Morals  written  by  William  Lecky  (b.  1838>--works  which 
to  a  certain  extent  pluck  out  the  heart  of  the  myst«>ry  of 
man's  moral  nature  and  social  life.  And  historians  who 
deal  with  mere  external  facts  now  go  beyond  the  historicid 
period,  and  we  have  in  such  books  as  Prehistoric  Tinujt 
and  Tfie  Origin  of  Civilization,  by  Sir  John  Lubbock  (li. 
1834),  and  Prehistoric  Man,  by  Daniel  Wilson  (b.  in  lfc<l6». 
ingenious  attempts,  marvelously  successful  to  a  certain 
pomt,  in  reconstructing  the  physical  life  of  man  at  t\u»e 
dimly  remote  periods  of  whicn  there  is  neither  i^cord  ni>r 
tradition. 

Books  of  travel  are  so  considerable  an  element  of  moih^n 
literature,  whether  regarded  as  a  means  of  literary  enter- 
tainment or  in  their  more  important  function  of  diffusing; 
a  knowledge  of  mankind  and  enabling  us  to  study  it  under 
different  climes  and  different  forms  and  degrees  of  civiliza- 
tion, that  they  can  not  properly  be  passed  over  even  in  ihf 
briefest  compendium  oi  literary  history.  But  so  vast  ha> 
been  their  number  that  only  those  can  tie  noticed  here  whic  h 
have  some  peculiar  literary  excellence,  or  which  mark  a 
period,  or  which  have  exercised  some  notable  influence  u(h>u 
opinion. 

Ledyard. — John  Ledyard  (1751-88)  belongs  in  time  to  thi* 
eighteenth  century,  but  he  is  noticeable  as  being  the  first 
of  that  series  of  travelers  who  set  out  with  a  purpose  «»f 
establishing,  verifying,  or  illustrating  some  Cf^micaf  fact — 
who  are  discoverers,  not  of  new  countries,  but  of  the  j^t:«w 
graphical  relations  and  topographical  condition  of  count  ru-s 
already  known.  Ledyard  was  the  first  of  those  travelers 
who  have  set  out  with  the  purpose  of  examining  the  Pedlar 
regions,  and  ended  his  life  m  Africa  after  making  an  unasiu-- 
cessful  attempt  to  discover  the  source  of  the  Niger.  Amonc: 
the  many  British  travelers  who  have  described,  or  profes«^ 
to  describe,  the  condition  and  the  character  of  the  people  of 
the  U.  S.,  Frances  Trollope  (1780-1863)  did  more  than  any 
other  to  form  the  opinion  upon  that  subject  which  long:  |>n'- 


142 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


ITaW.— Robert  Hall  (1764-1831),  a  Baptist  minister  who 
for  eloquence  has  been  compared  to  Burke,  and  for  fanciful 
richness  of  illustration  to  Jeremy  Taylor,  is  distinguished 
not  only  hj  his  sermons,  but  by  his  Christianity  Consistent 
with  the  Love  of  Freedom^  his  Apology  for  the  Freedom  of 
the  Press,  and  his  Modem  Infidelity,  John  Foster  (177(>- 
1843),  also  a  Baptist  minister,  was  not  remarkable  for  pulpit 
eloquence,  but  nis  essays,  particularly  those  on  Decision  of 
Character  and  the  Evils  of  Popular  Igfwrance,  are  among 
the  most  thoughtful  and  weighty  productions  of  their  class 
in  English  literature.  Thomas  Chalmers  (1780-1847)  prob- 
ably has  been  unapprotiched  in  eloquence  and  the  vigor  of 
his  personality  by  any  clergyman  of  the  century.  He  was 
the  most  fervid  and  earnest  of  pulpit  orators.  His  Insti- 
tutes of  Theology^  Commercial  Discourses,  Evidences  of 
Christianity,  tkxii  Astronomicai  Discourses  are  his  principal 
works,  Isaac  Taylor  (1787-1865),  a  religious  essayist  of  dis- 
tinguished learning  and  ability,  has  discussed  in  Ancient 
Christianity  the  doctrine  and  the  discipline  of  the  early 
Christians,  directing  himself  to  the  teaching  of  Tracts  for 
the  Times,  a  very  remarkable  and  influential  series  of  re- 
ligious publications  with  a  strong  leaning  toward  Roman- 
ism, of  which  the  principal  writers  were  Edward  Bouverie 
Pusev  (1800-82),  John  Henrv  Newman  (1801-IK)),  John  Keble 
(179^1866),  and  Richard  Hurrell  Proude  (1803-36),  all  cler- 
gymen of  the  Church  of  England  and  of  the  extreme  lligh 
Cnurch  school,  and  all  writers  of  independent  theological 
works  which  have  had  a  strong  effect  u[)on  the  tone  of  re- 
ligious thought  amon^  the  members  of  that  Church. 

Robertson, — Fredenck  W.  Robertson  (1816-53),  a  preacher 
whose  sermons  produced  more  effect  upon  the  lives  of  men 
than  those  of  any  other  modem  minister  of  which  there  is 
record,  stood  at  the  ecclesiastical  antipodes  of  the  Trac- 
tarian  men.  His  style  was  fervent,  strong,  and  direct,  his 
thought  independent ;  he  labored  for  the  bettering  of  the 
working  classes,  and  he  was  suspected  of  rationalism  in  re- 
ligion and  socialism  in  politics. 

Bishop  Colenso. — Doubts  which  must  have  occurred  to 
many  thoughtful  readers  as  to  the  literal  truth  of  many 
passages  in  the  historical  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  par- 
ticularly in  the  earlier  books,  found  strange  and  unreserved 
expression  in  a  series  of  volumes  by  an  eminent  mathema- 
tician and  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England,  John 
William  Colenso*  (1814-83),  Bishop  of  Natal,  the  first  of 
which  was  The  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Joshua  Crit- 
ically Examined.  Bishop  Colenso  had  previously  written 
several  mathematical  works,  and  he  brought  to  his  task 
habits  of  close  reasoning  and  a  calculating  spirit,  which  led 
him  to  test  these  books  by  a  standard  to  which  Oriental 
writers,  profane  or  sacred,  never  thought  of  conforming. 
Coming  from  such  a  quarter,  his  bookS,  which  he  did  not 
regard  as  at  all  impairing  the  divine  origin  of  the  Christian 
religion,  produced  a  profound  impression  and  very  serious 
disturbance  in  the  English  Church,  by  the  Convocation  of 
which  they  were  condemned. 

Theodore  ParAr«r.— Theodore  Parker  (1810-60),  at  first  a 
Unitarian  minister,  was  a  doubter  of  a  very  different  char- 
acter to  Colenso.  His  faith  was  in  God  and  in  man,  but  not 
at  all  in  revealed  religion.  A  man  of  wide  an.l  varied  learn- 
ing, of  independent  spirit,  of  a  tender  and  loving  nature, 
the  champion  of  the  oppressed,  the  benefactor  of  the  poor, 
his  preacfiing  the  earnest  utterance  of  his  own  strong  per- 
sonal convictions,  he  did  much  to  unsettle  the  l)elief  and  to 
confirm  the  disbelief  of  a  ver^  lar^  number  of  the  most  in- 
telligent and  purest  minds  In  New  England.  Among  his 
published  works  are  Sermons  on  Theism,  Atheism^  and  Pop- 
ular Theology^  and  Lessons  from  the  World  of  Matter  and 
the  World  of  Mind.  Octavius  Brooks  Frothingham  (b.  1822), 
the  ablest  of  liis  disciples,  has  published  little  except  from 
the  pulpit;  but  his  ability, his  earnestness,  and  the  polish  of 
his  style,  in  which  he  is  superior  to  his  master,  make  him  a 
leader  of  rationalistic  religion  in  the  U.  S.  Henry  Ward 
Bcecher  (1813-87),  the  ablest  member  of  an  intellectually 
gifted  family,  and  a  Congregational  minister  of  the  broa<les't 
and  most  liberal  theological  views,  was  regarded  as  the  great- 
est pulpit  orator  in  America — an  eminence  which  the  style 
of  his  publishe<i  sermons  hardly  warrants.  Andrew  Martin 
Fairbaim  (b.  18^38),  eminent  among  the  Congregational  min- 
isters of  Great  Britain,  has  puhlisliod  a  number  of  scholarly 
works  dealing  with  religious  questions. 

Political  atid  social  science^  properly  speaking,  is  the 
product  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Among  the  English  works 
in  this  field  the  most  imjiortant  are  those  of  Jeremy  Bentham 
(1748-1832),  to  whom,  next  to  Adam  Smith,  belongs  the 


honor  of  originating  the  science  of  political  economy.  The 
mere  titles  of  the  various  works  produced  by  hini  in  his 
laborious  and  self-sacrificing  life  would  fill  half  this  |ia<:t'. 
The  spirit  of  all  of  them  is  concentrated  in  his  famoiLs  solv- 
ing, "The  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number" — go(fd 
here  meaning  material  comfort  and  the  happiness  consequent 
thereupon.  David  Ricardo  (1772-1823)  published  works  of 
authority  on  the  principles  of  political  econoin)',  giving  his 
attention  chiefly  to  the  subjects  of  labor  and  currency. 

Malthus.— 'Thomas  Robert  Malthus  a  766-1834),  also  a 
political  economist,  in  his  Essay  on  the  Principles  of  Poptt- 
lafton  as  it  Affects  the  Future  Welfare  of  Society,  showt-il 
that  population  always  rises  to  the  level  of  possible  suhsi>t- 
ence.  This  work,  says  Brougham,  "divides  (with  Ricanln) 
claims  to  a  second  place  after  the  Wealth  of  Nations.^"  Thf 
greatest  of  Bentham's  disciples,  John  Stuart  Mill,  by  his 
Essays  on  Ufutettled  Questions  in  Politie<il  Economy,  his 
Principles  of  Politiccu  Economy,  his  essay  on  Liberty,  his 
Contncterations  of  Representative  Oovemment,  and  his  *S'ii//- 
jection  of  Women,  has  wrought  into  a  systematic  working 
form  the  principles  of  the  Benthamite  school,  of  which  he 
was,  and  will  probably  long  be,  regarded  as  the  chief  apfw- 
tle.  His  works  are  masterpieces  of  far-reaching  thought 
and  subtle  reasoning.  Of  less  note,  but  of  high  and  wdl- 
deserved  reputation^  are  the  works  of  Henry  Fawcett  (IK^i- 
84).  Francis  Lieber  (1800-72),  bom  and  educated  in  Ger- 
many, but  for  the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life  a  citizen 
of  tfie  U.  S.,  was  the  author  of  several  profound  work?*  in 
this  department  of  literature,  of  which  the  most  celebratf^l 
are  his  Manual  of  Political  Ethics,  Legal  and  Politiail 
Ilermeneutics,  Essays  on  Property  cmd  Labor,  and  Civil 
Liberty  and  Self-Government. 

Carey. — Among  champions  of  the  "  protective  "  syst<»m  as 
opposed  to  free  trade  and  unrestrained  commercial  inter- 
course, particularly  in  articles  which  are  or  may  be  of  do- 
mestic manufacture,  was  Henry  C.  Carey  (1783-1879),  w1h»m* 
Principles  of  Political  Economy  and  various  other  wiirk^ 
embodv  in  stringent  phraseology  all  that  can  be  said  on 
this  side  of  the  question.  Most  of  Mr.  Carey's  works  have 
been  translated  into  nearly  all  the  languages  of  Eurf>j>e. 
Herbert  Spencer  is  the  most  eminent  of  recent  writers  in 
this  deuartment.  His  works  cover  the  ground  of  psyche  jlogy, 
biology^  what  he  calls  "sociology" — i.  e.  the  philosophy  of 
society — and  morality,  which  it  woidd  be  difficult  to  separate 
from  the  latter.  In  a  word,  he  has  attempted  to  work  out  a 
complete  system  of  practical  philosophy.  His  views  on  edu- 
cation are  original  and  far-reaching.  Indeed,  he  is  one  of 
the  clearest  and  coolest  thinkers  of  the  age. 

Of  British  writers  upon  education,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant subdivisions  of  this  department  of  lit'Crature,  an<i 
one  which  has  received  attention  commensurate  with  its 
importance,  the  Rev.  Henry  Parr  Hamilton  (1794-1880).  the 
variously  learned  Francis  William  Newman  (b.  1805).  and 
the  distinguished  physiologist  Huxley  (noticed  again  below ), 
must  be  mentioned.  In  the  U.  S.  two  distinguished  writers 
on  education  are  Henry  Barnard  (b.  1811)  and  Fretleriok 
Augustus  Porter  Barnard  (1809-89).  The  latter's  I^ttrr^ 
on  College  Oovemment  is  regarded  as  "the  ablest  treatise  (»n 
the  higher  education  yet  published  in  the  U.  S."  He  wh.> 
also  the  historian  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey  and  the  author 
of  an  Annlytical  Grammar.  Besides  these,  Horace  Mmin 
(1796-1859),  Francis  Wavland  (1796-1865),  Alexander  Dalla.- 
Bache  (1806-67),  and  William  Torrey  Harris  (b.  1835)  have- 
written  upon  this  subject  with  marked  and  widely  re<-os- 
nized  ability. 

Jurisprudence  is  hardly  a  part  of  literature  in  the  c*««ni- 
mon  acceptation  of  that  term,  but  the  Commentaries  of  Sir 
William  Blackstone  (1723-80)  upon  the  laws  of  Entrlaiid 
added  a  charm  to  their  dry  and  technical  subject,  and  jh  r- 
haps  even  deserved  the  conventional  term  "elegant"  whi<  h 
was  applied  to  them.  They  have  certainly  much  of  the  in- 
terest of  history.  Appearing  soon  after  the  middle  of  xh*- 
eighteenth  century,  tney  occupied  this  field  with  such  h 
weight  of  authority  that  there  seemed  nothing  to  be  done 
but  to  accept  them  and  to  comment  upon  them.  In  ihi> 
department  mention  must  be  made  of  Tlie  Cmistitution  n  f 
England  of  John  Louis  Delolme  (about  1740-1806) ;  7V»r 
Fedf^ralist,  a  collection  of  papers  by  Alexander  IIaniilti>n. 
James  Madison,  and  John  Jay,  which  had  a  very  imjH^r- 
tant  influence  in  bringing  about  the  adoption  of  the  Fe<J- 
eral  Constitution  of  the  V.  S. ;  the  Plan  of  the  Penal  Caffe  o  t' 
Louisiana  of  Edward  Livingstone  (1764-1836),  and  his  «S »/,'•* 
tern  of  Penal  Law  for  that  State ;  John  Marshall  (1 755-1  s;io», 
whose  judicial  de<'isions,  according  to  an  eminent   British 


144 


ENGLISH  PALE 


ENGRAVING 


brought  to  his  adopted  country  a  profound  acquaintance 
with  physical  geography,  previously  set  forth  to  the  scien- 
tific worhi  in  works  of  recognized  value,  and  now  diffused 
among  younger  students  by  his  books  of  elementary  in- 
struction. 

Audubon. — Among  naturalists,  John  James  Audubon 
(1780-1851)  must  not  be  forgotttn,  because  of  his  close  ob- 
servation of  the  habits  of  birds  and  his  life-size  paintings  of 
the  birds  of  America.  Henry  Maudsley's  writings  upon 
what  may  be  called  mental  physiology  are  of  the  pro- 
foundest  scientific  and  psychological  interest,  and  have  a 
sinjB^Iar  literary  charm.  His  Body  and  Mind  and  Psycho- 
logical  Essays — in  the  latter  of  which  is  a  subtle  apprecia- 
tion of  the  character  of  Hamlet — ^and  his  Physiology  and 
Pathology  of  Mind,  are  his  principal  works.  The  latter  of 
these  works,  rich  with  the  lore  of  various  ages  and  climes, 
and  seeking  to  penetrate  to  the  very  seat  and  reveal  the  very 
mode  of  thought,  was  published  in  1873.  To  such  a  point 
has  the  English  language  and  literature  advanced. 

The  following  standard  works  may  be  consulted  for 
further  information :  Gustav  KSrting,  Oru?hdriss  der  Ge- 
schichte  der  Englischen  Litteratur  (Milnster,  1887) ;  Henry 
Morley,  Enalish  Writers  (9  vols.,  London,  1887-82) ;  Hip- 
polyte  Adolphe  Taine,  History  of  English  Literature^ 
translated  by  H.  Van  Laun  ^  vols.,  New  York,  1871); 
George  L.  Craik,  Compendious  Ilistory  of  English  Litera- 
ture (2  vols..  New  YoA,  1863) ;  Thomas  Warton,  History  of 
English  Poetry  (3d  ed.  by  W.  ( .arew  Hazlitt,  London,  1871) ; 
John  Earle,  Anglo-Saxon  Literature  (London,  1884) ; 
Thomas  Wright,  Biographia  Britannica  Literaria  (vol.  i., 
Anglo-Saxon  Period ;  vol.  ii.,  Anglo-Norman  Period,  Lon- 
don, 1842-49) ;  Bernhard  ten  Brink,  Early  English  Litera- 
ture^ translated  by  H.  M.  Kennedy  (^ew  York,  18T3) ; 
Bleibtren,  Geschichte  der  Englischen  Litteratur  im  Zeit- 
alter  der  Renaissance  und  der  Klassizitdt  and  Geschichte 
der  Englischen  Litteratur  im  19  Jahrhundert  (Leipzig, 
1887) ;  (ieorge  Saintsbury,  History  of  Elizabethan  Litera- 
ture (London.  1887) ;  Edmund  Gosse,  History  of  Eighteenth 
Century  Literature  {hondoiiy  1889) ;  Adolphus  William  Ward, 
History  of  English  DrcNnatic  Literature  (2  vols.,  London, 
1875) ;  Edmund  C.  Stedman,  Victorian  Poets  (Boston,  1886) ; 
M.  C.  Tyler,  History  of  American  Literature^  1607-1765  (2 
vols..  New  York,  1878) ;  C.  F.  Richardson,  American  Litera- 
ture (2  vols..  New  York,  1887).       Richard  Grant  White. 

Revised,  by  Henry  A.  Beers. 

EngHsh  Pale,  called  also  the  Irish  Pale,  or  simply  The 
Pale:  in  history,  that  part  of  Ireland  which  was  under 
English  law  previous  to  the  final  and  complete  subjugation 
of  Ireland.  In  a  general  way  the  English  Pale  mav  be  de- 
fined as  correspondingwith  the  present  province  of  Leinster, 
besides  Cork,  Kerry,  Waterford,  Tipperary,  and  Limerick. 
But,  in  point  of  fact,  the  actual  Pale,  though  of  extremely 
variable  limits,  scarcely  ever  reached  the  dimensions  indi- 
cated above.  The  counties  of  Dublin,  Meath,  Carlow,  Kil- 
kenny, and  Louth  were  almost  always  within  the  Pale ; 
Wexford  and  Waterford,  though  hardly  within  the  Pale, 
were  firmly  English ;  while  Wicklow  and  Kildare,  though 
nominally  within  the  Pale,  were  Celtic,  and  to  a  consider- 
able extent  independent.  In  strict  language  the  Pale  de- 
notes the  "  boundary-line,"  but  it  is  commonly  used  for  the 
region  itself. 

English  River:  an  estuary  of  Southeastern  Africa, 
communicating  with  Delagoa  Bay  about  lat.  25'  58'  S.  and 
Ion.  32^  36'  E.  It  receives  several  broad  but  unimportant 
streams  (Tembia,  Mattol,  and  Dundas  rivers),  and  is  sur- 
rounded with  mangrove  fiaU. 

English  River:  a  river  of  Iowa;  formed  by  the  union 
of  two  forks,  the  North  and  the  South;  fiows  eastward, 
entering  the  Iowa  river  15  miles  S.  of  Iowa  Citv. — Another 
English  river  enters  the  Red  Cedar  river  in  Slack  Hawk 
CO.,  la. 

English  Seventh-day  Baptists:  See  Seventh-day  Bap- 
tists. 

Engrafting:  See  Grafting. 

Engrailed  [partic.  of  vb.  engrail  <C  Mid.  Eng.  engrele  < 
0.  Fr.  engre.tler  or  Mo<l.  Fr.  ettgrtler,  probably  meaning 
hailed  upon,  indented  with  hail ;  en  <  Lat.  in  -i-  gr^le^ 
gresle,  hail,  loan-wonl  from  Teutonic ;  cf.  O.  H.  G.  gn'oz, 
coarse  sand]:  in  heraldry.  e<l«red  with  small  semicircles  or 
crescents,  the  points  of  which  are  turned  outward.  The 
s(»micirrular  marks  or  dots  around  the  edge  of  a  coin  are 
called  engrailments. 


Engra'tia,  also  called  Encratis:  a  saint  who  lived  at 
Saragossa,  S^min,  in  304.  She  was  persecuted  as  a  Christ  jan 
under  the  Emperors  Diocletian  and  Maximianus  IlerculcN; 
and,  according  to  the  poet  Prudentius,  she  undenn-cnt  thJ 
most  fearful  tortures,  but,  notwithstanding  the  dn^adful 
mutilations  which  she  received,  she  survivetl  to  a  great  a;:'*, 
and  died  in  the  odor  of  sanctitv.  Her  relics  are  pre^'n*-.] 
at  Saragossa.  Her  festival,  as  observed  by  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  occurs  on  Apr.  16. 

Engraving  [prefix  en  +  vb.  grave  <  0.  Eng.  grafnn  : 
Germ,  graben,  dig,  carve.     Not  connected  with  ur.  ypk/^w, 
write,  which  corresponds  probablv  to  Eng.  cart^]:  thepMr- 
ess  of  cutting  grooves  or  small  hollows  in  a  hard  surface, 
more  especially  letters,  characters,  or  works  of  art ;  by  ex- 
tension, carving  a  surface  with  characters  in  relief,  "as  i« 
WooD-ENOEAViNO  (q.  V.).    Engraving  differs  from  chasing:  in 
the  fact  that  the  substance  is  cut  away,  while  in  chasiiiir  it 
is  merely  dej)ressed  or  beaten  down.    Engraving  on  a  lariri- 
scale  is  seen  in  all  incised  lettering  and  cutting  of  emblem^ 
characters,  and  the  like,  as  on  marble  or  stone ;  this  was  an 
art  very  much  studied  and  followed  among  the  aneifiit 
Greeks  and  Romans.    (See  Inscbiptions.)    Among  the  enor- 
mous number  of  inscriptions  cut  in  marble  which  are  left  us> 
from  classical  antiquity  there  are  very  few  in  which  the 
letters  are  in  relief;  they  are  engraved,  even  when  a  lni<- 
i*elief  of  figures  is  sculptured  on  the  same  piece  of  sti.ne. 
Other  engraving  in  large  compositions,  though  the  inci^*.! 
lines  are  narrow  and  not  deep,  is  that  to  be  seen  in  th^ 
numerous  monumental  brasses  of  the  Middle    Ages.    A 
peculiar  kind  of  relief  sculpture,  much  used  in  Egyptian 
art  for  carving  inscriptions  and  figure-subjects  on  verj*  hani 
stones,   and  used  also  in  the  arts  of  China  and  Ja|)an.  i> 
known  as  eat'o-riliei^o  and  by  other  names  (see   Rklikfi. 
and  may  be  considered  a  kind  of  engraving.    Engravins:  mi 
brass  or  bronze  plates  is  used  in  modem  times  chiefly  iti 
memorials  to  the  dead,  and  in  simple  lettering  instftiil  of 
the  elaborate  figure-subjects  of  the  Middle  Ages.     !n<i><hi 
letters  on  marble,  granite,  or  stone  are  common  in  t<>ii»l>- 
stones  and  sepulchral  monuments,  but  rare  in  other  plar^s 
in  modern  practice.    On  the  other  hand,  the  modems  carrv 
further  than  the  ancients  seem  to  have  done  the  art  of  en- 
graving on  metal  in  small  ornamental  designs  for  the  pur- 
pose of  decorating  vessels  for  table  use  ana  for  general  dis- 
play, such  as  gift-vases,  race-cups,  etc.     Thus  there  ar.- 
many   showy  pieces  of  silverware  of  the  eighteenth  «ii«l 
nineteenth  centuries  in  which  engraved  festtwns,  w^eath•^, 
scrolls,  and  the  like  form  the  chief  part  of  the  ornamen- 
tation.   Sometimes  parts  of  the  same  vessel  are  cha>ed  in 
more  or  less  high  relief,  and  other  parts  are  smooth  and  (or- 
namented with  engraving,  the  contrast  between  the   t\»o 
kinds  of  ornament  being  dwelt  upon.    The  Orientals  have 
sometimes  used  such  engraving  on  metal  with  extraoniinun 
skill  and  good  taste,  far  suri)assing  the  work  of  Ennii>«'  ii. 
the  effect    produced  by  simple  means;  thus  in  Jajian.^.' 
metal-work  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  small 
objects  of  silver  and  bronze,  and  even  pieces  as  largt»  ^ 
sword -sheaths,   are  adorned  with  engraved  bouquets  avA 
sprays  of  flowers,  suggestions  of  landscape,  and  the  like.  u\ 
which  the  varying  width  and  depth  of  the  incision  are  ma«lr 
to  produce  the  most  vigorous  decorative  effect.    Other  en- 
graving on  a  small  scale  and  on  metal  is  seen  in  the  tiifHt 
of  the  later  Roman  times,  the  Middle  Ages,  and  of  the 
Renaissance;  it  is  common  also  in  Russian  art  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.    (See  Niello.)    In  these,  as  in  the  lar^n* 
monumental  brasses  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  incised  lino  is 
filled  up  with  a  black  compound,  whereas  in  other  orna- 
mental engraving  the  play    of    light    and  shade   in   th** 
V-shaped  groove  is  enjoyed  and  counted  on.    In  enannl- 
work  also  much  use  is  made  of  engraving,  champlerf  en- 
amels being  prepared  by  engraving  out  the    figure   upnn 
the  background.     (See  Enamel.)     Die-sinking  is   onirno- 
ing  upon  fine  steel   which    has  previously  been  s<iftrn»-»l. 
(See  Die.)    Dies  so  prepared  are  used  in  coinage  of  nn)nev. 
in  striking  medals,  etc.;  but  dies  are  also  cut  for  stamp: nir 
seals  in  wax  or  upon  paper,  for  raising  ornamental  letteiv  *  w 
fancy  stationery,  etc.    That  important  branch  of  engraviTii: 
which  consists  in  preparing  plates  from  which  impres>inn-i 
may  1^  taken  upon  paper  is  treated  of  lielow. 

In  all  these  cases  the  tools  used  by  the  engraver  are  si»nn^ 
what  similar  in  character.  They  are  straight,  sharp,  *'<li:^tl 
or  pointed  tools,  impelled  by  hard  pressure  or  by  li^lit  tjip^ 
of  a  mallet,  and  are  used  as  chisels,  stone  being  cut  away  h> 
them  in  small  fragments,  and  metal  in  curled-up  shavi'n::^ 


146 


ENGRAVING 


a  pencil  or  pen  when  used  in  making  a  drawing.  A  burr  is 
raised  by  the  strokes  of  the  needle,  but  this  is  small  and  fine, 
and  when  partly  left  on  the  plate  it  takes  the  ink  readily,  and 
yields  a  rich  velvety  bloom  which  is  much  admired  in  those 
prints  which  are  called  especially  •*  dry-points."  But  apart 
from  the  plates  which  yield  such  prints  as  these,  dry-point 
work  is  used  continually  in  touching  up  and  finishing  all 
kinds  of  line  engravings  and  etchings,  and  in  these  cases  the 
burr  is  removed  exactly  as  in  line  engraving. 

Mezzotint^  called  by  the  French  la  mani^e  noire  (the 
black  style),  is  produced  by  first  scratching  and  notching 
the  plate  all  over  so  that  an  ink-print  from  it  would  be  one 
solid  black,  and  then  scraping  and  polishing  parts  of  the 
plate  so  that  it  will  no  longer  nold  the  ink,  or  at  least  not  so 
much  of  it.  This  process  is  in  one  sense  the  reverse  of 
burin-engraving  and  dry  point,  because  in  those  the  artist 
produces  the  dark  upon  the  light,  while  in  mezzotint  the 
light  is  produced  upon  the  dark.  The  plate  may  be  rough- 
ened in  any  way  that  will  produce  a  uniform  surface,  but 
the  usual  way  is  to  employ  what  is  called  a  "  rocker  *'  or 
"  cradle,"  or  m  French  oerceau,  a  large  blade  like  a  chop- 
ping-knife,  the  edge  of  which  is  a  regular  curve,  and  is  sharp- 
ened like  a  very  fine  saw,  except  that  the  teeth  have  sharp 
points.  Philip  Gilbert  Hamerton,  an  excellent  authority, 
nas  counted  the  teeth  in  his  berceau.  He  repoils  110  of 
them  in  a  width  of  2A  inches,  and  he  calculates  that  there 
will  be  2,640,000  little  points  or  dots  produced  by  it  in  a 
plate  5  inches  by  6,  because  the  berceau  must  be  rocked 
across  the  plate  in  different  directions  about  eighty  times 
to  produce  a  well-prepared  mezzotint  plate.  Upon  this 
elaborately  produced  roughness  the  artist  works  with  scrap- 
ers and  burnishers.  Where  the  copper  is  brought  to  per- 
fect smoothness  again  the  ink  will  be  removed  when  the 
plate  is  wiped,  and  the  paper  will  come  white  in  the  print ; 
and  between  this  and  tne  complete  solid  blackness  of  the 
mezzotinting  all  gradations  are  easily  obtainable.  The  fault 
of  mezzotinting,  in  copper  at  least,  is  that  it  allows  of  so  few 
good  impressions.  Twenty  or  thirty  prints  are  all  that  can 
be  taken  perfectly ;  after  that  the  plate  must  be  retouched 
and  reworked,  or  the  prints  are  more  and  more  feeble. 

As  for  the  criblS,  or  dotted  manner,  it  is  not  known  how 
the  curious  and  rare  early  prints  known  by  this  name  were 
produced ;  it  is  probable  tbat  they  are  from  relief-engravings, 
not  unlike  woou-engravings  in  character. 

Etching  is  much  the  most  important  process  of  engraving 
by  means  of  acid.  It  is  done  by  exposing  the  plate  to  the 
acid  at  all  the  lines  and  points  which  are  to  be  engraved, 
and  protecting  it  everywhere  else ;  and  by  exposing  some 
such  lines  or  points  for  a  longer  time  than  others,  if  they 
are  to  be  engraved  deeper.  The  lines  and  points  so  engraved 
by  the  acid  are  said  to  be  bitten,  and  the  corroding  itself  is 
called  the  biting-in.  The  substance  which  protects  the  plate 
from  the  acid  is  called  the  ground,  or  the  etching-ground ; 
it  is  generally  composed  of  a  mixture  of  wax,  some  vegetable 
resin,  such  as  mastic  or  white  pitch,  and  asphaltum.  This  is 
spread  all  over  the  plate  while  hot,  and  then  allowed  to  cool. 
This  ground  is  blackened  by  smoking  it  over  the  flame  of 
wax  candles,  and  the  black  surface  is  made  to  look  very 
smooth  and  uniform.  Upon  this  smooth  and  slightly  glossy 
black  surface  the  artist  draws  with  his  etching-needle,  which 
easily  cuts  its  way  through  the  ground  so  as  just  to  lay  bare 
the  copper  below,  or  even  to  scratch  it  slightly.  Some 
etchers  prefer  a  sharp  point  which  scratches  the  plate  decid- 
edly, others  a  rounded  point  which  glides  over  it.  It  is  then 
ready  for  the  acid  bath.  This  is  often  nitric  acid  and  water, 
though  many  different  mordants  are  in  use.  It  is  quite  pos- 
sible to  bite  the  whole  plate  at  one  time  and  to  leave  it  so, 
but  it  is  usual  to  expose  some  of  the  lines  to  the  acid  for  a 
longer  time  than  others,  and  even  to  use  mordants  of  differ- 
ent powers.  It  is  customary  also  to  clean  the  plate  and 
print  from  it  on  paper  one  or  two  proofs  to  enable  the 
artist  to  judge  of  his  work.  The  plate  can  then  be  re- 
grounded  by  a  simple  apparatus  which  leaves  unfilled  the 
lines  already  cut  in  the  copper,  and  these  lines  themselves 
can  be  protected  from  the  acid  at  pleasure  by  stoppiyig-out 
with  a  varnish  of  some  sort  which  can  be  put  on  with  a 
brush.  An  etched  plate  is,  then,  an  engraving  of  which  the 
sunken  or  engraved  lines  have  been  eaten  out  by  acid,  the 
metal  having  wholly  disappeared  from  those  sunken  places, 
leaving  the  plate  around  them  clean  and  smooth.  Stipple- 
engraving,  as  in  Bartolozzi's  work,  is  partly  done  by  acid, 
which  bites  deeper  the  points  made  by  the  graver;  it  is 
then  a  variety  of  etching. 

Aquatint  is  the  only  other  important  kind  of  engraving 


with  acid,  and  it  is  of  much  less  importance  than  etching 
because  it  has  never  been  much  in  favor  among  artists.  In 
itself  it  is  a  beautiful  art,  and  the  results  are  often  delicat^f 
and  forcible ;  but  only  a  few  workmen  have  found  it  to 
their  taste,  and  it  is  used  chiefly  as  a  help  in  engravings  of 
other  kinds.  The  plate  is  covered  with  a  ground  which  is 
much  less  solid  and  uniform  than  the  etching-ground ;  ur^xx- 
ally  some  kind  of  resin  is  employed,  either  in  powder  or 
dissolved  in  alcohol,  which  solution,  as  it  dries,  leaves  the 
resin  in  a  surface  much  broken  up  by  the  shrinking  of  \is 
parts.  If  the  plate  with  this  ground  upon  it  be  coverni 
with  acid,  a  somewhat  uniform  granulation  is  produced. 
By  using  different  grounds  in  succession,  applying  the  aci<l 
in  each  case  to  certain  parts  and  not  to  others,  different 
degrees  of  granulation  are  obtained ;  smaller  parts  of  the 
plate  are  treated  with  varnish  and  a  brush,  and,  aft«r  the 
acid  has  done  all  it  can,  the  scraper  and  burnisher  may  be 
employed  as  in  mezzotint. 

Soft-ground  etching  is  still  another  manner  of  engraving 
by  means  of  a  mordant.  This  also  is  not  very  frequently 
used  by  artists.  It  produces  a  print  which  strongly  re:»c'm- 
bles  a  drawing  in  lead-pencil.  The  etching-ground  u>ed 
is  made  very  soft;  a  sheet  of  paper  is  stretchea  tieht  up)n 
it,  and  upon  this  paper  the  drawing  is  made.  When  this 
paper  is  removed,  the  ground  comes  away  with  it  along  all 
the  lines  of  the  drawing,  and  then  the  mordant  is  used  as  Id 
ordinary  etching. 

These  different  processes  are  often  combined  one  with 
another ;  thus  there  is  very  often  pure  etching  to  be  seen  in 
what  is  mainly  a  line-engraving ;  stipple  and  line  eii grav- 
ing pass  insensibly  one  into  the  other ;  dry  point  is  UM'd  to 
touch  and  finish  an  etching,  and  a  fine  burin  is  used  alv> 
by  many  etchers.  But  in  addition  to  this  there  are  some 
more  deliberate  and  more  notable  combinations,  as  when  a 
plate  is  etched  with  a  design  in  what  may  be  called  outline, 
that  is,  the  main  lines  only  of  the  composition  being  givi^n, 
and  is  then  covered  with  mezzotinting  or  with  aquatint  in^. 
in  which  second  engraving  the  design  is  completed  in  li^^ht 
and  shade  and  by  the  addition  of  many  details.  When  a 
print  is  taken  from  such  a  finished  plate,  the  soft  gradati('n> 
and  tints  given  by  the  mezzotint  or  aquatint  are  re>enforcMl 
and  made  more  vigorous  and  telling  by  the  strong  line->  of 
the  etching.  This  has  been  rarely  done  except  by  Earlom 
in  the  Liber  Veritatis  and  in  the  iniportant  instance  of  Turn- 
er's Liber  Studiorum, 

Prints  from  plates  prepared  in  any  of  these  different  wh\  > 
require  a  certain  care  and  skill  if  they  are  to  be  as  good  a> 
possible.    Although  the  ink  is  held  readily  by  every  lar^'*- 
or  small  groove,  scratch,  or  dot  in  the  plate,  and  then  f»»rnf> 
out  of  it  as  readily  when  dampened  paper  is  pressed  a^ain^t 
it,  yet  to  keep  the  plate  in  perfect  onier,  to  apply  so  uni- 
form a  pressure  that  all  the  ink  shall  leave  the  plate  at 
each  separate  impression,  and  also  without  wearing  out  th<* 
plate  unduly— ^1  requires  training  and  some  artistic  skil.. 
even   in  the  simplest  kind  of  printing.    But   printing   i^ 
sometimes  done  m  a  much  more  elaborate  way,  the  jtlat** 
being  left  with  its  polished  surface  partly  smeared  with  ti:e 
ink  instead  of  being  wiped  absolutely  clean.    WTien  thi>  i^ 
done,  every  separate  print  becomes  a  separate  work  of  art, 
in  a  sense,  for  the  printer  has  deliberately,  and  with  caku- 
latcd  touches  of  a  cloth,  spread  some  of  the  ink  which   ba.i 
been  in  the  engraved  lines  over  the  smooth  metal  betwtMii 
the  lines.     No  two  impressions  in  such  a  case  are  reaJJy  x\* 
same.    No  two  prints  of  an  edition  printed  in  that  way  nr*. 
facsimiles  of  one  another.    But  as  tnis  process  is  very  '^l*  'vv , 
and  as  there  are  but  few  printers  living  at  any  one  tiine  ^  h  • 
can  do  such  work  well,  nearly  all  printing  is  done  simply,  t  L^- 
plate  inked  with  a  roller  (formerly  with  dabbers),  anil'  tlun 
cleaned  off  bright  between  the  engraved  lines.    Etch  in  gv;  j^r. 
printed  in  the  artificial  way  more  often  than  other  klnils>  .-: 
engravings;  burin-engravings  very  rarely.    Different  kin  i- 
of  paper  are  used  for  prints.    It  is  thought  that   cert^tn. 
Japanese  papers  take  tne  ink  with  more  uniformity,   aT^t 
show  a  clearer  and  more  beautiful  impression  thaTii    u!:\ 
other  sorts.    What  is  called  India  paper  comes  next.      Tt.> 
is  generally  stuck  down  fast  to  a  sheet  of  heavy  plate- pa] •*-* . 
the  thin  India  paper  being  cut  only  a  little  larger  tliun   t  h- 
plate,  and  a  broad  margin  of  the  heavier  paper  bein^^  h    : 
on  all  sides.    These  "  proofs  on  India  paper  "  have  l>e^»n   r 
use  for  many  years  for  prints  from  line-engravings^»  m^i'.  •  - 
tints,  and  all  the  kinds  most  used  in  the  art  tru^le,    l   .: 
Japan  paper  is  more  generally  used  for  etchings  t^tid   ur\ 
points. 

Engraved  plates  wear  down  in  printing  in  such   a  'vr^'. 


148 


ENGRAVING 


Barthel  Beham  was  not  a  time  of  great  achievement  in  en- 
gjavin^.  The  prospect  of  its  becoming  a  great  imlependent 
art,  bringing  home  artistic  thought  to  people  of  small  means 
as  freely  as  printing  was  bringing  to  tnem  literary  thought, 
was  growing  dim  ;  it  was  one  more  disappointment  of  the 
bright  hopes  raised  by  the  Renaissance.  Theological  con- 
troversy, often  taking  the  shape  of  bloody  persecution  and 
often  of  set  and  recognized  war,  was  what  men  were  think- 
ing of,  and  the  great  living  art  of  the  time  was  protected  by 
the  Venetian  lagoons.  Italians  like  Giorgio  Gnisi  (d.  1582) 
were  doing  elegant  work,  more  elaborate  than  Marcantonio. 
Stronger  men,  like  Agostino  C'arracci  (d.  1602),  carried  on 
the  elaboration  of  work  without  losing  themselves  in  pretti- 
ness,  and  their  especial  success  was  in  portraits  of  their  con- 
temporaries. Flemings,  of  whom  Henry  Goltzius  (d.  1617) 
was  the  chief,  were  eclectic  in  their  tastes,  now  Italian  in 
manner,  now  copying  Dllrer's  ways  closely — at  their  best  in 
original  portraiture,  as  in  Goltzius's  famous  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  Portrait-engraving  was  indeed  the  one  distinct  and 
original  success  for  the  art,  and  at  intervals  ever  since  this 
has  lieen  evident,  so  that  no  one  branch  is,  on  the  whole,  so 
well  worthy  of  study.  Thomas  de  Leeuw,  called  also  De  Ijeu, 
as  having  been  long  resident  in  France,  left  behind  him, 
when  he  died  about  1620,  some  500  different  works,  most  of 
which  are  portraits ;  these  also  mainly  of  his  own  drawing — 
admirable  work,  less  in  demand  than  it  should  be.  Jacques 
(^allot  (d.  1635)  engraved  also  many  original  portraits,  out 
being  a  man  of  immense  energy,  leading  a  very  irregular 
and  adventurous  life,  he  engraved  also  hundreds  of  plates 
of  scenery,  costume,  biblical  subjects,  and  what  mignt  be 
called  genre  in  curiously  made  up  set«.  of  the  Miseries  of 
War^  of  Beggars^  of  the  Twelve  Mmiths,  and  many  more. 
His  work  was  mainly  et<;hing,  but  he  never  took  full  advan- 
tage of  the  freedom  which  that  art  allows,  and  a  really 
great  etcher  he  never  became.  Still,  had  he  possessed  more 
gravity  and  purpose,  no  man  would  have  come  nearer  than 
he  to  realize  the  indej)endent  lifelong  career  of  an  artist- 
ongraver.  lie  left  some  1,400  etchings,  while  George  Cruik- 
shank  left  2,500.  Should  the  community  care  for  graphic 
art  as  much  as  it  does  for  literature,  it  would  find  its  needs 
well  supplied  by  such  men  as  these,  for  it  would  give  them 
fitting  subjects  and  encouragement  to  do  their  b^t  instead 
of  their  slightest  and  hastiest. 

A  great  change  was  now  going  on  in  the  position  of  en- 
graving in  the  world,  one  which  was  destined  to  lead  to 
200  years  of  mere  copying.  The  great  iminter  Rubens 
brought  around  him  a  number  of  very  able  technical  en- 
gravers, and  undertook  to  show  them  how  to  interpret  his 
numerous  pictures  into  black  and  white.  The  two  brothers 
Bolswert,  Vorsterman,  Paul  Pontius,  and  Peter  Soutman 
are  the  best  known  among  these  able  workmen,  and  to  these 
should  be  added  Jan  MilTler,  as  one  of  the  most  successful 
engravers  after  Rubens,  though  it  is  not  known  that  he 
worked  under  that  artist's  immediate  influence.  The  prints 
of  these  men  have  a  great  interest ;  they  are  in  many  ways 
right  as  renderings  into  one  art  of  another  and  more  rich 
and  varied  one,  but  thev  have  this  painful  character,  that 
they  brought  a  great  iiirfuence  to  l)ear  on  the  side  of  copy- 
ing as  the  only  missicm  of  the  engraver.  Another  curious 
abuse  in  the  art  is  to  be  seen  in  connection  with  the  famous 
etchings  of  portrait  heads  by  Antony  van  Dyk.  That  great 
painter  undert<x)k  to  etch  the  heads,  and  perhaps  part  of  the 
dress,  of  a  series  of  rather  largo  an<l  showy  portrait-engrav- 
ings, and  other  and  inferior  hands  were  to  put  in  backgrounds 
and  the  like.  Prints  from  many  of  these  plates  exist.  Those 
taken  from  the  unfinishetl  plate,  when,  imieed,  only  the  com- 
pletely modoletl  hcawl  and  slight -indications  of  the  bixlyand 
<lress  are  given,  are  !n<>st  lovely  and  precious  works  of  art ; 
the  mechanically  fini>luMl  portraits  have  but  slight  value. 
There  were  other  able  original  portraitists  at  this  time.  Leon 
(faultier,  who  died  the  same  year  as  Van  Dyk  (1641),  was 
<me  of  them. 

ihxnl  tendencies  were  at  work,  as  well  as  bad ;  and  the 
greatest  of  all  original  etchers  was  contemporary  with  Van 
Uyk,  thouph  destiiuMl  to  outlivr  him  by  nearly  thirty  years — 
Rembrandt,  a  master  in  portrait  un'  as  in  everytliing  that  he 
touched.  Conirlis  Viss<her  (d.  1670)  was  another  original 
jH)rtraitist,  a  burin-engraver,  and  a  gooil  one.  As  skillful, 
if  less  vivid  and  picture«4qiie.  was  Rol^ert  Nanteuil  (d.  1678), 
whose  most  famous  portraits  wcrt*  entfravcd  after  Mi gnani 
and  other  painters,  thouirh  \\\v  greater  number  of  his  works 
are  original.  In  his  hands  the  ren<lering  of  textures,  as  of 
armor,  silk,  and  fur,  n»ached  great  perfection.  His  contem- 
porary, Wenceslaus  Hollar,  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  engrav- 


ers, capable  of  anything,  and  yet  his  work  looks  archaic  ami 
incomplete  to  us,  because  he  never  invests  it  with  full  lijrht 
and  shade,  but  devotes  himself  to  exact  form,  local  col.ir. 
and  the  study  of  texture  and  surface.  Another  conteiniH^ 
rary  was  Claude  Lorrain,  the  author  of  but  a  few  etchiii;,'^. 
but  some  of  those  of  admitted  excellence.  The  first  Eiur- 
lish  engraver  of  prominence  was  William  Faithome,  »h.) 
died  in  1691. 

The  great  school  of  French  portrait-engraving  was  con- 
tinued oy  Antoine  Masson  (d.  1700),  G.  Audran  (d.  17iW». 
and  Gerard  Edelinck  (d.  1707),  men  worthy  to  rankvith 
Visscher  and  Nanteuil,  and  by  Pierre  Drevet  (d.  17:iS). 
and  his  son,  Pierre  Imbert  Drevet,  who  died  young,  onlv  k 
year  later  than  his  father.  These  are  the  great  master^  <.f 
seventeenth-century  engraving.  Their  technical  skill  \i&^ 
never  been  excelled,  and  probably  can  not  be ;  and  tht  ir 
sense  of  keeping  of  the  artistic  proportion  of  all  parts  of  u 
picture  was  greater  than  that  of  earlier  men  ha*i  Ijeen,  S4i 
that  even  the  most  elaborate  details  keep  their  place  in  t  In- 
composition.  Portrait-engraving  can  hardly  equal  this 
hereafter.  The  day  of  rich  and  picturesque  costume  is  g«iiie. 
and  it  will  not  sumce  for  fine  pictorial  composition  to  hav«' 
heads  and  hands  alone  of  any  interest,  while  costume,  instead 
of  a  help,  is  almost  wholly  an  incumbrance  and  a  puzzle. 

If  any  man  could  make  a  success  of  portrait-engraving  un- 
der such  untoward  conditions  it  would  be  William  Ht»pirtli. 
who  had  around  him,  indeed,  men  and  women  more  picttir- 
esquely  dressed  than  those  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Imii 
who  took  deliberately  for  his  subject,  not  the  elegant  ni.<l 
graceful,  but  the  rough  and  unseemly  side  of  life.     A  g'H .] 
engraver,  steadilv  at  work  at  large  and  crowded  plati»>.  hi^ 
example  might  fiave  built  up  a  popular  use  of  engravinir  h^ 
a  popular  and  accessible  original  art ;  but  the  epoch  wa.^  uoT 
an  artistical  one.     Another  attempt,  far  removed  from  Jl«- 
garth's  in  spirit,  but  equally  a  popularizing  of  fine  art  l'\ 
means  of  engraving,  was  tHat  of  Giambattista  PiranoM  u\. 
1778)  in  his  immense  production  of  studies  of  Roman  niin*: 
but  Piranesi  was  far  from  being  a  faultless  master  of  his  nrt 
of  etching,  and  his  chosen  subject  could  hardly  be  a  tK>piil<ir 
one,  limited  as  it  is  almost  wholly  Ur  picturesque  rum^  aii<l 
antique  sculpture.    £tienne  Ficquet  (d.  1794)  mav  Ih»  ein- 
sidered  the  last  of  the  French  portrait  school;  hfs  iniimto 
and  delicate  handling  has  preserved  for  us  admirable  studii^ 
of  famous  men  and  women  of  his  time.    Giovanni  Vi>l]>at<> 
(d.  180^))  was  a  skilled  but  uninventive  workman,  who  <ii'i 
work  to  order  from  paintings  and  antiquities  at  Kome.  ai.i 
kept  a  school  for  engravei-s.    Francesco  Bartolozzi  was  fi.i- 
tunate  in  gaining  the  favor  of  influential  {lersons  in  Knj- 
land,  and  perhaps  owed  this  to  the  soft  and  delicate  textur.- 
of  the  stipple-engraving  which  he  practiced.     A  stn)iiL''  r 
man  and  a  better  artist  was  Charles  Clement  Bervic  i«l. 
1822).     His  work,  indeed,  was  chiefly  reproducing  the  imii.t- 
ings  of  others,  but  he  brought  a  fresh  and  original  spirit  \>> 
the  task,  and  the  great  museum  made  by  the  first  Napolc -ii 
at  Paris  gave  him  exceptional  opportunities,  as,  for  inManr^ . 
the  euCTaving  of  the  Laocoon  group  from  the  marble.  •  f 
which  ne  made  what  is  considered  his  masterpiece.    A  S\kiu- 
iard  of  singular  genius  was  Goya.    Though  not  eminent  a- 
an  engraver  he  must  still  be  mentioned  here  as  one  of  ih« 
men  who,  in  untoward  circumstances,  were  original  and  in- 
dividual artists  in  an  art  almost  wholly  given  up  to  ct»pyiii.: 

The  term  painier-efiaraver,  taken  from  the  French  ptiufrt  - 
graveur,  has  been  applied  to  those  engravers  who  cari'v  •ui 
their  own  designs  in  their  own  art.  These  men  and  *th»  ir 
work  should  undergo  a  wholly  different  criticism  from  th"-- 
whose  lives  have  been  spent  in  reproduction  only.  Tfie 
copyists  have  need  of  great  and  special  ability,  no  dotilt. 
in  translating  color  into  black  and  white  by  means  of  iIa 
graving-tools,  but  the  jminter-engraver  is  a  man  of  a  differ- 
ent cliuss.  What  we  have  to  add  to  this  brief  hi>tnritai 
sketch  is  some  mention  of  the  attempts  in  the  nineteenth 
century  to  give  new  life  to  engraving  by  artists  of  a!>ili;} 
who  have  chosen  to  express  themselves  in  this  Iang:\iage. 

David  Wilkie  is  such  an  artist,  and  his  few  etchings  ui.m 
dry-points  have  a  peculiar  value  of  their  own.  But,  thoiijt. 
famous  as  a  painter,  he  could  never  get  people  to  look  at  I  .- 
prints,  and  tney  are  few  and  small.  J.  M.  W.  Turner  in  t  - 
great  Liber  Studiorum  combined  his  own  work  with  tl./ 
of  other  engravers,  and  left  about  eighty  com  posit  ii>ns  •  ' 
wholly  exceptional  merit,  where  design  and  means  of  i  \- 

f)ression  are  perfectly  well  balance<l,  and  nothing  is  lacku  .: 
mt  the  |>ossibility  of  getting  a  proper  number  of  prii  -^ 
from  the  mezzotinted  plates.  Charles  M6ryon  wa8  <»nr  ' 
the  most  powerful  of  painter-engravers,  and  his  ft»w  ini]»-r 


150 


ENNERDALE  LAKE 


ENSIFORM  CARTILAGE 


to  Munich,  where  he  practiced  with  success.  Among  his 
works  are  Der  Magnetismus  im  Verh&ltnias  zur  Natur  urid 
Religion  (1842;  2a  ed.  1853)  and  Gesehichte  des  tieriachen 
Magnetismus  (1844),  the  first  volume  of  which  (the  History 
of  Magic)  was  translated  into  English  by  William  Howitt 
(1854).    D.  in  Egem,  Sept.  19,  1854. 

En'nerdale  Lake :  a  picturesoue  sheet  of  water  in  the 
mountain  region  of  Cumoerland,  England,  7  miles  X.  E.  of 
Egremont.  It  is  an  expansion  of  the  river  Eken,  2^  miles 
long  and  less  than  a  mile  wide. 

Ennls:  market-town  of  Ireland;  capital  of  the  county 
of  Clare;  on  the  river  Fergus;  20  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
Limerick  (see  map  of  Ireland,  ref.  10-D).  It  has  a  classical 
school  called  Ennis  College  founded  in  1689,  and  the  ruins 
of  an  abbey  founded  in  i240 ;  also  an  asylum  for  lunatics, 
an  infirmary,  a  hospital,  a  public  library,  a  fine  court-house, 
a  brisk  traae,  and  some  manufactures,  and  a  colossal  statue 
of  0*Connell  by  Cahill.  Pour  bridges  cross  the  Fergus, 
and  railways  extend  to  Limerick  and  Athenry.  Ennis  is 
one  of  the  see-towns  of  the  diocese  of  Killaloe  (Roman  Cath- 
olic).   Pop.  6,300. 

Ennis :  city ;  Ellis  oo.,  Tex.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Texas,  ref.  8-1);  situated  on  railway,  34  miles 
S.  by  E.  of  Dallas ;  in  a  good  cotton  region ;  has  a  fine 
school,  a  very  large  cotton-compress,  etc.  Fop.  (1880)  1,351 ; 
(1890)  2,171.  Editor  of  "  Commercial  Recobdeb.'* 

En'niscorthy :  market-town  of  Wexford,  Ireland;  on 
the  river  Slaney ;  14  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Wexford  (see  map  of 
Ireland,  ref.  12-1).  It  has  a  fine  Roman  Catholic  church, 
and  a  stately  Norman  castle  man^  centuries  old,  but  still 
entire.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  gram,  is  at  the  head  of  barge 
navigation,  is  connected  bv  railway  with  Dublin  and  Wex- 
ford, has  a  convent,  five  churches  and  chapels,  and  an  asy- 
lum for  lunatics.  Enniscorthy  was  captured  by  Cromwell 
in  1649,  and  the  Irish  rebels  took  it  by  storm  and  burned  it 
down  in  1798.    Pop.  5,660. 

En'niskillen :  a  municipal  borough  of  Ireland ;  capital 
of  the  county  of  Fermanagh ;  finely  situated  on  the  river 
Erne,  which  connects  the  Upper  and  Lower  Lough  Erne, 
about  75  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Belfast  (see  map  of  Ireland,  ref. 
5-G^.  It  has  2  barracks,  6  churches  and  chapels,  a  prison, 
an  infirmary,  tanneries,  straw-hat  works,  markets  for  flax, 
com,  pork,  and  butter,  2  forts,  a  linen-ball,  and  manufac- 
tures of  cutlery.  There  are  handsome  mansions  and  beau- 
tiful scenery  in  the  vicinity.  The  people  of  Enniskillen 
warmly  supported  the  Protestant  cause  m  1689.  Here  the 
troops  of  William  III.  defeated  those  of  James  II.  in  that 
year.  It  is  connected  by  railway  with  Dundalk,  Londonder- 
and  Bundoran,  and  steamers  ply  on  the  Erne.    Pop.  5,700. 

Enniskillen,  Earls  of  (1789):  Viscounts  Enniskillen, 
1776:  Bardns  Mountfiorence  (Ireland,  1760);  have  seats  in 
Parliament  as  Barons  Grinstead  (United  Kingdom,  1815). — 
William  Willoughby  Cole,  third  earl,  D.  C.  L.,  LL.  D., 
F.  R.  S. ;  b.  Jan.  25,  1807,  and  succeeded  to  the  title  of  his 
father,  John  Willoughby  Cole,  in  1840.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  and  before  1840  was  distinguished  in  the  House 
of  Commons  as  Lord  Cole,  and  acted  in  the  Conservative  in- 
terest. D.  without  issue,  Sept.  5,  1886,  and  was  succeeded 
by  LowRY  Egerton  Cole,  fourth  earl ;  b.  in  1845. 

E nonius,  Quintus  :  Roman  p(^t ;  often  called  the  Father 
of  Latin  Poetry ;  b.  B.  c.  239,  at  Rudiae,  a  town  in  Southern 
Italy,  not  far  from  Tarentum.  Greek  was  his  native  tongue, 
to  which  he  early  added  a  knowledge  of  Oscan  and  Latin. 
While  in  military  service  under  the  Romans  in  Sardinia,  in 
204  B.  c,  he  met  Cato,  and  by  him  was  taken  to  Rome. 
Here  he  supported  himself  by  teaching  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, and  adapting  Greek  plays  to  the  Roman  stage.  He 
enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  elder  Scipio  Africanus  and  of  other 
distinguished  men.  In  189  M.  Fulvius  Nobilior,  the  consul, 
took  him  with  him  to  his  province  JEtolia  to  be  the  herahl 
of  his  deeds.  For  this  service  the  son  of  Fulvius  granted 
Ennius  Roman  citizenship  in  184.  In  169  he  died  of  gout. 
A  writer  of  great  power  aii<l  versatility,  he  contributed 
largely  to  the  formation  of  the  national  literature  of  Rome. 
His  most  imp>rtant  work  was  an  epic  jK)em  entitled  ^nna/^«. 
treating  in  eighteen  bo*)ks  the  historv  of  Rome,  from  the 
landing  of  ^^ncas  down  to  his  own  times.  This  remained 
for  a  long  time  the  most  ixipular  poem  in  the  language,  and 
was  superseded  only  by  \  ergil's  jEneid.  Ennius  also  wrote 
tragedies,  comedies,  and  satires.  His  poetry  was  greatly  ad- 
mired bv  Lucretius  and  by  Cicero,  who  often  quotes  him. 
Of  all  his  works  only  fragments  remain.    See  editions  by 


Vahlen  (Leipzig,  1854),  and  Lucian  Mueller  (St.  Petersburg. 
1885),  and  Sellar,  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic,  chap.  iv. 

M.  Warren. 

Enno'dluB,  Maonus  Felix  :  a  Latin  writer ;  b.  in  Gaul  in 
474,  of  excellent  family,  and  Bishop  of  Pavia  from  about  51:) 
until  his  death  in  521.  His  most  important  works  an>  a 
bio^^phy  of  his  predecessor,  Epiphanius,  and  a  turgid  |iMn>'- 
gyric  on  Theodoric,  written  about  507.  Also  extant  an-  a 
collection  of  his  letters,  two  books  of  Carmina  on  various 
subjects,  and  twenty-eight  speeches,  including  school  (It*- 
bates.  See  the  editions  oy  W.  Hartel  (Vienna,  1882)  and  K. 
Vogel  (Beriin,  1885).  M.  W. 

Enns,  or  Ens  (anc.  An'isus,  or  An'esus) :  a  river  of  Ail<(- 
tria ;  rises  in  the  crown-land  of  Salzburg,  12  miles  S.  of  Rtui- 
stadt.  It  flows  through  Styria,  forms  tne  boundary  l)etwH'n 
Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  and  enters  the  Danube  11  miles 
below  Lintz.  Length,  about  190  miles,  only  the  last  20  of 
which  are  navigable. 

Enns  (anc.  Laureacum):  town  of  Austria;  on  the  Dan- 
ube ;  at  or  near  the  mouth  of  the  Enns ;  about  96  mile^  W. 
of  Vienna  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  5-D).  It  has 
manufactures  of  iron,  steeU  and  cotton.  It  was  the  hea<l- 
quarters  of  Napoleon  in  1809.    Pop.  (1890)  4,674. 

E'noch,  or  He'noch  [Heb.,  initiated  or  teacher] :  the  name 
of  five  persons  mentioned  in  the  sacred  books  (canonical 
and  apocryphal)  of  the  Hebrews.  The  second  in  the  onier 
of  time,  and  the  most  important,  was  "the  seventh  fmrn 
Adam,"  who  "prophesied,  and  was  translated  at  the  age  of 
365.    (Gten.  V.  23.) 

Enoch,  Book  of:  a  book  of  108  chapters,  forming  part  of 
the  Apocrypha,  ouoted  bv  the  apostle  Jude  (w.  14, 15).  It 
is  of  uncertain  aate,  critical  coniecture  ranging  from  144 
B.  c.  to  132  A.  D.,  but  it  was  probably  written  in  Hebrew  bv  a 
Palestinian  before  the  Chnstian  era.  The  early  Chri>tian 
Fathers  used  it,  but  for  some  centuries  only  fragments  of  it 
were  known  to  European  scholars,  till  in  1773  tfames  Bnue 
,  brought  home  with  him  from  Africa  three  copies  of  an  Kthi- 
opic  version  of  it,  made  apparentlv  from  tne  Greek  aU>ut 
850  or  400  a.  d.  It  was  published  in  1838  at  Oxford  by  An-h- 
bishop  Laurence,  who  had  previouslv  (in  1821)  publishe<l  an 
English  translation  of  it,  and  by  rrof.  Dillmann  (Leipzi::. 
1851).  The  latter  is  the  principal  edition  of  the  Ethiopia. 
The  best  translation  which  utilizes  the  newly  discovcn*<i 
Greek  text  is  by  R.  H.  Charies  (Oxford,  1898^.  The  b^^.k 
contains  many  curious  passages,  but  its  leading  idea  is  tliat 
of  Divine  justice  dealing  sternly  with  sinners. 

E'nos  (anc.  -^'no«,  or  j^nus) :  seaport-town  of  Euro(>i'Hn 
Turkey;  on  the  j^gean  Sea,  at  the  mouth  of  the  ri\er 
Maritza  {Hehrus) ;  80  miles  S.  by  W.  from  Adrianople.  of 
which  it  was  the  port  before  the  completion  of  the  railway 
from  Adrianople  to  the  neighboring  port  of  Dede-Agat4*!i 
(see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-D).  Its  harbor  admits  onlv  Mimii 
vessels.  Pop.  about  8,000.  Here  is  a  small  bay  calfed  t  tie 
Gulf  of  Enos.  jSnoa  is  mentioned  by  Homer  in  the  Iliad, 
book  iv. 

Enriqnez  Gomez,  Antonio,  or  Eniiqnei  do  Pai :  dm- 

matic  author ;  the  son  of  a  C(m verted  Portuguese  Jew ;  h.  at 
Segovia,  Spain,  early  in  the  seventeenth  century ;  enttT»Hi 
the  army  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain,  but  from  the  veiir 
1629  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  literary  wi.rk. 
About  that  date  several  comedies  by  him  were  represent *si 
on  the  stag^  at  Madrid  with  success,  and  in  1635  appear^^i 
\\\»  Fama  pbstuma  d  la  tnda  y  muerte  de  Lope  dt  IVyn; 
but  the  fear  of  persecution  on  account  of  his  alleged  r»num 
to  the  Jewish  religion  drove  him  from  Spain,  and  in  ^♦vi^< 
he  appeared  in  France,  where  he  remained  for  eleven  yt-ar^. 
Removing  to  Amsterdam  about  1666,  he  openly  pnif*»^-i*-d 
Judaism,  for  which  he  was  burned  in  effigy  at  the  auto^a-u 
in  Seville,  1660.     The  date  of  his  death  is  not   known 
Twenty-two  comedies  were  written  by  him  and  were  all  n»- 
ceived  with  great  favor,  although  they  betray  the  faults  of 
a  facile  but  careless  writer.    His  Alo  que  obliga  el  hamtr, 
published  with  three  other  comedies  under  the   title   of 
Academias  morales  de  las  Musas  (Rouen,  1642),  is  saiii   t«' 
have  suggested  (^alderon's  Medico  de  su  honor.    The  *S'i'f;.'-. 
pitagdriS)  (Rouen,  1647;   Brussels,  1727)  is  a  work    <if    a 
somewhat  mystical  character,  containing  satirical  skt»ti-b«-^ 
in  prose  and  verse.     Enriquez  is  thought  by  some  to  Ir*  i  h« 
author  of  the  comedies  usually  attributed  to  Femaiid 
Zarate.     See  Ticknor's  History  of  Spanish  Literature. 

Ensiform  Cartilage,  or  Xiphoid  Cartilage  [en^t'fnnr*, 
is  from  Lat.  etisis,  swoni  -^  forma,  form;  sipnoia  is  fr«»n. 


ol  issue  EUTTiving  tjie  flmt  taker;  in  vhich  case  Ibc  necond- 
My  gift  would  be  upheld,  aixl  would  take  effect  should  no 
issue  survive.    !jee  P&BPETumEB  and  Kedoteness. 


En'UsIs  [Gt.  frrairw ;  <■>  +  -rtinir,  strain,  stretch] :  a  deli- 
cate and  almost  imperceptible  swelling  out  in  the  taper  ol 
the  shaft  of  a  column,  common  in  the  architecture  of  an- 
cient Greece.  It  was  adopted  to  prevent  the  shafts  being 
strictly  frusta  of  cones,  in  which  case  there  would,  by  a  sim 
pie  optical  law,  be  an  incorrect  impression  made  upon  thi 
eye  as  to  the  proportions  of  the  column.  It  was  one  of  the 
most  tielicnte  yet  important  of  the  refinements  of  Greek 
architecture,  and  has  not  been  accurately  attained  in  mod- 
em imilations.  in  the  columns  of  the  Parthenon  the  en- 
tasis amounts  to  j^  of  the  whole  height  of  the  column. 

Entel'ech;  [from  Gr.  irrtAJx"^  absolutenexs,  actuality, 
deriv.  of  phrase   irriKit  fx<"'>   '"  ^  complete,  or  irrtK'lit, 

Effect  +  (x<v,  be] :  a  metaphysical  term  from  the  Aristo- 
lian  philosophv,  denoting  the  fundamental  idea  of  the 
whole  system.  Cicero  defined  this  idea  as  energy,  but  the 
Greek  philosophers  who.  in  the  fifteenth  century,  moved 
from  Constantinople  to  Italy — and  among  them  especially 
ArgvTOpolus — ridiculed  him  tor  the  definition,  and  ptve 
ptrftchon  as  the  constituent  element  of  the  idea.  Melanch- 
thon,  however,  and  Leibnitz,  and  all  modem  philosophers 
almost  without  exception,  follow  Cicero;  and  when  the 
"  Bntriechy  "  of  Aristotle  is  compared  with  the  "  Idea  "  of 


Plato  or  the  "Absolute  Xegativitat"  of  Ilegel.  o 


toteltan  idea  tnan  perferlion.  The  abstract  repose  of  the 
Platonic  Idea  is  suppliuited  by  the  energy  of  reality  in  the 
Aristotelian  Entelecny ;  its  potentiality  IJecoracs  actuality. 
Aristotle  calls  tmth  an  idea,  but  the  soul  he  defines  as  an 
ipn\ixiia-  The  best  explanations  of  the  entelechy  and  its 
relations  to  the  whole  system  of  Aristotelian  philosophy  ore 
given  by  Brandts  in  his  ArittoMft  and  triite  Akadfmiiehen 
ZtUgenotsen  (Berlin.  1857),  and  by  Thurot  in  his  ^tiidet 
atr  Aritloti  (Paris,  1860). 

EntellDs  Monkey,  or  HknnmaD :  a  species  of  East  Ind- 
ian monkey  (Semnopitheeua  enlellu*)  about  3  feet  in  length, 
having  long  limbs  and  a  very  long  and  powerful  but  not 
prohcnsUc  tail.     These  monkeys  are  regarded  as  sacred  by 


the  Hindus,  who  deilicste  temples  to  Ihem,  and  erect  hospi- 
tals for  their  benefit.  The  eiilellus  monkeys  exhibit  a  fa- 
miliarity bordering  on  impuiIerK-e.  ami  often 'pi  undergariiens 
with  impunitv,  as  the  Hindus  feel  honored  when  rol)l)ed  by 
them.  The  (lindlis  also  Wlieve  thiit  thev  ar^  metamor- 
phosed princes,  and  to  kill  one  i.4  coti^dered  a  deadly  sin; 
hence  these  monkeys  swartn  in  many  places,  espetiily  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  temples. 

Enteral'gla  [from  (ir.  trrtpm.  intestine  +  bToi.  pain]: 
a  name  givi>ti  in  sume  meilical  works  to  colic,  espt-eially  of 
the  fnrm  attended  by  spasmoilic  contnu-tions  in  the  mus-    u 
cular  coat  of  the  intestine.    See  Cuur  and  Nkihaliiia.  I  <1 


ENTOMOLOGY 


Enterl'tis  [from  Gr.  Irrffw,  intestine  ■¥  saffii  of  Greek 


what  vaguely  used  by  medical  writers.  Active  iuflamms- 
tion  of  the  bowels,  in  adults  at  least,  is  froquentiv  (--in- 
fined,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  peritoneal  coat,  and  ttt-  dis- 
ease is  then  called  peritonitis.  When  the  mucous  coat  of 
the  bowels  alone  is  actively  involved,  it  ia  frequently  a  fatal 
disease  in  children,  but  in  adults,  with  care,  the  majority 
of  cases  recover.  Catarrhal  enteritis  is  benefited,  and  ofttn 
cured,  bv  gentle  purgation.  But  in  active  disease  <if  this 
kind  cathartics  wili  oiften  greatly  aggravate  the  eviJ,  Such 
cases  are  liest  treated  by  rest,  opiates,  noulticea  to  the  abd.i- 
men,  and  bland  nourishment.  "Typhlitis,"  inflammalinn 
of  or  about  the  ca?cum,  when  caused  bj  abscess  or  iierfora- 
tion  of  the  appendix  ca?ci,  is  not  unfrequently  taXai;  »hin 
otherwise  caused,  recovery  may  be  looked  for. 

Revised  by  Williik  Pepper. 
Enteropnensta  [from  Gr.  trrfw,  intestine  -i-  wna. 
breathe]:  a  group  of  animals  of  very  uncertain  afllniin,-. 
constituting  one  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  Chordata  (7.  i-.j. 
They  have  at  various  times  been  classed  with  the  c<Tiini- 
derms,  with  the  annelids,  and  are  now  usually  asMxiali-'l 
with  the  vertebrates.  They  are  worm-like  in  shajie.  anil 
live  buried  Jn  the  sand  of  the  ocean.     In  Balanogloiviii.  th>- 

Erincipal  genus,  there  is  an  aeora-shaped  proboscis  folluwiil 
y  a  collar,  and  behind  this  the  long  body.  The  mouih  i^ 
below  at  the  base  of  the  proboscis,  and  the  throat  is  \wT' 
forated  with  gill  openings,  in  allusion  to  which  the  nam.> 
Enleropneusta  is  given.  In  the  proboscis  there  isaearlilat;- 
inous  nwi  of  tissue  believed  to  be  homologous  with  tin' 
notochord  of  vertebrates.  Some  species  have  a  direi:!  ilfvrl- 
opment,  while  others  have  a  larval  stage  which  cIuh-Iv  tv- 
sembles  that  of  thcechinoderms.  The  nineteen  known  >|H'- 
cies  are  distributed  into  four  genera.  Allied  to  thctn  an' 
probably  the  Kcnera  Cephalodtacvs  and  Rhabdopirura .  for- 
merly included  among  the  Polyzoa.  J.  S.  Kisuslkv, 

En'thyineiiie  [from  Gr.  /rA!^ii>ia.aconsideration.Ilii)iight. 
En  Aristotle  a  ■■  rhetorical  syllogism."  deriv,  of  irtutitiatt. 


of  which  one  of  the  three  parts  (generally  the  mai< 
ippressed  or  held  in  mind — e.  g.  "The  freedi 


„-     -- - lujiln 

o  vote,  because  they  can  not  read."  Acconliug  to  I>e 
Quinciy  (Ilialorieal  Essays,  vol.  ii.,  p.  215.  »eq.).  the  Aristo- 
telian enthymeme  is  an  argument  in  respect  to  matters  proli- 
able  rather  than  demouNlrable.  (So  al»>  Thomson  iMu-t 
of  Thotight,  p.  284.)  Aristotle's  own  definition  for  the  rh.- 
lorical  enthymemc  is  "a  sjUoeism  from  probable  pri-jfr-i- 
tiiins  or  from  signs."  By  probable  propotiliotui  he  nutans 
thiBe  which  are  general,  but  not  at  all  universal,  as  "  in- 
jured men  seek  revenge."  By  *igna  he  designates  fB(■T^  it 
marks,  such  as  attend  upon  other  facts  or  concept  i<m*.  v) 
that  from  the  presence  of  the  sign  we  suspe*'!  or  know  1  li.ii 
the  thing  .signified  is  also  present.  The  rhetorical  eniliv- 
meme,  when  based  on  siarns,  is  always  affimialive,  taking;  lio 
account  of  negative  indications.  Its  resuitt)  are  univ.'r>al. 
and  may  amount  to  practical  or  even  formal  demonslmli.iii. 
Entomology  [from  Gr.  fn-o^i.  cut  in  pieces  (fr.  in  -^ 
Ttiuur.  cut;  ncut.  plur.  Irro^  (sc.  ft.. animals),  insects  so 
named  from  the  divisions  of  their  bodies,  cf.  Lat.  imu-rt/i] 
-t- -AoyCo,  <li»course]:  the  department  of  loSlogy  which 
treats  of  insects.  For  the  purposes  of  this  article  the  miI>- 
ject  can  be  treated  under  three  heads:  (1)  the  analomy  of 
insects,  (2)  the  metamor- 
phoses of  insects,  and  (3) 
the  classification   of  in- 

1.  TheAnatomvocIk- 

cTs. — E-rtrmal  Anal- 
ly.— Insects  belong  to 
that  branch  of  the  ani- 
mal kingilom  known  as 
the  Artbro^ada,  which 
is  characterized  by  hav- 
ing the  body  eoiiipcwcd 
of  a  series  of  secments. 
and  fumisheil  with  joint- 
ed appendages.  In  insects 
the    f    ' 


^^US, 


s,  which  arc  so  completely  con-ii.li- 
The  thorax  is  composed  of  Ihni- 


154 


ENTOMOLOGV 


fitted  for  piercing,  and  form  with  the  lower  lip  an  organ  for 
sucking. 

The  appendages  ot  the  thorax  arc  the  organs  of  loco- 
motion ;  these  consist  of  the  legs  and  wings.  Of  the  former 
there  are  Uiree  pairs,  of  the  latter  nerer  more  than  two 
pairs.  Bach  segment  of  the  thorax  bears  a  pair  of  legs ;  the 
vings  are  borne  liy  the  second  and  thinl  segments.  Each 
leg  consists  of  the  following  parts ;  coxa,  trochanter,  femur. 


Pro.  8.— Let;  of  Bfa7'beeCle,  shovlnB  relstlon  of  skeleton  and  m 
tibia,  and  tarsus.    The  coia  is  the  scgmi 


e  Joined  t< 
of  the  leg. 
part;  in  certain  Hiptttnopten 


>f  the  leg.  and  ie 


n  inconspicuous 


8   of  tt 


^he/rnnur  is  the  principal  segment  of  the  leg.  Following 
the  femur  is  the  tibia,  consisting  of  a  single  segment.  The 
remaining  segments  of  the  leg,  Tarjing  in  number  from  one 
to  six,  compose  the  tarma  or  foot.  The  last  segment  of  the 
taiBoa  is  furnished  with  one  or  two  claws. 


Tia.  r.-A  cockroMh  iPtTxplanrta  nrimlnlii).    (Froir 

a,  uiKiinB  ;  bl.  bt,  bS.  llble  ;  c,  anal  crrtl  :  rl.  kudkUod  od  nvurrvnt 

•*lL»»rjr  duct ;  /.  salivary  bladder  (  g.  gli»rd  :  A,  hpnatlc  mbci 

HBlpiKOlan  »ei««lB  ;  1:,  bihbII  Inlesline  ;  (.  large  inleMlne  ;  m.  re 

ganglion  ;  o,  ovary  :  p,  ■ebaceoiu  glanda. 

Although  the  normal  number  of  wings  is  two  pairs,  many 
insects  have  only  a  single  pair,  and  other  insects  are  wingloss. 
When  but  a  single  pair  of  wings  is  present  it  is  aliiiiK<l  in- 
Tariabiv  the  first.  Each  wing  is  a  plate-like  or  membranous 
expansion,  which  is  at  first  developed  a**  a  sac-like  projec- 
tion of  the  body  walL    The  wing  is  usually  strengthened  by 


a  firm  network  of  thickened  lines.  These  are  termed  Ih* 
veins  or  nerves  of  the  wing,  and  their  arrangemenl.  ile- 
scribed  as  the  venation  or  neuration  of  the  wing.  aRonl> 
useful  characters  for  determining  the  afBnities  of  ina«i*. 
Consequently,  special  names  are  given  U>  the  different  veinn 
and  also  to  the  cells,  as  the  thin  spaces  circnmKribed  by  the 

Except  in  the  first  order  of  insects  (T^ysanum),  the  ab- 
domen ot  the  adult  bears  no  locomotive  appendages.  Bui 
many  larvm  have  fleshy  appendages  which  aid  in  locomo- 
tion ;  these  are  termed  prohgs.  In  the  adults  the  caudal 
end  of  the  body  is  furnished  with  jointed  filaments,  thr 
eerci  and  eatidal  attm  (Fie.  7,  f).  Frequently  also  the  b.«lj- 
is  furnished  in  the  males  with  organs  for  clasping,  (he 
elatper».  and  in  the  females  with  saws,  pincers,  or  borers, 
the  avipoailor.  In  the  females  of  certain  insects  there  is  ■ 
sting,  a  modified  oviDositor,  which  is  used  as  an  organ  of 
defense,  and  the  abdomen  of  plant-lice  and  certain  other 
insects  bears  a  pair  of  tubes  or  tubercles,  through  which 
honey-dew  is  excreted. 

Internal  Anatomy. — The  outer  wall  of  insect*  is  more  or 
less  firm,  being  hardened  by  a  homy  substance  termeil 
chitine ;  this  outer  wall  serves  as  a  skeleton  within  which 
are  the  muscles  and  viscera.     The  akeltton  is  therefore  in 

Kneral  outline  a  hollow  cylinder.  This  hardening  of  the 
dy  wall  is  not  continuous,  but  takes  place  in  a  series  of 
more  or  less  regular  ring-like  bands, 
that  have  the  well  known  segTnenlfd 
appearance  chHracleristic  of  insecl^ 
and  the  animals  clceely  allied  to  them. 
Between  the  homy  ring-like  segments 
the  body  wall  remains  soft  and  flexi- 
ble. In  this  waj  prorision  Ls  made 
for  the  various  motions  of  the  biidv. 
The  movement  of  the  legs,  anlenni. 
and  certain  other  appendages  i:>  pro- 
vided for  in  the  same  way ;  each  one 
is  a  cylinder  made  up  ot  'several  n-e- 
ments.and  between  each  segmpnt  th? 
wall  of  the  cylinder  remains  flexible. 
Although  the  skeleton  of  an  in^xl  is 
chiefiy  an  external  erne,  there  are  pro- 
longations of  it  into  the  body  caviiy. 
As  these  form  support  tor  various  or- 
gans, and  attachment  for  many  mas- 
cles,  they  are  often  described  as  th<- 
internal  skeleton. 

The  muscular  tt/alem  of  inset^is  is 
comp<^edof  immense  number^nf  dr<u 
tinct  isoUted  straight  fibens  which 
are  always  free  (i.  e.  not  inclus^  in 
tendinous  sheaths  as  with  Vrrlr- 
bratea).  Asa  rule,  the  muscles  that 
move  the  segments  of  the  body  are 
not  furnished  with  tendons  (Kfps.  4 
and  S).  while  those  that  move  the  ap- 
pendages are  thus  united  at  the  distal 
end  (Fig,  S),  In  appearance  the  mus- 
cles are  either  colorless  and  tran»[>Br- 
ent  or  yellowish  whit*,  and  are  of  a 
soft,  almos-t  gelatinous  consistencv. 
There  are  several  layers  of  mu^-lr< 
lining  the  body  wall  or  external  skele- 
ton (I-lgs.  4  and  S).  These  priividt 
for  the  movements  of  the  budv  aiHl 
its  appendages,  and  constitute  Ibo 
chief  part  of  the  muscular  OTstem. 

The  alimentary  canal  is  a  tnW 
passing  from  the  moulh  to  the  caudal 
end  of  the  body ;  in  its  simplest  form 
it  is  a  straight  tube  occupying  tlir 
axis  of  the  cylindrical  bodv.  Bui 
usually  it  is  longer  than  tW  Ixilv. 
Rolleeion.)  and  is  Consequently  more  or  less  oi.n- 

e.    voluted ;  moreover,  it  is  not  of  uni- 
ij    form  structure,  but,  as  in  higher  ani- 
mals,  different  parts  are  adapltil   t<' 
different  functions.    The  names  a)>- 
plied  to  these  parts  are  similar  to  those  used  in  the  anatonii 
of  higher  animals  (Fig,  7), 

The  circWo/orw  gyalem  at  insects  is  an  open  one,  the  ldi«ii| 
flowing  in  vessi'ls  during  only  a  part  of  its  course.  The 
greater  part  of  the  circulation  of  this  fluid  take«^  idni-e  in 
the  cavity  of  the  body  and  ils  appendages.     The  only  IiIimxI- 


i,  chjliflc  swn „. 

un  :  n,  flTBt  abdotnlDal 


ENTOMOLOGY 


)  the  pupa-  of  be«a,  wasps,  and 


insect  is  said  to  b«  viviparous.    Tbe  eggs  of  ii 


s  vary  |  butterfly.    This  d. 


FlO,  6.  -t.UIUI  IIiiKh,  .4cliiu  luiu 

f^ally  in  their  external  characlerH.  While  many  iif  them 
are  furnished  with  smooth  oval  shells,  in  others  the  sheila 
are  beautifully  ribbed  or  pitted  {Pig.  10),  or  furnished  with 
spines  or  other  appenda^s.  There  exists  also  in  one  end  of 
the  ege  of  an  inseet  one  or  more  pores  known  as  mieropylt» ; 
through  these  the  spermatozoa  pass  into  the  egg  and  thus 
fertilize  it. 

The  Larva. — The  larva  is  the  second  of  the  four  principal 
stages  in  the  life  of  an  insect.  It  is  the  stage  in  which  the 
insect  emerges  from  the  egg.  Familiar 
examples  of  tarvn  are  caterpillars, 
mafiBots.  griilis.  etc.  (Pig.  8.  3).  Tt  is 
during  the  larval  »tate  that  the  growth 
of  the  insect  is  maile,  and  consc(|ueiit- 
ly  in  this  sta^  nearly  all  the  molts 
are  undergMie.  The  molts  subsequent 
to  this  (wriod  are  simply  those  made 
when  the  insect  changes  from  one 
stace  to  another. 

Seariy  all  of  Iho  crealiires  common- 
ly known  as  worms  are  not  true  woniis, 
but  are  the  larva<  of  iiiseets.  Away 
fniiu  the  seaNhore  but  few  worms  are 
known  to  other  than  zoflloffisls;  these 
an'  earth-worms,  leeclies,  hair-wonns, 

luiiiies  of  higher  animals.  The  many 
worm-like  animals  found  fectlin^  upon 
the  tiiisues  of  plants,  as  tomato-worms, 
apple- worms,  etc.,  are  the  larva>  of  Jn- 
_.  .  _  ,  ,  sects.  Other  larva;  of  insects  are  pre- 
'"dr^'n"?'""     aa.^nus  or  parasitic. 

^       *  The  P,ipa.—T\w  pupa  is  the  thinl 

of  the  tour  stages  in  the  life  of  an  insect.  In  this  stage  the 
insect  is  usually  quies<'ent.  But  a  few  pupn,  as  those  of 
mosquitncs.  are 'active.  The  change  from  the  larval  In  the 
pupa  state  is  maiie  by  moiling  the  skin  of  the  fully  grown 
larva.  In  the  pupa  the  legs  an<l  wings  of  (he  ailult  are  rep- 
resented in  a  rudimentary  stale.  In  the  pu|)H!of  butterflies 
and  moths  these  organs  are  closely  fatitened  to  the  breast  of 


:  1,  Imago ;  2.  Pupa  ;  S,  Larva. 

spots  with  which  the  puiMe  of  certain  butterflies  are  msrli«i. 
Two  forms  of  this  word  are  in  use :  chrysalis,  plural  i'hr>»- 
lides;  and  chrysalid.  plural  chrysalids. 

Thf  CoeooH. — Many  larva",  as  those  of  moths  when  (utly 
grown  and  liefore  they  change  to  pU|>H>.  spin  about  the  limji 
a  silken  case  within  which  the  transfonnations  are  iinilirr- 
gone.  This  ca.te  is  tenned  a  cocoon.  Frequently  these  ii- 
coons  arc  made  within  a 
rolled  leaf  (Fig.  11).  or 
on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  where  they  are 
covered  with  dry  grass 
or  other  rnbbish.  Cer- 
tain hairy  caterpi liars 
maketlu'ircix-oons  large- 
Iv  of  their  hair,  which 
they  fasten  together  by 
a  thin  film  of  silk. 

Imma/ure  Fonnt  af 
Ineects  irilh  Incomplrle 
Mrlamorphosia  —  The 
Nymph. — The  terms  lar- 
va anil  pupa  are  appli- 
cable only  to  the  early 
stages  of  insects  with  a 

complete  melumornho-  pig  lo  -Egg  of  motli  invally  rcJuc-l 
SIS,    In  the  ca.se  of  those 

in  which  the  transformation  is  an  incomplete  one  i)"' 
changes  through  which  the  immature  insect  )ia«ses  af'-r 
leaving  the  egg  are  so  gradual  that  one  can  not  i]iilii»t< 
any  jioint  at  whi<-h  the  insect  ceases  to  be  a  larva  snil  !•- 
conies  a  pnjM.  Recent  writers  have  therefore  vfvA  Ihe  Icm 
nymph  (which  was  formerly  used  as  a  synonym  of  pii|«>  i" 
ilcsignatc  Ihe  immature  forms  of  insects  wilh  an  inci>Tn|>l<'t'' 
metamorphosis.  This  term  is  applied  to  all  the  slagvs  be- 
tween tlic  egg  and  the  fully  winged  or  adult  state. 

A  nymph  when  it  leaves  the  egg  has  no  indications  "' 
wings.  After  undergoing  a  grcaler  or  less  numlier  <'i 
molls,  differing  in  ilifferent  species,  small  prolongation* 
ap]>car  proje<'Iing  from  the  dorsal  aspect  of  the  mesiv  umI 


158 


ENTOMOLOGY 


t  tail). 


1.  Order  Thgaanura  (Irom  Or.  Aitavt.  ttinge  +  ei 
— Tha  Thyaonura  JDcludes  the  insects  communlj  ki 
bristle-tftifs,  xpriiig-tsila,  and  fish-moths.  These  are  wingless 
insects  which  undergo  no  metainorpbosis,  Iho  larvai  torm  be- 
ing retained  by  the  ailult.  The  man- 
ilibli!^  and  maiills  are  retracted  witti- 
in  the  tavity  of  the  head,  so  that  only 
their  apices  are  visible ;  tho^  have, 
however,  some  freedom  of  motion,  and 
con  be  u^d  fur  biting  and  chewing 
soft  sub<<tances.  True  (compound  eyes 
are  rarely  present ;  but  in  some  gene- 
ra there  is  a  group  of  agglomerated 
simple  eyes  on  each  side  of  the  h^ad. 
The  abdomen  is  sometimes  furnished 
with  rudimentary  lees,  and  in  one 
genas  there  are  well-developod  ab- 
dominal logs. 

The  absence  of  wings  in  this  order 

is  believed  to  represent  the  primitive 

condition  of  these  insects.    None  of 

the  species  show  any  indic-alion  of  the 

deTelopment  of  these  DrgtinB,  and  the 

XBfi.  thorax  do<a  not  present  tliat  eompli- 

V^  T   N.  "^tion  of  structure  which  is  the  result 

r^         I      ^^       of  the  development  of  wing- muscles. 

I  In  each  of  the  higher  orders  we  And 

I  wingless  species;   but  in  these  cases 

_,      „     , .  there  is  goo<i  reason  for  believing  that 

rt^rtlwrrCwte-iSr   'he  wingless  condition  is  the  result  of 

a  retrograilc  development.     In  some 

cases  this  degradation  is  the  result  of  parasitic  habits,  as 

with  lice,  fleas,  and  many  other  parasites ;  in  other  instances 

it  is  the  result  of  the  sepanUinn  of  the  species  into  several 

castes,  of  which  some  do  not  require  wings,  as  the  workers 

and  soldiers  among  Termes. 

the  workers  among  ant«,  and 

the  sedentary  generations  of 

the  Aphides. 

This  onler  comprises  c  hie  t- 
ly  minute  insects,  which  live 
on  decaying  vegetable  mat- 
ter, and  can  be  found  abun- 

Pla,  lS,~I\ipiriui  futeta,  a  spriiig- 


attention  in  popular  writings  on  account  of  their  ephemeral 
eiisl£ncc  in  the  adult  t^tatc.  All  have  read  of  the  inni'd^ 
that  live  but  a  day.  Reference  is  made  in  tbeee  aci-uunU  I" 
members  of  this  family;  and  although  the  popular  iileu  in 
fallacious,  it  has  some  foundation  in  fact.  Strictly  speaking:. 
the  May-Sies  are  long-lived  insects ;  some  sgiecies  Hpi>-Hr 
twice  annually, once  in  the  sprinKand  again  in  thcaulunm  : 
but,  as  a  rule,  one,  two.  or  even  three  vears  are  required  for 
the  development  of  a  generation,  TKo  greater  ptut  of  Ibi,- 
lime  is  passed,  however,  beneath  the  surface  ol  the  whi-t. 
and  after  the  insect  emerges  ii  "  '  " 
adult  form  its  eiistence  is 
very  brief.  With  many  spe- 
cies the  individuals  leave  the 
wai«r,  undergo  two  transfor- 
mations, mate,  lay  their  eggs, 
and  die  in  the  course  of  an 
evening  or  within  the  early 
[uoming  hours. 

With  many  sjiccies  of  May- 
flies there  is  great  uniformity 
in  the  date  of  maturing  of  the 
individuals.  Thus  immense 
swarms  of  them  will  leave  the 
waler  at  about 


the  c 


'ay,  Uiis  being  the 
only  appearance  of  the  s|>eeies 
until  another  jjeneration  has 
been  develo|)ea.  The  great 
swarms  of '■  lake-Hies"  {Ephe- 
mera simularm)  which  appear 
along  the  lakes  to  the  north 
of  the  U.  S.  about  the  third 

week  in  July  afford  good  il-  p„.  ,^^4  timj-IIj. 

lustrations  otthispeculiaritv. 

3.  Order  Odonata  (from  ~Ur.  Uait,  MrToi,  tooth).— The 
members  of  tWis  order  have  (our  membranous  wings,  which 
are  flnelv  netted  with  veins;  and  each  wing  has  near  the  iiuil- 
dle  of  t[ie  front  margin  a  joint-like  structure,  the  nii<]ii>.  . 
The  mouth-parts  are  furnished  for  biting.  Themet«nii<r|>)>'-- 
sis  is  incomplete.  The  memliers  of  this  order  arecomni.nly 
known  as  dragon-flies,  darning-needles,  spindles,  and  sriak-- 
doctors  (Pig.  17).  The  eggs  ari>  laid  in  the  waler.  In  sum,- 
species  the  female  flies  back  and  forth  over  the  surfa<-i-  cif 
the  water,  sweeping  down  at  intervals  to  touch  it  with  i\n- 
tip  of  her  abdomen,  and  thus  wash  off  one  or  more  egg>  liiIi> 
it.  In  other  cases  the  eggs  are  laid  in  a  mass,  attai'lied  ii> 
some  aquatic  plant.  The  nymphs  of  drapon-flies  pass  tl»ir 
lives  in  water.  They  are  predaeeuus,  feeding  on  such  aquBi  ic 
animals  as  thcr  cnn 
overcome-  When  the 
nymph  of  a  dtsgun-tly 


e  species,  however,  live 

arm  and  Jrv  places,  and 

teed  upon  starebed  clothing 
and  the  binding  of  books  and  other  dry  substances.  In  the 
more  common  species  the  l>ody  is  cither  elongati'd  and  fur- 
nished with  six  well-develo[>ed  legs  and  two  or  more  long, 
many-jointei)  caudal  apiiendages  (Pig.  14).  or  short,  thick,  and 
with  a  forked  springing  apparatus,  bent  under  the  abdomen, 
instead  of  th»lhread-like  caudal  appendages  (Fig.  15). 
The  as    m    b   o  fi  h  as  "^  -^     ^   *      ' 

som     m        al  ed      L  p  ama    ae  ha 
*MiFg4isawrkwn)e       u 
some  parts  of    he  U  b     1     s         ry 
wh       w  h  a  y      wi  h    ng  at>out   he 
abd   n  n  and    egs  n  a^urei  abgnt 

on     h  rd  of  an     n  h     n   I  ngth      It 
n  urM  h  ng       pec  a  y       a    hed 

h       and       e       nd    gs      f    bo  ka 
So  n     mes  upon     h     slareh 

w   h  wh    h  wa      upe         fas    n  d  m 

2  Orde  bph  m  nda  from  Q 
i^iMfti.  living  but  a  day).— The  ortler 
Ephrmrrida  is  coraposud  of  the  insects 
commonly  known  as  Mav-flies  (Fig. 
16),  They  have  delicate,  membranous 
wings  furnished  with  a  fine  network  of 
Teins ;  the  fore  wings  are  large,  and  the 
hind  wings  are  much  smaller  or  want- 
ing. The  mouth-parts  are  rudimen- 
tary. The  metamorphosis  is  complete. 
This  order  includes  only  a  single  fam- 
ily, the  Eph^mfridft.  The  May-flies 
or  Ephemerids  are  often  very  common 
insects  in  the  vicinity  of  streaiiis.  [x>nds. 
and  lakes;  frequently  the  surface  of 
such  bo<lies  of  waler  is  thickly  strewn  with  them.  They  I  is  fully  grown  it  leaves  the  water  to  transform.  The  skin 
are  attracted  by  light,  and  it  is  not  an  uncommon  occur-  the  nymjih  sjiliU  open  on  the  back  of  the  thorax  and  In-;, 
rence  in  summer-time  to  sec  hundreds  of  them  flvingalKiut  and  the  adult  emerges,  leaving  the  empty  skin  of  the  nvm 
a  street-lamp.      The   May-flies  have  received  considerable  I  clingingtolheobjectonwhichtho transformation tookpla. 


^^i^'^k-.iJia^ku.jw' 


Fio.  17.— A  dragon-fly. 


Ititl 


ENTOMOLOGY 


scribed,  there  are  somedmcs  developed  wingless  sexual  in- 
dividuals whiuh  nevrr  leave  the  nest.  These  arc  Icrmeil 
eompleiMHlat  malea  and  females,  tmd  they  serve  as  substi- 
tutes for  the  winged  males  and  females  whenever  a  com- 
munity iloes  nut  nnd  a  true  king  or  ijueen.  The  cotnple- 
mental  females  produce  comparatively  few  egga,  and  conse- 
quently never  become  as  large  as  do  the  true  q^ueens.  It 
requires  several  of  these  to  replace  a  queen.  Fntx  MQller 
found  in  one  case  a  king  living  in  company  with  thirty-one 
complemental  females.  As  these  wingless  males  and  fe- 
males never  leave  Ihe  nest,  they  pair  with  their  near  rela- 
tives. The  development  of  winged  semal  forms  is  there- 
fore necessary  iu  order  to  provide  for  intercrossing  of  indi- 
viduals not  closely  related.  Doubtless  here,  as  with  the  true 
ants,  the  winfi[ed  males  and  females  emerge  from  many  nests 
at  the  same  time  and  mingle  in  a  single  swarm :  in  this  way 
there  is  opportunity  for  intercrossing. 

There  is  spHce  here  for  but  little  regarding  the  habits  of 
these  wonderful  insects.  In  the  ljt>pics  certain  species  build 
nesis  of  great  size.  Some  of  these  are  mounds  lo  or  13  feet 
in  height.  Other  species  build  large  globular  masses  upon 
the  trunks  or  branches  of  trees.  All  of  the  Termites  are 
miners,  and  all  avoid  the  light.  They  therefore  build  cov- 
ered ways  fnim  their  nests  to  rach  places  as  they  wish  to 
visit.  In  some  hotconntries  they  are  the  worst  of  all  pests. 
They  will  feed  upon  almost  any  organic  matter;  they  de- 
stroy wooden  structures  of  all  Kinds,  including  buildings 
and  furniture.  Libraries  are  often  completely  ruined  by 
them.  In  infesting  anything  com|M>se<l  of  wood  they  usu- 
ally eat  out  the  interior,  leaving  a  thin  nim  on  the  outside. 
Thus  a  talile  may  appear  t«  be  sound,  but  will  crumble  to 
pieces  beneath  a  slight  weight,  entrance  having  been  made 
through  the  floor  of  Ihc  house  and  the  legs  of  the  table. 

The  mounds  of  Termites  are  composed  chiefly  of  the  ex- 
creted undigested  wood  upon  which  the  insects  have  ted. 
This  is  molded  into  the  desireil  form,  and  on  rlrying  it  be- 
comes solid.  The  species  that  occur  in  the  V.  S.  do  not 
builil  moimds,  but  make  their  nest  in  the  ground  and  in 
logs,  stumps,  and  other  wood. 

6,  Order  Corrodtntia  (from  Lat.  corrodere,  gnaw). — The 
winged  members  of  this  order  have  four  membranous  wings, 

with  the  veins  prominent  and 
with  comparatively  few  cross- 
veins  ;  the  (ore  wings  are 
larger  than  the  hind  win^ 
and  both  pairs  when  not  in 
use  are  placed  root-like  over 
tlie  bo<ly,  being  almost  verti- 
cal and  not  folilei]  in  plates. 
Tlie  mouth-parts  are  t<>nneil 
for  biting.  The  metamoi^ 
phosis  is  incomplete.  Thp 
Flo.  t».—Pt:^ua  vraotui  '"'^^ "  known    representatives 

of  this  onier  are  the  minute 
insects  found  in  old  books— the  book-lice.  These  wingless 
creatures  form,  however,  but  a  small  part  of  the  onier.  The 
more  tvpieal  forms  (Fig.  23)  bear  a  strong  reseniblance  to 
plant-lu'e  (Aphides),  and  occur  upon  the  leaves  and  trunks 
_• .  1  _^   _..__j  walls  and  palings.    Tliey  feed  ujxin 

e  closely  huddled  together 

7.  Order  Mallophagn  (from  Qt.  itoM^t,  lock  of  p 


♦«y.a.,ei 


—The  members  ot  this  order  are  wingless  [Mira. 
sitic  insects,  with  biting  mouth-parts. 
Their  metanmrpbosjs  is  incomplete.  Al- 
though some  Hjiecics  infest  aheeit  and 
goats,  feeding  upon  their  wool,  bv  fsr 
I  he  greater  nunil^r  lire  among  the  /eath- 
em  of  tiiriis ;  consequently,  the  name  bird- 
lice  is  applied  to  the  entire  order.  Fig. 
24  represents  a  species  which  infests  the 
horMi.  The  bird-lice  resemble  the  true 
lice  in  form,  being  winglcs.*;,  and  with 
the  boily  more  or  less  flattened,  but  diffc-r 
in  having  biting  mouth-parts.  Certain 
species  which  infest  domesliu  fowls  are 
well-known  examples.  Tiiey  feed  upon 
teal  hers.  hair,  and  dermal  scales,  while 

_.   _  „„^,    the  tnie  lice  (family   I'rdiculidir.  onier 

loiue.  Hemiplera)   have  sucking  mouth-parts, 

feed  u|K)n  bliHHl.and  infest  on  Iv  mammals. 

Sfenopon  paUidnm  is  one  of  the  spocies  which'  infest  the 

hen.     It  is  to  free  themselves  from  this  and  allie<i  pamsitcs 


Fra.  M.-TVfcA<Ht<-c- 


that  hens  wallow  in  dust  and  scatter  it  among  their  fenili 

8.  Order  Eaplet-opiera  (from  Or,  *},  well  +  vA^nw,  rol'l  + 
mtfit,  wing). — This  order  includes  only  the  earwigs  (family 
FarfictUida).     With  these  insects  the 
flrst  pair  of  wings  are  leathery,  very 
smair,  without   veins,  and    when   at 
rest  meet  in  a  straight  line  down  the 
back,  iwrtially  covering  the  second 
imir  of  wings  (Fig.  25).     These  wing- 
eovers  strongly  resemble  those  ot  the 
rove  -  beetles.      The  second   pair  of 
wings  (Fig.  36)  are  furnished  with  ra- 
diating veins  which   extend   from  a. 
point  near  the  en<l  of  the  basal  third 
of  the  wing  over  the  distal  part  ot 
this  ol^n.    When  the  wing  is  not  in      U 
use  this  part  is  folded  in  plaits  like  a     a£ 
fat),   and   the   wing  is  folded   twice      JA, 
transveiscly.       The    most     striking 
character  of  this  family  is  the  form 
at  the  cerci,  which  are  homy,  and  re- 
semble force  lis. 

The  earwigs  are  rare  in  the  U.  S., 
es|)ecially  in  the  Korth.     But  in  Eu- 
rope they  are  common,  and  are  often    ^la  %  —Ad  «rwbr 
troublesome  pests.    They  are  noctur- 

nal.  hiding  in  the  daytime  among  leaves  and  iti  all  kiiirU  i>( 
crevices,  and  coming  out  by  night.  They  feed  upon  the  n" 
rollas  or  flowers,  fruit,  and  other  vegetable  substances. 
When  troublesome  they  may 
be  trapped  with  hollow  ob- 
jects, into  which  they  can 
crawl  and  hide  during  the 
davtirnc.  The  name  of  the 
typical  genus,  Forficula,  is  the 
I'jatin  word  for  scissors.  It 
was  suggested  by  the  curious 
form  of  the  eor^i.  The  com- 
mon name,  earwig,  has  refer- 
ence to  a  widely  spread  fancy  that  these  insects  creep  into 
the  ears  of  sleeping  persons. 

S.  Order  UrI/ioplera  (from  Gr.  ipUt,  straight  +  -rrtpit. 
wing). — The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wing^ ;  lii.' 
first  pair  are  thickened,  and  overlap  when  at  rest :  the  x-i'- 
ond  pair  are  thinner,  and  are  folded  in  plaita  like  a  fmi. 
The  mouth-parts  are  lormed  for  biting,  llie  metamori'h'-- 
sis  is  incomplete.  This  order  incluiles  the  cockroaches,  lo- 
custs or  grasshoppers,  katydiiis.  crickets.  walking-stiek>. 
and  soothsayers  or  praying  mantes.  The  most  familiar  ex- 
amples are  the  locusts,  commonly  called  grasshoppers  in  the 
V.  &  (Fig.  37).    They  abound  everywhen 


■!i:«iES 


Tia.  2T,— The  creMed  locust. 


multiply  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause  serious  injury  to  vpt:*- 
tation.  Scarcely  lessabundant  are  the  crickets.  Thcirchirji- 
ingisasexualcallpn>ducedby  the  males  by  rubbing  tJigi-t  her 
the  wing-covers,  Bs  the  first  pair  of  wings  are  t«rmed  in  these 
insects.     Upon  each  ot  the  wing-co vera  there  is  a  stniiii; 


162 


ENTOMOLOGY 


borer,  the  arraj-womi,  the  cabbage-worm,  the  cotl^n-wonn, 

and  the  boll-worm.  A  few  caterpillars  feed  upon  scale- 
bugs,  and  must  thecvfore  be  classotl  amon^  beneBcial  inserts. 
But  the  most  important  member  of  this  order  is  the  silk- 
worm (Pig.  35).  The  luna-molh  (Fig.  8)  is  one  of  the  most 
strikJDg  in  appearance  of  the  moths  native  in  the  U.  S. 


Fro.  ».— TbP  Hi 


I 


16.  Order  Diplera  (from  Gr,  »i,  lii.  twice  -!-  wrtpir,  wing).— 
This  order  includes  the  flies,  which  differ  from  other  insects 
in  possessing  only  a  sin^e  pair  of  wings.  The  second  pair 
of  wings  is  represented  by  a  pair  of  knobbed  threads,  termed 
halUrta.  The  mouth-parts  are  formed  tor  sucking.  The 
metamorphosis  is  complete.  Thelarvmof  flies  are  maggots; 
they  are  usually  cylindrical  in  form,  and  are  footless.  Most 
species  transform  within  the  dried  skin  of  the  !ar»» ;  a  few 
have  naked  pupfe,  and  some  make  a  cocoon.  The  different 
species  vary  much  in  habits.  Some  are  very  annoying  to 
man :  as  the  mosquito  which  attacks  his  person ;  the  flesh- 
flies  which  infest  his  food ;  the  bot-flies  and  gad-flies  which 
torment  his  cattle;  and  the  gall-gnals  which  destroy  his 
crops.  Other  species  are  very  beneficial,  as  the  various 
species  that  are  [irasitic  upon  other  insects,  as  well  as  many 
other  species  which  feed  upon  decaying  animal  and  vege- 
table matter,  thus  acting  as  scavengers.  Fig.  38  repre.senta 
a  species  which  is  parasitic 
upon  the  army-worm.  In 
the  lower  part  of  the  figure 
represi'Utiid  the  fore  part 
an  army -worm  bearing 
I'Ugs  of  the  fly  ;  the  larva  is 
siiown  on  the  left,  tlie  pupa 
''^  on  the  right,  and  the  adult 

in  the  middle., 

17.   Order     Siphonaptera 

(from   (ir.  al^m.  tube  +  A*- 

rtpot,  wingless). — This  order 

Pro.  ».-fltmoraa     Uwnmia.   ■  includes   the   fleas,  and   the 

d.pjj.™u»p««iieoril,e«r»r-r^^„^g   jigger   of     tropical 

the  tliree  segments  of  the  thorax  arc  distinct  and  nearly 
equal.  The  mesuthoral  and  metathorax  l>ciLr  short  leaf-like 
apiiendages  in  the  place  of  wings.  The  mouth-parts  arc 
formed  for  sucking.  The  metamorphosis  is  complete  The 
iarvie  are  worm-like  in  form,  being  long  and  slender.  They 
can  be  found  in  the  sice  ping- places  of  cats  and  other  ani- 
mals. When  full  grown  Ihey  spin  a  silken  cocoon  within 
which  the  pupa  slate  is  pusseil.  The  Iiody  of  the  adult  is 
much  comprcKsi'd,  admitting  of  free  movement  among  the 
hairs  of  the  host,  and  the  legs  are  fitted  for  leaping. 

18.  Onler  Coleoplera  (from  Gr.  KoKtit.  sheath  +  rrtpir. 
wing). — The  membere  of  this  onler  have  four  wings,  the 
first  pair  of  which  are  teriued  rlvlra,  and  are  much  thick- 
ened, meeting  in  a  straight  line  down  the  liack  ;  tlie  seccmd 
pair  are  membranous,  and  when  not  in  use  are  folded  be- 
neath the  elytni.  The  muuth-t>arts  are  formed  for  biting. 
The  metauiorphosiw  is  comjilctc.  This  order  includes  only 
the  beetles,  which  can  be  distinguished  from  all  other  in- 


sects, exuept  the  earwigs,  by  the  peculiar  fonn  of  the  fore 
wings  or  elytra ;  they  differ  from  (he  earwigs  in  lacking  tb* 
caudal  forceps  characteristic  of  tho^^e  insects.     The  larrn*  of 
beetles  are  commonly  civl led  grub.i.    They  are  Qsually  fur- 
nished with  six  thoracic  legs,  and  often  with  a  single  pri>- 
leg  at  the  caudal  end  of  the  body.    The  pupie  liave  tbe 
partially  developed  legs  and  wings  folded  u]»)n 
the  breast,  but  in  distinct  sheaths.    These  in- 
sects usually  transform  in  rude  cocoims  inaiie 
of  earth  or  bits  of  wood  fastened  together  lir 
a  viscid  substance  excreted  by  the  larva.     Both 
beetles  and  their  larve  vary  greatly  in  haliits. 
Uany  species  arc  predaceous,and  are  thus  U'n- 
eficial  t«  man  by  destroying  insect  pests;   >>ul 
others  feed  upon  vegetable  matter,  and  are  thus 
noxious.    Amongtheimportantpestsare  many 
species  of  borers  infesting  trees.    Other  iipecie! 
feed  upon  the  foliage  of  plants,  as  the  Colorailo 
beetle.    Fig.  37  will  serve  to  illustnte  the  form 
of  the  members  of  this  otder. 

16.  OtHot  HymenopleraitroTaGr.  Iftfir,  jntm- 
brane  +  «T((>ir,  wingV^The  members  of  ihis 
order  have  fourwings;  these  are  mpmbnuii>\L'<, 
and  furnished  with  comparatively  few  or  with 
no  transverse  veins.  The  second  pair  of  winKS 
is  smaller  than  the  first.  The  mouth-^rts  >ra 
formed  both  for  sucking  and  biting.  The  ab- 
domen of  the  female  is  usually  lumisheil  with 
a  sting,  piercer,  or  saw.  The  metamorjihosis 
ia  complete.  The  members  of  this  order  are 
well  known  toeveryoteerver.  Theyarpann'og 
the  first  of  insects  to  attract  atlenliuu,  alioiuid- 
ing  wherever  flowers  bloom  ;  and  the  habi1^  "t 
certain  forms,  as  the  ants,  bees,  and  wasps,  bate 
excited  wonder  and  admiration  from  the  earliest  time.  fit;. 
1  represents  a  member  of  this  order. 

Toe  larvn  ot  Hymenoplera  are  usually  footless,  macg<>t- 
like  creatures,  incapable  of  any  extended  motion,  and  i  ii- 
tirely  dependent  on  the  provision  made  for  them  by  iln' 
adult  insects.  But  in  the  two  lower  families,  the  s«w-flii--< 
and  the  honi-l ails,  the  larvie  ure  furnished  with  legs,  anil 
frequently  have  a  striking  rcH>mblance  to  cuterpillars  Imth 
in  form  and  habits.  As  a  rule,  the  larva?  of  saw-flies  ( TVit- 
Ihredinida)  feed  upon  the  foliage  of  plants,  and  the  Ikrw 
of  the  horn-tails  {Siricidal  bore  in  trie  more  solid  parts. 
The  gall-flies  {Cynipida)  also  feed  upon  vegetable  natter : 
but  their  method  of  attack  is  peculiar.  The  gall-fly  lav* 
her  egg  within  the  tissue  of  the  plant ;  when  the  egg  bati-ln'H 
the  young  larva  tiegins  to  feed  upon  the  plant,  and  immedi- 
ately there  takes  place  an  abnormal  growth  ot  the  plunt 
about  the  larva.  The  larva  is  thus  inclosed  in  what  ia 
known  as  a  gait.  Oalls  are  familiar  objects,  especially 
upon  oaks. 


d.rf.b 


.—Colorado  potatcliwllp : 


lefroi 


!>,  Iw-TB  ;  r.  pufvi  ; 


c.  pale  I 


Several  families  of  this  order  are  parasites.  The  egiis  nr* 
laid  either  in  or  upon  the  bodies  of  other  inse<.'ts:  aii<]  t!,.. 
larvR  obtain  their  growth  within  the  body  ot  the  h.v-- 
These  parasitic  Ilymenopltra  play  an  important  i"»trl  m 
preventing  the  undue  increase  ot  insects  injurious  to  v<-i;.- 

In  the  higher  families  ot  the  order  is  found  the  most  ri~- 


164 


ENVIRONMENT 


EPACT 


session  of  land.  By  the  common  law  a  person  had  a  right, 
when  deprived  of  the  possession  of  his  land  by  a  person 
whose  original  entry  was  unlawful,  to  regain  his  legal  pos- 
session by  a  formal  and  peaceable  act  of  entering  upon  it 
with  the  declaration  that  he  thereby  takes  possession. 
When  the  disseizor's  original  entry  was  lawful  the  owner 
was  driven  to  an  action.  The  common-law  action  of  writ 
of  entry  is  now  disused.  Any  goin^  upon  the  land  of  an- 
other is  often  termed  an  entry,  and  unless  done  with  the 
permission  of  the  owner  is  in  most  instances  unlawful  and 
a  trespass.  Revised  by  F.  Stuboes  Allen. 

EnTlronment:  in  zoOIogy  and  botany,  the  sum  of  the 
conditions  or  surroundings  of  an  animal  or  plant.  Climate, 
the  physical  features  of  a  country,  absence  or  presence  of 
enemies,  and  ease  or  difficulty  of  procuring  food  are  among 
the  more  important  factors  of  environment.         F.  A.  L. 

EnTO^  [envoy  is  from  0.  Fr.  envoye  (Mod.  Fr.  envoi),  deriv. 
of  envotier  (Mod.  Fr.  envoyer),  send :  Ital.  inviare :  Span. 
inviar  <  Lat.  in  +  via,  way] :  a  messenger ;  in  political  mat- 
ters a  person  deputed  hj  a  ruler  or  government  for  transact- 
ing business  witn  a  foreign  ruler  or  government.  In  diplo- 
macy the  term  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary is  applied  to  a  diplomatic  agent  of  rank  next  beiow 
an  ambassaaor.  See  Ambassador,  Diplomatic  Agents,  and 
International  Law. 

Enzina,  Juan  del  :  See  Encina. 

Enzio,  or  Enzo:  soldier;  natural  son  of  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.  of  Germany ;  b.  1225 ;  fought  at  his  father's 
side  in  the  battle  of  C!ortenuova  at  the  age  of  thirteen ;  in 
the  following  year  married  Adelasia,  the  widow  of  Waldo 
Visconti  and  heiress  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  and  received 
the  title  of  King  of  Sardinia.  In  1239  he  was  made  vicar 
imperial,  with  the  task  of  subduing  the  Guelph  cities  of 
Northern  Italy,  and  in  spite  of  his  youth  became  the  ablest 
of  Ghibelline  leaders.  The  cities  of  Umbria  were  reduced 
to  obedience,  and  the  best  military  talent  of  his  enemies 
was  enlisted  as^ainst  him  in  vain.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
year  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope.  Taking  com- 
mand of  the  allied  imperial  and  Pisan  fleets,  he  defeated 
the  Genoese  in  1241  near  the  island  of  Meloria,  sank  three  and 
captured  nineteen  of  their  vessels,  and  took  4,000  prisoners, 
including  many  prelates  of  high  rank  who  were  journey- 
ing to  the  Roman  council.  His  next  service  to  the  emperor 
was  his  victory  conjointly  with  his  brother  over  the  Tartars 
on  the  river  Delphos.  In  1247  he  was  again  active  in 
Northern  Italy  against  the  Guelphs,  whose  revolt,  however, 
could  not  be  suppressed,  and  though  he  captured  Arola, 
where  his  murder  of  prisoners  left  a  stain  on  his  reputation, 
all  but  Modena  ana  Reggio  were  lost  to  the  emperor. 
Gathering  his  forces  for  a  final   effort,  he  met  the  Bolo- 

?;ne8e  in  battle  on  the  banks  of  the  Fossalta,  but  was  de- 
eatcii  and  taken  prisoner.  So  g^eat  was  the  fear  felt  for 
hira  by  his  captors  that  the  senate  and  people  of  Bologna 
decreed  his  perpetual  confinement.  Neither  the  offer  of 
ransom  nor  the  threats  of  punishment  made  by  the  em- 
peror could  procure  the  release  of  Enzio,  who,  however,  was 
treated  with  honor,  and  experienced  no  hardship  save  the 
loss  of  his  liberty.  His  captivity  lasted  twenty-tnree  years. 
D.  Mar.  14  or  15,  1272.  F.  M.  Colby. 

E^ocene  Period  [eocene  is  from  Gr.  4i^s,  dawn  +  Moiy^f , 
new] :  the  division  of  geologic  time  following  the  Cretace- 
ous {)eriod  and  preceding  the  Neocene :  the  earlier  part  of 
the  Cenozoic  {q.  v,)  or  Tertiary  era.  Eocene  life  is  distin- 
guished from  Cretaceous  by  the  disappearance  or  subordina- 
tion of  archaic  and  the  substitution  of  modern  types. 
Among  vertebrates  domination  passed  from  the  reptiles 
to  the  mammals.  The  Ammonites  and  their  aberrant  con- 
geners, as  well  as  the  Rudistes  and  Inocerarai,  became  ex- 
tinct, and  were  replaced  by  representatives  of  such  familiar 
genera  as  Ceritheum,  ConuH,  Ftunis^  Valuta,  and  Cardium. 
Arborescent  ferns  and  cytyuls  gradually  disappeared,  leav- 
ing the  aspect  of  the  forest  essentially  modern. 

in  the  U.  S.  Eocene  rcK^ks  occupy  a  brotul  belt  parallel 
hut  not  adjacent  to  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  coasts,  from 
Texas  to  North  Carolina.  In  the  Mississippi  valley  an  ex- 
tt'usion  of  the  belt  reaches  northward  to  tlie  mouth  of  the 
Ohio,  and  there  is  another  in  Florida.  A  narrower  belt 
eroHst^s  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  Virginia.  A 
few  smaller  areas  are  known  in  California,  Ore^^on,  and 
Washington,  and  extensive  lacustrine  beds  of  the  same  ai^e 
(H'cur  in  Wyoming,  Utah,  Colorado,  and  New  Mexico.  The 
strata  include  marls  of  agricultural  value  in  the  eastern 


district,  phosphates   in  Florida,  and  coal  in  the  interior. 
See  Geology.  G.  K.  G. 

Eohip'pus  [from  Gr.  Ii^s*  dawn  +  Tmt,  horse] :  an  ex> 
tinct  genus  of  the  horse  family  occurring  in  the  Hower  Eo- 
cene deposits  of  the  West,  and  allied  to  Orohippus  (see 
Horse,  Fossil),  but  of  a  less  specialized  form,  and  apfmr- 
ently  in  the  direct  ancestral  line.  The  feet  had  four  toes  in 
front  and  three  behind,  with  a  rudiment  of  the  outer  or  fifth 
metatarsal,  and  may  have  had  a  rudiment  of  the  first  toe  in 
the  fore  foot.  This  genus  is  represented  by  species  from 
the  lowest  Eocene  beds  of  New  Mexico  and  Wyoming. 

Eolian  Harp :  See  .^Eolian  Harp. 

Eon  (or  Eado)  de  Stella:  a  fanatic  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury ;  an  ignorant  (and  perhaps  insane)  nobleman  of  Bre> 
tagne,  who,  having  heard,  during  the  act  of  exorcism,  the 
words  **  through  Him  "  (per  Eum,  etc.,  in  Latin)  •'  who  will 
come  to  judge  the  quick  and  dead,"  concluded,  from  the  re- 
semblance between  his  own  name  Eon  and  the  Latin  Eum^ 
that  he  was  the  one  appointed  as  the  final  jud^  of  man- 
kind. He  taught  a  reiormed  doctrine,  and  gained  manv 
disciples.  He  was  captured  in  1148,  and  many  of  his  i*A- 
lowers  (called  Eonians)  were  burned,  but  Eon  himself  wa> 
pronounced  insane,  and  seems  to  have  been  spared. 

E^os  [a  personification  of  Ion.  Gr.  ^f.  Attic  Gr.  ««t. 
dawn;  cf.  Lat.  aurora,  Sanskr.  uaha's-]:  in  the  Gretk 
mythology,  a  daughter  of  Hyperion,  a  sister  of  Helios  (the 
sun),  ana  the  wife  of  Tithonus.    See  Aurora. 

Eosine :  See  Phthauc-acid  Colors. 

EtttTtts,  or  EoetToes,  a'ot-vOsh,  Joseph.  Freiheir  xow. 
Hungarian  author  and  statesman ;  b.  in  Buda,  Sept.  13, 18i:{ : 
educated  at  the  University  of  Pesth.  About  the  age  <»f 
twenty  he  produced  Boszu,  a  tragedy,  and  two  succesiiful 
comedies  entitled  Kritikusok  and  llazasulok.  He  al>^» 
gained  distinction  as  a  political  writer  and  orator  of  the 
pNopular  party.  Among  his  works  are  a  political  novel  en- 
titled Falusl  iegyzd  (The  Village  Notary ;  1844-46),  which 
was  translated  into  English,  and  another  on  Der  EinfluiOi 
der  herrschenden  Ideen  aes  19,  Jahrhunderts  auf  den  ^faat 
(Vienna  and  Leipzig,  1851-54).  He  was  minister  of  pubii* 
instruction  in  1848,  but  he  resigned  the  same  year.  In 
1865  he  be^an  to  edit  a  political  paper.  In  1867,  after  t  ri*- 
reconciliation  between  the  Magyars  and  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  had  been  effected,  he  was  again  appointed  Minister 
of  Public  Instruction,  which  place  he  retained  until  hi^ 
death.    D.  in  Pesth,  Feb.  3,  1871. 

Eozotfn  [from  Gr.  ^e&s,  dawn  +  Cf^oy*  living  being] :  a  f  **- 
culiar  mineral  structure  supposed  to  represent  an  organiMn. 
first  disciovered  in  the  pre-Cambrian  or  Archean  limestones 
of  Canada  (see  Archean  Era),  composed  of  concentric  lii\- 
ers  of  dark-green  serpentine  with  interstices  filled  with  <-nl- 
cite  or  dolomite,  or  with  irregular  canals  of  those  minomU 
running  through  it.  The  name  was  applied  to  these  ohje<^> 
by  Sir  William  Dawson,  who  interpreted  them  to  be  the  f «  — 
sil  remains  of  foraminifer-likie  organisms,  giving  the  ntini»- 
Eozodn  canadense  to  those  first  described.  On  accouikt  of 
the  great  antiquity  of  the  formations  (Laurentian)  frotn 
whicn  they  came,  and  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  relationship 
of  the  structure  to  any  known  organism,  much  doubt  l»a^ 
been  cast  upon  the  correctness  of  Dawson's  interpretatioti. 

If  organic,  it  represents  the  most  ancient  known  or>:.i:-.- 
ism.  While  some  palaeontologists  and  geologists  belii»w  it 
to  be  organic,  many  others,  and  particularly  those  ex|x>rtv 
in  the  knowledge  of  mineralogy  and  petrographv,  consiihr 
eozocJn  to  be  purely  inorganic  in  origin.    H.  S.  W'illiams. 

E^paci  [from   Gr.  4vcuct6s,  deriv.  of  Miy^w,  intereiklar.> : 
M,  upon,  to  +  &7Ciy,  bring]  :  the  excess  of  the  mean   si4»!ir 
niontn  (the  twelfth  part  of  a  tropical  year)  over  the   ni»-ATi 
lunar  synodical  month,  or  mean  lunation — that  is,  inasmiK  S 
as  the  mean  lunation  is  less  than  the  mean  solar  month.  tli>- 
epact  is  properly  the  amount  to  be  added  to  the  former  t«» 
bring  it  up,  or  make  it  equal,  to  the  latter.     Practical U .  ij. 
the  Church  calendar,  however,  the  epact  is  the  nunil><»r  i'. 
days  which  intervene  between  the  end  of  the  ecclesiHsti*  .». 
year  in  December  and  the  first  day  of  January  succ^j^nlixi-  - 
or,  as  it  is  commonly  expressed,  the  epact  is  tfie  age   of  1 1. 
moon,  estimated  in  entire  davs,  at  the  beginning  ol  the  ii\  ■.; 
year.     According  to  the  dcAnition  given  first  above,   it    .- 
manifest  that  the  epact  must  increase  from  month  to  mont  *i. 
but    for    the  purposes  of  the  ecclesiastical  calendar    tU-^ 
monthly  increase  is  not  considered,  the  entire  increasi*  f .  r 
each  year  being  supposed  to  take  place  at  the  end   •>f  t>!.- 
year.    This  calendar  is  extremely  artificial,  the    ealen.l.i- 


166 


BPAMINONDAS 


KPHEMERIS 


5=41-  J  (41) -i  (41)  +  2  =  41-10-13  +  2=20.  In 
General  Table  II.  of  the  Prayer-book  we  find  opposite  to 
4100  the  number  11.  And  11  +  9  =  20,  thus  verifying  the 
statement  made  above.  F.  A.  P.  Barnard. 

EpamlnonMas  (in  Gr.  "Ev^ucu^rSos,  or  'Em^ui^ySar) : 
Greek  statesman  and  general ;  b.  at  Thebes  about  418  B.  c. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Lysis,  a  Pythas^orean  philosopher.  His 
youth  was  passed  in  retirement  and  study.  He  was  temper- 
ate and  virtuous,  and  is  said  to  have  despised  riches.  He 
formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Polopidas.  In  385  he 
served  with  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  after 
which  he  passed  niany  years  in  private  life.  He  was  one  of 
the  deputies  sent  by  Thebes  in  371  b.  c.  to  a  congress  of  the 
Grecian  states,  in  which  he  opposed  the  policy  of  Sparta 
and  defended  the  interest  ana  rights  of  Thebes  in  an  elo- 
quent speech.  War  speedily  ensued  between  Sparta  and 
Thebes,  and  Epaminondas  was  chosen  commander  of  the 
Theban  army,  which  amounted  to  only  6,500  men.  He  de- 
feated the  Spartans  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  July  6,  371 
B.  c,  which  was  fatal  to  the  supremacy  of  Sparta.  In  this 
action  he  displayed  great  military  genius,  and  owed  his  suc- 
cess partly  to  his  novel  manceuvers  and  combinations.  He 
invaaed  Peloponnesus  in  869,  and  marched  against  Sparta, 
which  was  defended  with  success  by  Agesilaus.  He  com- 
manded the  Theban  armv  which  defeated  the  Spartans  at 
the  battle  of  Mantinea,  July  3,  362  b.  c,  but  was  killed  in 
this  action.  He  left  a  pure  and  exalted  reputation  as  a  pa- 
triot, a  statesman,  and  a  sage,  and  is  universally  admitted 
to  have  been  one  of  the  greatest  captains  of  antiquity. 
Cicero  expressed  the  opinion  that  Epaminondas  was  the 
greatest  man  that  Greece  has  produced.  See  Cornelius  Ne- 
pos,  Epaminondas ;  Grote,  History  of  Oreece^  chaps.  IxviiL, 
'Ixix.,  and  Ixxx. ;  and  Curtius,  History  of  Greece, 

Ep'arch  [from  Gr.  Iiropxoy,  governor,  used  to  translate 
the  Liat.  prmfectus ;  M,  upon,  over  +  ipx^f^t  rule] :  in  an- 
cient Greece,  the  title  of  the  governor  of  a  province,  a  ship's 
master,  a  satrap,  or  the  prefect  of  a  region  under  the  Roman 
rule.  The  province  itself  was  called  an  eparchy.  In  mod- 
ern Greece  the  primary  subdivision  of  a  nomarchy  is  called 
an  eparchy.  In  Russia  an  eparchy  is  the  diocese  or  arch- 
diocese of  a  bishop  or  archbishop  of  the  Greek  Church. 

EfMialement  [Fr.  SpatUementy  deriv.  of  ipaule,  shoulder 
<  Lat.  spa'tuld] :  a  military  term  which,  from  its  derivation, 
would  signify  a  side  work,  a  work  to  cover  sidewise — e.  g.  a 
traverse,  or  a  short  parapet  made  at  the  flank  of  a  battery 
or  end  of  a  parallel ;  but  practically  its  meaning  is  extended 
to  any  covering  made  of  earth,  stone,  wood,  or  iron,  when 
intended  simply  as  a  screen— «.  g.  to  cover  cavalry  waiting  to 
be  brought  into  action.    See  Manan's  Military  Engineering, 

Epaalette  [Fr.  Spaulette,  deriv.  of  Spaule,  shoulder  < 
Lat.  spa' tula] :  an  ornamental  article  of  uniform  of  military 
and  naval  officers,  worn  on  the  shoulders ;  a  plate  or  strap 
extending  along  the  shoulder  from  near  the  collar,  and  ter- 
minating with  a  fringe  of  gold  or  silver  bullion,  which  falls 
over  the  shoulder.  Rank  is  indicated  by  the  size  of  the 
bullion  and  by  devices  on  the  strap,  such  as  stars,  anchors, 
crowns,  etc.  In  the  U.  S.  army  the  epaulette  is  confined  to 
general  officers,  its  place  bemg  supplied,  for  the  lower 
grades,  by  the  "  shoulder-knot  of  gilt  cord,  but  in  the 
navy  it  is  worn  by  officers  of  all  grades.  The  practice  varies 
in  the  different  services  of  Europe. 

E|ieira  [trom  Gr.  iwttpopuu,  I  examine! :  a  genus  of  spi- 
ders in  which  the  eight  eyes  are  arranged  in  two  rows,  tne 
middle  four  forming  a  square;  the  two  anterior  pairs  of 
legs  are  longer  than  the  others,  and  the  abdomen  is  large, 
ovoid,  and  usually  brightly  colored.  Epeira  and  its  allien 
are  known  as  "  orb-weavers,"  from  the  fact  that  they  build 
circular  webs  with  radiating  threads  and  concentric  cross- 
threads.  J.  S.  K. 

Epeirns :  See  Epirus. 

Epenceph^alon  [from  Gr.  M,  upon,  near  +  iyKi^^Xos, 
brain] :  See  Brain. 

Eperies,  o-nd-ri-esh',  or  Presora  (Ijat.  Eperim  or  Fro- 
gopolis):  an  old  town  of  Ilunprary ;  the  capital  of  the  county 
of  Saros;  on  the  river  Tarcza:' about  14H  miles  N.  E.  of 
Budapest  {sec  map  of  Austria-ilungary,  ref.  4-1).  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  towns  of 
Upf)er  Hungary.  It  is  a  bishop's  see,  has  five  cliurcbes,  a 
C()lle*,'e,  and  manufactures  of  linens,  woolen  goods,  and 
earthenware.  A  roval  salt  mine  is  worked  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  (1890)  10,400.  ' 


Epernay,  a'pftr'na  (Lat.  AqiKr  Perennes):  a  town  of 
France ;  department  of  Marne ;  on  the  river  Mame ;  about 
80  miles  E.  ny  N.  from  Paris  (see  map  of  Prance,  ref.  S-ii). 
It  is  on  the  railway  from  Paris  to  Cnalons,  20  miles  W,  N. 
W.  of  the  latter.  It  is  well  built,  clean,  and  well  p>aved,  and 
has  a  public  library,  manufactures  of  hosiery,  earthenware, 
and  refined  sugar,  and  many  elegant  villas,  with  wintv 
vaults.  [Epernay  is  a  great  entrepot  or  market  for  cham- 
pagne proauced  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  (1891)  18,252. 

Ephem'era  [from  Gr.  4^/upos,  living  but  a  day ;  M,  upon 
+  fifUfMy  day] :  a  genus  of  pseudoneuropterous  insects,  com- 
monly called  dav-fly,  or  May-fly,  belonging  to  the  family 
EphemeridcBy  and  aUied  to  the  aragon-mes,  or  LibeUulidtr. 
In  the  larva  and  pupa  states  they  live  a  year  or  more  in  the 
water,  but  their  existence  in  the  perfect  state  is  very  briof. 
They  are  used  by  anglers  as  bait.  They  give  name  to  the 
family  EphemeridcSy  of  which  many  species  occur  in  the 
U.  S.    See  Entomoloot. 

Ephem^erls  [Gr.  i^fupis,  diary,  journal;  M,  upon  + 
iffji4pa,  day] :  in  astronomy,  a  table  giving  the  positions  of 
any  heavenly  body  from  time  to  time  for  a  considerable  pe- 
riod. Thus  we  have  an  ephemeris  of  the  fixed  stars,  show- 
ing the  place  of  the  principal  stars  for  every  tenth  day  of 
the  year.  An  ephemeris  of  the  planets  gives  the  position  of 
each  planet,  usually  for  noon  or  midnight  of  every  day, 
sometimes  also  for  every  transit  over  the  meridian  or  soiiie 
one  place. 

The  astronomical  tables  which  household  almanacs  con- 
tain are  given  with  little  precision,  and  are  for  the  most 
part  adapted  only  to  a  particular  latitude.  Such  tables  an^ 
said  to  have  been  constructed  even  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy. 
They  were  indispensable  to  the  astrologers  of  later  dayV. 
who  doubtless  used  them  for  finding  the  positions  of  the 
planets  at  some  future  or  past  date,  and  were  compiled  wit  h 
sufficient  accuracy  for  their  prognostications. 

An  astronomical  ephemeris  is  a  collection  of  such  ephem- 
erides  for  a  particular  year  or  series  of  years,  witn  the 
times  of  eclipses,  occultations,  and  other  astronomical  phe- 
nomena, or  the  means  of  determining  them.  The  more 
complete  works  of  this  kind  are  intended  to  furnish  the 
astronomical  observer,  whether  at  an  observatory,  in  the 
field  of  a  survey,  or  at  sea,  with  all  the  data  relating  to  t  he 
sun,  moon,  planets,  and  some  of  the  principal  fixed  stairs,, 
which  he  needs  to  facilitate  the  prosecution  of  his  work- 
From  the  design  of  some  portions  of  them  to  the  wants  of 
navigators,  they  are  also  called  noAitical  almanacs. 

Such  publications  were  issued  by  astronomers  from  the 
time  that  astronomy  was  extensively  cultivated  as  a  science. 
During  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  they  hare 
gener^ly  been  issued  by  governments,  and  during  the  nine- 
teenth century  most  of  the  governments  of  Europe  have  had 
some  sort  of  an  ephemeris  or  nautical  almanac  Those  b«-st 
known  belong  to  France,  Great  Britain,  (Germany,  and  the 
U.  S. 

The  earliest  astronomical  ephemeris  noticed  in  bibliog- 
raphies is  that  of  larchus  in  1150 ;  the  first  printed  ephenie- 
rides  were  published  in  1475  for  the  years  1475  to  15(l6« 
and  in  1499  for  the  years  1475  to  1531,  though  doubtless- 
portions  were  prepared  earlier ;  both  were  prepared  by  Re- 
giomontanus.  The  latter  extends  through  three  cycles  of 
nineteen  years,  and  gives  the  longitudes  of  the  sun  aii<l 
moon,  and  the  phases  of  the  moon  and  of  eclipses  occurring 
from  1483  to  1530,  with  explanations  and  useful  table.-^. 
These  have  been  the  precursors  of  a  succession  of  epheme- 
rides,  defective  at  first,  but  improving  as  astronomy  ail- 
vanced. 

The  Connaissance  des  Temps  ou  des  Mouvements  c^leAtt^j<^ 
commenced  by  Picard  for  the  year  1679,  has  appeared  f *  >r 
each  succeeding  year,  without  interruption,  to  tne  present 
time.  Additions  and  improvements  were  made  by  La  Lain  U* 
in  1760,  who  subsequently  added  lunar  distances,  with  tin- 
design  of  making  tlie  book  more  useful  at  sea.  Thi-^  an^t 
almost  all  the  subsequent  volumes  have  been  eiiriche<l  l>\ 
valuable  memoirs  by  the  most  eminent  French  astn.>nomcr>. 
thus  carrying  out  the  purpose  of  La  Lande  to  make  this  an- 
nual a  journal  of  astronomy.  For  many  years  it  ha^  Ih>»"h 
prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitud*  -- 
of  Prance.  Improvements  have  been  made  in  it  from  tinn 
to  time  bv  the  use  of  more  precise  tables  in  its  prejiarati^.*!^. 

The  Kautical  Almanac  artd  Astronomical  Epht^nert  *, 
publisluMl  by  the  British  Admiralty,  was  commenced  1>> 
Maskelvne  for  the  vear  1767.  lie  undertook  ifcj  prei>«rn- 
tion,  after  a  plan  sketched  by  La  Caille.  for  the  purp«»^- 


168 


EPICHARMUS 


EPIC   POETRY 


rical,  with  occasional  use  of  rhyme  and  assonance,  and  he  is 
fond  of  the  acrostic  arrangement.  But  of  his  many  works 
only  a  small  number  exist  in  the  original  Syrian  text,  the 
rest  surviving  in  Greek,  Latin.  Armenian,  and  Slavic  trans- 
lations. It  is  doubtful  whether  he  himself  understood 
Greek ;  the  Greek  versions  of  his  works,  however,  are  cer- 
tainly translations.  A  complete  list  of  his  writings  is  given 
by  I.  S.  Assemani  in  the  Biblioiheca  Orientalis  (i.  59-164), 
and  in  the  preface  to  the  Roman  edition  of  the  Greek  text  of 
his  works.  The  principal  edition  of  the  Syrian  and  Greek 
texts  is  that  which  appeared  in  Rome  in  o  vols.  (1732-46), 
under  papal  authority ;  3  vols.  Greek  text  with  Latin  trans- 
lation, and  3  vols.  Syrian  text,  also  with  Latin  translation, 
by  the  brothers  Assemani.  The  hymns  and  sermons  were 
published,  with  Ijatin  translation,  by  T.  J.  Lamy  (Mechlin, 
Belgium,  1882^9).  A  German  translation  of  a  selection  of 
his  works  was  published  by  Zingerle  (6  vols.,  18ii0-3'n. 
English  translation  of  selections  bv  J.  B.  Morris  (Oxford, 
1847)  and  of  hymns  and  homilies  by  H.  Burgess  (London, 
1853).    D.  373.  Revised  by  C.  H.  Toy. 

Epicharnms :  Greek  comic  poet  and  thinker ;  b.  in  the 
island  of  Cos  about  540  b.  c.  ;  emigrated  to  Sicily  in  early 
childhood ;  settled  in  Syracuse,  and  died  at  the  age  of  ninety. 
The  Pythagoreans  claimed  him  as  a  member  of  their  order 
on  the  strength  of  his  wise  sentences,  and  it  was  on  this  ac- 
count that  Plato  ranked  him  in  comedy  with  Homer  in  epic. 
Epicharmus  gave  artistic  form  to  Sicilian  comedy,  of  which 
the  great  features  are  the  travesty  of  mythology  and  the 
representation  of  typical  characters  from  daily  life.  Ilis 
language  is  the  local  Doric  dialect,  and  the  **  rapidity  "  said 
to  be  characteristic  of  his  comedies  is  ascribed  now  to  his 
verse,  now  to  his  plot,  now  to  both.  Scant  fragments  are 
to  be  found  in  Ahrens,  De  GrceccB  Ungues  dialeciis  (vol.  ii., 
appendix).    See  Mailer's  Dor%ai\8\  Lorenz,  De  Epicharmo 

(1864).  B.  L.  GllLDEBSLEEVE. 

Epic  Poetry,  or  The  Epos:  poetry  which  narrates  a 
series  of  adventures  or  events,  usually  of  an  heroic  or  super- 
natural order.  No  thoroughly  satisfactory  definition  of  epic 
poetry,  however,  has  ever  Ixjen  given.  Perhaps  as  ^ood  as  any 
&  that  of  the  Italian  scholar  Pio  Rajna, "  any  poetic  narration 
of  memorable  things"  (Le  Origini  delV  Epopea  fraiicese^  p. 3) ; 
yet  it  would  be  easy  to  And  critical  objections  to  this.  All 
authorities  are  agr(»ed  that  an  epic  poem  must  be  a  narra- 
tive, and  of  an  imaginative  rather  than  literal  kind ;  but  as 
to  the  kind  of  "  memorable  things  "  suited  to  such  narrative 
there  remains  great  divergence  of  opinion.  It  is  best  there- 
fore to  pass  from  a  theoretical  to  an  historical  view  of  the 
subject. 

Even  a  slight  study  of  existing  epics,  so  called,  brings  out 
the  fact  that  under  this  name  are  included  poems  of  very 
different  characters,  at  least  in  so  far  as  the  method  ^  of 
their  genesis  is  concerned.  On  the  one  side  are  works  like 
the  ritad  and  Odyssey,  of  a  singularly  objective  and  imper- 
sonal kind ;  on  the  other,  poems  like  the  JEmid,  the  Geru- 
acUemme  Liherata^  and  Paradise  Lost,  which  are  the  prod- 
ucts of  individual  geniuses,  working  in  perfectly  well- 
known  conditions,  and  impressing  their  own  personalities 
upon  all  that  they  write.  When  we  try  to  pass  from  the 
works  of  Homer  to  Homer  himself,  and  to  imagine  what 
manner  of  man  he  was,  we  find  ourselves  instantly  at  a  loss. 
We  can  not  even  determine  whether  he  was  one  or  many, 
much  less  distinguish  his  personal  opinions,  sympathies,  or 
qualities.  All  we  are  sure  of  is  a  certain  poetic  matter  laid 
out  before  us  with  the  noblest  and  most  beautiful  art.  The 
poet  has  completely  sunk  himself  in  his  subject,  and  has  ap- 
parently taken  no  thought  of  preserving  his  own  name  and 
lame.  And  this  subject,  this  poetic  matter,  furthermore,  is 
evidently  not  something  of  the  poet's  own  contrivance  or  in- 
vention. It  existed  and  was  esteemed  before  him ;  so  that 
it  was  enough  for  him  to  present  it  as  clearly  and  charm- 
ingly as  he  could.  It  belonged  to  his  audience,  not  to  him ; 
and  his  audience  required  of  him  that  he  should  be  in  the 
highest  sense  true  to  it.  Ilis  office  was  to  revive  and  fix  m 
beautiful  forms  certain  precious  memorials  cherished  by  all 
j)ersoHS  of  his  race  and  time.  Hence  the  inlpersonality  of 
the  product.  Accordingly,  all  that  is  left  is  the  study  of 
the  poem,  not  of  the  poet. 

Tnis  compulsory  transference  of  attention  to  the  subject- 
matter  of  poems  like  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  makes 
still  clearer  the  difference  between  them  and  jK)eiiis  like  the 
uEfteid.  The  former  are  ess«»iitially  the  s|)(»ntane(>us  and 
natural  expression  of  the  ethical  and  imaginative  life  of  a 
whole  sixjiety,  a  whole  race;  the  latter  are  the  proiiucts  of 


a  personal  and  intellectual  art.  Nor  is  this  lilL  A  still 
deeper  study  of  the  genesis  of  the  great  popular  epics  shows 
us  that  they  are  the  perfected  result  of  long  poetic  prepara- 
tion, of  what  M.  Gaston  Paris  has  well  callea  **  une  fermen- 
tation ipiqite"  {Litt,  fra/n^aise  au  Moyen  Age,  p.  36,  WJO). 
Behind  them  are  not  epic  models,  but  epic  experiments,  aini 
experiments  in  the  same  line  as  themselves.  In  the  ^'  per- 
sonal" or  "literary"  epics,  on  the  other  hand,  even  tin- 
greatest,  there  are  everywhere  the  signs  of  imitation,  of  thr 
effort  to  come  up  to  standards  evidently  derived  from  with- 
out. Homer,  whoever  he  was,  thought  only  of  telling  again 
the  familiar  heroic  story  of  Troy;  Milton  was  oonoemo<l 
quite  as  much  with  preserving  in  his  poems  the  true  epic 
manner — the  manner  of  Homer  and  Vergil — as  with  tellint; 
of  the  Fall  and  the  Redemption  of  man. 

The  scientific  study  of  epic  poetrv  must  begin  therefon- 
with  the  investigation  of  such  periods  of  poetic  preparation, 
or  *'  epic  fermentation,"  as  produced  or  might  (but  for  wn-i- 
dent)  have  produced  great  spontaneous  and  natural  enir^ 
The  chief  of  these  periods  are  undoubtedly  that  whicli  in 
Greece  culminated  in  the  Hiad  and  the  Odyssey,  that  which 
in  India  culminated  in  the  Mahdbhdrata,  ana  that  which 
in  mediaaval  France  produced  the  Chansons  de  Geste  (of 
which  the  Chanson  ae  Roland  is  the  best  representative). 
Besides  these,  however,  we  have  numerous  periods  when 
essentially  the  same  processes  were  going  on  among  other 
peoples,  though  the  product  was  either  through  obetruct  iug 
causes  rendered  less  complete,  or  was  less  directly  and  per- 
fectly the  outcome  of  the  epic  fermentation  itself.     Thus 
among  the  Celts,  both  Cymric  and  Gaelic,  a  true  epic  ma- 
terial was  developed  far  toward  ultimate  fullness  and  power; 
but  the  unhappy  fortunes  of  the  Celtic  race  left  this  mate- 
rial to  be  used  by  aliens.    Among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  as  the 
poem  of  Beotntlf  showB  us,  only  the  premature  (in  the  p<H'tic 
sense)  invasion  of  Christianity  prevented  the  creation  of 
great  national  works.    Among  the  Scandinavian  peoples  we 
have  in  certain  of  the  lays  of  the  Elder  Edda  and  in  parts 
of  the  Volsunga  Saga  (though  the  latter  is  in  prose)  a  nenr 
approach  to  epic  success.    The  Spaniards  began  the  prefMi- 
ration  of  material  for  epics,  as  the  Poem  of  the  Cid  and  the 
ballads  prove ;  and  apparentlv  only  the  attraction  of  foreign 
culture  (that  of  Provence  and  France  and  Italv)  for  the  uj>- 
per  class,  separating  it  in  its  imaginative  life  for  a  time 
from  the  mass  of  the  people,  caused  this  material  to  be  left 
unused,  except  upon  a  minor  scale.    The  Slavic  races  have 
rich  funds  of  heroic  matter  peculiar  to  themselves ;  but  thev 
also  too  early  came  under  the  influence  of  other  more  devel- 
oped peoples,  and  have  made  little  use  of  their  own.     The 
mediieval  and  modem  Greeks,  too,  show  traces  of  the  matter 
from  which  epics  are  formed.    On  the  other  hand,  the  Ger- 
mans saw  their  heroic  traditions,  which  Christianity  with  iXs 
accompaniments  of  classical  education  and  French  culture 
had  caused  to  be  in  the  main  neglected  from  the  time  of 
Charlemagne  down  to  the  twelfth  century,  revived  and  em- 
bodied in  two  great  poems,  the  Nibelungen  and  the  Gudrun. 
But  in  these  innumerable  evidences  of  the  influence  of  foreign 
social  and  literary  ideals  testify  to  a  gap  in  the  continuity  of 
true  epic  creation.    Again,  the  Persians  have  in  their  Shah- 
Namen  a  work  which  onlv  a  long  previous  poetic  workin^j 
over  of  the  traditions  of  the  race  could  have  made  possible. 
Yet  the  author  of  it,  Firdausi,  was  after  all  a  court  pNoet,  l>e- 
longing  to  a  circle  of  such,  and  too  much  of  an  artistic  in- 
dividual, too  much  of  a  scholar,  to  be  a  perfect  representa- 
tive of  epic  art.    Finally,  the  Finns  possessed  in  tneir  pop- 
ular lays  heroic  matter  of  considerable  epic  possibilities; 
but  the   Kalevala,  in  which  LSnnrot,  a  mooem  scholar 
familiar  with  Wolfs  hypothesis  and  all  the  discussions  of 
the  ()hilolo^ists,  has  attempted  to  weld  these  lays  into  an 
epic  whole,  is  far  from  fulfilling  the  requirements  of  an  epic 
masterpiece  of  the  spontaneous  and  natural  kind. 

Still,  much  may  be  learned  of  the  genesis  and  nature  of 
epic  jioetry  from  the  study  of  all  these  periods  and  works. 
Far  the  richest  of  the  periods  for  this  purpose  is  undoubt- 
edly that  of  the  production  of  the  French  ChanAofin  d^ 
Geste.  To  be  sure,  there  were  pnxUiced  then  no  wi>rks  of 
the  incomparable  excellence  of  the  Iliad  and  the  i>dy.<fify. 
But  the  latter  stand  at  the  very  beginning  of  Greek  liter- 
ature, not  merely  not  prweded  or  accompanied  by  other 
poems  of  a  similar  character,  but  not  even  lightecl  up  by 
nints  in  contemporary  literature  of  other  kinds.  All  we  c-mi 
learn  of  the  manner  of  their  production  must  come  thnnigii 
the  analogy  of  otlier  epic  periods,  confirmed  by  the  internal 
evidence  of  the  poems  themselves.  In  mediaeval  France,  on 
the  contrary,  though  on  many  points  we  know  far  to«>  littl*.-. 


170 


EPIC   POETRY 


Chansons  de  Oeste  must  rest,  as  has  already  been  indicated, 
to  a  considerable  extent  upon  analogy.  In  the  case  of  tlie 
Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  we  have  absolutely  no  hint  as  to  the 
epic  process  until  it  appears  in  its  perfection  in  these  mas- 
terpieces. Yet  the  poems  themselves  upon  examination 
bear  out  well  the  theory  in  it«  essential  elements.  The 
Homeric  iai96s  clearly  corresponds  in  every  important  de- 
tail with  the  French  jongleur.  Like  him  he  is  an  enter- 
tainer, though  perhaps  with  somewhat  more  of  dignity. 
Like  him  he  addresses  an  aristocratic  society,  proud  of  its 
past,  loving  splendor,  and  having  leisure  which  must  be 
adorned.  Then  the  very  persistence  among  scholars  of  the 
theory  which  Wolf  suggested  (Prolegomena  ad  Ilomerum^ 
1795),  and  which  Lachmann  amplifie<l  in  his  so-called  Klein- 
lieder-Theorie^  however  wild  the  applications  of  it  may  often 
have  been,  would  seem  to  be  proof  enough  that  the  matter  of 
the  Homeric  poems  has  not  the  unity  and  consistency  of  an 
effort  of  an  individual  imagination.  On  the  contrary,  there 
appear  in  it  traces  of  the  long  and  various  working  over  of 
traditional  materials.  Finally,  all  that  we  know  of  the  later 
reciters  of  Homer,  the  rhapsodists  and  Homeridae,  as  well 
as  of  the  cyclic  poems,  corresponds  well  with  our  informa- 
tion about  the  \a\av  jongleurs  and  the  crop  of  French  gene- 
alogical poems  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 

If  we  turn  now  to  the  Mahdbhdrafa,  we  shall  obtain  the 
same  results,  though  it  may  be  said  that  we  have  here  more 
hints  as  to  the  preliminary  processes  than  is  the  case  with 
Homer.  It  is  certain  that  in  India  heroic  song  was  from 
immemorial  antiquity  cultivated  at  the  courts  of  princes 
and  general  I V  among  the  knightly  class  (Kshatrivas).  In 
the  Mahdhharata  itself  the  transmission  of  epic  legend  is 
connected  with  the  Sdtas,  a  caste  which  resulted  from  the 
union  of  Kshairiya  men  and  Brdhmana  women,  and  which 
supplied  chiLrioteers  and  heralds  as  well  as  professional 
minstrels.  The  legends  which  these  minstrels  made  use  of 
were  partly  historical,  partly  mythological,  in  their  char- 
acter. But  in  India,  as  in  Greece,  it  was  rather  history  than 
m;^hology  that  was  the  mainspring  of  epic  song.  Divine 
beings,  whatever  their  origin,  must  be  associatea  as  deter- 
minate individuals  with  men  before  they  can  be  employed 
in  an  epic  action.  The  singer  looking  back  into  antiquity 
discovers  gods  involved  by  every  possible  tie  of  relationship 
and  interest  with  his  heroes,  and  he  naturally  does  not 
discriminate  between  the  two  in  his  story.  It  will  hardly 
do,  after  the  fashion  of  certain  ardent  mythologists,  to  allow 
the  mythical  elements  of  epic  to  assume  the  more  important 
ro/c,  and  attempt  to  resolve  everything  else  into  m}'thology. 

Already  in  the  later  Vedic  literature  we  find  specimens 
of  the  material  later  used  in  the  Mahdbhdrata.  Such  ma- 
terial is  there  called  Itihdsa,  Purdna,  or  Akhydna — ^that  is, 
tales,  old  stories,  or  legends.  Some  of  these  tales  are  re- 
produced bodily  in  the  Mahdbhdrata ;  and  that  the  whole 
of  this  poem  was  felt  to  be  little  more  than  a  collection  of 
such  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  supposititious  author  is  in 
the  poem  itself  called  Vydsa — "  arranger,"  or  "  diaskeuast." 
In  fact,  in  the  now  enormous  whole  of  100,000  slokas,  or 
double  verses,  there  are  evidences  (confirmed  by  the  testi- 
mony of  the  poem)  of  three  distinct  handlings,  and  perhaps 
of  a  complete  reversal  of  the  original  political  and  religious 
tendency.  Furthermore,  we  find  there  matter  both  of  the 
original  epic  impulse  and  of  the  later  explanatory  and  am- 
plincatory  kind.  It  is  as  if  we  had  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey 
fused  into  one  with  the  cyclic  poems,  or  the  Clianson  de 
Roland  combined  with  the  long  list  of  poems  of  the  Oeste 
du  Roi.  All  this,  however,  but  makes  the  Mahdbhdrata 
the  more  significant  for  the  student  of  the  genesis  of  epic 
poetry. 

Did  the  limits  of  this  article  permit,  these  investigations 
might  be  pursued  in  the  other  epic  periods  of  which  men- 
tion has  been  maiie,  and  in  all  the  facts  would  be  found  to 
a^rce  with  those  outlined  above.  In  Persia  Firdausi  based 
his  Shah-Nameh  on  collections  of  old  Iranian  traditions  that 
had  begun  to  be  made  before  the  conquest  of  Persia  by  Is- 
lam. (See  FiEDAUsI.)  Among  the  Celts  we  have  bards  {file, 
the  Irish  called  them),  corresponding  on  one  side  at  least  to 
the  hoM,  and  the  jongleurs^  using  the  combined  historical 
experiences  and  mythological  traditions  of  the  race  for  the 
elaboration  of  the  epic  stories  of  heroes  like  Arthur  and 
Tristram.  Among  the  Germanic  peoples  we  have  the  Scops, 
maintainers  of  the  memorials  of  the  past,  and  producing 

{Kjems  like  Beoiottlf,  giving  shape  to  materials  that  were 
ater  and  under  ditferent  conditions  to   be   used   for  the 
Nibelungen  and  Gudrun  in  Germany,  the  Eddas  and  the 
Volsunga  Saga  in  the  Scandinavian   lands.     Among   tlie 


Finns  alone  do  we  seem  to  find  somewhat  different  conditions. 
Their  lays  are  rather  a  possession  of  the  whole  people  than 
of  a  class  of  singers  appealing  to  an  aristocratic  upper  cla^s. 
Yet  here,  too,  it  is  national  pride  that  preserves  tnem,  anrl 
they  are  consecrated  to  the  memory  of  a  period  of  strug^N* 
against  the  inferior  Ijapps  and  of  conquest  over  them.  It 
may  be  remarked  also  that  but  for  tne  peculiar  circu in- 
stances that  produced  a  modem  scholar  like  LSnnmt.  no 
Finnish  epic  in  the  large  sense  would  ever  have  been  lK»ni. 
Such  being  the  manner  in  which  the  great  spontane()u> 
popular  epics  are  bom,  the  question  remains  what  connec- 
tion there  is  between  them  and  that  other  class  of  epics  of 
which  mention  has  been  made — the  "personal"  or  ** liter- 
ary "  epics.  The  gap  between  the  two  kinds  is  certainly  a 
wide  one,  yet  perhaps  not  so  wide  as  would  ap(>ear  at  fiV^t 
sight.  The  latter  are  indeed  due  to  efforts  of  individual 
^nius  striving  to  render  after  the  great  epic  models  su)h 
ject-matters  of  personal  interest  and  choice.  Yet  even  si». 
it  will  generally  be  found  that  where  success  has  been  at- 
tained the  part  of  tradition  has  been  greater  than  would  a 
priori  be  supposed.  As  society  advances  in  culture  bey<»nfl 
the  point  at  which  spontaneous  epic  production  is  possihli', 
as  experience  and  reflection  increase  the  dignity  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  especially  of  the  artist,  it  is  natural  that  efforts 
should  be  maae  to  obtain  personal  honor  and  fame  by  tht- 
imitation  of  works  that  have  general  renown.  In  almost 
every  country  where  epics  have  been  produced  we  firul 
this  tendency.  In  India  the  traditional  Mahdbhdrata  t> 
succeeded  by  epic  fonns  written  by  single  known  p^x'tv. 
These  are  known  as  Kavyas,  the  work's  of  kdvis,  i.  e.  definit*- 

Eoets.  The  most  famous  of  these  is  the  Rdmdyana,  written 
y  Valmiki,  which  in  certain  ways  is  so  near  the  old  tmdi- 
tion  as  to  be  almost  a  great  popular  epic.  The  traces  of  tht- 
individual  hand,  however,  everyw^here  appear  in  it,  and  hi>- 
torical  legend  is  allegorized  according  to  the  tendencies  of  a 
single  mind.  Later  than  the  Rdtndyana  we  have  a  series  of 
Indian  epics  frankly  artistic  in  character,  two  of  them  a^ 
cribed  to  the  famous  dramatist  Kalidasa.  These  with  four 
others  have  been  called  by  Indian  rhetoricians  Mahdkdt-U't. 
or  g^eat  poems,  as  especially  worthy  of  study.  The  subj»*«  t 
matter  oi  all  six,  however,  is  drawn  from  the  Mahdbhamtn 
or  the  Rdmdynna.  In  Persia  the  success  of  Firdausi'?*  ;rr»*at 
work  led  to  other  attempts  by  court  poets  in  the  same  linf. 
First,  additional  episodes  in  the  national  historv  wtre 
treated,  and  especially  the  heroic  deeds  of  the  memWrs  of 
the  family  of  Rustem.  Then  other  heroes  were  celebrated, 
and  the  series  of  would-be  epics  extends  down  into  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

Leaving  the  Orient  for  the  Occident  the  same  tendenoie*. 
are  observed  among  the  Greeks,  though  in  a  less  markctl  d«'- 
gree,  because  the  growth  of  other  powerful  poetic  forms,  as 
well  as  the  very  unsurpassableness  of  Homer,  made  the 
temptation  to  imitate  him  less.  Still  epics  continue*!  to  l-e 
written,  such  as  the  Ileracleia  of  Pisander  of  Cameims  the 
Heradeia  of  Panyasis,  uncle  of  Herodotus,  the  Thebaic  ».f 
Antimachus  of  Colophon,  the  Perseis  of  Choeribus  of  Sa- 
mos,  the  Argonauttca  of  Apollonius  the  Rhodian,  tlu- 
Dionysiaca  of  Nonnus,  and  the  Sequel  to  Homer  (to  m^ 
"Otaiow)  of  Quint  us  Smyrnsus.  Not  in  Greece,  howe%  er. 
but  m  Rome  the  first  great  literary  epic  was  written — t  he 
jiEneid  of  Vergil.  And  here  it  is  worth  noting  thai  aJ- 
though  for  Vergil  the  epic  form  and  manner  are  matters  '*f 
imitation,  not  of  direct  poetic  inheritance,  yet  in  a  cer- 
tain way  the  conditions  of  his  writing  approximate  thr>s<»  i>f 
true  epic  creation.  It  was  a  kind  of  new  national  pride 
and  hope  that  animated  him,  and  he  recited  traditions  that 
had  become  associated  with  the  noblest  ideals  of  the  I-atin 
race.  He  freely  used,  too.  the  works  of  his  pre<iec'esx»rs — 
Naevius,  Ennius,  Attius,  A.  Furius  of  Antium,  and  pn>l>a- 
bly  others.  Still,  undoubtedly,  the  plan,  the  structure,  ih. 
coloring  of  the  JEneid  are  all  his  own  ;  and  we  feel  its  mk  - 
cess  to  be  of  a  very  different  order  from  that  of  the  Ihn>i, 
Of  the  Latin  epics  subsequent  to  Vergil — the  PharMha  nf 
Lucan,  the  Punt'ca  of  Silius  Italicus,  the  Thebais  an«l  Arh , '- 
leis  of  Statins — it  is  unnecessary  to  speak  in  detail.  In  t !).  v 
the  double  imitation  of  Homer  and  Vergil  alone  gives  ?^tr  - 
blance  of  epic  value. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  with  the  decline  i-^ 
the  literary  life  in  general,  literary  epics  ceased  for  a  tun  ■ 
to  be  written.  This,  indeed,  was  wnat  made  po^ibU»  tl«. 
birth  of  that  spontaneous  mediaeval  epic  which  nas  aln  a»i;. 
been  described.  One  material  only,  subsequently  to  Ik*  u>i  •: 
by  great  masters,  began  to  assume  its  epic  sha(ie — the  sIi.tn 
of  the  fall  and  the  redemption  of  man  as  told  in  the   <>;': 


173 


BPKTCLK 


KPIDKMK^ 


of  rifcht««o  ht  riffitM  Ath{>a\  afterwart)  tinvrlrtl  tii  loniti, 
ftfiil  u(K*oe<)  A  »rho«)|  at  Mitylene,  whom*  ht*  Uuvcht  new  <l«>c- 
trincA.  Alxml  the  year  UU7  hererao%*wl  to  Athons,  when*  he 
pun^hji-vnl  a  CBrdcn  mtui  foumlMl  a  eeli*hnU<Mi  iM'h<M>l  of 
phil«i«>phy.  lie  wa4  very  [M>pular  an  a  teai^her,  and  piintHl 
a  (Treat  numl»er  <»f  «li'*<ip(eH,  Ilr  n*<*<»jrniz»'<I  plea-Hun»  a5  the 
chh'f  ii^nni,  atnl  e<»n*Mi|u«  iitly  was  (*alumniitt«*ii  by  the  Stoieis 
l>ut  It  ap|»ettr^  that  hi^  htthit.<<  wen^  teruftemte  and  virtuouA. 
Kpu-uni^  t<H>k  no  fMtrt  in  pohtirtti  affnirn.  He  wn>te  numer- 
«»U4  «>»rkii  on  ettiirs  natural  phi !<»•«« iphy,  ete.,  which  are  not 
extant.  t>ut  w*V4*niI  of  his  letter*  havi*  U-^'n  pn^^nred  by 
Ihni^mi^  l^aertiiiv  lli^  «»p|Nment»  adinittcti  that  he  was 
|Hr«>imtly  atniMble  aiul  rirtuouii.  KntmUiii^e  of  his  doe- 
mm-**  u  «Jenve«i  thit-fly  from  llie  work*  of  C'leero  an<l  Lu- 
rrrtiut,  who  in  hin  |»oem  IM  /imtm  \aturd  amply  illu*- 
tral«»*  hi*  phil«H»ophy,  and  expn*^""**^  K^^*^  ailmimtion  of  Kpi- 
eurut.  Anions;  the  eminent  men  wh»)  favore^l  Kpieun^an 
iirin<ipl«*»  wen*  IIoHMx*.  Attieus  Oav*en4li,  Hou*««iiu.  and 
Voltaire,  I),  in  271)  ».  c.  S«v  (ta<vH*ndi,  J)f  Vita  et  Mori* 
h*i*  Kpiruri  (1647);  Kitter,  Ilintory  of  Ifiti^Mtphy  ;  ZellerV 
Sto I rj,  J^pt  r M  mi  n J,  a  nd  Skfpt t rs, 

Epirycle  [ilr.  Mm%mK0t;  M.  upon  +  c^tAm .  eirele]:  in 
ancient  a.*(tnmomy,  a  rirele  ha^ini;  it.i  cvrit4*r  moving  along 
I  he  circumf«'n»nce  <if  another  cin^le.  It  wan  a  favorite 
opinion  of  the  (Jrei»k  a(»tr»»noiiH*n»  that  all  the  (vlential  mo- 
tions mn'4  Ik*  uniform  and  <'ircular.  U^'aiw  the  circle  ia 
the  mtM  jM-rfwt  of  plane  fljrurt«js  The  phenomena  of  the 
»tation«t  and  retn>cnulatioii4  of  the  planetn  were  apparently 
incon*>i<«tt<nt  with  thi^  notion  ;  and  in  onler  Ui  explain  them, 
Ap'dloniuji  of  Perpi  imaKine«d  the  theory  of  epirucUn  and 
dffertnf*.  He  ^up|MMr«i  erery  planet  to  ni<»ve  uniformly  in 
the  flinall  circle,  or  epicycle,  the  tvnter  of  which  in  carrie*! 
uniformly  forwani  aloitc  the  cin^umferemv  of  the  lar^' 
cinde  or  deferent,  of  which  tlie  earth  ix-cupies*  the  center. 
Hip|iarrhu4,  havinj;  di'^ofennl  the  e<*<H'ntricity  of  the  solar 
oH>it,  sumxnetl  the  motions  to  \h>  |>erfonne«i  in  w-centric 
circlet  The  o«debrat*Hl  afttmnomer  Ptolemy  adopted  the 
hy|Mtthe^*n  both  of  A(»olloniU4  and  Hipfiarchu)*:  that  in,  he 
fiup(Mn«^i  the  earth  to  tie  plac4*d  at  a  nmall  distance  from 
the  t*<'nter  <»f  the  »lrfer»'iit  cinle  (which  wm^Mjuentlr  was 
callwJ  an  ereenlnr^  ami  the  planet  to  more  uniformly  lU  the 
epicycle,  the  wnter  of  which  ahio  movi<^  uniformly  in  the 
deferent.  By  mean*  of  the:**  suppdAition^  and  by  amifcn- 
injc  projier  ratio*  (detenu intni  by  i>b^rvation)  b«»tween  th«? 
ra<iiu«  of  the  deferent  and  the  radius  of  the  epicycle,  and 
ai^o  brtwivn  the  velocity  of  the  planet  in  the  epicycle  and 
the  reUw'Hy  of  the  <'ent<'r  of  the  epicycle  on  the  aeferent,  he 
was  enabled  t4>  rrpre^»nt  with  c<on^iderable  accuracy  the  a|>- 
|MUvnt  motions  of  the  pUnet^^and  particuUrly  their  stations 
and  relnktcrailatioaa.  As  a  flr«t  step  towartl  conne<'tinff  the 
w'lofH^e*  of  aiarcm<»my  and  (fe«»metry  the  hypothesis  of  epi- 
rycle«  d<te«  }fjvml  honor  t4)  iti*  inventors. 

EpIryrloM  (from  eptrf^r/e  -^  -otd.  a  sufDx  from  (ir.  clfct. 
fttrm) :  a  curve  trat^eil  by  a  f>oint  on  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  whirh  rolN  on  the  convex  ^ide  of  a  pven  flxe«i  cinde.  j 
It  l>elonc"  t4)  the  claw  of  curves  calUnl  n>ulettes,  and  is  n«>t 
invanablv  a  trau^'eiidetital  curve.  It  is  alwav**  of  a  finite 
onier  wht  n  the  rircuiufereiui**  4if  the  two  cin-di-^  art*  c<im- 
nirn«unible.  The  nonual  of  the  epicycloid  is  easily  c<m- 
stnirttMl ;  It  alwa}«  <»oincide»  with  the  Une  which  join«»  the 
i:«'n«*nitinic  jwunt  to  the  «>onv^|N»ndin(f  jictint  of  c«mtai't  of 
Ihr  two  rtp-U'*.  The  evolute  of  the  epicycloid  i*  a  similar 
rpK'K-Iiiid,  the  rvlti  of  the  eircK<«  Umiik  merely  alteml  in  a 
(^rtaju  ratio.  Wht  n  the  cm  li-*  are  eijual  the  epicycli>id  i* 
•iMitlar.  and  •iiiiiUrlt  pla^^etl  U>  the  (MHial  of  the  f^xe^i  circle  J 
with  nr^j»>t  U>  a  i-«ini  in  the  circumferen<*e.  The  curve  is 
the  i'anihiid,  whhh  i^  the  intrpte  of  a  paralwtla.  The  epi- 
lul'.id  wa«  iritt'nt«<l  bv  ll4»mer.  the  I>aiu«h  a*tn»nomer, 
wh  I  alwMit  1674  pn-jw-^^l  thii  i  urvr  m^  the  U-^t  U*nn  for  the 
tr^'th  <if  wh<<  K  in  onif-r  to  pn^vrrit  fnetuin.  Newton  (favc 
lt«  ret  tifii  aiiofi  m  hi*  /ViHri/^oi, 

Epi4ttM'B«Ji:  .Ser  111  a4//4i. 

K|il4tt«'m«  (m  (tr.  *twitumfi) :  an  ancirnt  town  of 
4 f  r< «•••-.) 'ii  the  r»*t  r'»a^l  of  ttw  l*i  I'jmnii*  *u*  ai»d  on  the 
Sftr  •!ti«  <«ulf.  aU»ul  V)  iTti.e*  >.  W.  of  At  tie  114.  It  ma*  an 
111  1«  III  hdrtil  •1a'«'  and  |"»*M»«-**i-«|  »«njall  lrrnt<»r%  c*All«<i  /.'/«- 
t/oNri.i.  A*  t  ar^U  a*  fViM)  n,  ( .  It  wa*  oiu- ttf  th»*  I  hi»'f  « <tni- 
H.'-r  .  fcl  ri'-t*  of  itif  p«  >pMH-**i«  It  il«rn*'«l  niuih  iin- 
i->r**ii  «•  fr«-rn  it«  t« 'i.!'..'  nf  A'.--*  .Up  ii*  i*ii  iinl«d  Ti  iiint -^ 
fr  •fii  ll.i*  t<'»t.L  »(.i  '1  »**  «'tir>  uf  •!)#  ni<  '•t  1^  t«  I'mltd  vhk  - 
tu4ri'*  iTi  4f  TTt^  t .  Ai.il  «A«  frt  |i|i  It'll)  \i\  fialti'iitt  fn>in  all 
of  lUr>  ||>  .  .  rtrf*  *Ia'''»  «■«*  fct'-iT  a  »  ur»*  fi>r  th«  ir  ili-*  %•**  '^. 
Hin  an  *ht   ruiti*  of  a  n^^ii.l.t*  rit  tiHaier,  *t7i)  fi*  t  in  «li- 


•  • 


M 


amet«r,  with  flfty-fSve  rows  of  seats.  Once  to  four  vra- 
nine  days  after  the  Lnthraian  piinenat  (\»nnth.  a  fr^tn*.  «j 
celebrated  here  in  honor  of  ^K>H'ulapiius  with  mu*!**.  ^n 
trymnastic  p^mcA.  (hi  or  nt^tr  the  ^itr  of  Kpt<iaur. «  . 
small  villa^  calle^I  ym-Kptdavru^oT  Pida>ro.  nt  w!  •  1 
flr»t  national  aAM^mbly  of  nuMJern  (irei'iv  a«>M  iitl*l««l  f.  .•'j 
and  drew  up  the  instrument  known  a»  the  ( «m*t.iu'..  -  i 
Kpidaurus. 

Eplllfaie«[from  Or. ^vil4^MSf,amonK  the  )»^>pU,«i  n 
in)(  amoufc:  M,  to.  upon  +  liji^i,  iteople;  the  «ori  i 
monly  implios,  as  does  alM)  the  verb,  ^viH^«r.  tlir  -  •^ 
infc  of  foriMtniers,  as  di^tini^inhetl  from  filttp"  <■>'  ' 
native;  heiu"«»  the  dlMinction  ^pidemif  vrn»u»  *•*'.' 
I)iM»a.ses  which  ap|M>ar  from  time  to  time  in  a  ci-rta  i. 
itr  and  sprewl  widely,  afTectinj?  Ur}^*  numV>rni  «»f  j- 
hndemie  di.s«>a.<«c!(,  t>u  the  other  hand,  are  mic  h  as  a^ 
stantly  met  with,  i^^olateil  cane»  occurring  n«>w  aivi 
Many  epidemic  «lLM*ajM-9  are  eiwlemic  in  ci»rta>n  ci.;j- 
where  the  conditions  an*  eminent  I  v  favoralde.  at*  in  it- 
of  cholera,  which  is  endemic  on  the  deltas  of  the  (iano  *  •■! 
vtdlow  fever,  which  is  constantly  prment  in  crrtain  .  *  1 
South  American  states.  Some  aite<*t ions  are  apitarvM  1  .  | 
epidemic,  but  the  number  of  such  is  exce«*«)inicl%  •mail  » 'I 
tain  diM>ases  which  are  endemic  as  a  rule  U*c«tmr  f  i'<  1 
when  atmospheric  or  other  influences  preili»tMve  tu  •  i 
munity  to  fceneral  infection.  This  is  seen  in  tne  V .  s  .:  '1 
case  of  typhoid  fever  atid  dysentery,  as  well  as  iHh*r  a 
easen.  An  interesting  instancx)  in  point  t»  the  rp'i<  \ 
spreail  of  malaria  which  sometimes  attend*  extru^.i-  \ 
oavations  alonfc  the  lianks  of  rivfrs,  where  malarta^  or.j  -  %.  1 
prevalent,  became  unknown  as  the  result  of  suitabUdr\  *^ 

The  study  of  epidemics  and  the  cauiies  Iratlin^  u*\'  . 
one  of  the  most  interestinf?  and  important  braiM  h«^«  f '  ii 
ical  history  and  patholotf\'.  and  has  oeeafiionnl  tti*  «.  1 
diflferences  of  opinion.  This  was  largrlT  the  r%-*u.i  ■  f  ^ 
norance  of  the  causes  of  the  various  epidemic*  d£*ra;»-«  ■« 
has  been  to  a  lar^^e  extent  remov(*d  by  a  fuller  kn«t«  >  .«.•  1 
micro-ori^nisnui  and  their  relation  to  disease.  V*  r  H 
atmospheric  and  tell  uric  conditions,  such  ai»  hum  id  [*«.«.. -i 
the  character  of  the  soil.  maX  moi»tun».  and  the  U^*.  «*i 
);ivcn  the  most  prominent  pla^*(*  in  the  tmusation  of  t\\>-  \ 
but,  though  there  arc  stiU  some  who  maintain  thr  |<rr>^cu 
neuee  of  these  causes,  the  majority  of  b%^ienK«  an  r-* 
strtm^ly  inclined  to  refqird  them  of  sectindary  mj{K>r«.4 
to  the  actual  cauMV,  oiicroHirganumis,  The  •tu'iy  of  •:( 
demiolofi^  is  therefore  intinuitely  cntncenit^  wiib  tb*:  \ 
(wcterioloffy  on  the  one  hand  and  pn*ventative  m«ii><  •  \ 
the  other  hand,  ami  a  knowledf^e  of  the  cau%«*<i  of  r\  !>i=.i| 
has  in  many  instances  led  to  almost  complete  eradi<a:  *  \ 
certain  diseases.  This  was  seen  in  the  cai^  of  tiun]i  f  I 
roerly  the  s(*4iurge  of  seamen  and  of  armtr«,  lH.t  {.*■««) 
known  excepting  where  the  irroiwe^  carvl«*^nrw  -t  •! 
toward  riri'um stances  prevent  a  suitalde  diecari  Is  U 
case  of  childbe«l  fever,  which  in  certain  plac«-«  anii  tf  «t 
tain  times  has  attainetl  epidemie  clianM-tem,  the  |c»i'pi 
of  antii«e|»tie  precautions  has  almost  extermwaicii  \km  M 


Diseases  which  are  epi<lemic  are  for  the  moat  part  •/  \A 
in^mp  de^iinufctc^l  as  infectious,  and  which  ars  i<«ictMii>r«4  \ 
be  due  to  certain  micrrwirganisma.  Of  tbr^p  dis—w  *^^ 
as  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  and  scarlet  fever,  arr  •-*  J 
eluded  ainonff  the  c«inta«;iou*i  diseas«s — that  Uk  tlwi  al 
communicated  to  other  individuals  by  mere  cK«tan.  vfcJ 
othere,  as  tvphoid  fever,  cholera,  and  malana,  arv  »■• -c^ 
tafci<*u«,  and  are  never  tNimmunicatetl  dirt**"!  ly  fro«  p»^^ 
to  per»i»n.  ex«N«ptiri|f  throiitrh  water,  f«»od.  or  ».{h*f  •*£'  1 
infiH't«<4l  by  the  afTinniMl  indi%idual.  Kxact  linc«  ««£  '  I 
(Irawn  lM*lwi»**n  non-i'onta^niHi*  and  ci»nlac>'"*i»  «!*'*•**  •■^ 
in  the  ('MM*  of  o*r1ain  di^var<<*s  th^rr  u  <loul4  as  U*  ti'  ^ 
to  whirh  they  U'loiitf. 

A«*ide  fn>m  rpitlnnie*  of  infe<  tiou*  dlw-aiw*  I'  ••  »< 
^►nirtiint'*  rurioii'*  rpiilrini*  *  of  mental  «»r  n»  r«"<i»  »  ♦■H 
*»iiie  of  whuh  11)  a  im'a»un'  are  exa^'i:i'nitj<'*i*  «-f  «'»  ^ 
jrrnemll)  n*<'<>k;ui/«'«l  a*  i»a\e^  of  impular  l»tii*-f  7*  •  *"  ^ 
tune  t4»  time  a  war  "pint  prs'^aiU.  a*  in  I77t*  to  iTi*'*  ' 
1K4H,  Th»'  rru-^aih*^  wcn*  in  a  meaMirt*  in^tai  «*»  1  (  • .  I 
mt'Tital  inrtm*n*f^  The  ihildn-n**  cni*a*ie  «a»  •«  •!•"  1 
in^tjifK**,  Uipirnnj:  on  a  |»nth"I«<i«'al  o»nditi»>n      Y\  \ 

of  <iarii  in^  fiianui.  of  «iti  hi  rufl,  i»f  miritir,  atwJ  tL«     *    ^ 
dt^tihiiU  (-A*(-^  of  lilt* iilal  atM'rrai loiiN 

N>nn-tinie^  t-i-rtain  di-M'a**-*  are  a*«*<«'iat»l  an^l  i-f*«»  < 
fpiili'mi*"*  •tiintill  »tii'«»u-i*.  Tht*  waA  thr  •  asr  •  .' '  *'  ^ 
fr^iT  and  «>|Mittf4l  U\*T  in  «t<%eral  eptilemi'-m^  at»J  »  *•■  <  ^ 


little  is  known  ot  its  cftusation.  It  is  more  apt  to  begin  in 
childhood.  Direvt  inheritance  plajs  a  smaller  part  than  is 
popularly  suppoeed,  but  insanitf,  drunkenness,  and  hysteria 
in  the  parents  strongly  predispose  to  it.  Fright,  over-eating, 
woniis,  teething,  are  all  said  to  be  causative.  Cases  have 
been  cii  red  after  the  removal  of  foreign  bodies  from  the  ear, 
cutting  out  a  painful  eicatrii,  and  circumcision.  Such  in- 
stances are,  however,  very  rare.  The  seat  of  the  disea.-!e,  it 
is  quite  well  esiablished,  is  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  surface 
of  the  hemispheres  of  the  brain.  There  are  three  varieties 
of  epilepsy :  pelil  mal,  t/rand  mat,  and  Jacksonian,  or  local, 
or  focal  epilepsy. 

In  petit  mat  there  is  momentary  unconsciousness  without 
convulsion.  Often  the  patient  feels  faint,  or  has  a  sensation 
of  vertigo.  He  drops  whatever  he  may  have  in  his  hands, 
ceases  speaking,  and  turns  pale,  with  eyes  wide  open  and 
staring.  In  a  moment  consciousness  returns,  and  he  con- 
tinues whatever  he  may  have  been  doing. 

Grand  mal  presents  a  very  different  picture.  Often  the 
patient  can  foretell  an  attack  by  means  of  a  localized  sen- 
sation called  an  aura.  The  commonest  aura  is  an  uneasy 
sensation  in  the  pit  ot  the  stomach.  There  may  be.  how- 
ever, simnly  a  feeling  of  terror,  a  flash  of  light,  or  a  distinct 
vteual  hallucination.  In  one  case  the  patient  always  saw  a 
landscape.  Again,  there  raay  be  noises  or  sounds  of  music 
or  voices  in  the  cars.  Almost  immediately  after  the  aura  the 
patient  cries  out.  falls  unconscious,  becomes  rigid  for  a 
moment,  and  then  is  seized  with  violent  convulsive  mov^ 
mcnts  of  the  entire  body.  The  eyes  roll,  the  lids  oiwn  and 
shut,  and  the  face  is  livid  and  contorted  into  the  most 
horrible  griinacea.  Proth,  mixed  perhaps  with  blood  from 
the  bitten  tongue,  escapes  from  the  mouth.  After  a  few 
minutes  the  convulsion  ceases.  A  profound  stupor  suc- 
ceeds, and  the  breathing  is  deep  and  noisy.  After  a  time 
the  patient  can  be  aroused,  but  if  left  alone  he  will  sleep  for 
some  hours.    Sometimes  Bt  follows  tit  rapidly,  without  the 

Salient  ever  regainin|r  consciousness,  producing  the  con- 
ition  called  gtalus  e/iilrplicua.  Death  usually  follows  from 
exhaustion.  Epileptic  convulsions  are  sometitues  followed 
by  curious  mental  phenomena.  The  patient  may  pass  into 
a  condition  of  trance  in  which,  like  a  somnambulist  he  may 
perform  the  most  complicated  acts  without  any  subsequent 
recollection.  Again  a  nt  may  be  followed,  or  even  replaced, 
by  an  attack  of  acute  mania,  in  which  the  patient  may  have 
homicidal  or  suicidal  tendencies.  This  is  a  fact  of  great 
moment  in  medical  jurisprudence,  as  no  doubt  many  appa- 
rently caiisclesss  and  motiveless  assaults  are  commitltxl 
while  in  this  condition.  The  tendency  in  epilepsy  is  toward 
chronic  mental  degeneration,  though  it  mav  accompany  the 
soundest  intellect.  Napoleon,  Pe^r  the  tireat,  and  Julius 
CiDsar  were  all  afflicted  with  it.     Indce<l,  the  Italian  school 


was  a  genius  in  spite  of  epilepsy,  not  because  of  it. 

One  of  the  rarer  forms  of  the  disease  is  the  ao-calleil  epi- 
lepsia procumit-a,  which  is  characterized  by  attacks  of  vio- 
lent running,  cither  in  a  straight  line  or  a  circle,  sometimes 
ending  by  a  fall  and  coma.  In  epilrpaia  nutarm  there  are 
noilding  movements  of  the  head  from  side  to  side,  and  up 
and  down,  lasting  a  tew  moments. 

In  tpilrpnia  toqnai:  the  patient  repeats  time  and  again 

In  JaekKonian  epilepsy  consciousness  is  unaffected,  and 
the  spasm  is  localized  to  one  estremity  or  side  of  the  face. 
It  is  usually  due  to  a  gross  localixod  lesion  in  the  motor 
region  of  the  brain — a  tumor,  abstts.-;,  meningitis,  or  injury. 

The  treatment  of  epilepsy  depends  u|>on  the  cause  and 
the  variety  of  the  disease  with  which  the  patient  is  affeclc'l. 
During  the  fit  the  clothes  should  l>e  loosenwl,  and  the  pa- 
tient only  restrained  enough  to  prevent  his  injuring  himself. 
William  Pepi-ek  and  Cbables  W.  Burk. 

1  Or.  M.  upon  -4-  Aa3Ji,   lobe  of  e 

..   __.'rb:  a  genus  of  herliaceoiis  perenr 

plants  of  Ihe  family  OnagriireiF,  natives  of  temperate  and 
colli  climates.  They  have  eiflit  stamens  and  four  petals. 
The  fruit  is  an  elongated  manv-secdefl  pc«l  or  cniKiulc. 
Some  of  Ihe  s|>ecics  bear  lieautitiif  lli)wers.  The  EpiMiium 
angiinti/iilium,  a  native  lit  KiiroiieaniloftlicU.S.,  has  showy 
pilik-piirple  flowers,  and  is  sumctimcs  planted  in  ganlei— 
S<'veral  oilier  species  are  indi^n-noiis  in  the  L'.  S.  The  po, 
ular  name  willow  herb  was  given  in  retcrence  to  the  leaves, 
which  n'semhie  those  ot  a  willnw.  These  leaves  have  astrin- 
i:enl  pro)>ertles,  and  are  reputed  to  have  other  active  )iowera. 


EPIMETHEUS 

Epllo^ne  [from  Oreek  Mttayoi.  closing  discourse  as  In  a 
drama  or  oration,  in  contrast  to  wp6\jrfoi,  introduction;  iwl, 
upon  +  Xffyii,  discourse!;  in  dramatic  poetry,  the  clo^inc 
address  to  the  audience  at  the  end  of  a  plav.  It  was  unu- 
ally  spoken  by  one  of  the  actora,  and  was  cheerful  and  fa^ 
roiliar  in  tone.  The  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  con- 
clusion of  an  oration. 

Eplm'achas  [apparently  from  Gr.  Miiaxt,  assailablr. 
that  may  easily  be  attacked;  M,  upon  +  fiAxq,  batlK]:  a 
genus  of  birds  belonging  to  the  ParadiiuidiK,  or  binls  <'t 
paradise,  having  a  slender  bill,  densely  feathered  nostrils. 


and  a  long  tail.  Sometimes  made  the  type  of  a  separn'e 
sub-taraily,  the  Epimaehinw.  Two  species  are  known,  xl.v 
largest  being  the  grand  plume  bird  {Eptmaehua  ap(cii>/<ii-i. 
an  -inhabitant  ot  New  Guinea.  This  magnificent  bini  is  a 
little  over  2  feet  in  length,  ot  a  velvety  block  above  nT-.d 
below,  with  touches  of  coppery  green  about  Ihe  head  and 
back.  On  each  side  of  the  breast  is  a  tun-shaped  tuft  -•( 
plumes  tip|>ed  with  a  bund  of  steel  blue.  The  two  Cfiiir»l 
tail  feathers  arc  steel  blue,  and  other  parts  of  the  j>luniui:t 
are  marked  with  metallic  reHections.  F.  A.  Luia,-^ 

Eplmen'idra  (in  Gr.  'ExfMxUiii;  Fr.  tpimfnidr):  (irf  k 
poet  and  prophet;  a  native  ot  Crete;  flourished  about  t'  ' 
B.  c.  According  to  tradition  he  fell  asleep  in  a  cave,  a 
awaked  after  a  lapse  of  more  than  fifty  years,  with  a  Iar;.-f 
increase  of  wisdom  and  inspiration.  A  poem  on  the  vi>v[l^i> 
of  the  Argonauts  is  ascribed  to  him.  At  the  reqnest  nf  ih. 
Athenians,  who  were  afflicted  with  the  plague,  he  vUit..| 
Athens  about  5t>6  B.  r.  and  purified  that  city.  Goethe  nr<>tt 
a  poem  called  Des  Epimeiudfs  Eru-aehen. 

Eplme'thtin)!  [Or.  'Erifi^fi,  so  named  in  presumed  ti-n- 
trast  to  PrometheitB.  as  it  to  mean  a/fer-thought  as  opp-  <s<si 
to  /ore-thought] :  in  the  Greek  mVthology,  a  brother  .  ■ 
Prometheus  and  the  husband  ot  Pandora.  His  dauijlili  r 
Pyrrlia  became  the  wife  of  Deucalion. 


tid 


176 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  THE  PROTECTANT 


English  race  on  the  North  American  continent  was  built 
witnin  the  walls  of  Fort  St  George,  and  the  Rev.  Richard 
Seymour,  a  priest  of  the  English  Church,  ministered  here 
thirteen  years  before  the  landing  on  Plymouth  Rock.  In 
Marvlana,  and  in  what  are  now  called  the  Middle  States, 
the  Church  of  England  was  introduced  at  an  early  date.  In 
New  England,  where  Puritanism  had  a  predominating  in- 
fluence, the  churchmen  of  the  seyenteenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  were  longer  in  gaining  a  footing,  which,  when 
gained,  they  were  obliged  to  make  good  against  determined 
opposition. 

Without  tracing  the  history  of  the  Church  through  the 
colonial  period,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  say  that,  notwith- 
standing many  drawbacks,  it  had  in  the  year  1776  gained 
a  yery  respectable  position.  It  had  been  all  along,  howeyer, 
obliged  to  contend  not  only  with  open  enemies,  but  with 
injudicious  friends.  The  yiolent  measures  of  Andros  and 
others  had  tended  in  some  places  to  increase  the  dislike  to 
the  English  Church  which  was  felt  by  the  Puritans  of  New 
England  and  New  York,  and  by  the  numerous  sectaries 
who,  attracted  by  Lord  Baltimore's  proclamation  of  a  gen- 
eral toleration,  had  swarmed  into  Maryland.  The  attempts 
which  were  made  from  time  to  time  to  procure  bishops  for 
America  had  failed,  principally  from  political  causes,  and 
the  Church,'  thus  depriyed  of  the  presence  of  the  highest 
order  of  its  ministry,  was  necessarily  crippled  in  the  per- 
formance of  its  functions.  The  want  of  bishops  threw  dif- 
ficulties in  the  way  of  raising  up  a  natiye  ministry.  Young 
men  who  sought  noly  orders  were  obliged  to  make  a  long 
and  perilous  yoyage  to  England  to  be  ordained,  and  they 
were  fortunate  if  they  returned  in  safety.  The  smallpox  in 
the  eighteenth  century  was  the  peculiar  scourge  of  the  col- 
onists who  yisited  England,  and  this  disease,  justly  dreaded 
in  those  days,  carri^  off  many  of  the  most  promising 
of  the  young  men.  The  deyotion  of  colonial  churchmen, 
howeyer,  to  their  religion  continued  firm  and  unwayering, 
and  although  they  encountered  further  trials  at  the  time  of 
the  Revolution,  they  were  able  not  merely  to  oyercome 
them,  but  to  place  their  Church  in  a  position  which  has  en- 
abled it  eyer  since  to  increase  in  influence  and  members. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  war  there  were  in 
the  Middle  and  Eastern  States  about  eighty  parochial  cler- 
gymen. These  gentlemen,  with  the  exception  of  those  in 
the  great  cities,  were  for  the  most  part  dependent  for  their 
support  upon  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel. This  society,  however,  withdrew  its  gifts  after  the  ter- 
mination of  the  war.  In  other  respects,  also,  the  conclusion 
of  peace  left  the  Church  in  a  depressed  condition.  Al- 
though the  large  body  of  church  clergy  and  laity  were  on 
the  side  of  the  friends  of  freedom,  still  many  of  the  clergy 
and  laity  had  adhered  to  the  crown  during  the  struggle, 
and  most  of  these  at  its  close  withdrew  themselyes  to  Eng- 
land or  to  the  colonies  which  continued  **  loyal."  The  peace 
was  soon  followed  by  the  confiscation  of  the  landed  endow- 
ments of  the  Church  in  Virginia,  and  the  numerous  church- 
men in  that  State  were  thrown  upon  their  own  resources. 
The  Church  was  poor,  and  its  prospects  were  not  hopeful. 

Two  important  measures  were  immediately  necessary — 
to  obtain  tne  episcopate,  and  to  promote  a  closer  union  be- 
tween the  churches  in  the  several  States,  The  first  was 
necessary  to  the  existence,  the  second  to  the  well-being,  of 
the  Church.  Under  the  old  confederation  the  States  re- 
ganled  themselves  as  independent  sovereignties,  and  by 
consequence  the  churches  in  them  conceived  themselves  to 
be  so  many  national  churches.  This  position,  if  it  had  con- 
tinued, would  not  indeed  have  affected  their  faith  and  doc- 
trine, which  are  unchangeable,  but  it  might  nevertheless 
have  proiiuced  many  inconveniences.  By  the  principles  of 
the  Church  of  England,  every  national  church,  while  it  is 
bound  to  adhere  to  the  common  faith  of  Christendom  as  a 
heritage  from  the  apostles,  has  a  wide  liberty  in  regulating 
its  own  ceremonial,  discipline,  and  worship.  Thus  the 
•Prayer-book  might  have  been  altered  in  a  different  way  in 
different  States,  and  divergences  in  disc-inline  and  govern- 
ment nii<;ht  have  been  developed  to  siien  an  extent  as  to 
make  the  relations  between  the  churches  an  alliance  rather 
than  a  union.  This  danger  was  averted,  almost  by  an  acci- 
dent. A  few  clergymen  from  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania  met  at  New  Brunswick,  in  New  Jersey,  to  take 
measures  for  reviving  an  old  society  (which  still  exists)  for 
the  support  of  the  widows  and  children  of  the  clergy.  They 
naturally  discussed  the  condition  of  the  Church,  and  made 
arrangements  for  a  larger  meeting  to  be  held  soon  after- 
ward in  New  York,  to  which  representatives  of  the  laity 


were  to  be  inyited.  This  meeting,  however,  did  little  more 
than  lay  down  certain  general  principles— with  reference: 
particularly  to  episcopacy  and  the  Common  Prayer- hook, 
which  they  rightly  conceived  would  tend  to  promote  a  real 
union  between  the  churches  in  the  several  States — and  issue 
a  call  for  a  similar  meeting  to  be  held  the  next  year  in 
Philadelphia.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  General  Con- 
yention,  which  has  ever  since  been  re^tfded  as  the  govern- 
ing body  of  the  Church  in  the  U.  S. 

The  constitution  of  this  body,  as  it  was  soon  afterward 
established,  required  it  to  consist  of  all  the  bishops,  an<l  of 
four  clergymen  and  as  many  laymen  from  each  Stat«>.  By 
later  amendments,  when  more  than  one  bidiop  was  plaetnl 
in  a  State,  every  diocese  or  episcopal  jurisdiction  became 
entitled  to  a  representation  of  four  clerical  and  four  la^ 
deputies,  and  the  lay  deputies  were  required  to  be  comrou- 
nicants.  All  the  bishops  were  entitled  to  seats  ex  ojftcio  \ 
and  it  was  arraneed  that  as  soon  as  there  should  be  three  or 
more  they  should  sit  in  a  separate  house.  Every  act  was  to 
receive  tne  approbation  of  both  houses.  Authority  was 
gjven  to  the  General  Convention  to  prescribe  the  qualifica- 
tions for  ordination  and  to  set  forth  a  Book  of  Common 
Prayer — the  two  things  that  were  most  necessary  for  estab- 
lishing such  a  union  as  was  desired.  It  was  also  dire<  tt-d 
that  there  should  be  a  conyention  in  eyery  State,  consisting' 
of  clergy  and  laity,  the  powers  of  which  were  not  in  any  wuy 
defined.  It  seems  to  nave  been  assumed,  however,  that 
these  conventions  were  to  exercise  supervision  oyer  the 
affairs  of  the  Church  in  eyery  State— or,  to  use  the  niort 
recent  expression,  in  every  diocese — ^in  all  matters  not  c(»m- 
ing  within  the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop. 

This  constitution  was   adopted  in  the   seyend    States, 
though  not  immediately  in  all.     The  conyention  of  \t^'% 
had  consisted  of  delegates  from  what  were  afterward  calUd 
the  Middle  States,  and  from  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  South 
Carolina.     Much  doubt  was  felt  m  the  East,  particularly  in 
Connecticut,  as  to  the  wisdom  of  some  of  its  le^sl&t'ion. 
The  introduction  of  the  laity  especially,  into  what  was  itm- 
ceived  to  be  a  Church  council,  was  regarded  as  an  experinitnt 
of  questionable  expediency,  and  some  of  the  powers  whii  h 
were  given  them  were  thought  to  be  without   prece<i«'r:t. 
These  objections,  however,  were  gradually  obyiated  or  waives  \  \ 
and  in  1789  Bishop  Seabury,  with  a  aeputation  from  tt 
churches  in  New  Eng[land,  took  his  seat  in  the  General  C<  >it 
yention,  and  the  union  of  the  Episcopal  churches  in  th 
U.S.  was  completed.    Although  tne  constitution  prv>|N(;>4w! 
in  1785,  and  adopted  in  an  amended  and  completed  form 
in   1786,  all  along  contemplated  the  presence  of  bLshop^, 
there   really  were  none  in  the  U.  S.  at  that  time   cxtt^t 
Bishop  Seabury,  who  took  no  part  in  the  proceedings  of  thr-4 
conventions.    This  gentleman  (the  second  of  a  family  whi'  r 
for  five  generations  has  furnished  a  line  of  clergyiuon.  al'. 
able  and  some  distinguished)  had  been  sent  to  England  s(  n  Hi 
after  the  peace  by  the  clergy  of  Connecticut  to  obtain  con- 
secration.    Ten  of  the  Connecticut  clergy  had  met  on  ti!« 
Feast  of  the  Annunciation,  Mar.  25,  17oo,  at  Woodbury  !ii 
that  State,  and  had  chosen  Dr.  Seabury  as  their  bishop'  ii*- 
structing  him  to  seek  consecration  first  m  England,  and  fnM- 
ing  there  to  go  to  Scotland  for  the  coveted  apostolical  cnnu- 
mission.     In  England  he  had  found  an  obstacle,  however,  ir. 
the  oath  of  allegiance,  which  forms  a  part,  of  the  Kn.t:Ii>h 
consecration  oflice,  and  which,  of  course,  could  not  b«»  taktn 
by  any  one  but  a  British  subject.    After  some  delay,  ard 
much  negotiation,  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  cons#L-'rat  i*  v. 
from    the    Scottish  bishops  on    Noy.   14,   1784,  at   Al>r- 
deen,  and,  returning  to  the  U.  S.  in  1785,  was  received  a> 
Bishop  of  Connecticut  and,  later,  of  Rhode  Island. 

The  rule  of  the  Church,  believed  to  have  come  down  fn^m 
the  apostles  themselves,  requires  the  presence  of  at    leH>t 
three  bishops  at  every  consecration ;  and  it  was  necf^i^ary 
that  there  should  be  at  least  that  number  in  the  U.  S.  \\ 
maintain  an  episcopal  succession.    Application  was  thon- 
fore  made  in  1786  to  the  English  bishops  in  behalf  of   ih.- 
Rev.  William  White  and  the  Rev.  Samuel  Provoost  who  bji  l 
been  chosen  to  the  episcopate  in  Pennsylvania  an<i    Ni  -a 
York.    The  obstacle  arising  from  the  oath  of  alleE:ianco  vk  a^ 
removed  by  an  act  of  Parliament ;  but  a  new  difficulty  w it- 
found  in  a  revised  Prayer-book  known  as  the  **  Pr<»|Ki>;*- i 
Book,"  which  had  been  proposed  for  use  in  Uie  U.  S.  »:. 
1785,  and  in  which  the  English  bishops  thought  that   tin  y 
perceived  indications  of  a  disposition  to  depart  from   tii 
doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England.    After  a  corresp<in<l*'i)<  ■ 
between  some  of  the  most  learned  divines  in  England  hi;-: 
the  U.  S.,  in  which  the  principle  was  clearly  brought    «.•.:♦ 


n»- 


['f 


178     EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  THE  PROTESTANT 


EPISTAXIS 


(c)  The  two  sacraments  ordained  by  Christ  himself — ^bap- 
tism and  the  supper  of  the  Lord — ministered  with  unfailing 
use  of  Christ's  words  of  institution,  and  of  the  elements  or- 
dained by  him. 

(d)  The  historic  episcopate,  locally  adapted  in  the  meth- 
ods of  its  administration  to  the  varying  needs  of  the 
nations  and  peoples  called  of  God  into  the  unity  of  his 
Church. 

See  The  Lambeth  Conferences  of  1867,  1878,  and  1888, 
edited  by  Randall  T.  Davidson  (1889),  Church  Eeunion  Die- 
cussed  on  the  Basis  of  the  Lambeth  Propositions  of  1888  (re- 
printed from  the  Church  Review,  1890),  and  Bishop  Perry's 
Accounts  of  the  Second  and  Third  Lambeth  Conferences, 
the  one  printed  in  1879,  the  other  in  1891. 

The  dioceses  and  missionary  districts  of  the  American 
Episcopal  Church  cover  every  portion  of  the  territory  of  the 
XLS.  There  are  flfty-two  aioceses  and  twelve  missionary 
jurisdictions  or  districts  with  seven  foreign  jurisdictions. 
The  five  dioceses  of  New  York  form  a  federate  counciL 
The  three  dioceses  of  Illinois  are  organized  as  a  province. 
There  are  twelve  missionary  districts.  There  are  three  for- 
eign missionary  episcopates,  viz. :  Cape  Palmas,  Africa  (west 
coast) ;  Shanghai,  China ;  Tokio,  Japan.  Missions,  besides, 
exist  in  Greece,  Mexico,  Brazil,  Cuba,  and  Haiti.  A  bishop 
has  been  consecrated  for  the  Church  in  Haiti,  and  one  was 
consecrated  for  Mexico,  who  subsequently  resigned.  The 
churches  on  the  continent  of  Europe  at  Paris,  Rome,  Flor- 
ence, Geneva,  Nice,  Dresden,  and  Lucerne  are  organized  into 
a  convocation.  Seventy-six  bishops  are  living  (1893),  of 
whom  5  have  resigned  their  sees,  11  are  missionary  bishops, 
and  9  are  assistant  bishops.  In  1893  there  were  4,250  clergv, 
682  candidates  for  onlers,  1,806  lay  readers,  and  nearly 
6,000  parishes  and  missions.  During  the  three  years  1889- 
91  there  were  183,310  baptisms  and  125,738  confirmations, 
and  the  total  contributions  for  religious  purposes  amounted 
to  $40,566,529.  ' 

LiTEaATURE. — For  the  general  history,  consult  Bishop  W. 
S.  Perry's  History  of  the  American  Episcopal  Church, 
1587-188S  (2  vols.,  1885) ;  Anderson,  History  of  the  Church 
of  England  in  the  Colonies  and  Foreign  Dependencies  of 
the  British  Empire  (3  vols.,  1846 ;  2d  ed.,  rearranged  and 
enlarged,  1856) ;  Wilberforce,  History  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  America  (1846) ;  McConneirs  History 
of  the  American  Episcopal  Church  from  the  Planting  of 
the  Colonies  to  the  end  of  the  Civil  War  (1890) ;  Hawicins, 
Historical  Notices  of  the  Missions  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land in  the  North  American  Colonies  (1845) ;  Updike,  His- 
tory of  the  Narragansett  (R,  I.)  Church  (1847) ;  Bolton,  His- 
tory of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  County  of 
Westchester  (1855).  For  original  sources  of  information,  see 
Bishop  Perry's  Historical  Collections  of  the  American 
Colonial  Church  (1871-78);  Perry,  Journals  of  General 
Conventions,  1785-1836  (3  vols.,  1874) ;  Perry's  Historical 
Notes  and  Documents  UlustrcUing  the  Organization  of  the 
Protestatht  Episcopal  Church  (1874) ;  llawks  and  rerry. 
Documentary  History  of  the  Church  in  Connecticut  (2 
vols.,  1863-64) ;  The  Churchmaih's  Year-book  (2  vols.,  1870- 
71) ;  Connection  of  the  Church  of  England  unth  Early 
American  Colonization  (1863) ;  and  Historical  Sketch  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States,  1784- 
1884  (1884) ;  Bishop  White,  Memoirs  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  in  the  United  States  (1820 ;  2d  ed.  by  Francis 
Lister  Hawks,  1836 ;  3d  ed.  by  Rev.  Dr.  B.  F.  De  Costa, 
1880) ;  Beardsley's  History  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  Con^ 
necticut  (2  vols.,'  1865  ;  4th  ed.  1883) :  Life  and  Correspond- 
ence of  Samuel  Johnson,  D,  D.,  Missionary  in  Connecticut 
and  First  President  of  Columbia  College  (1874) ;  and  Life 
and  Correspondence  of  Bishop  Seabury  (1881) ;  Dalcho,  His- 
torical Account  of  the  Prote-ntant  Episcopal  Church  in  South 
Carolina  (1820) ;  Perry's  Handbook  of  the  General  Conven- 
tion (3d  ed.  1880),  and  his  ed.  of  Proctor  On  the  History 
of  the  Common  Prayer  (186:J-89);  Hill's  History  of  the 
Church  in  Burlington  (1876;  2(1  ed., enlarg<nl,  188.'5');  Dorr's 
Hi.tfory  of  (Christ  Church  (Philadolnhia,  1856):  Dr.  J.  B. 
Cheshire's  Church  in  the  Province  of  Xorth  Carolina  (1890); 
and  numerous  monoifniphs,  etc.  The  legislation  of  the 
Church  is  einbo<lied  in  the  Journals  of  the  General  Conven- 
tion, publislied  trienniallyund  oftener  (1785-1892);  the  jour- 
nals of  the  early  and  preliinirmrv  conventions  (1785-1814) 
were  edited  by  Bishop  White  (Philudeljihia,  1814) ;  those 
from  17H5-18^J5  were  pul)lishe(l  by  authority  of  the  General 
Convention,  and  edited  by  Bishop  Perry  in  3  vols.,  with 
notes,  etc.  Heverlky  R.  Beits. 

Revised  by  William  Stkven's  Peiirv. 


Episcopal  System :  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  tlmt 
theory  according  to  which  the  highest  clerical  power  in 
vestea  in  the  whole  body  of  bishops.  This  theory  was  mj»st 
prominently  brought  forward  in  tlie  papal  elections  of  ilie 
fourteenth  century,  and  its  followers  declared  the  Church.  «js 
represented  in  its  general  assemblies,  to  be  above  the  fmjxf. 
In  France  the  University  of  Paris  was  the  chief  8upfK>rter 
of  this  theory,  and  the  Ghollican  Church  accepted  it  &s  out* 
of  its  fundamental  laws.  In  Germany  the  coadjutant  bishop 
of  Treves,  Nikolaus  von  Hontheim,  who  was  one  of  it«  chi»f 
supporters,  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  of  Justinus  F»^ 
bronius  a  celebrated  book,  in  which  he  clearly  defined  the 
episcopal  system,  De  statu  eeclesim  et  Ultima  potest  ate 
Romani  Pontiflcis  (Frankfort-on-the-Mam,  1763).  The 
Punctations  of  Ems  (see  Ems)  had  the  same  fundamental 
idea,  and,  although  they  failed  in  their  purpose,  the  system 
continued  to  spread  in  Germany.  But  the  declaration  of 
papal  infallibihty  has  put  an  end  to  these  differences,  and 
made  an  impossibility  of  the  episcopal  system.  In  the  Gor- 
man Protestant  churches  the  episcopal  system  is  that  theory 
according  to  which  the  authority  of  the  bishops,  which  ha^i 
been  suspended  in  the  Protestant  countries  in  consequence 
of  the  peace  of  1555,  was  transferred  to  the  ruler  of  the 
country. 

Episco^pins,  Simon  :  a  divine  whose  original  name  was 
Bishop,  or  Biscop :  b.  in  Amstenlam,  Holland,  Jan.  1. 15M:i  ; 
studied  at  Leyden.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  liberality, 
moderation,  and  other  virtues,  and  became  the  chief  pillar 
and  champion  of  the  Arminians,  or  Remonstrants.  He  wius 
appointed  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  I>'y- 
den  in  1612,  but  he  was  accused  of  Socinianism  by  the  Cal- 
vinists  (Gomarists),  and  was  banished  in  1618  by  the  Synf«i 
of  Dort.  He  retired  to  France,  returned  to  Hollanit  in 
1626,  and  lived  in  Rotterdam,  and  became  first  Professor  of 
Theology  in  the  newlv  established  Remonstrant  Seminary 
in  Amsterdam  in  1684  His  principal  works  are  the  ( Con- 
fession of  the  Remonstrants  (1621)  and  Institutiones  Theo- 
logicm.  His  complete  works  appeared  Amsterdam  (2  v.  .Is., 
1650-65).  See  his  Life  by  F.  (Jalder  (London,  1835;  New 
York,  1887).    D.  in  Amsterdam,  Apr.  4, 1643. 

Episode  [from  Gr.  hnur&^iw,  a  parenthetic  addition,  in 
the  Greek  drama  a  dialogue  introduced  between  the  choral 
songs,  neut.  of  hc^uri^utu  coming  in  besides ;  M,  upon,  in 
addition  -i-  cKro^oi,  entrance  (tli,  into  -h  Ms,  way)]  :  orijci- 
nally,  one  of  those  parts  of  an  ancient  classical  drama  whirh 
were  performed  between  the  entrances  of  the  chorus.  In 
modern  use  it  signifies  an  incidental  narrative  or  digressiou 
in  the  poem,  more  or  less  connected  with  the  main  plot,  but 
not  essential  to  its  development. 

Epis'tates  [Gr.  hturrimis,  commander,  president ;  hti, 
upon  +  crr^Mu,  stand] :  the  title  of  the  presidents  of  tho  two 
great  councils  of  the  ancient  Athenians — viz.,  the  Eeclfsia 
and  the  senate  of  Five  Hundred.  Their  term  of  office  wa> 
one  day. 

Epistaxis  [from  Gr.  iwurriiew,  to  bleed  at  the  nose ;  ^rC 
upon  +  0T(iCciy,  to  drop]:  the  technical  medical  term  f«»r 
bleeding  from  the  nose;  a  symptom  traceable  to  varioits 
causes.  It  may  be  of  slight  importance,  as  very  often  in 
certain  children  who  have  repeated  slight  bleedings  from 
the  nose.  In  these  there  is  no  diseased  condition  disco v«  r- 
able.  Again,  it  is  of  slight  importance  in  persons  in  wIkmu 
headache  or  confinement  in  a  close  room  is  apt  to  lead  to 
bleeding,  and  indeed  in.  such  cases  not  rarelv  a  measure*  of 
relief  is  afforded  bv  the  epistaxis.  Besides  t^ese  eases  tht^n^ 
are  many  serious  aiseases  in  which  nosebleed  occurs,  iiutt; 
are  the  various  forms  of  diseases  of  the  blood,  purpura,  an^i 
haemophilia ;  diseases  of  the  heart  or  kidneys  m  which  t  ti** 
bkKHi-vessels  are  apt  to  be  diseased  and  congestions  tK^t-iir  ; 
and  in  whooping-cough  during  the  paroxysms.  Epista'^i-. 
is  a  symptom  of  considerable  value  as  indicating  the  on^^^t 
of  typhoid  fever,  as  it  is  very  common  during  the  first  wt^r-k. 
when  the  general  symptoms  are  ambiguous.  Bleetling  fn.m 
the  nose  as  a  result  of  injury,  or  in  children  from  pit^kmj 
with  the  fingers,  is  easily  recognized. 

Generally  the  ha^norrhage  soon  stops  of  its  own  ai'coni, 
but  sometimes  it  requires  treatment.  Cold  water,  tAiiiuT^ 
alum,  and  other  agents  may  suffice.  Pressure  inward  a^ai  •  i^r 
the  septum  nuiv  prove  eflicacious.  In  more  serious  «a.^-^ 
active  medicinal  agents  may  be  recjuired,  or  even  firm  |vn  k- 
ing  of  the  cavity.  Very  rarely  the  bleeding  is  most  ol>>^*j. 
nate,  and  in  hhxKl  diseases,  or  less  frequently  other  eomii- 
tions,  may  Iw  the  immediate  caiL<«e  of  death. 

William  Pepped 


180 


E   PLURIBUS  UNUM 


EQUATION 


form.  Among  the  more  important  epizodtic  diseases  are 
the  rinderpest,  the  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia,  and  the 
"foot-and-mouth  disease*^  (all  attacking  neat  cattle);  the 
remarkable  influenza  which  attacked  horses  and  mules, 
arising  in  Canada,  Sept.  30, 1872,  and  rapidly  moving  south- 
ward and  westward  over  the  whole  of  l^orth  America ;  the 
scab,  foot-rot,  and  other  diseases  of  sheep.  The  "  reds,"  the 
mtiseardine,  pebrine,  and  other  diseases  of  the  silk-worm 
have  been  the  cause  of  serious  calamities  to  operatives,  and 
at  times  have  almost  threatened  the  existence  of  the  silk 
manufacture. 

The  epizoStic  influenza  of  1872-73,  above  alluded  to,  de- 
stroyed, according  to  Dr.  A.  B.  Judson,  of  New  York,  1,500 
horses  and  mules  in  New  York,  or  4  per  cent,  of  the  total 
number  in  the  city.  The  disease  reached  Chicago  Oct  29, 
St.  Louis  Dec.  1,  Salt  Lake  Jan.  11,  1873,  and  San  Fran- 
cisco Apr.  15.  It  is  thought  that  the  disease  spread  chiefly 
by  contagion,  and  not  by  atmospheric  influence. 

E  Pla^ribas  U^nnm  [Lat.,  intended  to  mean  one  com- 
posed of  many]  :  the  motto  of  the  U.  S.  After  the  Declara- 
tion of  theiV  independence  had  been  announced  by  the  States 
on  July  4, 1776,  and  before  the  adjournment  of  that  day's 
session,  it  was  resolved,  "  That  Dr.  Franklin,  Mr.  J.  Adams, 
and  Mr.  JefFerson  be  a  committee  to  prepare  a  device  for  a 
seal  for  the  United  States  of  America."  The  result  of  their 
joint  work  was  the  present  seal  of  the  U.  S.,  which  has  not 
been  changed  since  its  first  adoption.  The  six  sections,  or 
ouarterings,  upon  the  escutcheon  or  shield  were  intended  to 
denote  the  countries  (England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  France, 
Germany,  and  Holland)  from  which  the  States  so  united 
had  been,  respectively,  chiefly  peopled.  The  motto  adopted 
on  this  seal,  and  retained  ever  since,  was  intended  to  denote 
the  character  of  the  federal  government  in  its  formation. 

Epode  [from  Or.  iw^s,  sung  aft.er] :  in  ancient  prosody, 
1,  {6  ^vyStfs)  the  shorter,  usually  the  second,  verse  of  a  coup- 
let, as  an  iambic  trimeter  and  dimeter :  hence  a  poem  con- 
sisting of  such  couplets,  as  the  ^podea  of  Horace.  Though 
the  Elegiac  Distich  {q,  v.)  is  epodic,  elegies  are  not  usually 
called  epodcs.  2,  {ii  ii^s)  in  Greek  poetry,  a  lyric  system 
like  a  Strophe  {q.  v,\  occurring  after  a  pair  of  strophes 
(strophe  and  antistrophe),  so  that  the  three  sometimes  mrm 
a  compound  unit,  called  a  triad.  All  the  odes  of  Pindar, 
some  lyric  fragments,  and  some  choric  odes  of  the  drama 
contain  epodes.  Milton  W.  Humpbbets. 

Eppfng:  town  of  Essex,  England;  at  the  north  end  of 
Eppmg  Forest ;  16  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  London  (see  map  of 
England,  ref.  12-J).  It  is  noted  for  its  cream,  butter,  and 
sausages.  Epping  Royal  Forest,  formerly  Waltham  Forest, 
covers  60,000  acres,  but  was  once  much  naore  extensive,  cov- 
ering the  whole  of  Essex  almost  to  Uie  very  gates  of  Lon- 
don. Now  only  13,000  acres  are  in  woods  and  wastes,  and 
the  rest  is  inclosed  as  private  property.  It  was  formerly  the 
seat  of  a  famous  fair  held  every  year  around  Fairlop  Oak, 
and  of  a  stag-hunt  held  on  Easter  Mondav.  In  the  midst 
of  the  forest  Queen  Elizabeth's  hunting  lodge  is  still  stand- 
ing.   Pop.  2,500. 

Epsom :  market-town  of  Surrey,  Enriand ;  14  miles  by 
railway  S.  S.  W.  of  London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  12-J). 
It  has  mineral  springs  containing  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
which  derives  from  this  place  the  name  of  Epsom  salt. 
They  were  first  discovered  m  1618,  and  for  some  time  drew 
great  numbers  of  visitors  to  the  town.  Charles  II.  and 
Prince  Jorgou,  of  Denmark,  the  spouse  of  Queen  Anne,  often 
resorted  to  them.  Gradually,  however,  they  were  deserted. 
Ep.sora  has  a  royal  me<licarcollege,  and  is  famous  for  its 
horsjc-races,  which  are  held  yearly  on  the  Downs,  1^  miles 
S.  of  the  town.  The  races  last  four  days,  one  of  which  is 
calle<i  Derby  Day,  and  are  more  numerously  attend^  than 
any  other  races  in  the  kingdom.  They  were  i)ennanently 
established  in  1730.     Pop.  (1891)  8,417. 

Epsom  Salt  (in  Lat.  ma^jnesicp  sulphas — i.  e.  sulphate  of 
magnesium;  Germ.  Schtrefehaure  Ma(jneHia):  the  magne- 
sium sulphate  (MgSO«.7Il90),  a  salt,  when  pure,  usually 
found  in  colorless  acicular  crystals  derived  from  the  right 
rhombic  prism,  and  containing  51-22  per  cent,  of  water  of 
crj'stallization.  It  is  somewhat  ef!lorescent,  for  at  32'  F. 
water  will  dissolve  over  one-fourth  its  weit^'ht  of  the  anhy- 
drous siilt,  and  as  the  temT)erature  is  rais<'d  the  solubility  in- 
creases. The  salt  was  if)rm(»rly  manufactured  from  the 
waters  of  the  mineral  spring  of  *  Kpsorn,  Eriirland.  It  also 
exists  largely  in  st»a-water,  from  which  it  was  formerly  pre- 
pared in  large  quantities.     In  Italy  it  is  prepared  from  a 


schistose  rock ;  in  England  from  dolomite;  in  Pennsylva- 
nia  and  Maryland  from  magnesite.  This  salt  is  used  in 
medicine  as  a  cooling  and  genendly  safe  cathartic  The 
dose  is  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  in  a  glass  of  water. 
It  is  nauseous  to  the  taste,  but  may  be  easily  taken  in  *'  soda- 
water,"  with  lemon  sirup.  In  the*  household  it  is  an  excel- 
lent addition  to  starch,  decidedly  increasing  its  stiffen ir»L' 
powers.  Mixed  with  ordinary  whitewash,  it  gives  a  fine 
pearly  whiteness  to  walls. 

Epworth  Leagae:  a  voluntarv  organization  composed  nf 
young  people  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  bavin ir 
for  its  object  the  promotion  of  piety  in  its  members  and 
their  development  along  social,  intellectual,  and  religious 
lines.  It  was  organized  at  Cleveland,  O.,  May  14  and  1.'), 
1889,  at  a  convention  of  the  representatives  of  five  gene  ml 
young  people's  societies  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
Its  headcruarters  are  at  Chicago,  where  also  is  publishtnl 
weekly  Tke  Epworth  Herald,  its  official  organ.  The  league 
has  now  (1893)  more  than  10,000  chapters  and  700,000  mem- 
bers. It  was  officially  adopted  and  indorsed  by  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  at  ()maha.  May,  1892.  The  Metho<li-t 
Church  of  Canada  and  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Chunh 
South  have  adopted  the  Epworth  League  for  their  work 
among  young  people.  See  Christian  Endeavor,  Yoixo 
People's  Society  of.  John  P.  Hurst. 

Eqaation  [from  Lat.  cequa'tio^  a  making  equal] :  in  al- 
gebra, a  statement  that  two  quantities  having  different  al- 
gebraic expressions  are  equal.  The  equality  is  expres>*Hl 
by  writing  the  sign  =  between  the  expressions  asserted  to 
be  equaL  E^h  of  the  equal  expressions  is  called  a  meniU^r 
of  the  ec^uation.  Equations  are  of  two  kinds — identiial 
and  conditional.  An  identiccd  equation  is  one  in  which  the 
two  expressions  must  be  equal  from  their  very  natur**  or 
meaning ;  as,  for  example,  3  +  8  =  6  and  (a  +  of  —  2ah  = 
a*  +  6*.  In  either  of  these  equations  the  two  members  are 
equal  because  the^  express  the  same  quantity  in  different 
ways,  and  so  remain  equal  whatever  values  we  assign  to  the 
quantities.  CoTu^i/tono^  equations  are  those  in  which  t  i it- 
two  expressions  are  not  equal  for  all  values  of  the  quanti- 
ties, but  which  imply  certain  relations  between  them.  For 
example,  if  we  have  the  equation  a;  +  y  =  6,  this  equation  i> 
not  true  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  nor  is  it  true  for  ail 
values  of  a;  and  y.    It  is  true  only  on  condition  that  th** 

?uantities  x  and  v  are  so  chosen  that  their  sum  shall  lio  B. 
t  is  because  of  this  that  such  equations  are  called  condi- 
tional. 

Equations,  Theory  of.— The  theory  of  ecjuations  is  that 
branch  of  algebra  which  treats  of  the  equations  called  alge- 
braic, namely,  those  which  can  be  reduced  to  the  form 

«»  +  aaf'-'^  +  &C"-'  +  ftT"-*  +  etc.  =  O, 

X  being  the  unknown  quantity,  n  a  positive  integer,  an«l  a, 
ft,  c,  etc.,  anv  coefficients  whatever  which  do  not  contain  -r! 
The  roots  of  such  an  equation  are  those  special  values  of  s 
which,  being  substituted  in  the  equation,  will  satisfy  it  l»v 
reducing  the  algebraic  sum  of  its  terms  identically  to  zer/». 

The  degree  of  an  equation  is  the  exponent,  n,  of  the  liiirh- 
est  power  of  x.  Eouations  of  the  second  degree  are  called 
quadratic,  of  the  tnird  cubic,  of  the  fourth  quart ic,  or  hi- 
quadratic,  etc.  The  fundamental  theorem  of  the  subjt»c»t  i« 
that  the  roots  of  every  such  equation  are  equal  in  numK-r 
to  the  exponent, »,  or  the  highest  power  of  the  unkni>wn 
quantity  which  enters  into  it.  But  two  or  more  of  the  r*>i  »i> 
mav  be  e^ual. 

'fhe  principles  involved  in  such  equations,  the  relation^ 
between  their  roots,  and  the  possibility  of  expressing  a   rt  .  .t 
algebraically  in  terms  of  the  coefficients,  have  been  de%  t  1- 
oped  into  a  most  extensive  and  interesting  branch  of  ma  t  tit- 
matics.    The  solution  of  an  algebraic  equation  consist «*   i*. 
finding  an  expression  for  x  which,  being  substitute<l  in   t  in- 
equation, will  satisfy  it.    The  possibility  of  a  solution   ^:i. 
depend  on  the  nature  of  the  equation.    One  in  whirh    t'.^- 
coefficients  of  the  powers  of  x,  which  we  have  called  n,  h,  * . 
etc.,  are  all  separate  and  independent  quantities,  is  call«^i  j» 
general  equation.    General  equaticms  are  classified  aiH'.ir.':- 
ing  to  their  degree,  as  just  denned.    It  was  long  since  ftnH-.i 
that  the  general  equations  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
des^recs  aflmitted  of  being  solved.     But  the  equation  <>f  t  K.- 
fifth  degree  defied  all  the  efforts  of  the  mathematiiiaii^ 
who  attacked  it.     At  length,  early  in  the  nineti>enth    ^-^tj- 
tury,  it  occurred  to  the  illustrious  Al)el  to  inauire  wht»th.  r 
a  sohition  was  possible.     By  a  profound  analysis  ho    su 
ceeiled  in  demonstrating  the  proposition  that  the  solut:.  ». 
of  the  general  equation  of  the  fifth  degree  was  impossil..,- 


182 


EQUESTRIAN  STATUE 


EQUITY 


licani  *' comprised  the  flower  of  the  Roman  chivalry,  the 
ornament  of  Rome,  the  firm  support  {firmamentum)  of  the 
republic."  The  badges  of  the  equites  were  a  gold  nng  and 
a  robe  with  a  narrow  purple  border. 

Equestrian  Statue :  a  complete  figure  of  a  person  on 
horseback,  executed  generally  in  bronze  or  stone.  In  ancient 
Greece,  where  plastic  art  attained  its  highest  perfection, 
statues  of  men  and  horses  were  often  of  the  first  excellence; 
but  horses  were  more  commonly  represented  as  attached  to 
the  chariot  In  Rome,  equestrian  statues  of  the  emperors 
were  common.  The  finest  extant  Roman  work  of  the  kind 
is  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus. 
Two  remarkable  statues  of  this  kind  have  come  down  to  us 
from  the  time  of  the  Renaissance — ^that  of  Bartolomeo  Col- 
leoni  at  Venice,  by  Verrocchio  and  Leopardi,  and  that  of 
Gatamelata,  at  Padua,  by  Donatello.  Among  the  famous 
modem  equestrian  works  are  the  noble  colossal  statue  of 
Peter  the  Great  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  that  of  Frederick  the 
Great  at  Berlin,  by  Ranch. 

Eq'uide  [from  Lat.  e'^us^  horse] :  the  family  of  which 
the  genus  Equus  (including  the  horse,  ass,  etc.)  is  a  brpe, 
and  which  is  a  section  {Sohdungvia)  of  the  order  UngtJata. 
The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  Equidca  is  the  solid, 
one-toed  foot  formed  by  the  union  of  the  central  phalanges 
and  the  atrophy  of  the  lateral  ones.  Single-toed  norses  be- 
gan in  the  Pliocene.  In  the  Miocene  epoch  horses  were  rep- 
resented by  Hipparion,  etc.,  which  had  two  small  lateral 
to^  or  hoofs,  of  which  some  traces  may  be  often  found  in 
living  horses.  In  the  Lower  Miocene  Anehitherium  repre- 
sents the  £quidm,  and  connects  the  horse  with  FiilcBothenum, 
Piiolophus,  etc.,  of  the  Eocene  and  with  the  tapirs  of  the 
present  da^.  The  genealogy  of  the  EqaidcB  is  better  known 
and  more  instructive  than  that  of  any  other  group  of  mam- 
mals. Nearly  twenty  species  of  equine  quadrupeds  have 
been  describea  from  the  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  deposits  of 
America,  but  it  is  supposed  that  no  horse  existed  in  the  New 
World  at  the  time  of  the  advent  of  the  Europeans.  See 
Horse  and  Hipparion. 

Equilateral  [from  Lat  m'qatis^  equal  +  laius,  -ertSj  sidej : 
having  equal  sicfes.  In  geometrv,  a  rectilinear  figure  is  said 
to  be  eqmlateral  when  ful  its  sides  are  equal.  If,  moreover, 
its  angles  are  all  equal,  it  is  called  re^mar.  Every  equilat- 
eral figure  inscribed  in  a  circle  is  equiangular,  and  therefore 
regular.  The  converse  theorem,  however,  is  true  only  for 
polygons  with  an  odd  number  of  sides.  An  equilateral  hy- 
perbola is  that  of  which  the  axes  are  equaL 

Equilibrium  [Lat  (Bquili'brium;  csquus,  even  +  Zt&ra, 
scale]  :  the  state  of  rest  produced  by  two  or  more  mutually 
counteracting  forces ;  equipoise.  Equilibrium  is  the  foun- 
dation of  the  theory  of  mechanics ;  it  is,  in  its  generalized 
meaning,  the  physical  law  of  the  universe.  Equilibrium,  in 
the  fine  arts,  is  the  just  place  or  balance  of  a  figure  or  other 
object,  so  that  it  may  appear  to  stand  firmly.  Also  the  due 
equipoise  of  objects,  lignts,  shadows,  etc.,  against  each  other. 

Equinoctial :  See  Equinox. 

Equinoctial  Points:  the  two  opposite  points  of  the  ce- 
lestial sphere  in  which  the  ecliptic  and  equator  intersect 
each  other,  the  one  beinp^  the  first  point  of  Aries,  and  the 
otiier  the  first  point  of  Libra.  These  points  do  not  retain  a 
fixed  position  in  relation  to  the  stars,  but  retrograde  from 
E.  to  W.  with  a  slow  motion,  requiring  25,000  vears  to  ac- 
complish a  complete  revolution.  This  motion  is  called  the 
Pre('ession  of  the  Equinoxes  (q.  v.). 

Equinox  [from  O.  Pr.  eqtUnoxe  <  Lat  cBquinoc'tium ; 
cequua,  equal  4-  nox,  night] :  in  astronomy,  the  time  when 
the  sun  pavSses  through  the  enuator  in  one  of  the  equinoctial 
points.  When  the  sun  is  in  the  equator  the  days  and  nights 
are  eoual  all  over  the  world,  hence  the  derivation  of  the  term. 
This  Happens  twice  every  year — viz.,  about  Mar.  21  and  Sept. 
22;  the  former  is  called  the  vernal^  and  the  latter  the  au- 
tumnal equinox.  The  equinoxes  do  not  divide  the  year  into 
portions  of  equal  length,  but  the  interval  from  the  vernal 
to  the  autumnal  equinox  is  greater  than  that  from  the  au- 
tumnal to  the  vernal;  in  otlior  words,  the  sun  continues 
longer  on  the  northern  than  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
ecjuator,  bociaiise  it  is  more  distant  from  the  earth  in  our 
summer  than  in  winter,  and  its  anfrular  motion  in  its  orbit 
is  consequently  slower  between  March  and  Sei)teml>er  than 
in  the  other  part  of  the  year.  In  1800  trie  difference 
amounted  to  seven  days,  sixteen  hours  and  fifty-one  min- 
utes. 


Equiseta'cen  [from  Equibetum  (g.  vX  the  only  senus] :  a 
family  of  cryptogamous  plants,  with  hollow  ana  jointed 
stems,  growing  in  ditches,  wet  ground,  and  rivers  in  many 
parts  01  the  world.  They  are' related  to  the  ferns  and  the 
extinct  Calamites.  They  are  found  fossil  in  coal,  and  wetv 
in  ancient  geologic  periods  very  much  larger  and  mor«  nu- 
merous than  at  present  This  family  is  now  the  sole  repn*- 
sentative  of  the  single  surviving  order  CEquisetaceas)  of  tht- 
class  Equiaetinm^  the  lowest  class  of  the  great  division  <  f 
the  vegetable  kingdom  known  as  the  fernworts  (Pteridoph  y- 
ta).    See  Fbbnworts  and  Fossil  Plants. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessei*. 

Equlse'tum  [Lat.  equiseium,  the  horsetail;  equus,  hopM* 
+  sa/o,  seta,  bristles,  coarse  hair]  :  a  genus  of  plants  of  t  he 
family  EquisetOfCecB,  comprising  numerous  species  calle<i 
horsetail.  The  fructification  is  in  the  form  of  a  spore-bearing 
cone  at  the  summit  of  the  stem.  The  Equisetum  hyemalf 
(scouring  rush)  is  indigenous  in  the  U.  S.  and  also  in  EurojH». 
The  abundant  silica  in  its  cuticle  renders  it  useful  for  polif^h- 
ing  furniture  and  for  scouring  utensils.  The  U.  S.  have  also 
several  other  species.  True  Ekjiiiseta  date  back  to  the  Trias- 
sic,  when  they  were  numerous,  and  attained  the  height  of  20 
feet.  In  the  Carboniferous  rocks  the  Equiseta  are  repre- 
sented by  Equisetites,  as  well  as  by  the  related  Calami tt^t^ 
Calamoaenaronj  etc.         Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Equites :  See  Equestrlan  Order. 

Equity  [from  Lat  ce'quitas,  equality,  fairness;  deriv.  of 
(Bquus,  even] :  a  portion  of  the  mass  of  English  jurispru- 
dence, derived  from  the  decisions  of  courts  and  the  rales  nf 
approved  text-writers.    It  originated  in  the  same  general 
way  as  that  branch  of  jurisprudence  technically  calltMl 
"  common  law."    It  is,  in  a  sense,  common  law  itself  when 
considered  in  contrast  with  statutes.    The  relation  of  equity 
to  common  law  can  be  best  understood  by  a  brief  historical 
survey.    After  the  Norman  conquest  of  England  the  kintr 
was  deemed  to  be  the  fountain  of  justice.    Ultimately,  i^ef- 
tain  great  courts  of  general  jurisdiction  came  into  aetiv** 
operation,  known  as  "king's  courts."    These  were  the  com- 
mon pleas,  the  king's  bench,  and  the  exchequer.    At  fir>t, 
their  functions  were  (}uite  distinct,  but  in  course  of  tiiiu-! 
by  fictions  of  law,  jurisdiction  was  assumed,  so  that  in  s<»ir  t- 
respects  it  became  concurrent  in  these  tribunals.    The  reiz- 
ular  mode  of  bringing  a  question  before  one  of  these  cr)urr> 
for  adjudication  was  by  an  action,  in  which  there  wa>  a 
plaintiff  and  a  defendant    A  formal  statement  of  the  plain- 
tiff's claim  and  of  the  defendant's  defense  was  made  in 
written  allegations  termed  pleadings,  and  the  question  thus 
raised  was  called  the  issue.    A  judge  and  jury  disposed  of 
issues  of  fact.  The  action  must  b!e  commenced  by  a  so-called 
writ,  purporting  to  emanate  from  the  king  and  addrt^^s^^i 
to  the  sheriff,  who  caused  the  defendant  to  be  brought  be- 
fore the  court.    There  was  an  office  in  chancery,  from  whiih 
the  writs  issued.    They  were  framed  in  a  technical  roannt-r. 
The  clerks  would  only  grant  a  writ  when  they  could  find  a 
precise  precedent  in  their  ofilce.    Actions  were  real,  per- 
sonal, or  mixed.    A  real  action  was  adapted  to  the  recovorv- 
of  land ;  personal  actions  were  used  to  recover  money ;  aii<l 
the  two  were  combined  in  a  mixed  action.    The  perscmal 
actions  were  framed  on  the  theory  either  of  contract   or 
wrong  (technically  called  tort).    Originally,  they  were  dt^ht. 
covenant,  and  detinue  in  cases  of  contract;  and  in  casi-  *,{ 
tort,  trespass,  trover,  and  replevin.    The  object  of  the  act  ic  »n 
of  debt  was  to  recover  a  specific  sura  of  money  due  to  tho 
plaintiff.    The  action  of  covenant  was  brought  upon  an  in- 
strument under  seal.    "Detinue"  was  resorted  to  in  order 
to  recover  a  specific  chattel  which  the  defendant  had    r^«- 
ceiyed  as  a  bailee.    The  action  of  trespass  was  institute<l  for 
an  immediate  and  direct  injury  to  person  or  property ;  trovt  r 
was  the  appropriate  means  to  recover  the  value  of  perstjnnl 
property  wrongfully  converted  by  the  defendant ;  while  r%>- 
plevin  was  used  to  recover  the  property  itself. 

It  was  found  at  an  early  day  tnat  the  personal  actions 
were  quite  insufficient  to  give  full  relief.  A  statute  was  en- 
acted m  13  Edw.  L  (ch.  24)  which  led  to  the  introduction  <»f 
a  new  form  of  action,  terrae<l  "  trespass  on  the  case."  Th  is 
was  a  comprehensive  name  for  all  actions  for  wrongs  wh«.*r\- 
the  injury  was  indirect  and  consequential,  as  in  the  case  of 
negligence.  It  also  included  many  cases  now  recognized  a.s 
strictly  actions  upon  contract,  and  called  "assumpsit"  If 
this  statute  had  been  wisely  interpreted,  no  court  of  eouit  v 
would  have  been  necessary,  nor  would  any  probably  have 
arisen.  But  the  judges  of  the  so-called  common-law  courts. 
adopted  very  strict  and  narrow  rules  of  construction,  and 


184 


EQUITY  OP   REDEMPTION 


ERASTIANS 


all  of  these  topics  is  the  subject  of  trusts.  Strict  trusts  are 
solely  cognizable  in  this  court. 

The  remedies  in  this  court  are  flexible  and  readily  adapt- 
ed to  the  exigencies  of  the  case.  The  most  liberal  rules 
prevail  as  to  parties.  Every  person  can  be  made  a  party 
whose  presence  is  necessary  to  a  complete  determination  of 
the  matter  in  controversy.  The  court  has  power  to  prevent 
apprehended  injuries  to  propertv  by  means  of  an  injunc- 
tion, or  to  place  the  property  itself  in  the  possession  of  one 
of  its  own  officers,  t«rmed  a  receiver,  until  the  rights  of  the 
parties  are  finally  established. 

The  tendency  of  modem  times  would  seem  to  be  to  blond 
the  two  systems  of  common  law  and  equity  jurisprudence 
into  one,  when  the  common  law  will  prevail  as  modified  by 
the  rules  of  equity.  T.  W.  Dwioht. 

Equity  of  Redemption :  the  ri^ht  which  the  owner  of 
mortgaged  property  has  to  redeem  it  after  the  condition  of 
the  mortgage  nas  been  broken.  A  mortgage  is  in  form  a 
conveyance  of  property,  with  a  provision  that  it  shall  be 
void  on  the  performance  by  the  maker,  within  a  given  time, 
of  a  certain  condition,  usually  the  payment  of  a  sum  of 
money ;  and  by  the  common  law,  if  the  condition  is  not  per- 
formed the  conveyance  becomes  absolute,  and  the  maker  of 
the  mortgage,  called  the  mortgagor,  loses  all  right  to  the 
property.  But  the  English  court  of  chancery,  an  equity 
tribunal,  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  asserted  its  power 
to  remedy  this  hardship  by  compelling  the  mortgagee  to 
give  up  the  laud  on  payment  of  the  debt  with  interest.  This 
right  in  equity  to  redeem  the  property  after  the  conveyance 
has  become  absolute  at  law  has  in  modern  times  come  to  be 
regarded  as  an  estate  in  the  land,  and  can  be  conveyed  or 
mortgaged  or  devised  by  its  owner.  It  passes  by  descent  to 
his  heirs ;  it  is  liable  for  the  debts  of  his  creditors,  and  can 
be  sold  on  execution  against  him,  and  is  subject  to  dower 
and  curtesy.  This  right  to  redeem  lasts  till  cut  off  by  fore- 
closure of  the  mortgage,  which  is  usually  effected  bv  an 
action  in  a  court  of  equity.  The  foreclosure  may  result  in 
giving  a  complete  title  to  the  mortgagee  (called  a  strict  fore- 
closure), or  it  mav  result  in  a  sale  of  the  premises  and  the 
payment  of  the  clebt  out  of  the  proceeds,  the  surplus  being 
returned  to  the  mortgagor  or  to  tnose  who  claim  under  him. 
The  right  to  redeem  from  the  mortgage  extends  to  all  who 
acquire  an  interest  in  the  land  under  the  mortgagor  after 
the  making  of  the  mortgage ;  and  all  such  persons  must  be 
^  made  parties  to  a  proceeding  to  foreclose  the  mortgage, 
'  otherwise  their  right  to  redeem  will  not  be  affected.  For- 
merly, unless  restrained  by  some  clause  in  the  mortgage, 
the  mortgagee  could  at  once  take  possession  of  the  premises, 
although  equity  compelled  him  to  account  for  the  rents  and 

Eroflts  upon  redemption.  Now,  however,  the  mort^gor 
as  in  general  the  right  of  possession  till  the  condition  is 
broken,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  U.  S.  till  foreclosure,  ex- 
cept when  after  default,  where  the  security  is  inadequate,  a 
receiver  is  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  property  under 
the  direction  of  the  court.  T.  W.  Dwiqht. 

Eqnns:  the  typical  genus  of  the  family  Equid^  {q.  v.). 

Era,  Christian  :  See  Christian  Era. 

Era  of  Martyrs :  See  Diocletian  Era. 

£rard,  d'raar',  S^bastien:  an  inventor  and  maker  of 
musical  instruments;  b.  in  Strassburg,  Apr.  5, 1752;  son  of 
a  poor  cabinet-maker.  His  first  pianoforte,  constructed  in 
1780,  may  he  said  to  have  introduced  that  instrument  into 
Franc-e.  He  soon  became  the  best  pianoforte  manufacturer 
in  Europe,  and  in  connection  with  tiis  brother  established  a 
manufactory  in  London.  To  £rard  the  piano  owes  some  of 
its  noblest  qualities  as  a  musical  instrument.  The  grand 
piano,  with  single  and  double  action,  was  his  invention.  He 
built  the  great  organ  for  the  royal  chapel  of  the  Tuileries. 
firard  was  also  the  inventor  of  a  double-action  harp  which 
had  immense  popularity  in  London,  and  took  out  patents 
for  many  other  improvements,  all  of  which  were  of  value. 
D.  near  Paris,  1831.    See  Pianoforte. 

Erasis'tratns  (in  Gr.  'Epaffitrrporos) :  a  Greek  physician  and 
anatomist ;  supposed  to  have  l)een  a  native  of  the  island  of 
Coos.  He  flourished  about  300-2(J0  B.C.,  and  practiced  for 
many  years  at  Alexandria,  where  he  taught  anatomy  and 
founded  a  school.  His  principal  discoveries  were  those  of 
the  viw  laciem  and  the  functions  of  the  brain  and  nerves. 
He  wrote  several  works,  of  which  a  few  fragments  are  extant. 

Erasmus,  Desiderius  :  scholar  and  philosopher ;  b.  at 
Rotterdam,  Holland.  Oct.  27-8,  1467  (or  1466).  He  was  a 
son  of  Gerard  de  Praet  of  Tergouw  ana  Margaret  of  Zeven- 


bergen  in  Brabant,  who  were  married  all  bat  in  name,  and 
was  called  in  his  childhood  Geert  Geerts  (Le.  Geert^s  or 
Gerard's  son),  which  name  he  exchanged  /or  the  Latin  an<i 
Greek  equiviUents  of  Gerard,  each  signifying  **  the  well-bt^ 
love<l."  He  attended  from  his  ninth  to  his  thirteenth  year 
the  school  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  at  I)event4r. 
where  he  was  a  pupil  of  Alexander  Hegius.  Having  bec»onj«* 
an  orphan  about  1478,  he  was  urged  b^  his  guardians  t<» 
enter  a  monastery,  in  order  that  thev  might  defraud  him  uf 
his  patrimony.  Although  he  regarded  a  monastic  life  with 
aversion,  he  was  at  length  induced  in  1482  or  14i^  to  entf  r 
the  Augustinian  convent  of  Steyn  by  the  hope  that  ho 
might  there  have  opportunity  for  study.  He  pursued  th«' 
study  of  the  classics  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  Latin 
scholar.  He  became  in  1492  a  priest  and  secretary  to  the 
Bishop  of  Cambray,  with  whom  he  remained  nearly  fiv^* 
years,  and  in  1496  went  to  Paris,  probably  for  the  purp«>^«' 
of  completing  his  education.  He  was  then  nearly  oestituti^ 
of  pecuniary  resources,  and  gained  a  subsistence  in  Paris  by 
teaching  school.  Between  1498  and  1500  he  passed  about 
two  years  in  England,  where  he  formed  friendsnips  with  Sir 
Thomas  More  and  John  Oolet.  He  resided  at  both  the  uni- 
versities, and  during  his  third  and  longest  visit  (1511-14) 
was  Professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge.  Impelled  by  a  stronj,' 
passion  for  travel,  he  visited  various  countries  of  Euroj>e, 
and  never  remained  long  in  one  place.  In  1506  he  com- 
menced a  tour  in  Italy,  where  he  passed  several  years,  per- 
fected his  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  and  associateil 
with  the  most  eminent  scholars.  He  obtained  from  the 
pope  a  dispensation  from  his  monastic  dress,  and  received 
the  degree  of  D.  D.  at  Turin  in  1506.  Ten  years  later  he 
was  absolved  from  his  monastic  vows.  In  1511  he  publish (hI 
The  liaise  of  Folly  (Encomium  Morise),  a  witty  satin*,  in 
which  he  exposed  the  follies  and  foibles  of  monka,  priests 
and  men  of  various  other  professions.  It  was  generally  tu\- 
mired  and  obtained  a  large  circulation  (modem  Eng.  trans. 
London,  1878). 

Having  established  his  reputation  as  the  most  eminent 
scholar  and  the  most  witty  writer  of  his  time,  he  receive*  1 
invitations  from  several  monarchs,  and  in  1514  visited  th^ 
court  of  the  Archduke  Charles  of  Austria  (afterward  Charlt>^ 
v.),  who  gave  him  the  title  of  royal  councilor,  with  a  f)en- 
sion  of  wO  florins,  and  liberty  to  travel  or  reside  wherever 
he  might  prefer.  He  produced  in  1516  a  good  edition  <»f 
the  Greek  New  Testament — the  first  edition  ever  publisht'^i 
— with  a  corrected  Latin  version  and  notes.  He  was  on 
friendly  terms  with  Luther  in  the  first  stage  of  the  Refomia- 
tion,  which  he  efficiently  promoted  by  his  witty  satins 
against  the  monks  and  priests,  and  by  his  censure  of  t  ht* 
corruptions  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  But  he  disliked  dogiuu- 
tism,  was  too  liberal  and  moderate  to  please  the  zeabxw 
supporters  of  either  side  in  a  religious  controversy,  and  In* 
dissented  from  some  of  the  doctrines  of  Luther*  who  de- 
nounced him  in  severe  terms  as  a  coward  and  time-server. 

Erasmus  became  a  resident  of  Basel  about  the  year  \r*2\, 
and  published  there  in  1524  his  celebrated  Colloquia  (Colli  r- 
q^uies ;  Eng.  trans.,  2  vols,,  London,  1878),  which  some  con- 
sider his  capital  work.    It  is  ostensibly  intended  for  tlu- 
instruction  of  youth  in  Latin  and  morals,  but  abounds  in 
satire  and  invective  directed  against  the  monks  and  tht* 
abuses  of  the  Roman  Church.    It  is  stated  that  24,000  copit-r^ 
of  it  were  sold  in  one  year.    He  was  involved  in  a  dii^piif  »• 
with  Luther  on  the  doctrine  of  free  will  in  1524,  and  wroi<> 
on  that  subject  De  Libero  Arbitrio  (1526).    He  was  CH>n- 
demned  as  a  heretic  bv  the  Sorbonne  of  Paris,  but  he  ikt- 
sisted  in  maintaining  \X}q  attitude  of  a  neutral  or  medii&ior. 
and  never  formally  revolted  against  the  pope.     In  1529  li« 
removed  to  Freiburg,  where  he  passed  several  years,      lie 
died,  when  on  a  visit  in  Basel,  on  July  12. 15^^.    Amon^  his 
works  is  Adagia  (Venice,  1508 ;  Eng.  trans.,  2  vols.,  Loii4l«  .n. 
1814),  a  collection  of  proverbs,  wnich  displays   imineit>«^ 
learning.     He  greatly  excelled  as  an  editor  oi  the  (ire*  k 
and  Latin  classics,  for  which  he  was  qualified  by  sn).>^ri«>r 
critical  sagacity  as  well  as  accurate  scholarship.     He   wa^ 
pre-eminent  as  a  restorer  of  classical  learning  and  9»<^iiii«: 
philosophy.     His  voluminous  Epistles  contain  valuable  ma- 
terials lor  literary  history.    His  complete  works  were   pii(>- 
lished   by  Beatus  Rhenanus  (9  vols.,  1541),  and   best    li> 
Leclerc  (10  vols.,  Leyden,  1603-06).    See  his  Life  by  VU  li. 
Drummond  (2  vols.,  London,  1873). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Erastians :  a  name  originally  applied  to  a  distinct  mrt  \ 
in  the  Westminster  Asskmbly  (q.  i«.),  headed  by  S^«U*n, 


186  EREHACAUSIS 

EremiCAnslB :  See  Fernbittation. 

Ere'trlk  (in  Qr.  t^pia;  FV.  £riirte):  an  ancient  citj 
on  the  island  ol  Eubtca  mentioned  by  Homer  (Iliad,  book 
ii).  At  im  early  period  it  was  a  prosperouH  and  independ- 
ent state,  and  one  of  the  chief  maritime  cities  of  Greece. 
It  was  captured  and  ruined  by  the  Pereians  in  490  a.  c,  but 
was  Boon  rebuilt.  Eretria  was  the  seat  o(  a  celebrated 
school  of  philosophy,  founded  by  Heaedemus  abont  W 

Erfart,  ar'foori,  or  Erforth  (in  Lat.  Brphordia  and  Er- 
furtum):  town  of  Prussian  Saxony;  on  the  river  Gera  and 
the  Thuringian  Railway;  15  miles  W.  of  Weimar  and  14 
miles  E.  of  Gothafseo  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  6-E). 
It  has  an  old  Gothic  cathedral  with  a  bell  which  weighs  275 
cwL,  fourteen  Protestant  churches,  a  royal  academy,  a  pub- 
he  library  of  about  60,000  volumes,  a  normal  school,  and  an 
edifice  formerly  occupied  by  the  University  of  Erfurt,  which 
was  founded  in  1883  and  dosed  in  the  year  1818,  The 
Augustine  convent  of  which  Luther  was  an  inmate  for 
several  years  is  now  used  as  an  orphan  asylum,  Erfurt  has 
manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  fabrics,  hosiery, 
shoes,  leather,  etc  It  was  more  populous  in  the  Middle 
Ages  than  it  is  now.  The  Congress  of  Erfnrt,  held  here  in 
Sept-Oct.,  1808,  was  attended  by  Napoleon,  Alexander  I.  of 
Russia,  and  several  of  the  German  princes.  In  Mar.  and 
Apr.,  1850,  the  so-called  Union  Parliament  held  its  sessions 
here.    See  GEaHAHT.    Pop.  (1885)  58,385;  (1890)  72,371. 

Ers,  irg :  the  absolate  (C.  Q.  S.)  unit  of  work  or  of  energy. 
It  is  the  work  of  one  dyne  acting  through  a  centimeter  ^s- 
tance.  The  relation  of  the  erg  to  the  usual  practical  units 
of  work  and  power  is  as  follows : 

1  kilogrammoter  =  100,000  g.  ergs. 

1  foot-pound  =  13,825  g.  ergs. 

1  watt  =  W  ergs  per  second. 

1  horse-power  =  746  x  10"  ergs  per  second, 

1  horse-power  =  (French)  736  x  10'  ergs  per  second. 

E.  L.  Nichols. 
Enf :  the  most  northern  of  the  areas  of  sand  wastes  in 
the  Sahara  Desert.  These  sand  regions  are  called  by  various 
names  by  Ihe  tribes  around  them.  The  wastes  just  S.  of 
Algeria  are  called  the  Erg  or  Areg,  and  are  divided  by  the 
Wudi  MU  into  the  East  and  West  Ei^,  The  East  Erg  is 
the  beat  known  of  all  the  sand  regions  of  the  Sahara,  as 
many  Europeans  going  to  or  from  Ghadamos  have  trossed 
It.  Singing  sands  are  found  in  parte  of  the  Erg,  and  in 
many  places  the  sand  b  heaped  by  the  wind  into  great 
dunts.    See  Duveyrier,  Le  Payt  Touareg.      C.  C.  Adams. 


ERICSSON 

perfect  rest,  while  ergot  causes  a  uniform  and  constant  m- 
pnlsi ye  effort  In  skilled  hands  it  is  aremedy  of  great  value 
Adminislered  late  in  labor,  it  often  prevenla  dangerous  Ii>J 
of  blood,  and  it  is  further  asetnl  in  some  cases  of  mcn.irrlui- 
gia  and  other  hemorrhages.  It  is  also  useful  in  vertipi  arm 
probably  in  other  diseases  requiring  treatment  because  ..| 
functional  disorder  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  blood- vf-di. 
Revised  hy  Chables  E.  Bessbv  and  H,  A.  Hase. 
ErroHsn :  a  disease  or  condition  resulting  from  hn'- 
continued  use  of  grain  in  which  ergot  is  mixed.  This  f-rl- 
ditioji  IB  one  whi<*  has  been  known  from  remote  tines,  and 
most  devastating  epidemics  of  it  have  occurred  in  Eiifii, 
In  America  no  cases  have  ever  been  observed ;  but  it  is «« .1 
that  m  1819  an  epizootic  of  this  nature  occurred  hm«nr: 
cattle  in  a  part  of  New  York,  caused  by  ergot  in  the  bin- 
^?^-''?'P-  "^^^  symptoms  of  ergotism  may  be  rooEh:i 
classified  in  two  groups,  the  nervous  and  the  gangrencL.; 
though  cases  usually  present  a  mixed  type.  In  the  nerv^-u-^ 
fomi  there  is  tingling  and  twitching,  with  later  more  or  li~- 
spasmodic  condition  of  the  muscles,  and  as  the  disease  CT>.». 
more  severe  mental  disturbimces,  delirium,  stupor,  and  cumi, 
At  the  same  time  various  gastric  disturbances  manJ.-- 
themselves,  but  especially  ravenous  hunger.  Recoverv  de^' 
ensue,  but  not  infrequently  the  patient  is  left  palsirtl  ..V 
subject  to  habitual  spasms,  mental  aberraUon,orevenidii.v 
In  the  gangrenous  form  intense  itching  and  ticglinc  li 
the  skin,  followed  by  appearance  of  a  red  or  darkish  siMrt  ,« 
the  extremities,  and  after  this  a  form  of  dry  gangrene,  a- 1 
result  of  which  thn  KntiHo  *«.  fo^t  mav  be  Itet   or  rifh'h 


result  of  which  the  hands  o 


Ergot,  or  Spnr  [Pr.  ergat,  a  cock's  spur;   etvmol 
known]:  a  cunous  lun^iis,^  the  compitct  mycelium  of 


Clameeps  purpurea  of  Tulasne,  growing  frequently  in  the 
heads  of  rye  (then  often  called  spurred  rye),  though  found 
on  aU  grasses  and  some  Cyperacea.  It  was  long  believed 
to  consist  of  diseased  ker- 
nels of  rye,  but  microscop- 
ical examination  shows 
that  it  has  nothing  at  a. 
in  common  with  the  ryi., 
but,  growing  originally 
from  the  ovary,  it  natu- 
rally assumes  something 
of  the  shape  of  the  mold 
in  which  it  grows. 

Ergot  is  usually  shaped 
somewhat  like  a  cock's 
spur,  and  is  from  half  an 
inch  to  IJ  inches  long. 
It  contains  alkaloids,  er- 
got! ne  and  ecboline,  sele- 
B  rotic  or  sclerolinio  acid, 

°  and    several   other  com- 

pounds which   are   little 
understood,  including  an 
oil  which  ap|>ears  to  be 
inert,  and  myeose,  a  pe- 
ciiliar  sugar. 
'^Ji^^i^/'^i^'fUV,,?-^^       '^"■f'*'  '=*  ""ch  used  in 
f^ujXl??''  Jl^i^i'^lTwt:!^   medicine,   especially  for 
MrT8Uipro|»K«toitho[unBii».        "le   purpose  of  exciting 
.,       ..,„    ,      ...  uterineeontractioiisaftor 

the  child  s  head  is  bom.  As  a  rule,  it  should  never  be  ad- 
ministeral  except  by  ixT.'^jns  skilled  in  its  use.  The  con- 
tractions induced  by  ergot  diCfer  from  the  natural  uterine 
eltort,  which  IB  intermittent,  with  intervals  of  mure  or  less 


The  cause  of  ergotism  lies  in  the  consumption  as  fon,!  „( 

■e  or  oata  tainted  with  the  ergot  paiasiU,  and  in  man 

is^  it  seems  the  lack  of  sufficient  food  played  some  laii 

_     the  causation  aside  from  the  specific  action  of  the  era  t 

itself.     In  certain  years,  especially  when  the  suramer  is  f-li 

and  damp,  the  grain  is  more  apt  to  be  diseased  thnn  it. 

other  years.     Nothing  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  treatnii^i,; 

except  to  maintain  the  straneth  and  minister  to  the  n.jj- 

fort  of  the  patient.    The  medicinal  use  of  ergot  may  leii.1  u. 

a  form  of  acute  poisoning  in  which  vomiting,  purginc  ai  ' 

progressive  loss  of  power  play  a  part,  but  very  few  citi-.. ,-( 

ironic  ergotism  have  arisen  in  this  way. 

WllilAM  PePPEK. 

ErtcXIT.:  King  of  Sweden ;  b.  Dec  13,  1533;  a  s..ti -■( 
Uustavus  Vasa,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1560  He  m«. , 
overtures  of  marriage  to  Oueen  Eliiiabcth  of  England  \.< 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and  others,  but  Anally  niarrin'i  a 
bwedish  peasant  named  Catharine  Monsdotter  He  »^ 
capncious,  imprudent,  momentarily  insane,  and  alwavs*!- 
dicted  to  violent  [.aroxysms  of  anger  and  cnielty  In  hi. 
reiKU  Sweden  was  involved  in  a  war  against  Denmark  S-i  ■ 
eral  noblemen  were  unjustly  put  to  death  by  his  order  \ 
conspiracy  was  formed  against  him  bv  his  own  b^.tLp-x 
and  other  nobles,  who  deposed  him  in'  15«8,  and  contin.d 
him  in  prison,  where  he  died  Feb.  16,  1577. 

Ericsson.  John,  Ph.D..  I,L.D.:  engineer  naval  c.>n- 
atructor.  physicist,  and  inventor;  b.  at  L4ngbansh«la.. 
Swrfen,  July  31,  1803;  fourth  in  descent  from  Ma-i,n~ 
Stadig,  a  miner,  who  died  in  1739.  His  father.  Olof  F'n,-- 
Bon,  was  a  graduate  of  the  gymnasium  of  Karlslail.  Bi„i 
John  received  a  thorough  training  in  the  studies  fltling  him 
for  his  profession,  having  the  advantage  of  instrueiii'u  l,i 
engineer  sent  by  Thomas  Telford  from  England  to  .=ui.f> 
intend  the  eonstmction  of  the  Gflta  Canal.  In  1814  he  a»t 
appointwi  a  cadet  of  the  Swedish  Corps  of  Engineers,  ami 
in  1820  an  ensign  in  the  Swedish  army,  where  he  nw,'  to 
the  rank  of  captain.  In  the  army  he  acquired  valuable  ,-i- 
perience  as  an  artillerist,  and  gained  such  skill  in  toixigracli. 
leal  drawing  that  while  engaged  in  surveving  and  ma i- 
ping  Northern  Sweden  his  labor  was  counted  as  that  '.f 
two  men.  He  showed  prec<x'ious  talent  as  an  invenlor  i\.^ 
signing  at  the  age  of  ten  years  a  pump  to  drain  the  nun,.; 
and  inventing  before  he  reached  his  maioritv  a  mai'hiic" 
for  engraving  and  a  flame-engine.  The  desire  to  find  s 
larger  field  for  his  flame-engine  mduced  him  to  resign  fr.,i., 
the  army,  »n<l  remove  in  1838  to  England,  where  be  r,- 
majned  until  Nov.  1.  1839,  engsging  in  business  Iheiv  s.-  a 
partner  of  John  Braithwaite.  He  made  use  of  surface  c.n- 
dcn^tion  as  apphVl  to  steam  in  Sir  John  Ross's  arx-tic  v,--- 
the  \ictory  in  1837.  In  1828  he  emplove.1  compr,-'.— i 
to  convey  power  to  a  Cornwall  Un-mirie  IvinE  off  il  .■ 
)re,  and  in  1829  he  used  artificial  draught  in  a  slriun  lin- 
etigino  designed  by  him  and  successfully  tested   in    Fn-- 


ERICSSON 


BRIE  CANAL 


18T 


Isid  and  on  the  Continent.    In  the  same  year  he  applied 
irtifidal  draught  to  his  locomotive  the  Novelty,  which  en- 
(tfed  the  lists  against  Stephenson's  Rocket  in  the  famoos 
motest  at  Rainhill  in  Oct!,  1829,  that  opened  the  era  of 
tnrel  bf  rmiL    L^uling  engineers  of  that  time  placed  on 
ncord  t^  statement  that  the  Novelty  was  the  firet  engine 
that  ever  run  really  fast,  as  it  ran  a  mile  in  fifty-six  sec- 
cods,  and  that  it  was  long  remembered  as  a  beau-ideal  of 
I  jocomotiTe.    In  1832  Ericsson  made  the  first  use  of  the 
{ffithfugal  6ui-blower  in  the  Corsair,  and  he  used  steam 
m  mMDj  new  and  ingenious  wajrs.    In  1883  he  patented  a 
*c*loric**  engine  with  an  "organ-pipe  regenerator."     This 
rxcited   extraordinary   interest  in  London,  and  laid  the 
tuUBiUlioa  for  his  future  inventions  in  that  line.    In  1833 
be  coadacted  experiments  with  submerged  propellers,  and 
IS  18S3,  in  the  iron   screw-steamer  the  Robert  F.  Stock- 
bit  made  the  first  really  successful  application  of  the  screw 
b)  st«am-navigation,  coupling  his  engine  directly  to  the 
propeller  shaft.    IHscouraged  oy  Engli^  indifference  to  his 
vivYoeed   ideas,  Ericsson  removed  to  the  U.  S.,  arriving 
Sor,  S3, 1^H>,  in  New  York,  where  he  continued  to  reside 
ontil  his  de^th.    During  the  ^ears  immediately  succeeding 
ka  removal  he  made  extensive  iu)plication  of  the  screw- 
DTopeller  to  merchant  vessels  on  the  inland  waters  of  the 
r.  ^L,  and  in  1843  caused  a  revolution  in  naval  warfare  by 
tppijine  the  screw  to  the  U.  S.  S.  Princeton  by  making 
ttft  of  ideas  and  inventions  formerly  regarded  as  mapplica- 
hie  to  the  conditions  of  war.    He  was  the  first  to  employ  a 
nnj^ftnder,  to  discard  the  use  of  breeching  for  heavy  guns, 
u-  pQt  his  machinery  below  the  water-line  and  to  protect  it 
with  coal  armor,    'the  first  practical  application  of  twin- 
KRws  was  made  by  Ericsson  in  the  Marmora  in  1843. 
During  the  twenty  years  from  1841  to  1861  he  was  engaged 
ii  intervals  in  work  upon  revenue  marine  and  other  Gov- 
ffluoent  vessels,  some  of  which  were  used  during  the  war 
vuh  Hexioo,  1846-47.    He  also  undertook  various  bold  in- 
vtiitioos  and  constructions,  not  all  of  which  were  successful. 
i\iei  of  thes«  was  the  caloric  ship  Ericsson,  which  voyaged, 
Pi^  1853;  between  New  York  and  Washington,  and  demon- 
«2it6d  the  impossibility  of  superseding  steam  with  hot  air. 
Bt^verer,  Eriisson  successfully  applied  hot  air  to  the  pro- 
iactioa  of  small  powers,  and  thus  made  it  a  commercial 
ftetseK.    His  studies  in  the  application  of  steam-power  to 
w-Tcasels  culminated  in  the  invention  of  the  Monitor 
iraior-clad,  made  in  1854  and  first  practically  applied  in 
tie  ori^nnal    Monitor,  which  defeated    the  Memmac    in 
HuDpton  Roads,  Va.,  Mar.  0, 1862,  staved  the  rising  tide  of 
Cnafederate  success,  and  compelled  the  reconstruction  of 
rt*rr  great  navj,  substantially  upon  the  lines  laid  down  by 
Enf^>o.    During  the  civil  war,  from  1862  to  1865,  he  was 
■mipied  in  the  work  of  building  a  monitor  fleet  for  the 
C.  S.    In  1868  he  built  for  Spain  a  fleet  of  gunboats  de- 
acaed  for  Cuban  watei^     In  1878  he  developed  in  the 
tjmdo-boat  Destroyer  ideas  included  in  his  scheme  of 
uial  warfare  first  conceived  and  submitted  to  Napoleon 
ilL  in  1854    In  1866  he  entered  upon  the  study  of  solar 
}ibT>ics  and  devoted  most  of  the  remaining  twent^^-three 
ymn  <A  his  life  to  this,  expending  $100,000  m  experiments 
sod  the  construction  of  ingenious  apparatus  to  facilitate  his 
cjiiea.    Most  of  this  apparatus  was  transferred  upon  his 
inth  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York.    He 
Ltviited  a  solar  engine,  which  he  left  as  a  legacy  for  the 
f:^4Kre  time,  when  the  coal  mines  shall  cease  to  supply  the 
v-tfid  with  ooDcentrated  heat.   The  main  purposes  of  Erics- 
%x*»  inventive  studies  through  life  were  (1)  to  secure  an 
t&««Dical  substitute  for  the  steam-engine  or  lessen  its 
vaoe  of  power:  (2)  to  devise  some  simpler  and  less  danger- 
•w  ma^ar ;  and  finally  so  to  improve  the  mechanism  of  de- 
'•om  m  war  that  the  weaker  nations  should  no  lone;er  be  at 
»'*■  mercy  of  the  strong.    Ericsson  died  in  New  York  city, 
Iw.  9,  1889,  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  between  the 
Kjaitor  and  the  Merrimac.     He  was  a  man  of  extraor- 
^MTj  physique,  having  the  muscular  strength  of  two  or- 
teary  men,  and  retained  his  ability  to  work  twelve  or 
Ivrtao  hours  a  day  almost  up  to  his  dying  hour.    Numer- 
^«  tiiks,  diplomas,  medals,  and  orders  of  knighthood  testi- 
W  to  the  public  appreciation  of  his  services.    After  his 
ftath  the  Swedish  Uovemment  asked   for  the  return  of 
^  body  to  his  native  land,  and  it  was  transferred  with  dis- 
ta^ttiwed  honors,  in  the  U.  S.  S.  Baltimore,  to  Stockholm, 
it  was  received  with  like  honors  and  conveyed  to  its 


propriated  $10,000  for  the  erection  of  a  monument  to  this 
great  inventor,  and  the  ceremony  of  unveiling  took  place 
in  Battery  Park,  New  York  city,  Apr.  26,  1893. 

William  Conant  Chubch. 

Ericsson,  Nils  :  brother  of  John  Ericsson ;  engineer ;  b. 
at  L&ngbanshyttan,  Sweden,  Jan.  31, 1802.  He  was  in  1814 
appointed  cadet  of  the  Swedish  Corps  of  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers, and  engaged  upon  the  Gdta  Canal,  ultimately  being 
placed  in  controlof  it  and  completing  it.  He  was  then  given 
charge  of  the  construction  of  a  system  of  Government  rail- 
ways, and  on  completing  them,  in  1862,  he  was  created  a 
baron  and  retired  with  the  largest  pension  ever  bestowed 
upon  a  Swedish  subject.  He  and  two  of  his  sons  were 
members  of  the  Swedish  Diet^  and  the  eldest  son,  John,  who 
inherited  the  title  of  baron,  is  governor  of  Jemtland,  Swe- 
den.   Nils  Ericsson  died  in  Stockholm,  Sept.  8, 1870. 

William  Conant  Chukch. 

Erie:  city  and  railway  junction  (founded  in  1867); 
capital  of  Neosho  co.,  Kan.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  Kansas,  ret  7-J);  116  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Kansas  City; 
near  the  Neosho  river,  which  supplies  excellent  water-power. 
The  city  has  four  churches.  The  chief  industries  are  agri- 
culture and  stock-raisinff.    Pop.  (1880)  270 ;  (1890)  1,176. 

Edftor  op  **  Republican  Record." 

Erie:  city  and  important  railway  and  commercial  cen- 
ter; capital  of  Erie  co.,  Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  1~A^ ;  the  only  lake  port  of  the 
State ;  has  the  largest  landlocKed  harbor  on  Lake  Erie,  5 
miles  in  length  by  one  in  width.  A  line  of  first-class  pro- 
pellers runs  between  this  port  and  the  upper  lakes ;  the  im- 
ports are  principally  grain,  lumber,  iron  ore,  limestone,  and 
plaster,  and  the  exports  bituminous  and  anthracite  coal,  en- 
gines, boilers,  ana  other  manufactured  products  of  the 
city.  Railway  facilities  are  excellent.  Ene  is  on  the  L.  S. 
and  M.  S.  and  the  N.  Y.  C.  and  St.  L.  railways ;  it  is  the 
western  terminus  of  the  Phila.  and  Erie  Railroad,  penetrat- 
ing the  lumber  and  upper  oil  regions  of  the  State,  and  con- 
necting with  Harrisburg,  Philadelphia,  and  the  anthracite 
coal-fields ;  and  is  also  the  northern  terminus  of  the  Erie 
and  Pittsbuig  and  the  Pittsburg,  Shenango  and  Lake  Erie 
railways,  which  pass  through  the  bituminous  coal  sections 
and  the  lower  oil  regions  of  the  State,  and  furnish  direct 
connection  at  Pittsburgwith  all  rail  and  river  routes. 

Manufactures,  e/c— -The  facilities  for  receipt  of  raw  ma- 
terial and  cheap  fuel,  and  for  the  shipment  of  products  by 
rail  and  water,  make  EIrie  an  important  manufacturing  cen- 
ter. Articles  in  great  variety  are  manufactured  here ;  amon^ 
the  chief  are  the  products  of  foundries,  machine-shops,  and 
fiouring-mills.  Erie  is  the  market  for  a  rich  farming  coun- 
try. It  has  a  fine  GK)yemment  building,  in  which  are  lo- 
cated the  post-office,  customs  and  internal  revenue  offices, 
district  court-rooms,  and  signal-service  station ;  an  academy, 
electric  street  railways  and  street  lighting,  and  an  excellent 
water-works  system,  owned  by  the  city  and  valued  at 
$1,500,000.  It  is  the  largest  and  most  central  point  in  a 
section  covering  the  ten  northwestern  counties  of  Pennsyl- 
vania.   Pop.  (1880)  27,737 ;  (1890)  40,634. 

Editor  of  "  Dispatch." 

Erie  Canal :  the  most  important,  as  well  as  the  largest, 
canal  in  the  U.  S.,  extending  from  Buffalo  to  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  363  miles  long.  De  Witt  Clinton,  whose  name  is 
identified  with  the  construction  of  this  great  public  work, 
was  in  1810  appointed  a  member  of  a  commission  to  explore 
and  survey  a  route  for  the  proposed  canal  from  the  lakes 
to  the  Hudson ;  and  his  memonal  to  the  State  Legislature 
in  1815  insured  the  success  of  the  undertaking.  The  bill 
for  its  construction  was  passed  in  1817;  but  the  **  canal 
policy"  was  for  years  strenuously  opposed.  In  1825  the 
canal  was  completed  at  a  cost  of  $7,602,000.  and  navigation 
was  opened  in  October.  Clinton  was  at  that  time  Governor 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  at  the  head  of  a  grand  naval 
procession  he  sailed  down  the  Hudson  from  Albany  to  the  sea, 
and  poured  a  keg  of  the  water  of  Lake  Erie  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  In  construction  the  canal  presents  features  of  para- 
mount interest  It  is  carried  over  several  large  streams  on 
stone  aqueducts  whose  construction  required  the  greatest  en- 
gineering skilL  It  crosses  the  Mohawk  river  twice,  at 
Schenectady  and  at  Cohoes.  It  has  in  all  72  locks,  of  which 
57  are  double  and  15  single.  At  Albanyit  rises  20  feet  by 
two  double  locks,  110  by  18  feet,  and  at  West  Troy  it  is  car- 
ried over  a  ridge  188J^  feet  high  by  16  double  lift-locks. 
The  commercial  importance  of  this  canal  is  very  great.  It 
is  chiefly  employed  for  transporting  grain  and  such  other 


188 


BRIE  CLAY 


ERIODENDRON 


bulky  articles  as  do  not  require  quick  transit,  and  its  nayi- 
gation  is  free.  See  Canals  and  Cldtton,  Dk  Witt  ;  also 
Kavioation,  Inlajo). 

Erie  Clar :  one  of  the  Pleistocene  formations  of  the  re- 
gion of  the  Laurentian  lakes.  It  occupies  lowlands  about 
Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  and  about  the  southern  parts  of 
Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan.  Like  the  till  on  which  it  rests, 
it  contains  pebbles  and  bowlders,  scratched  and  polished  by 
glacial  action ;  unlike  the  till,  it  is  finely  laminated.  Its 
color  is  usually  some  shade  of  gray  or  blue,  changing  at 
top,  through  oxidation,  to  yellow.  The  clay  was  deposited 
in  a  series  of  lakes  which  bordered  the  great  Pleistocene  ice- 
sheet  during  its  final  retreat.  See  Geology,  Historic  ;  also 
Pleistocene.  G.  K.  G. 

Erie,  Lake :  one  of  the  chain  of  great  lakes  drained  by 
the  St.  Lawrence ;  constitutes  part  of  the  boundary  between 
the  U.  S.  and  Canada.  The  province  of  Ontario  adjoins  it  on 
the  north,  and  the  States  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
and  Michi^n  on  the  south,  east,  and  west  The  Detroit 
river,  entering  from  the  north  near  its  west  end,  brings  the 
discharge  of  the  upper  lakes,  and  is  its  largest  tributaiy. 
The  Grand  enters  from  the  north,  the  Maumee  from  the 
west,  and  the  Cuyahoga  from  the  south.  Its  outlet,  the 
Niagara,  flows  northward  from  its  east  end.  The  length  of 
the  lake  is  246  miles,  its  greatest  width  58  miles,  and  its 
area  9,900  sq.  miles.  Its  surface  lies  573  feet  above  the  sea 
and  326  feet  above  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  the  shallowest  of 
the  ^reat  lakes,  its  general  depth  being  less  than  100  feet 
and  its  deepest  sounding  210  feet.  A  group  of  islands  near 
its  west  end  are  celebrated  for  their  vineyards.  Its  com- 
merce is  large,  passing  westward  through  the  Detroit  river 
to  the  upper  lakes,  eastward  through  the  Welland  Canal  to 
Lake  Ontario,  and  southeastward  vi4  the  ports  of  Buffalo, 
Erie,  and  Cleveland. 

The  important  Battle  of  Lake  Erie  was  fought  near 
the  western  extremity  of  the  lake  between  a  squadron  of 
IT.  S.  vessels  commanded  by  Lieutenant  (afterward  Commo- 
dore) Perrv,  and  a  British  squadron  of  six  vessels  under 
Capt.  Barclay,  Sept.  10,  1813.  Perry's  squadron,  consisting 
of  nine  vessels,  but  manned  by  an  inferior  force  and  mount- 
ing fewer  guns,  captured  the  entire  British  squadron  after 
three  hours'  combat.    This  battle  gave  the  17.  S.  the  su- 

{)remacy  on  the  lake,  and  permitted  the  co-operation  of  the 
and  and  naval  forces  in  the  West,  with  the  result  of  freeing 
Michigan  from  the  British  occupation.  G.  K.  G. 

Eries:  See  Iroquoian  Indians. 

Erie  Shale:  the  name  given  by  the  Ohio  geologists  to 
the  westward  extension  of  the  Chemung  and  Upper  Portage 
rocks  of  New  York.  The  oil-wells  of  Western  Pennsylvania 
are  bored  on  this  foundation,  though  the  petroleum  which 
is  found  in  it  emanates  from  the  Huron  shale  below. 

Erig'ena,  Johannes  Scotus  :  the  boldest  and  most  brill- 
iant thinker  of  the  ninth  century.  The  events  of  his  life 
are  involved  in  some  obscurity.  He  was  born  probably  in 
Ireland  between  800-815  a.  d.,  and  educated  in  the  Irish 
monasteries.  His  name,  Erigena,  is  probably  a  corruption 
of  Hierugena,  i.  e.  "  of  the  Holy  Isle,"  a  common  designa- 
tion of  Ireland.  About  843  he  appears  to  have  gone  to 
France,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Charles  the  Bald.  He 
is  credited  with  one  of  the  best  repartees  on  record.  At 
Uble  one  dav  the  kin^  asked  him,  "(Jjuid  distat  inter  sotum 
et  Scotum  ?  *'  (What  is  the  difference  between  a  sot  and  a 
Scot  f).  Erigena  instantly  replied,  "  Mensa  tantum  "  (Only 
the  table).  What  happened  to  him  after  the  death  of 
Charies  the  Bald,  in  877,  is  not  so  clear,  bat  he  died  soon 
after,  probably  in  France.  According  to  another  account, 
he  went  to  England  about  883,  on  the  invitation  of  Alfred 
the  Great,  and  was  murdered  by  his  pupils  at  Malmesbury  in 
891.  Some  who  deny  the  Mahnesburv  story  say  that  Scotus 
Erigena  has  been  confounded  with  an  Anglo-Saxon  monk 
whom  Alfred  invited  over  from  France  to  teach  at  Oxford. 
Eri^^ena  has  been  called  "the  morning  star  of  scholasti- 
cism." He  rebelled  against  Aupustinianism,  asserted  the  su- 
nremacy  of  reason,  and  wrought  out  a  vafjue  pantheism, 
lie  also  translated  into  Latin  the  works  (spurious)  of  Dionys- 
ius  the  Areopagit^  (of  the  fourth  or  fifth  century),  and  thus 
planted  the  seeds  of  the  media^yal  mystit^ism. '  He  wrote 
against  Gottschalk  (851  a.  d.)  on  nredestination,  and  against 
Paschasius  itadbertus  on  transubstantiation,  and  was  con- 
demned as  a  heretic  at  Paris  in  1209.  Of  his  other  works, 
the  most  important  is  a  treatise  in  five  books,  De  Dini»ione 
Naturm,     it  was  printed  at  Oxford  in  1681.    The  best  edi- 


tions are  those  by  C.  B.  SchlQter  (Mttnster,  1838)  and  H.  U 
Floss  (Paris,  1853,  see  below);  German  translation  by  L. 
Noack  (3  pts.,  Leipzig,  1874-77).  It  is  written  in  the  fcinn 
of  a  dialogue,  and  the  process  of  reasoning  moves  on  throu^'h 
syllogisms.  But  his  speculation  is  very  free  and  bold.  Ji 
is  not  the  given  system  of  theology  he  will  explain,  but  an 
original  aspect  of  the  universe  which  he  wishes  to  set  forth, 
and  in  the  exposition  of  which  he  appeals  to  no  external 
authority.  In  direct  opposition  to  the  theologians  of  hia 
time,  and  to  the  schoolmen  in  general,  he  does  not  start 
from  a  conception  of  the  body  of  theological  doctrines  a-* 
being  the  truth,  needing  only  elucidation.     His  start injj- 

e>int  is  a  pliilosophical  conception  of  the  univei^.  Poj>e 
onorius  UL,  in  1225,  characterized  his  book  as  '*  teem  in;; 
with  the  vermin  of  heretical  depravity,"  and  ordere<l  ail 
copies  of  it  to  be  burned.  His  works,  edited  by  H.  L.  ¥1  «<>, 
are  in  Migne*s  Patrologia  Latina,  CXXIL  (Paris,  185:^. 
See  Christlieb,  Leben  und  Lehre  des  Johannes  Scotus  Eri- 
gena  (Got ha.  1860),  and  Huber,  Johannes  Scotus  Eriqtna 
(Munich,  1861).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Erigeron,  efe-rijc-ron  [Gr.  Iipijdpw,  early-old ;  V*  eari? 
+  y4pwtf,  old  man;  so  named  in  allusion  to  their  hoary  ap- 
pearance] :  a  genus  of  herbs  of  the  family  Composito',  in- 
cluding the  fleabanes  (which  are  weeds  or  several  spetit*^, 
very  common  in  Europe  and  North  America)  and  othtT 
plants,  such  as  robin's  plantain  {Eri^eron  bellidifoliujt),  t-Xc. 
The  EHgeron  philadelphicus,  Ertgeron  canadensis,  an<i 
others  are  used  as  diuretics,  and  contain  a  volatile  oil  which 
varies  somewhat  in  different  species.  The  oil  has  a  pungi'nt. 
disagreeable  odor,  and  sometimes  also  a  tarry  or  oleo-rea^in- 
ous  character.    It  is  used  in  medicine. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Besset. 

Erik  the  Bed :  the  discoverer  of  Greenland,  and,  Gre^-n- 
land  being  a  part  of  the  western  hemisphere,  probablv  the 
first  white  man  who  visited  America.  lie  was  bom  iib..\u 
the  year  950  in  JaBdem,  in  Norway,  whence  he  with  Ins 
father,  Thorwald  Osvaldson,  removed  to  Iceland  on  account 
of  manslaughter.  From  Iceland  he  was  banished  on  ac- 
count of  another  case  of  manslaughter,  and  so  he  set  out  on 
a  voyage  of  discovery.  One  Gunnbjorn,  son  of  Ulf  Krai:*-, 
had  seen  land  lying  in  the  ocean  to  the  west  of  Iceland] 
when  in  the  year  876  he  was  driven  out  to  sea  in  a  stnrm! 
Erik  the  Red  resolved  to  go  in  search  of  the  land  thai 
Gunnbjorn  had  seen.  He  sailed  W.  from  Iceland,  and  iu 
982  he  discovered  the  unknown  land,  wliich  he  called  Green- 
land, in  order,  as  he  said,  to  attract  settlers,  who  would  be 
favorably  impressed  with  so  pleasing  a  name.  After  n-- 
maining  there  three  years  he  returned  to  Iceland.  In  9H6 
he  returned  to  Greenland,  accompanied  by  many  new  M't- 
tlers,  who  established  a  colony  in  Eriksfjord,  which  i«^ 
thought  to  correspond  to  the  present  Tunnudluarbik  an.l 
surroundings.  Erik  the  Red  lived  at  Bratlahlid,  whiih 
after  the  death  of  Erik*s  descendants  became  the  resideinr 
of  the  lagman.  Erik's  son  Leif  was  the  discoverer  of  Amer- 
ica (Vinland).    See  Leif  Ericsson  and  Vinland, 

_  ,       ^     ,  Rasmus  B,  Andersi^n. 

Erin :  See  Ireland. 

Erina'cens  [Lat  erina'ceus,  hedgehog]:  the  gemis  that 
includes  the  hedgehogs  of  the  Old  Worid,  of  which  then- 
are  several  species,  inhabiting  Asia,  Africa,  and  Eurt>iv. 
The  common  hedgehog  of  England  mav  be  considered  a  t  v  i  n 
of  the  group.     It  is  a  harmless  little  nocturnal  anitnn. 
which  subsists  mainly  on  insects,  though  sometimes  earii.- 
fruit  and  even  reptiles.    The  back  of  the  hedgeliog  is  cn>v"- 
ered  with  spines,  and  when  attacked  he  rolls  himself  into  a 
ball  from  which  they  radiate  in  every  direction,  and  *»'r^  »- 
as  a  defence  that  enables  him  to  defy  all  his  enemies  »>i.t 
man.    Zo61ogically  the  hedgehog  is  of  special  interest,  a.*=^  h. 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  order  of  Insectivora.    See  IlEi>«*t- 

HOG. 

Erin'na  (in  Gr.''Hpiwa):  a  Greek  poet  who  lived  about 
600  B.  c,  and  was  a  friend  of  Sappho.  She  acquired  a  hij^ti 
reputation  by  her  lyric  and  other  poems,  among  which  W^i^ 
The  Distaff.  It  is  said  that  she  died  at  the  age  of  nineteen 
Fragments  of  her  poems  may  be  found  in  Bergk's  1*0^  tr 
Lyrici  Gr(pci. 

Erin'nyg  (in  Gr.  'Epiw^f,  or  *E^iv6t\  plu.  Erlnnjea  -  a 
name  given  to  the  Furies  or  Eumenides  {q,  r.). 

Erioden'dron  [from  Gr.  Iptoy,  wool  +  d/vSpor,  tree!  -  n 
genus  of  evergreen  trees  of  the  family  MaltHicefr,  nativ^V.  .f 
tropical  climates.    They  have  large  and  beautiful  flow,T> 
They  are  sometimes  called  wool-trees,  because  the  ca|>^:tii.\ 


190 


ERNEST  IV. 


ERRETT 


brother  of  the  famous  Bernard  of  Saxe^ Weimar.  In  the 
Thirty  Years*  war  he  served  with  distinction  under  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  as  a  colonel  of  horse.  Ho  completed  the 
Tictorj  of  tne  Swedish  army  at  LQtzen,  where  Gustavus  was 
killed.  He  was  a  zealous  Protestant,  and  a  ruler  of  great 
wisdom  and  activity.  He  instituted  reforms,  some  of  which 
were  very  fruitful  of  good.  Many  of  his  institutions  were 
lasting.    D.  in  1675. 

Ernest  (Ernst)  IT.,  or  Ernest  II.  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha : 
Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg;  b.  at  Coburg,  June  31,  1818.  His 
younger  brother,  Albert,  married  Queen  Victoria  of  Eng- 
land. He  succeeded  his  father  in  1844,  and  sympathized 
with  the  efforts  to  promote  the  unity  and  nationality  of  the 
Germans.  He  composed  operas  entitled  Zaire,  UtmldOy 
Sainte  Claire,  Diana  de  Solanges,  and  wrote  some  memoirs. 
In  1863  he  declined  the  crown  of  Greece.  D.  Aug.  23, 1803, 
at  Coburg,  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh  succeeding  him. 

Ernest  Angnstas :  King  of  Hanover ;  b.  June  5, 1771 ; 
fifth  son  of  George  III.  oi  England.  He  was  styled  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland  before  he  became  king,  and  was  a 
field-marshal  in  the  British  army.  On  the  death  of  his 
brother,  William  IV.,  in  1837,  he  inherited  the  throne  of 
Hanover,  which  was  then  separated  from  Great  Britain,  be- 
cause it  was  not  lawful  for  a  woman  to  reign  over  Hanover. 
He  was  the  object  of  intensepopular  dislike  both  in  Eng- 
land and  Germany.  In  the  House  of  Lords  he  belonged  to 
the  extreme  Tory  party.  In  Hanover  he  was  a  tyrant,  and 
in  1837  expelled  from  the  University  of  G5ttingen  seven 
professors  of  liberal  tendencies.  In  1848  he  was  forced,  in 
order  to  keep  his  throne,  to  grant  some  liberal  reforms.  D. 
Nov.  18,  1851. 

Emesti,  ffr'nes-te^,  August  Wilhelm  :  philologist :  b.  in 
Thuringia,  Nov.  26,  1T33 ;  a  nephew  of  Johann  August  Er- 
nesti.  He  became  a  good  Latin  scholar,  and  was  Professor 
of  Eloquence  at  Leipzig  in  1770.  He  produced  a  good  edi- 
tion of  Livy  (3  vols.,  1769)  and  other  works,  several  of  which 
were  explanatory  of  the  text  of  Livy*s  writings,  and  are 
still  valued.  D.  July  20,  1801.  See  Bnrsian,  p.  400  ff., 
Allg.  Biogr, ;  Allg,  deut,  Biogr.,  vi.,  pp.  235-242. 

Ernesti,  Johann  August  :  a  German  critic  and  the  founder 
of  a  school  of  theology ;  b.  at  Tennstedt,  in  Thuringia,  Aug. 
4, 1707.  He  was  liberally  educated  at  Wittenberg  and  Leip- 
zig, and  was  so  excellent  a  Latin  scholar  that  he  was  called 
the  "German  Cicero."  He  became  Professor  of  Ancient 
Literature  in  the  University  of  Leipzig  in  1742,  and  ob- 
tained the  chair  of  Rhetoric  in  1756,  to  which  the  chair  of 
Theology  was  added  in  1758.  In  theology  he  was  liberal  or 
rationalistic.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  grammatico-his- 
torical  exegetical  school  of  New  Testament  interpretation  in 
his  Instiiutio  Interpretis  Novi  Testamenti  (Leipzig,  1761 ; 
6th  ed.  by  C.  F.  Ammon,  1809 ;  Eng.  trans,  by  Moses  Stuart, 
Elements  of  Interpretation^  Andover,  Mass.,  1822 ;  n.  e.  by 
E.  Henderson,  London,  1827;  3d  ed.  2  vols.,  1832).  He 
wrote  other  theological  works,  and  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  Cicero  (6  vols.,  1737-39),  including  a  Clavia  Cicero- 
nania.  D.  in  Leipzig,  Sept.  11, 1781.  See  A.  W.  Emesti, 
Memoria  J.  A,  Ernesti  (1781) ;  J.  van  Voorst,  Oratio  de  J, 
A.  Ernesto  (1804). 

• 

Ernst,  Oswald  Hubert  :  soldier ;  b.  near  Cincinnati,  0., 
June  27,  1842 ;  entered  Harvard  College  July,  1858 ;  grad- 
uated at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  June,  1864,  ana  was 
commissioned  first  lieutenant  in  the  corps  of  engineers; 
served  as  assistant  chief  engineer  of  the  Army  of  the  Ten- 
nessee to  the  close  of  the  Atlanta  campaign  ;  was  detached 
to  serve  as  astronomer  with  the  commission  sent  by  the 
U.  S.  Government  to  Spain  to  observe  the  solar  eclipse  of 
Dec.,  1870 ;  instructor  of  practical  military  engineering  and 
military  signaling  and  telegraphy  at  the  if.  S.  Military 
Aca<iemy.  He  became  assistant  engineer  on  Western  river 
improvements  1878-80,  and  afterwanl  took  charge  of  the 
river  and  harl>or  improvements  in  the  district  whose  head- 
quarters are  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.  He  has  served  since  1880  as 
member  of  various  boanls  of  engineers,  and  has  directed 
various  surveys  and  examinations  of  rivers;  member  of 
Mississippi  river  commission  May,  1888;  on  duty  in  Mexico 
under  orders  of  Department  of  State  Xov.-Dec.,  1888;  in 
charge  of  public  buildings  and  grounds,  Washington,  D.  C., 
lHSll-93;  superintendent  U.  S.  Military  Acadeniy  Apr., 
iHlKi.  He  was  breveted  captain  in  1865,  commissioned  cap- 
tain of  engineers  in  1867,  and  major  of  enjjineers  May  5, 
1883.  His  principal  publication  is  a  Manual  of  Prnciical 
Military  Engineering  (1873).    lie  vised  by  James  Mercur. 


E'ros  (in  Gr.  "E^f,  gen.  "EfMrros) :  the  Greek  name  of  the 

f'od  of  Love,  corresponding  to  the  Cupido  of  the  liomans. 
n  Hesiod,  Eros  is  one  of  tne  great  cosmogonic  powers,  but 
later  poets  represent  him  as  a  son  of  Aphrodite  (the  Iloman 
Venus).    See  Cupid. 

Erosion  [from  Lat.  ero'sio,  ^eriv.  of  ero'dere ;  «,  out  + 
ro'dere,  gnaw]  :  in  geology,  the  action  of  a  current  of  water, 
as  in  a  river,  in  excavating  or  enlarging  its  channel.  th»* 
gradual  abrasion  of  strata,  by  rain,  frost,  glaciers,  etc.  Tht- 
deep  hollows  occupied  by  most  lakes  and  rivers  are  su[h 
posed  to  have  been  fonned  by  the  action  of  rivers  or  glaciers, 
and  are  called  "valleys  of  erosion."  The  action  of  at- 
mospheric agencies,  glaciers,  etc.,  in  wearing  away  the  p-n- 
eral  surface  of  a  country  or  district  is  called  surface  eroMion, 
degradation,  or  deniidation.  The  changes  wrought  by  thU 
agency  on  the  superficial  features  of  the  earth  are  much 
more  grand  and  interesting  than  they  are  generally  su(»- 
posed  to  be ;  and  it  may  be  said  that  tlie  surface  configura- 
tion of  the  earth  and  the  whole  "  aspects  of  nature  **  are  the 
result  of  the  antagonistic  action  of  surface  erosion  and  in- 
ternal elevatory  forces.    See  Geoloot. 

Erpe'nins,  or  Tan  Er'pe,  Thomas:  Orientalist;  b.  at 
Gorkum,  Holland,  Sept.  7,  1584  He  studied  theology-  at 
Leyden,  and  took  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  in  l*6<i^. 
after  which  he  visited  France,  England,  Italy,  and  <irr- 
many.  In  1613  he  became  Professor  of  Arabic  and  other 
Oriental  Languages  (with  the  exception  of  Hebrew)  at  the 
University  of  Leyden.  A  second  chair  of  Hebrew  was 
founded  tor  him  in  1619.  He  printed  a  number  of  Arabic 
works  with  a  press  which  he  Kept  in  his  own  house.  He 
produced  in  1613  an  Arabic  Grammar,  the  first  ever  writ- 
ten in  Europe,  prepared  an  Arabic  chrestomathy,  and  pub- 
lished Historia  Saraeeniea,  which  is  an  edition  of  Elmaoin\s 
history,  with  a  Latin  translation  (1625).    D.  Nov.  13, 1624. 

Revised  by  C.  H.  Toy. 

Errard,  Sfraar",  Charles  :  painter  and  architect ;  b.  at 
Nantes,  France,  in  1606.  He  was  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.,  for  whom  he  adorned  the  Louvre,  Tuileries,  and  other 
palaces.  He  was  one  of  the  twelve  artists  who  founded  th*? 
Academy  of  Painting  in  Paris  in  1648,  and  was  the  princi- 
pal founder  of  the  French  Academy  of  Art  in  Rome  (I6661. 
D.  in  Rome,  May  15,  1689. 

Erratic  Blocks,  or  Erratics :  in  ^logy,  fragments  of 
ix)cks  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  which  have  been  tran*- 
ported  from  a  distance  by  glaciers,  icebergs,  etc.    See  Drift. 

Err&znriz,  Federico:  Chilian  statesman;  b.  at  Santiatro. 
Mar.  27,  1825.  He  graduated  in  law  at  the  National  Univer- 
sity, was  a  successful  advocate,  and  an  author  of  some  re- 
pute. Early  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  he  btnanie 
a  leader  of  the  opposition  to  President  Montt,  and  at  one 
time  was  forced  to  leave  the  country.  President  Pen-z 
made  him  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  Religion,  and 
Justice  (1861),  and  he  brought  about  many  needed  reform^ 
in  the  department ;  later  he  had  the  portfolio  of  War  and 
Marine,  and  directed  affairs  during  the  war  with  S]kain 
1865-66.  A  combination  of  conservatives  and  modernto 
liberals  elected  him  president  to  succeed  Perez  for  the  terrTi 
of  1871-76.  By  instituting  various  reforms,  and  espetially 
by  the  abolishment  of  ecclesiastical  privileges,  he  s'uh-^i 
rather  with  the  liberals ;  public  works  and  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  army  and  navy  were  pushed  forward  with  gnvit 
vigor,  but  the  treasury  was  heavily  burdened.  At  the  tnd 
of  his  term  he  retired  to  private  hfe.  D.  at  Santiago,  July 
20,  1877.  Herbert  H.  Smith.  ' 

Errett,  Isaac,  A.  M. :  preacher,  editor,  and  author:  b.  in 
New  York,  Jan. 2, 1820.  llis  parents  became  identifieil  with 
the  Disciples  of  Christ  in  1810,  and  in  1811  his  father  wr^.io 
in  defense  of  the  principles  now  advocated  by  the  DiKij»b^. 
Young  Errett's  boyhooa  was  spent  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  whor**. 
at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  baptized.  He  was  thrown  «'H 
his  own  resources  at  the  age  of  ten,  but  diligently  u^.i 
every  opportunity  for  increasing  his  stock  of  knowleti::^!'. 
In  1840  lie  began  his  career  as  a  preacher,  and  soon  wi»n  n 
wide  reputation  for  his  eloquence  and  power.  After  serv- 
ing as  pastor  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Michigan,  h«>  be- 
came in  1851  corresponding  secretary  of  Ohio  Christ  Kt" 
Missionary  Society,  resigning  that  work  after  thrtv  vi-a'^' 
service  to  become  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Arnvri«  mi 
Christian  Missionary  Society.  On  the  death  of  Alexin.  i«r 
Campbell,  in  1866,  he  was  elected  its  president.  TVm*  r  v«  r»  .- 
tian  Standard,,  a  weekly  religious  journal,  was  founde*!  4.5 
him  in  1866.    lie  was  president  of  Alliance  College,  Alliairi«>% 


192 


KRZGEBIRGK 


ESCAPEMENT 


under  the  Eastern  Roman  empire] :  town  of  Armenia,  Asiatic 
Turkey ;  on  a  fertile  plain  on  the  river  Kara-Su,  a  branch 
of  the  Euphrates ;  about  120  miles  S.  E.  of  Trebizond  (see 
map  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-1).  It  is  6,200  feet  alx)ve  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  filthy ;  the  houses  are 
built  mostly  of  mud,  wood,  or  sun-dried  bricks.  The  town 
is  the  seat  of  an  Armenian  archbishopric.  It  has  a  large 
citadel,  a  custom-house,  about  forty  mosques,  several  Ar- 
menian and  Greek  churches,  and  a  number  of  bazaars. 
Erzeroum  has  an  extensive  trade,  which  is  carried  on  partly 
by  caravans.  The  principal  manufactures  are  of  utensils 
of  copper,  tin,  and  iron,  and  leather.  The  inhabitants  own 
large  sheep-farms  in  the  mountains  or  keep  sheep  and  cattle 
in  the  town,  sending  them  out  daily  to  the  mountain-pas- 
tures. The  climate  is  very  severe,  snow  covering  the  ground 
for  about  six  months.  Pop.  estimated  at  60,0(H),  five-sixths 
of  whom  are  Turks.  A  town  called  TheodotnopoHs  was 
founded  here  in  415  a.  d.  In  1201  it  was  taken  by  the 
Seljooks,  who  are  said  to  have  destroyed  here  100  churches. 
Erzeroum,  as  an  important  military  ooint,  has  seen  much 
hard  fighting  in  the  wars  in  which  Turkey  has  been  engaged. 
Its  capture  by  the  Russian  general  Paskievich,  in  1829, 
brought  to  a  successful  close  the  Russian  campaign  in  Asia. 
In  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78  the  town  a^in  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Russians,  who  held  it  from  Feb.  till 
Oct.,  1878. 

Erzgebirge,  Srts-ge-beer'g6  (i.  e.  ore  mountains):  a  moun- 
tain-chain of  Southern  Germany;  extending  along  the 
boundary  between  Bohemia  and  Saxony;  it  is  nearly  120 
miles  in  length  and  25  miles  broad.  The  Schwarzwald  and 
Keilberg,  the  highest  parts  of  this  chain,  have  an  altitude  of 
about  4,000  feet,  and  are  of  granitic  formation.  The  range 
is  rich  in  minerals,  among  which  are  silver,  tin,  iron,  and 
cobalt.  On  the  southeast  side  it  is  steep,  often  rising  in  a 
perpendicular  wall  2,000  feet  high.  On  the  northwest  side 
it  is  broken  by  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys,  and  gradually 
loses  itself  in  the  North  German  plain. 

Esarhad'don  [called  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  ^«8^ur- 
ahortddina,  Asshur  has  given  a  brother] :  the  Old  Testar 
ment  name  of  an  Assyrian  king,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Sennacherib.  He  appears  to  have  reigned  from  680  to  about 
667  or  668  b.  c.  He  is  shown  by  the  monuments  to  have 
been  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  Assyrian  monarchs.  His 
rule  extended  northward  to  Armenia,  on  the  W.  it  included 
Syria  and  Cyprus,  while  on  the  S.  Egypt  and  even  Ethiopia 
were  claimed  by  him.  He  built  a  palace  at  Babylon.  Among 
the  numerous  and  splendid  remams  of  his  reign  is  the  south- 
west palace  of  Nimrud. 

E'san  (rough,  hairy) :  the  elder  twin-brother  of  the  patri- 
arch Jacob  (Israel),  and  the  son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah  (Gen. 
XXV.  25).  He  took  his  name  from  his  hairiness  of  body.  The 
story  of  his  marriage  to  two  Canaanitish  and  an  Ishmaelite 
woman,  of  his  loss  of  birthright  through  the  craft  of  Re- 
bekah and  Jacob,  and  of  his  quarrel  and  reconciliation  with 
Jacob,  is  beautifully  told  in  the  book  of  Genesis.  He  was 
the  progenitor  of  the  Edomites,  who  dwelt  in  Mt.  Seir, 
otherwise  called  Edom. 

Esbjtfrn,  as'bySm,  Labs  P,  :  founder  of  the  Swedish  Lu- 
theran Church  in  America;  b.  in  Sweden,  Oct.  16,  1808; 
educated  at  Upsala ;  pastor  for  fourteen  years  before  emi- 
grating to  the  U.  S.  in  1849;  pastor  at  Andover,  III,  1849- 
56;  at  Princeton,  111.,  1856-58;  professor  in  Illinois  State 
University,  Springfield,  111.,  1858-60.  In  1860  he  organized 
the  Swedish  Augustana  Synod,  a  body  which  in  1893  num- 
bered over  84,000  communicants,  and  became  president  of 
its  theological  seminary.  Returning  to  pastoral  work  in 
Sweden  in  1862,  he  died  there  July  2,  1870.  He  published 
ten  volumes  and  pamphlets,  all  in  the  Swedish  language. 

Henry  E.  Jacobs. 

Escalade,  es-kd-lad'  [Fr.  from  Span.  esccUada^  from  de- 
ny, of  Lat.  (tcala,  ladder,  steps] :  in  war,  an  assault  in  which 
ladders  are  used  in  surmounting  the  obstacles  presented  by 
the  scarp  and  counterscarp  walls  (or  sloi)es)  of  a  fortifica- 
tion in  which  no  breach  has  been  made;  sometimes  even  a 
rai)id  blow  directed  at  an  unbesicge<l  place  with  hope  of 
success  by  surprise  (e.  g.  the  capture  by  the  English  troops 
of  Almarez,  Sept.,  1812).  Among  the  most  famous  escalades 
are  those  of  Adrianople  by  the  Goths;  of  Beauvais  by 
Charles  the  Bold,  in  1472;  of  Fecamp  in  1593;  of  Prague 
in  1741.  Still  more  remarkable  was  that  at  Corfil  in  1717 
by  Count  Schulenberg,  who,  reduced  to  extremity  in  the 
defense  by  the  capture  of  the  outworks,  hastily  prepared 


ladders,  and  by  a  desperate  assault  by  escalade  reto«<k 
them,  and  thus  saved  the  place.  The  second  siege  of  Barln- 
jos  (1B12)  presents  an  event  unparalleled  in  the  history  of 
sieges.  Two  entire  divisions  of  troops  were  at  the  momeiit 
of  assault  employed  to  escalade  the  defenses  where  intact, 
and  each  succeeded,  while  the  regular  assault  on  the 
breaches  was  repulsed  with  terrible  slaughter.  The  vh>\\*- 
was  successfully  scaled  where  the  walls  were  18  to  24  f»» t 
high,  and  "tolerably  flanked";  the  Bastion  St.  Vincriii.- 
had  a  scarp-wall  31i  feet  high,  flanked  by  four  ^ns.  pah- 
saded  covered  way,  a  counterscarp-wall  12  feet  high,  ami  a 
cunette  ditch  5|  leet  deep. 

Escallop  Shell :  See  Scallop  Shell. 

Escanaha :  city ;  capital  of  Delta  co.,  Mich,  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  3-0) ;  situated  on  tlu- 
C.  and  N.  W.  Railway  and  on  Green  Bay,  BfiO  miles  N.  of  Chi- 
cago. It  has  9  Protestant  and  2  Catholic  churches,  4  public 
and  2  parochial  schools,  a  hospital,  lumber-factories,  water- 
works, gas  and  electric  light,  sewers,  electric  street  railway, 
etc.,  and  an  excellent  natural  harbor.  It  ships  annua l[> 
4,OC)0,000  tons  of  iron  ore  and  large  quantities  of  coal,  lum- 
ber, and  fish.  Pop.  (1880)  3,026;  (1890)  6,808;  (1892)  oti- 
mated,  8,500.  EnnoR  of  **  Mirror." 

Escape :  in  law,  the  departure  of  a  prisoner  from  con- 
finement before  he  has  been  released  oy  process  of  Uw. 
Any  liberty  given  to  a  prisoner  not  authorized  by  law  i«^ 
technicall)?  an  escape.  Escapes  may  occur  either  in  civil  or 
criminal  cases.  They  are  either  negligent  or  voluntary— 
negligent,  when  the  prisoner  escapes  without  the  consent  of 
the  oflRcer  having  him  in  custody;  voluntary,  when  siivh 
officer  consents  to  the  escape.  In  criminal  cases  an  escaj^- 
is  a  public  offense,  of  whicn  the  prisoner  may  be  convicttMl. 
as  also  the  officer  through  whose  act  or  neglect  the  cs^-afte 
occurs.  An  officer  voluntarily  permitting  a  criminal  to  es- 
cape is  guilty  of  the  same  offense  as  the  criminal,  as  he  Xh\  n 
becomes  an  accessory  after  the  fact.  In  civil  actions  then*  i> 
an  important  distinction  between  mesne  and  final  prrK*<'». 
the  former  being  that  which  is  issued  between  the  com- 
mencement and  the  termination  of  the  action  ;  and  the  Int- 
ter,  that  which  is  used  to  enforce  the  judgment  If  the  (•>- 
cape  be  voluntary,  the  officer  is  liable  in  either  case ;  but  if 
it  oe  negligent,  he  will  not  be  liable  in  the  case  of  m^vif 
process  if  the  prisoner  is  again  in  his  custody  before  an  a<  • 
tion  is  commenced  against  him  for  his  neglect ;  though  In 
will  be  liable  in  any  event  in  the  case  of  final  process.  Tin 
damages  recoverable  are  measured  by  the  injury  siistaitu*«i. 
In  final  proce^  these  would  in  general  be  the  amount  of  \l*- 
judgment.  Nothing  will  excuse  an  escape  but  an  act  of 
God  or  of  the  public  enemy  or  of  the  law. 

Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Escapement :  the  device  in  watches  and  clocks  by  which 
the  rotatory  motion  of  the  wheels  gives  rise  to  or  perpitu- 
ates  the  vibration  of  a  pendulum  or  balance-wheel. 

Escapements  have  received  various  forms,  manv  of  whi<  h 
are  still  in  use.  The  earliest,  introduced  by  buyglicns 
about  1650,  was  called  the  crown-wheel  or  vertical  esim  *- 
ment.  The  crown-wheel  has  its  teeth  not  in  the  plan«>  of 
the  wheel,  but  in  a  cylindrical  surface  of  which  the  axis  of 
the  wheel  is  the  axis.  In  the  crown-wheel  of  the  clock  or 
watch  the  teeth  were  acute-angled,  and  inclined  in  a  ci»iu- 
mon  direction  like  saw-teeth.  The  axis  of  the  pendulnm. 
or  balance,  was  longer  than  the  diameter  of  tne  en>\%ri- 
wheel  over  which  it  extended.  It  carried  two  short  amis  mf 
projections,  called  pallets,  set  in  different  azimuths,  in  mu  h 
a  manner  that  when  of  one  them,  being  encouutereil  1»>  a 
tooth,  was  pushed  out  of  the  way  by  the  advancing  wheel.  xU* 
opposite  one  was  caught  by  another  tooth,  which  pushed  in 
the  opposite  direction.  Thus  the  wheel  made  an  intt^rmit- 
tent  progress  as  the  teeth  successively  escaped  from  tii- 
pallets. 

In  a  clock,  when  the  pendulum  is  disturbed  from  th» 
mean  position,  it  is  brought  back  by  gravity.     In  tho  wat*f 
the  same  result  is  pro<iuced  for  the  balance-wheel  l»y  tt.* 
action  of  the  spiral  spring  attached  to  the  verge,  calU^'i  \  •  ■ 
hair-spring.     The  escapement  most  commonly  in    us*-  f.  r 
both  clocks  and  wat<;hes  is  the  anchor  escapement,  fir>i   .ii 
troduced  by  Ilooke  in  1656.     It  is  so  called  from  its  restn 
bianco  to  the  flukes  of  an  anchor,  the  shaft  of  the  anchor    •- 
the  clock  being  parallel  to  the  pendulum  and  conne<-ttHl  \i  r  < 
it.    The  escapcment-whe^l    is  a  spur-wheel.     The    jicilj.    - 
project  from  the  extremities  of  the  anchor  flukes,  iinrtnij 
the  wheel  at  the  points  where  tangent  lines  from  the  c«?if .  r 
of  motion  would  touch  it.     When   one  pallet  is   encJiu- 


194 


KSiOBAK  Y   MKNIK)ZA 


BSDRA8.  BOOKS  OW 


EaroWr  f  Meaiosm,  c»-k^b«ar  (Mvmpn-dA  thak,  Airro- 
mo :  S(iani«h  Jt^uit  an<I  c«fttiiM :  h,  at  ValladoUd  in  1580. 
Hp  mTiiie  Lther  Th*^»i(M;i<r  J/oi-o/m  (1646) ;  Summuia  Camt' 
mm  4\t»Mcteniur  (16:M):  ami  <»ther  workiv  The  lax  morality 
of  hi«  writitifC!*  waA  c^nwurtHi  br  Pawml  in  Mime  of  his  /W- 
niM-io/  Ltihn,     I).  July  4,  ICdU. 

Rarobe4o,  -hA'ild,  Makuxo  :  Mcxir«n  f^*neral :  b.  in  (}a* 
b'atia.  Nurva  Lc«m,  Jan.  12,  1H27;  in  early  life  a  tnuler 
on  thf  fn>ntipr.  He  iten^d  ai*  a  noldier  in  the  war  with  the 
r.  S,  IH47-4H ;  wan  prominent  in  the  "  ppform  war  "  1858-61, 
an<l  in  the  rr^intance  to  the  Fn^noh  invaAion  lH63-6;i;  and 
held  out  with  Juarei  until  1864,  when  he  retirMl  to  Texaa. 
In  Nor.,  1H6.V  he  iiuiii;Lrurat4*i|  a  new  republican  eampai^ 
in  the  north  by  ca|»turinff  Monten'v;  advancing  in  a*ten(« 
of  virt4)ne<,  he  drfeateil  Mimmon  at  San  Jaomto,  Feb.  1, 
1H67,  be«i«*frr4l  t  he  Km|ii'n»r  Maximilian  in  Quer(^taro,and  t4M>k 
him  jiri-Miner  Mar  14:  he  ratifltMl  the  dwree  of  the  court 
martial  which  condemned  Maximilian  to  dt^h.  Promoted 
t4iKt*neral  of  division,  he  wan  made  i^immander-in-chief  of 
the  republican  armicti.  In  Auf.,  IH76,  Pre^iilent  Lerdo 
ma'le  him  .Minister  of  War;  on  Lenlo's  deposition.  Nor.  6, 
1H76,  he  went  into  bani^ihment.  In  Feb.,  1H7N.  he  tried  U* 
enter  Mexico,  wai  caplurwl,  triinl,  but' exoneret^yL,  and  in 
1HH<>  he  a^rain  t<iok  ofHt-r  undiT  the  (iorcmmenU  Since 
18K3  he  ha«  hv»l  in  retirement.  IIkrbkrt  II.  Smith. 

EafOsnrm,  •«<*()  r^k.  Patrkmo.  de  la :  Rtate^man  and  au- 
thor; b.  in  Mailrid,  Nor.  5.  |H()7;  studied  mathematics  in 
Valla4loli(L  In  \Xi4  he  wan  exiled  for  hin  c<mnection  with 
the  "MMMety  of  the  Nuraantin(M.aiid  then  studied  in  Parinand 
l^miloiu  On  hi«i  return  Ut  Sfiain  two  yean»  later  he  entered 
a  rs'jfiment  of  artillenr,  where  he  was  soon  pr*>moted  to  the 
rank  of  oflltx-r.  Twuh*  Imui^IuhI  aAafmrtisan  of  the  Car- 
ht^tn  <in  lH:i4  and  in  1h;-(6k  he  retume<i  to  hi^  country  in 
1H46,  and  l»e<»«me  I'nder  Secretary  of  Stale  in  the  follt>wini? 
year.  In  I  KM  he  was  tent  a«  «»h|»»h'uU  enroy  t<»  Portutn^l, 
after  which  he  wan  Minister  of  the  Interior,  and  from  1872 
to  1H74  Spaninh  ambavtiwlor  to  tlie  (ierman  empire.  For  a 
Ionic  time  FlrnxMara  wa»  one  o^the  mi«t  prominent  editors 
of  the  HeitMtn  iU  EspaHa^  in  ahich  he  published  a  numtier 
of  articles  beanufc  on  S|kani«h  literaturt'  and  art.  He  han 
written  nereral  hiHtorical  workii,  »uch  a<4  the  IIi*ioria  Con- 
atitueioHnl  de  fnyieterra  (IH/il*);  dramas,  Mjch  hh  Carte  dtl 
hurn  ^r/irt*  (repre^*nt<Ml  in  lKi7);  I^as  MftredtuUs  de  Her- 
moM  Cor  tern  (rfprv!«ent4Hl  in  1H44);  Hoqer  de  Flor,  6  Ion  Enptk" 
tiiUeA  en  Ortente,  an  historical  tra>:e*ly  n*pn»«*enled  in  1H46. 
and  publishml  in  1H77;  ami  historical  novels  such  aa  ^Vi 
He^  ni  Huaut  (IKU)  and  A7  I\tinarta  del  Voile  (1846).  I). 
Jan.  22,  IhX  IltJiaY  R,  Lajjo. 

Eatrow  (O.  Pr.  tJieroe,  w^rap.  *hred,  l<»an-word  fr«>m  Ger- 
man ;  of.  (>.  H.  (ierm.  «rrf>/,  KTap] :  a  detnl  or  other  instm- 
meiit  im)t<irtinic  a  Ici^l  obli^tion  de|M»Hit4Hi  \tf  the  in^antor 
or  |«rtr  etecutuiir  it  with  a  thini  ft«'rM>n,  to  t>e  delivered  to 
thr  crantee  ttr  •»bhg»»*»  on  llie  fulf)Ument  of  a  certain  tnm- 
diu«»n.  Tntil  the  comiiiion  in  fultilletl  a  di^etl  in  e^'n>w  has 
no  rlTe«'t  aa  a  dc*ed,  and  the  title  of  the  estate  n*main»  in  the 
jfrmrttor.  An  e^on»w  Lake*  efT«»ct,  in  (fi^nerai,  fn»m  the  time 
of  the  fulfilment  of  the  <N*mlttion  or  of  the  ••4*<*<md  delivery  ; 
and  where  the  "•c«Niml  dehverr  is  expn'^sly  nuMlc  ntx.>e!«ary  U^ 
jCite  It  eff«vl  llic  ilelMcry  will  l»e  eiifontsl  by  a  court  of 
fsjiiiH.  In  certain  viimvi,  where  theemUof  jui^itv  nM|uin*  it, 
and  mi  iri)uMicv  mil  be  tlonc,  the  instrument  mar,  by  a  (Ic- 
li-n  of  law  u*ni)tsl  *•  relation,"  be  rvfem^d  for  it*  ralidity 
tttti-k  to  the  flr*l  delivery.     Kerisoil  by  F.  STvaiib*  ALtkK. 

KaralntlA.  e*-kwtsnt  \nk:  a  wMithern  dejiarlment  of  (lua- 
teniala;  bcuntb^i  N.  by  t'hiiiialtt  naiipi,  Za''ate)«*<|uez,  and 
Ain^titlan.  K.  b«  Santa  ^^•Ml.  S.  by  the  Pat  i tie,  ami  W.  by 
Jmji  itiir(wsjufi  an'I  >«»lt'lA.  Ar*-a,  l,9«V)s<|.  niii«*^  The  n«irth- 
rm  f«rt  t*  tuil«  f>r  m<mtitaiiious.  the  tnmM  n*^ons  ifiMiemll) 
1  i«  ;  the  *i»ii  !•  »•  rr  fertile,  and  then*  an*  injiny  Inrjn'  su^rar 
aiid  « tu  m*  p'^iitat  i* >rt«.  '1  he  i)e|Mirtifient  hns  «>xteii^i> e  f<*r«*sts 
%u  !  l,ri>;«i«hi'H  t  ii'"-U;  at  Ctnik\  rnttiip»aii.l  Sinta  Lin'ia  there 
an-  iii'r  rvMoK*  li.-lmi  an!iiiui'i**s.  Pi.p.  i  !**?f^i  HI.;i<rj. —  hj^ 
*  \  i^Ti.4.  the  i-rtj.'Jnl,  Mfi  ihe  t'entfal  Kuilniml.  is  irn|Mirtant 
a*  a  ontral  («>int  Utwe^n  duAteniala,  >an  .l«is«'<.  Aniiirtia. 
ai.il  Airi  t'lt.tt't :  Its  tn^le  with  the  sum>un<|jnc  district  m 
\Ar^  KnTn  !>»•**  »»:ts  r  to  Mnnh  it  h  nmch  fnsjuenttMl  by 
«4«.:h«  <iaai«  ui*tau».     p4>|i,  aiM»ut  6.<ltHI. 

HiaBKaT  H.  SMrm. 

Kara'rlal.  <^  Raro'Hftf  Mmr.  of  S|*n,  e^rt^-ui,  a  heap 

«»f  r\4M.'*h  fp.fti  m  mine  •  ItAi  ■rc#rni  :  Kr  mrnne  •  IjiI.  #ro - 
ri-i  •,««:'  a  rTi«>tiA-t4  rr  anil  n>«Ai  |mIimv  near  Mjuind.  in 
.'*«)  Aiti,  t'Uitt  bv  i*hiii|)  [|^  aiiil  deilK  ate*!  to  Nt.  Lawn*iiteon 


occasion  of  the  rictorr  of  Su-Quentin  hi  tS57,on  tbat  wis:'! 
day.  According  t4)  toe  aomewhat  doubtfnl  trailitH4'.  a  «« 
built  in  the  form  of  the  gridiron  on  wbicli  that  saini  »i«4 
to  hare  be«n  broiled  alire.  The  work  waa  Ufcon  bv  J.^- 
Bautista  de  Toledo  in  1A63,  and  comnlei«d  br  bt*  f«r*^ 
Juan  de  Ilerrara,  in  bVM.  Th«  crtM*-bao  uf  ikt  fr  ,  < 
are  represented  br  ranges  of  buiUlings  setiaratrd  b;  itit* 
rening  ocmrta.  They  were  formerly  inhalute«l  by  r--u 
and e<*clesiatftics.  The mainportion  of  thebuildinc u  TVI1«»i 
long  aiul  550  feet  wide,  iTie  proj«vtioo  whub  f.rn.»  t*- 
royal  palace  is  460  feet  in  length.  The  height  uf  thr  r>:^  « 
is  about  60  feet,  and  at  each  angle  ia  a  aqiiara  tuwrr  2M>  iM 
high.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  and  perhapa  od*  «kf  the  r  < 
tasteless  buildings  in  Eurufie,  tboujgh  graod  frum  u«  k 
The  church  in  the  center  of  this  eiionnoua  uuum  of  <>«#  .« 
rery  large  and  rich.  The  Pantheon,  a  rvtM«itory  two-*  *i 
the  churt*h«  is  the  place  of  interment  for  the  n>ya]  (aj. . «, 
whose  remains  are  deposited  in  tomb*  of  mart>l«  ^fl^^.  i 
niches,  ooe  abore  another.  The  rieheat  part  oC  th»  cc.  -^ 
howerer,  was  that  which  oontained  picturta  bf  Hatwr*^ 
Titian,  Raphael,  Velasquez,  and  other  gmat  mastftv—iA^ 
best  C4>llecti(m  that  any  place  in  tlurufte  disftlaytsl  '  * 
FriMich,  when  in  p(N«e«aion  «»f  the  EwuriaU  ifniovcv*  mfi 
of  thesi*  works.  The  most  raluable  treasures  ul  tbe  l^  :  J 
constitute  the  ccdlinHioaof  ancient  manuscripts  pravrwi  i 
the  library,  espeiially  thotie  of  the  ArmUaQ  wrrterk 

Esrntrkf»on  (O.  Fr.  escusson^  from  drrir.  of  L«i.  sra  hm 
shield]:  in  heraldry,  a  surface,  usoally  shirH  r>haf<-»i  i 
which  heraldic  bearings  ar«  charged,  aiod  whirii  nak'-*  i^ 
the  larger  part  of  the  orAiri^emeai.  An  esoutcfart«  U  f*^ 
tense  is  the  shield  on  which  a  man  carries  the  arm*  •  (  I 
wife,  if  she  is  an  heiren  and  has  child rra.  It  i«  pLM«^.  j 
the  center  of  his  own  shield,  and  is  mostly  of  the  wmiam  t  ti 
An  e«cutcheoD  is  sometimes  used  as  a  brarlnip     ?^««  ili| 

AU>RT. 

Eflrnl«kM>B,or  The  Milk  Mirror:  intbs<Su^^«  r-  I 
od  of  selecting  milch  cows,  the  shield-like  outhr»r  ut-  .■ 
back  of  the  cow *8  mlder  ami  the  adjacent  fiartsw  f*'rr  < 
the  upward  growth  of  the  hair.  Some  wnter^  i-all  it  •  • 
outline  the  *•  mirror,"  and  the  upper  |»art  <mly  iNe  "  #^  . 
eon.**    The  size  and  perfe4*ti<m  of  torse  marks  alf-'rl  < 


U 


able  means  of  judging  the  milking  qualities  of  rt>wi^« 
much  experience  is  nHjuirvd  to  make  the  e«timat». 

Efidnir'loa,  in  the  afHieryphal  l>ook  of  Jml.th. 
[from  the  (lr.*gs<fitXiW'.a  i'omiption  of  the  liettrrw  J^r.*-«^ 
the  m«iKt  pi<'tun»)«iue,  nnwt  fertile,  and  hist<»n«  a  .y  w-*^.  1 
portant  plain  in  Palc?*tine,  **lving  hetwe^-n  Tai*  r  ar  *.  M 
mel.  and  l»etween  the  hills  of  (Galilee  on  thr  m»rth  ar  'fi 
of  Samaria  on  the  soutlu**  InS-riplure  it  14  t«ii«-  *£*  ?.-1 
xxxr.  22:  Zi-ih.  xiL  IDcalM  "the  valley  tpUin  f  Mt^ 
do."  Jexn-el  is  proix^rly  the sttutheastem  ^airt  of  it.  a-**  J 
this  name  is  si>nictimes  given  t4>  the  whole.  It  k*  tr*ar  ci 
in  form,  the  length  of  it 4  s«»utheasteni  side  bemc  at*  .* 
milcH,  it»  s<«ithwe?.tem  aU»ut  IH  milts,  ami  it*  r  "."i 
alM)ut  12  miU*s.  Its  surface,  wIkmc  ele^atM'O  t«  mkm  ^i  \ 
fe«<t  aU>ve  the  Mt*<literran6an,  is  slightly  umlul*;-  x 
sends  off  toward  the  Jonlan  thrw  firrMX  arm«  i>r  I  *%c-  i 
which  an»  seiiaratwl  fn>m  one  another  h\  tbr  n  •  ^:.*a.  H 
(iillMin  and  Little  llermon.  (htir  one  0/  thr-^  *rrr  •  "I 
erer<the  miildle  <me),de<"lines  eastwanL  Tb*-  ctva:  -  ii 
of  the  tilain  is  draine«l  by  the  Ktsh«m.  whi*  h  f  tE«{  *  •«  ] 
the  Metiitermnean  near  Acre.  This  irr^'at  plain  h^  w-  - 
wt'iie  <if  sereral  itn{M)rtant  liattles,  and  «ith  it  arv  mm»  •  \ 
the  nnmt«  of  linrak,  (ii<l(<«>n,  Saul.  Jiv-^iah,  th«-  rr-.s^j 
and  Nai>»»l»M>n.  S**'  l*Mwanl  Kobinsuti, /Ifcyjt^'at'  frV  -.  --^ 
0/  /Ae  fiitl^  Land  (IH60). 

En'inu,  Books  of:  <^rtain  bookn  of  the  ot.l  T'^ca.i 

and  t)f  the  A|Hicrypha  a^'riUni  to  Mjra,  wl.«is«>  n^av  :«  •! 
vitxA  \uUi  K»drfiM,  f«*iloiiifiir  the  Srt»<uai;int.  T  ti«  .  »s.  -i 
iMNiks  of  Fjtra  and  Neheiiiiah  (as  Ihet  are  c%ll«si  «k  •  . 
th«»n/»Ml  Kn^ltsh  Versmni  arv  dem»niihale«l  in  tli^  \  | 
aritl  Id  the  Thirty-niiie  ArtH  le*  €»f  the  An»:.!  -»a  •  *  -  \ 
Arst  and  s^'^^kiid  (MM>ksof  Ksilraa.  while  tlw  a^s^r^i  .-.a.  •! 
tiow  giiierally  kiionn  as  the  first  ami  •r«fml  1/  r.v^-«.^ 
there  cnlleii  the  thinl  and  fourth  of  l*>drwsL  T>^  *».\ 
Bible  (bViiM  fir^t  ailoptM  the  prr«rnt  mmi«n«  !*t«irr  4 
the  twt.  sfMsr^phal  Usiks  flr^t  ami  ^^s^mI  Ks-lrma. 

The  flfxj  («|MKr)phAli  Uiok  of  Kstlrai*  was  wn*i«-; 
pH si  (ir»t>k,  but  whether  in   Pallet iiH*  or   m    fr.«^-«itf     »| 
« hut  time,  call   nt>t    In- detrrmilinL      It    1ia«    «  r-  •  ^   \ 

^alue.  and  is  ft»r  the  m<*st  fiart  aht*t4iry<>f  tt»  r%*^»  »^-  | 
the  Jiws  itftfr  the  lUbOoiiian  imi4Mtu.  It  i*  bt4  ^^^i 
into  the  canon  of  either  Jews  tir  Chnsti 


196 


ESLEN 


ESPIXEL 


brilliant  defense  of  Cartagena  against  the  English,  Mar.- 
May,  1741 ;  the  fortifications  which  he  constructed  in  expec- 
tation of  the  English  attack  were  of  great  strength,  and  long 
made  Cartagena  invulnerable.  After  his  return  to  Spain 
Eslaba  was  made  captain-general,  and  for  some  years  was 
Minister  of  War.    D.  in  Madrid,  Jan.,  1759. 

Hebbert  H.  Smith. 
Eslen :  See  Esselenian  Indians. 

Esmann,  Gust  ay  Fbedrik  :  Danish  journalist  and  dra- 
matic writer;  b.  in  Copenhagen,  Aug.  17, 1860.  In  1885  he 
published  two  short  stories  {Gammel  Ojcdd),  but  since  that 
time  he  has  written  chiefly  plavs.  Of  his  dramas  may  be 
mentioned  /  Provinaen ;  Per  Bryllupet ;  Enkenuend ;  Den 
Kcere  Familie ;  Magdalene, 

Esmarch,  Friedrich  :  surgeon ;  b.  at  Tdnnig.  Schleswig- 
Holstein,  Jan.  9,  1823 ;  studied  at  Kiel  and  65ttingen,  and 
afterward  served  in  the  hospital  at  Kiel.  He  was  active  in 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  war  1848-50,  and  in  the  latter  year 
was  made  physician  superior ;  in  1857  director  of  the  sur- 
l^ical  clinic  at  Kiel,  and  in  1860  professor  and  director  of 
the  Kiel  hospital.  In  the  war  of  1864  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  excellent  work  in  the  hospitals,  ana  when 
war  broke  out  between  France  and  Germany  he  was  nom- 
inated physician-general  and  consulting  surgeon  to  the 
army.  After  the  war  he  resumed  his  work  at  Kiel  He 
has  married  twice,  his  second  wife  beins  the  Princess  Hen- 
rietta of  Schleswig-Holstein.  Esmarcn*s  work  both  as  a 
practitioner  and  as  a  medical  authority  has  been  remark- 
able. He  discovered  and  applied  with  success  the  method 
of  performing  operations  upon  injured  limbs  without  loss 
of  plood.  Among  his  many  important  contributions  to 
medical  literature  may  be  mentioned  Ueber  Resektionen  nach 
Schusawufhden  (1851) ;  Ueber  chronische  Oelenkentzundung 
(1867) ;  Ueber  den  Kampfder  HumanitcU  gegen  die  Schrecken 
des  Kriega  (1869) ;  Der  erste  Verband  auf  dem  Schlacht/eld 
(1870) ;  Verband  Platz  und  Feldlazarett  (1871) ;  Hamdbuch 
der  Kriegaehirurgischen  Technik  (1885-86). 

Esmeraldas,  es-ma-raal'daas :  the  northwestemmost  prov- 
ince of  Ecuador;  bounded  N.  E.  by  Colombia,  S.  E.  by  Car- 
chi,  Imbabura,  and  Pichincha,  S.  W.  by  Manabi,  and  W.  by 
the  Pacific.  Area,  5,364  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  hilly 
rather  than  mountainous,  the  highest  peaks  attaining  hardly 
2,500  feet ;  the  rivers  Esmeraldas  and  Cay^pas,  with  their 
branches,  form  extensive  vallevs  in  which  the  land  is  open 
and  adapted  for  grazing ;  the  hills  are  covered  with  luxuri- 
ant forest.  The  climate  is  warm,  but  exceptionally  healthy 
for  the  coast  region.  With  great  natural  advantages,  the 
province  is  in  a  very  backward  condition.  Cattle-raising, 
farming  on  a  small  scale,  and  a  little  gold-washing  are  the 
only  industries.  Pop.  (1892)  about  15,000.— Esmeraldas, 
the  capital,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Esmeraldas  river,  has  about 
3,000  inhabitants.  See  Wolf,  Memoria  aobre  la  geografia  y 
geologla  de  la  provincia  de  EamercUdas  (Guayaouil,  1879). 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Es'neh,  or  Isn^  (anc.  Latopolia) :  a  town  of  Upper  Egypt ; 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile ;  about  30  miles  above  Thebes. 
It  has  manufactures  of  blue  cotton  and  pottery ;  also  an  ac- 
tive trade  with  Sennaar  and  Abyssinia.  Ilere  are  the  ruins 
of  the  populous  ancient  city  of  Latopolia,  so  called  from  the 
worship  of  the  laiiia  fish.  Among  tnem  is  a  well-preserved 
portico  of  a  grand  temple,  with  twenty-four  beautiful  col- 
umns standing*  and  a  zodiac  on  the  ceiling  like  that  at  Den- 
derah.  All  the  rest  of  the  temple  is  literally  buried,  the 
houses  of  the  modern  town  standing  even  upon  its  roof.  In 
visiting  the  portico,  one  goes  down  as  into  a  deep  vault.  It 
was  cleared  of  rubbish  by  order  of  Mohammed  Ali  in  1842. 
An  older  temple  appears  to  have  been  built  at  Esneh  by 
Thothmes  III.  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  but  the  present 
edifice  dates  from  the  time  of  the  Cajsars.  On  the  river- 
bank  are  the  remains  of  a  Roman  quay.  Pop.  about  12,- 
Uuu, 

Esoc'idfe  [deriv.  of  Eaox,  the  typical  genus ;  from  Lat. 
esox  {isox),  name  of  a  fish  found  in  the  Rhine,  probably  the 
pike] ;  a  family  of  fishes  of  the  order  Ilaplomi,  containing 
the  true  pikes.  The  body  is  elongated,  with  the  back  and 
abdomen  nearly  straight  and  parallel ;  the  scales  are  cycloid 
and  of  small  size,  and  cover  the  whole  of  the  body  and  more 
or  less  of  the  head ;  the  head  is  oblong,  and  produced  into 
a  broad,  depressed,  and  flattened  snout;  the  mouth  is  large, 
and  has  a  deep  lateral  cleft ;  the  teeth  are  developed  on 
the  jaws,  vomer,  palatine,  and  hyoid  bones;  on  the  jaws 
they  are  enlarged  and  sharp ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are 


Bbox  lueiu*. 


situated  far  behind,  opposite  each  other,  and  higher  than 
long;  the  skeleton  has  numerous  vertebne,  and  the  alKlonii- 
nal  ones  are  much  more  numerous  than  the  caudal  (e.  ir  I) 
41-43  +  C.  20-21).  The  fam- 
ily is  entirely  confined  to  the  _  ^  ~ 
northern  hemisphere.  It  is 
chiefly  represented  in  Amer- 
ica, where  about  five  species 
are  known,  while  in  Europe 
only  a  single  species  —  and 
that  also  common  to  the  two 
con ti nents — is  found.  A 11  the 
members  of  the  family  are 
very  voracious,  and  by  the 
nature  of  their  dentition  well 
adapted  for  making  havoc 
among  their  cohabitants  of 
the  water.  The  most  notable  species  of  the  U.  S.  are  the 
Esox  maaquinongy,  or  true  mascalonge,  which  is  pre-emi- 
nent among  the  species  of  the  family  for  the  delieacv  of  its 
flesh ;  the  E,  luctua,  which  is  the  same  as  the  common  nike 
of  Europe ;  and  the  E.  reticulatus,  or  ordinary  pickervl.  of 
the  Middle  and  Eastern  States.  In  Great  Britain  the  namt 
pike  is  bestowed  on  the  Eaox  Indus  as  a  specific  term,  tt> 
well  as  a  designation  implying  maturity,  while  the  name 
pickerel  is  restricted  to  the  young.  In  the  U.  S.,  howev.r, 
both  these  appellations  are  very  diversely  applied.  S* 
Pike  and  Pickerel.  Revised  by  David  S.  Jo&dax. 
Esop :  See  ^sop. 

Esoteric,  es-o-ter'ik  [from  Gr.  ^o-arrcpuc^s,  inner,  deriv,  of 
flirw,  lo-w,  within] :  designating  or  pertaining  to  those  doc- 
trines which  are  designed  for  the  initiated  only.  The  an- 
cient philosophers  are  supposed  to  have  had  a  set  of  mvst*- 
rious  doctrines,  which  they  imparted  to  their  more  enli^'ht- 
ened  and  intimate  disciples,  and  other  doctrines,  morn 
popular,  for  the  benefit  of  the  multitude;  the  latter  arc 
designated  as  exoteric. 

E'SOX :  a  genus  of  fishes  which  includes  the  pikes,  and 
the  type  of  the  family  of  the  EaocidcB  {q,  v.), 

Espafiola :  See  Santo  Dominoo.  ^ 

Espartero,  es-pakr-ta'ro,  Baldaxero  :  Duke  of  Vittoria  , 
b.  at  Granatula,  La  Mancha,  Spain,  Feb.  27,  1792.  He  w.t^ 
the  youngest  son  of  a  common  cartwright,  and  on  aceouni 
of  feeble  health  was  destined  for  the  Church ;  but  in  Ihih 
he  enlisted  in  the  army,  became  an  officer,  fought  with 
great  distinction  in  South  America  1815-25,  and  put  d<»wn 
the  Carlist  insurrection  (1833-40)  by  a  series  of  bnlliant  ex- 
ploits, for  which  he  was  made  a  general,  grandee  of  S[«iii'. 
and  duke.  In  1841  he  took  the  place  of  the  Dowager-Quet  n 
Christina  as  regent  during  the  minority  of  Queen  Isaln  lla, 
but  in  1843  a  revolution  declared  Isabella  of  age,  an<l  K>- 
partero  was  banished.  He  took  up  his  residence  in  Enjrlami 
until  1847,  when  the  law  of  exile  was  canceled  and  he  n  - 
turned.  From  1854  to  1856  he  was  Prime  Minister,  ai.i 
after  the  revolution  of  1868  he  was  twice  mentioned  as  m 
candidate  for  the  vacant  throne.  D.  at  Loinrofio.  Jan,  y 
1879. 

Espar'to  [Span,  esparto  :  Fr.  epart  <  Lat  spfarium  =  (ir. 
airipros,  broomi :  a  species  of  grass  {Stipa  tenacissimd)  throw- 
ing in  Spain,  Barbary,  etc.  It  has  a  very  strong  fiber,  whi.  I. 
is  used  by  the  Spaniards  for  making  cordage,  mat«,  iivi-, 
etc.  Large  amounts  are  used  in  Great  Britain  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper.  Its  culture  in  the  U.  S.  has  been  re<fi:.- 
mended.  Esparto,  the  half  a  of  Algiers,  was  first  u>e«i  ft  r 
paper  by  an  Englishman  named  Routledge,  whose  j^atc!.: 
was  issued  in  1856.  The  paper  produced  is  generally  uf 
good  quality.    See  Fiber. 

Espinasse,  dc-les'pi-naas',  Claire  Frakpoisb,  or  Julik 
Jeanne  SliSonore,  de  T:  conversationalist  and  lettt-r- 
writer  ;  b.  at  Lyons,  France,  in  Nov.,  1732 ;  distinguished  for 
her  wit  and  sensibility.  In  1752  she  went  to  live  in  Par  - 
as  companion  to  Madame  du  Deffand,  in  whose  hoiist'  bl . 
remained  nearly  ten  years.  She  gained  the  affesction  *  i 
d'Alembert,  and  became  about  1762  mistress  of  a  ^ilf* 
which  was  frequented  by  a  brilliant  literary  coterie.  I>  w, 
Paris,  May  23,  1776.  Her  published  letters  (1809,  1887>  ar- 
much  admired. 

EspineP,  ViNCENTE :  poet  and  novelist ;  b.  at  Ronda.  Att- 
dalusia,  Spain,  between  1544-51.  Little  is  known  f»f  h  - 
life.  He  left  his  home  very  early,  living  for  some  vear^  •• 
Italy,  and  serying  later  as  a  Spanish  soldier  in  the  'Not  \u  r- 
lands.    In  1591,  when,  having  returned  to  his  native   |>Ui  • 


198 


KSQUIROS 


BSSBX 


1838).    He  became  in  1826  chief  physician  of  the  asylum  at 
Gharenton.    D.  Dec.  12, 1840. 

Esqalros,  es'kee'rds,  Henri  Alphonse:  a  poet  and  novel- 
ist; b.  in  Paris,  Prance,  in  1814.  On  account  of  his  work, 
VExHmgile  du  Peuple  (The  Gospel  of  the  People),  he  was  in 
1840  sentenced  to  eight  months'  imprisonment,  during  which 
time  he  became  an  intimate  friend  of  Lamennais.  After 
the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legis- 
latfve  Assembly,  in  which  he  belonged  to  the  Extreme  Left. 
In  consequence  of  the  coup  d'itat  of  1851,  he  had  to  leave 
Prance,  and  lived  in  England  until  1869,  when  the  amnesty 

Eroclaimeil  by  Napoleon  allowed  him  to  return.  Soon  after 
e  was  elect^  a  member  of  the  legislative  body.  After 
the  overthrow  of  the  empire,  in  Sept,  1870,  the  provisional 
government  sent  him  as  administrator-general  of  the  de- 
partment of  Rhone  to  Marseilles,  where  he  succeeded  in 
suppressing  anarchical  tendencies.  He  favored  the  separa- 
tion of  the  south  of  Prance  from  the  north,  and  for  a  while 
refused  to  recognize  the  decree  of  Gambetta  which  sus- 
pended him,  but  finally  resigned  in  Nov.,  1870,  in  order  to 
avoid  a  civil  war.  In  Feb.,  1871,  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  National  Assemblv,  and  took  his  seat  with  the  Extreme 
Left.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  Le  Magicien 
(1837) ;  Charlotte  Corday,  a  novel  (1840) ;  VEvangiU  du 
reuple  (1840);  UHiatoire  des  MorUagnards  (1847);  La 
Morale  Universelle  (1859) ;  UAngleterre  et  la  vie  anglaUe 
(5  vols.,  1859-70) ;  and  in  the  English  language.  Religious 
Life  in  England  (London,  1867).  D.  at  Versailles,  May  10, 
1876. 

Esqaivel,  cs-keVvel',  Juan,  de :  Spanish  soldier,  conqueror 
of  Jamaica;  b.  about  1470.  He  went  to  Hispaniola  with 
Ovando  in  1502,  and  commanded  the  Spanish  troops  in  the 

firovince  of  Higuay  during  the  struggle  with  Cotaoanama, 
504-05.  In  1509  Diego  Columbus  sent  him  to  conquer  and 
colonize  Jamaica ;  he  easily  reduced  the  Indians  to  submis- 
sion, founded  a  colony,  and  governed  it  with  wisdom  and 
success.    D.  in  Jamaica  about  1519.  H.  H.  S. 

Ess,  Leandeb  (his  convent  name,  properly  Johann  Hein- 
rich),  van :  Roman  Catholic  theologian ;  distinguished  at 
once  for  his  learning  and  his  liberality  of  opinion,  especially 
with  respect  to  the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures ;  b.  at  War- 
burg, in  Westjphalia,  Germany,  Peb.  15,  1772.  In  1790  he 
entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  MarienmQnster  in 
Paderborn,  in  1796  became  priest,  and  his  monastery  being 
secularized  in  1802,  pastor  at  Schwalenberg,  and  from  1813 
till  1822  was  Professor  Extraordinarv  of  Theology  at  Mar- 
burg. He  aided  his  cousin,  Karl  van  Ess  (1770-1824),  in 
publishing  a  German  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
(1807),  and  in  1840,  without  assistance  from  his  cousin,  who 
had  meanwhile  given  up  his  liberal  opinions,  published  also 
a  translation  of  the  Old  Testament.  His  edition  of  the  Vul- 
gate appeared  in  1822,  and  bis  edition  of  the  Septuagint  in 
1824.  He  lived  in  literary  seclusion  for  several  years,  and 
died  at  Affolderbach,  Oct.  13,  1847.  His  library,  rich  in 
Bibles,  patristic,  medioaval,  and  Reformation  literature,  and 
comprising  over  13,000  volumes,  now  belongs  to  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary  in  New  York  city. 

Es'segrg,  or  Es'sek  (anc  Mur^sia  or  Mur'aa) :  a  strongly 
fortified  town  of  the  Aiistro-Hungarian  monarchy ;  capital 
of  Slavonia;  on  the  river  Drave,  13  miles  from  its  entrance 
into  the  Danube,  and  150  miles  S.  by  W.  from  Budapest  (see 
map  of  Austria- Hungary,  ref.  8-G).  It  has  a  prosperous 
trade,  facilitated  by  the  steam-navigation  of  the  river,  and 
contains  an  arsenal,  a  town-house,  and  a  normal  school 
Pop.  (1890)  19,600. 

Essele'iilan  Indians :  a  distinct  linguistic  stock  of  North 
American  Indians,  comprising  only  the  Eslen  (Escelen,  Ec- 
leinach,  ete.)  tribe  formerly  inhabiting  a  narrow  strip  along 
the  coast  of  California,  from  Monterey  Bay  southward  to 
the  vicinity  of  Santa  Lucia  Piuik.  Their  habits  and  cus- 
toms differed  somewhat  from  those  of  the  tribes  of  Costa- 
noan  and  Stilinan  stocks  bounding  the  Essolenian  territory 
on  the  north  and  south  respt'ctively.  The  distinctness  of 
their  language  is  snifliciently  determined  by  what  is  known 
through  investigation  among  the  Rumsen,  a  Costanoan  tribe 
with  whom  the  Eslen  intermarried,  and  through  the  study 
of  short  vocabularies  gathered  by  Lamanon  in  1786  and 
Galiano  in  1792.  The  names  of  ninot<»en  of  the  villages 
formerly  occupied  by  the  Eslen  are  known,  nearly  all  of 
them  having  been  connected  with  the  San  Carlos  mission. 

Authorities. —  Voyage  de  La  Perotute,p.  288  (Paris,  1797) ; 
Galiano,  Helacion  del  viage  hecho  por  las  Goleias  Sutil  y 


Mexicana  (Madrid,  1802) ;  H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  Cal- 
ifornia, i-vii.  (San  Francisco,  1684-90);  H.  W.  Henshaw, 
in  American  Anthropologist  (Washington,  Jan.,  1890).  See 
Indians  of  North  America.  F.  W.  Hodoe. 

Es'sen  :  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia ;  on  the  Cologne  and 
Minden  Railway,  and  near  the  river  Ruhr ;  27  miles  by  niil 
N.  E.  of  DQsseldorf  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  4-C). 
It  has  a  cathedral,  a  gymnasium,  a  Realschule,and  an  asylum 
for  deaf-mutes;  also  manufactures  of  steam-engines,  fin'- 
arms,  woolen  cloth,  paper,  and  iron  wares.  It  derive^  its 
prosperity  chiefly  from  the  rich  coal  mines  which  surround 
it  In  the  vicinity  is  a  large  iron-foundry,  copper-mil  Is.  and 
Krupp's  extensive  manufactory  of  steel.  Pop.  (1885)  65,074; 
(1890)  78,723. 

Essen,  Hans  Henrik,  Count  of:  a  Swedish  general:  b. 
in  West  Gothland  in  1755.  He  was  appointed  governor  r»f 
Stockholm  in  1795,  and  obtained  in  18d7  the  command  of 
an  army  with  which  he  defended  Stralsund  against  the 
French.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Paris  by  Charkt> 
XIII.,  who  became  king  in  1809,  and  the  result  of  the  nego- 
tiation was  the  restoration  of  Pomerania  to  Sweden.  In 
1814  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  iield-marshal  and  Gov- 
ernor-General of  Norway.    D.  July  28, 1824. 

Essenes,  es-seenz',  or  Essieans:  the  latest,  and  apparent- 
ly the  smallest,  of  the  three  Jewish  sects  in  existence  in  tlh> 
time  of  Christ.  They  are  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Te>ta- 
ment.  The  etymology  of  the  name  is  doubtful,  and  the  hi?^ 
tory  of  the  sect  obscure.  The  Essenes  were  m>'stic-s.  and 
most  of  them  celibates.  They  are  not  to  be  confi)und»fl 
with  the  TherapeutiB.  although  a  kindred  sect.  The  grt-Atir 
part  of  them  lived  by  themselves  ne«r  the  northwest  ^h*  n' 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  but  they  were  also  scattered  in  vBriou> 
parte  of  Palestine,  and  are  supposed  to  have  numbered  in 
all  some  4,000  or  5,000.  The  nrst  distinct  trace  of  them  i-^ 
about  110  B.  c,  and  they  disappear  from  history  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans.  See  C.  D.  Gin.>- 
burg.  The  Essenes  (London,  1864),  and  the  article  in  J.  B. 
Lightfoot's  commentary  on  Coloasians,  pp.  82-179.  S^v 
also  Jewish  Sects. 

Essential  Oils  [so  called  because  they  were  fonnerlr 
supposed  to  contain  the  essence  or  active  principle  of  the 
plant  or  substance  from  which  thev  are  extracted],  <'all< «! 
also  Yolatile  Oils:  a  large  class  of  compounds,  most  1>  of 
vegetable  origin,  though  some  are  derived  from  anima. 
sources.  They  mostly  exist  already  formed  in  plants.  With 
a  few  exceptions  they  are  colorless,  and  have  m  roost  ca*«  > 
a  powerful  odor  and  pungent  taste,  resembling  that  of  thi- 
plant  whence  they  are  derived.  A  large  number  of  thoni 
are  isomeric  (or  identical  in  composition)  with  oil  of  turpt-u- 
tine  and  with  caoutchouc.  These  are  called  terpenes  (Ci«Uis) : 
others  are  aldehydes ;  still  others  ap[)ear  to  be  com  pounds 
of  alcohol  radicals  with  organic  acids,  etc.  A  very  few 
contain  sulphur.  Most  of  them  are  obtained  by  distillation 
with  water,  others  by  pressure.  They  are  in  many  caj<5 
changed  by  time  and  exposure  into  resins,  or  resolved  int4> 
several  distinct  substances. 

Esseqnibo,  es-se-kee'bo :  the  largest  river  of  British  Gui- 
ana, rising  in  the  Acarai  Mountains,  41  miles  N.  of  the  tn^ua- 
tor,  and  flowing,  in  general,  northerly  to  the  Caribbean  St-a ; 
length,  about  625  miles.  Except  in  the  last  50  miles  of  it> 
course  it  is  much  obstructed  by  rapids  and  falls*  The  moutl. 
is  an  estuary  15  miles  broad,  but  dangerous  for  navigatioii 
owing  to  numerous  islands  and  sand  bars.    The  lower  h^-^- 

2[uibo  was  originally  bordered  by  forests,  now  largely  olpan  il 
or  sugar-cane  plantations;  all  the  middle  course  is  stiil 
lined  witlf  heavy  forest  growth,  but  the  upper  river  flows 
through  open  land.  The  Rupununi,  a  western  braruh  uf 
the  Essequibo,  is  220  miles  long.  Venezuela  claims  t  he  E-<»- 
quibo  as  her  eastern  boundary,  but  a  large  region  W.  of  the 
nver  is  in  the  possession  of  the  British. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Essex  (East  Saxons):  a  countv  of  England ;  boun<l»Mi  Y . 
by  the  North  Sea  and  S.  by  the  estuary  of  the  Thaim-. 
Area,  1,542  sq.  miles,  of  which  nine-tenths  are  arable.  It  i- 
drained  partly  by  the  Stour,  the  Lea,  and  the  t^hclnu  r 
rivers.  The  surface  is  pleasantly  diversified,  except  the  tl.i* 
marshy  land  near  the  sea.  The  soil  is  mostly  a  feni.« 
loam,  which  produces  wheat,  barley,  oats,  beans,  hops,  j-- 
tatoes,  etc.  Essex  is  an  agricultural  county,  with  few  inap- 
ufactures.  Many  sheep  are  raised.  The  chief  town-*  ar  • 
Chelmsford  (the  capital),  Colchester,  Harwich,  and  Mal«l  : 
Essex  was  a  kingdom  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  heptarchy,  whi*.:. 


200 


ESTATES,  THE  THREE 


ESTHER,  BOOK  OF 


on  doe  notice.  Out  of  estates  at  will  a  class  of  estates  has 
grown  up  called  estates  from  year  to  year,  which  can  be 
terminated  only  b}r  six  months'  notice,  expiring  at  the  end 
of  the  year.  An  important  element  in  creating  this  estiite 
is  the  payment  of  rent.  An  estate  by  sufferance  arises 
when  one  conies  into  the  possession  of  land  by  agreement, 
and  holds  over  after  his  original  estate  has  expired,  and 
without  any  agreement,  express  or  implied,  by  which  it  is 
continued.  *  The  landloixi  nas  a  right  to  enter  at  any  time, 
and  dispossess  the  cx^cupant  without  notice. 

These  estates  may  be  created  upon  condition — that  is, 
their  existence  may  depend  on  the  happening  or  not  hap- 
pening of  some  event  whereby  the  estate  may  be  created, 
enlarged,  or  defeated.  A  fee,  a  freehold,  or  a  term  for  years 
may  thus  be  upon  condition.  The  condition  must  either  be 
precedent — that  is,  must  happen  before  the  estate  can  vest 
or  be  enlarged — or  subsequent,  when  it  will  defeat  an  estate 
already  vested. 

Estates  may  also  be  legal  or  equitable.  They  are  called 
"equitable"  when  the  formal  ownership  is  in  one  person 
and  the  beneficial  ownership  is  in  another.  Another  form 
of  expression  is  that  a  trust  is  created.  This  distinction 
does  not  affect  the  nature  of  the  estat-e.  Thus  a  trust  es- 
tate may  be  a  life  estate  or  a  fee,  and  in  the  latter  case  is 
transmissible  to  heirs  as  though  it  were  a  strict  legal  estate. 

In  regard  to  the  time  of  enjoyment,  estates  are  divided 
into  estates  in  possession  and  estates  in  expectancy.  An 
estate  in  possession  is  one  in  which  there  is  a  present  right 
of  enjoyment.  Estates  in  expectancy  are  those  which  give 
either  a  vested  or  contingent  right  of  future  enjoyment. 
They  are  subdivided  into  remainders,  which  are  created  by 
the  express  words  of  the  parties,  as  where  one  gives  a  life 
estate  in  land  to  A,  and  the  remainder  to  B;  and  rever- 
sions, which  arise  by  operation  of  law,  as  where  one  gives 
an  estate  for  life  to  A ;  here,  on  the  death  of  A,  the  estate 
reverts  to  the  grantor  or  his  heirs,  who,  until  the  tennina- 
tion  of  A*s  estate,  are  said  to  have  a  reversion  in  the  land. 
Besides  these,  there  are  future  estates  introduced  into  the 
law  by  the  doctrine  of  uses  (see  Uses)  which  are  not  gov- 
erned by  the  technical  rules  applicable  to  remainders.  They^ 
are  called  "springing  and  shifting  uses."  Similar  provi- 
sions in  a  will  are  termed  **  executory  devises." 

In  regard  to  the  number  of  owners,  estates  are  divided 
into  estates  in  severalty,  in  joint  tenancy,  in  common,  and 
in  coparcenary.  An  estate  m  severalty  is  one  which  has 
only  a  single  owner.  An  estate  in  joint  tenancy  is  an  estate 
owned  jointly  by  two  or  more  persons,  whose  title  is  created 
by  the  same  instrument.  The  distinguishing  characteristic 
is  the  right  of  survivorship.  On  the  death  of  any  tenant 
his  interest  is  extinguished,  and  the  estate  goes  to  the  sur- 
vivors. By  the  common  law,  where  an  estate  is  conveyed 
to  two  or  more  persons  without  indicating  how  it  is  to  be 
held,  it  is  understood  to  be  in  joint  tenanov.  But  in  most 
States  of  the  U.  S.  this  rule  has  been  changed  by  statute,  and 
persons  to  whom  an  estate  is  conveyed  or  given  take  as  ten- 
ants in  common,  unless  they  hold  as  trustees.  An  estate 
in  common  is  where  separate  and  distinct  but  undivided 
interests  in  land  are  held  by  two  or  more  persons.  Each 
tenant  is  considered  as  solely  seized  of  his  snare,  which  on 
his  death  descends  to  his  heirs.  An  estate  in  coparcenary 
is  the  estate  which  female  heirs  take  in  the  land  of  an  in- 
testate ancestor.  In  the  U.  S.  this  estate  is  essentially  ex- 
titiguished,  and  heirs  take  as  tenants  in  common. 

The  English  classification  of  estates  in  land  has  been 
much  modified  by  statute  in  the  U.  S.,  but  it  forms  the  basis 
of  the  law  of  real  estate  everywhere,  except  in  Louisiana, 
where  the  civil  law  prevails.  T.  W.  D wight. 

Estates,  The  Three,  or  the  Estates  of  the  Realm :  the 

three  classes  of  feudal  society:  1,  the  nobles;  2,  the  clergy; 
and  S,  the  commons,  including  the  bourgeois  or  middle  class 
of  towns  and  the  peasantry.  The  term  "estates  of  the 
realm "  was  used  in  Scotland  Injfore  the  Union  (1707)  as 
synonymous  with  Parliament.  It  consisted  of  lords  spirit- 
ual (or  mitered  clergy),  lords  temporal  (including  the  nobles 
and  the  commissioners  of  shires  and  stewartries),  and  the 
representatives,  called  burgi'sscs  or  commissicmers,  of  royal 
burghs.  Thev  met  in  one  jussembly,  and  usually  voteil 
in  a  body,  'f  he  "  States  (tcneral "  of  France  were  rarely 
convened  after  the  fourteenth  century,  and  had  little  or  no 
h'«;i.slative  power.  One  of  the  exciting  causes  of  the  French 
Kovolution  was  the  dispute  which  arose  in  1789  between  the 
"third  estate"  {tifra  ettti),  or  bourgeois,  and  the  nobles  ami 
clergy,  as  to  whether  the  third  estate  had  a  ri^ht  to  sit  with 


the  first  and  second.  In  Sweden  there  were  four  estate:y— 
nobles,  clergy,  Iwurgeois  (middle  class),  and  peasants,  e««h 
sitting  in  a  separate  house;  but  since  1865  there  an-  hut 
two  legislative  houses,  both  representative.  A  con  vent  i««!i 
of  the  States  General  was  long  (1580-1795)  the  supreme 
power  in  the  Dutch  republic. 

Es'te  (anc.  Ates'ie):  a  town  of  Italy;  in  the  province  of 
Padua;  picturesquely  situated  on  the  slope  of  the  Km- 
ganean  Uills;  18  miles  by  rail  S.  S.  W.  of  radua  (see  ina|i 
of  Italy,  ref.  3-D).  Here  is  a  fine  feudal  castle,  or  Ri^cca,  l>t- 
longing  to  the  noble  family  of  Este;  also  an  intere>tiii<? 
Romanesque  church  with  a  leaning  tower.  Est«  has  manu- 
factures of  silk  goods,  hats,  and  earthenware.    Pop.  9,000. 

Este :  an  ancient  sovereign  family  of  Italy,  from  which 
the  monarchs  of  Great  Britain  are  descended.  Amon<?  the 
first  princes  of  this  family  was  Oberto  L,  who  marritnl  a 
daughter  of  Otho,  King  of  Italy,  and  died  about  927  a.  i>.. 
leaving  a  son,  Oberto  II.  The  family  received  several  dis- 
tricts and  towns  to  be  held  as  fiefs  of  the  German  empiiv. 
Albertazzo  II.,  who  succeeded  Oberto  II.  about  1020,  nmr- 
ried  a  German  princess  of  the  house  of  Guelph  or  Welf. 
Their  son,  Guelph  IV.,  received  in  1071  the  investiture  <»f 
the  duchy  of  Bavaria.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  huu^tr« 
of  Brunswick  and  Hanover. 

Estella,  es-tel'yrik :  city  of  Spain ;  province  of  Navarn- ; 
22  miles  S.  W.  of  Pamplona  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  VIAU. 
It  is  well  built,  and  has  a  church  with  a  lofty  tower,  a  ((al- 
lege, and  a  hospital ;  also  manufactures  of  linen  and  woolen 
fabrics,  brandy,  and  earthenware.    Pop.  (1887)  5,974. 

Estepa,  es-ta'paa  (anc.  Astepa):  town  of  Spain;  prov- 
ince of^  Seville ;  60  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Seville  (see  nia[i  of 
Spain,  ref.  19-D).  It  has  a  church  which  is  a  noble  spfri- 
men  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  a  fine  palace ;  also  manu- 
factures of  baize,  oil,  etc.  Marble  is  quarried  in  the  vicin- 
ity.   Pop.  (1887)  9,059. 

Estepo'na :  town  of  Spain ;  province  of  Malaga ;  on  i  he 
Mediterranean;  25  miles  N.  E.  of  Gibraltar  (see  ma[)  of 
Spain,  ref.  20-D).  It  has  an  old  Roman  castle,  is  well  built. 
and  has  extensive  sardine-fisheries.    Pop.  (1887)  9,771. 

Esterhazy  de  Galantha,  es-ter-haa'zee-dd-gak-laan'tiui. 
Nicholas,  Prince:  Austrian  diplomatist;  b.  Dec.  12,  Vt^'t; 
obtained  the  military  rank  of  field-marshal.  He  was  em- 
ployed as  ambassador  to  Paris,  London,  and  St.  Petersburg 
between  1801  and  1816.  He  owned  an  immense  fortune, 
and  founded  a  rich  collection  of  paintings  in  Vienna.  D.  at 
Como,  Nov.  25,  1833. 

Esterhaz^  de  Galantha,  Paul,  Prince:  general;  b. 
Sept.  8, 1635;  became  a  field-marshal  in  the  Austrian  arnij 
before  the  age  of  thirty,  and  was  chosen  Palatine  of  Iluii- 

nin  1681.    In  1686  he  took  Buda  from  the  Turks.  aii<i 
587  was  created  a  prince  of  the  empire.    D.  Mar.  26, 
1713. 

EsterhazT  de  Galantha,  Paul  Antony,  Prince:  dipl«)- 
matist;  b.  Mar.  10,  1786;  son  of  Nicholas  Esterhazv  dt*  (»»- 
lantha;  was  ambassador  from  Austria  to  London  in  IMV 
18,  and  again  in  1830-38.  In  Mar.,  1848,  he  became  Minis- 
ter of  Foreign  Affairs  in  the  liberal  ministry  of  Himpiry, 
but  he  resigned  about  the  time  the  war  broke  out,  and  t-^.k 
no  part  in  the  conflict.  He  owned  more  land  than  anv  oiht-r 
subject  of  the  Austrian  empire,  and  had  a  fine  palace  at 
Eisenstadt.    D.  May  21, 1866. 

Esther,  es't«r  (star),  the  Persian  name  of  Hadas'sah 

(myrtle) :  a  beautiful  Jewish  maiden  who  became  the  qutt^n 
of  Aerxes,  King  of  Persia  (b.  c.  486-465).  She  was  a  cuu>in 
and  foster-daughter  of  Mordecai,  the  Benjamite,  who  Ih*- 
came  prime  minister  of  Persia  in  place  of  Hanian  the 
AmaleKite. 

Esther,  Book  of:  one  of  the  latest  of  the  canonical  book* 
of  the  Old  Testament,  consisting  of  ten  chapters,  and  niat- 
ing  events  which  gave  rise  to  the  Jewish  feast  of  Purun. 
The  Jews  call  it  emphatically  Megillah,  the  RolL  Th.* 
whole  of  it  is  read  in  Jewish  synagogues  every  year  at  thi- 
feast  whose  origin  it  explains;  and  still,  in  many  svnt*- 
gogues,  with  noisy  demonstrations,  such  as  hissing,  and  cla[>- 
ping  of  hands,  and  stamping  of  feet  at  the  mentiim  nf 
Ilaman's  name.  The  inspiration  of  the  book  and  its  riir^it 
to  a  place  in  the  canon  have  been  sharply  que5ti< mr.l. 
Much  account  is  made  of  the  singular  fact  that  the  naiin-  of 
(Joil  does  not  once  wcur;  that,  although  fasting  is  s[M>kin 
of ,  no  mention  is  made  of  prayer;  and  that  the  n'li::ioiis 
tone  of  the  book  throughout  is  low.    On  the  other  side,  it  is 


202 


ESTRADES 


ETHER 


tural  puiposes.  This  right  may  be  claimed  by  any  tenant, 
whether  for  life,  for  years,  or  at  will,  unless  forbidden  in 
his  lease.  But  only  a  reasonable  amount  of  wood  can  be 
taken ;  the  tenant  must  not  commit  waste  by  destroying  the 
timber,  or  doing  permanent  injury  to  the  inheritance.  See 
Waste.  Revised  by  P.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Estrades,  (^odefroi,  Comte  d' :  marshal  and  diplomatist ; 
b.  at  Agen,  France,  in  1607.  He  negotiated  the  cession  of 
Dunkirk  to  France  in  1662,  and  rendered  important  mili- 
tary services  in  Holland  between  1672  and  1675.  He  rep- 
resented France  at  the  congress  of  Nymwegen,  1678.  D. 
Feb.  26, 1686. 

Estray'  [from  0.  Fr.  eatraier,  to  stray,  deriv,  of  estrAe^ 
road,  street  :  Ital.  atrada  <  Lat  strata  (sc.  via),  paved 
way] :  in  law,  a  domestic  animal  (the  owner  of  which  is  un- 
known) found  wandering  outside  the  pasture  or  other  inclo- 
sure  where  it  belongs.  In  England  the  owner  has  a  year  and 
a  day  in  which  to  claim  such  cattle,  and  the  proprietor  of  the 
inclosnre  where  thev  are  found  must  make  due  proclama- 
tion in  a  church  and  in  the  two  market-towns  next  adjoin- 
ing. When  these  conditions  are  fulfilled  and  the  cattle  are 
unclaimed  thev  belong  to  the  sovereign,  or  now  usually,  by 
special  grant  from  the  crown,  to  the  proprietor  of  the  in- 
closure  where  they  are  found.  The  law  of  estrays  varies  in 
different  States  of  the  U.  S.    In  general,  estrays  may  be  im- 

Sounded  (in  a  public  or  a  private  pound),  and  after  being 
uly  held  and  advertised  may  be  sold  to  j)ay  damages  and 
exi)enses.  Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Estremadu'ra :  province  of  Portugal;  bounded  N.  by 
Beira,  E.  and  S.  by  Alemtejo,  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic,  and 
intersected  by  the  river  Tagus.  Area,  6,876  sq.  miles.  The 
surface  is  mostly  hilly ;  the  soil  is  partly  fertile  and  partly 
sterile.  It  is  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes.  Among  the 
minerals  are  granite,  marble,  and  coal.  The  staple  produc- 
tions are  wine,  oil,  cork,  fruits,  and  grain.  Pop.  about  925,- 
000.    Capital,  Lisbon. 

EBtremadara :  a  former  province  of  Spain ;  bounded  N. 
by  Ijeon,  E.  by  New  Castile,  S.  by  Andalusia,  and  W.  by 
Portugal;  intersected  by  the  rivers  Tagus  and  Guadiana. 
Between  these  rivers  a  long  chain  of  mountains  extends 
nearly  B.  and  W.  The  northern  and  southern  parts  are 
also  mountainous.  The  soil  is  feriile,  but  not  cultivated  to 
much  extent.  Large  flocks  of  sheep  are  pastured  on  it. 
This  province  contains  mines  of  copper,  leBwl,  silver,  and 
coal,  which  are  neglected.  It  is  comprised  in  the  present 
provinces  of  Badajoz  and  C^eres.    Pop.  about  750,000.    ^ 

Estremoz,  es-trd-raoz' :  town  of  Portugal ;  province  of 
Alemtejo ;  about  23  miles  N.  E.  of  Evora  and  82  miles  E. 
of  Lisbon  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  17-B).  It  has  a  strong  cas- 
tle on  a  hill,  around  the  base  of  which  the  town  is  built. 
Estremoz  is  noted  for  manufactures  of  porous  jars  which 
have  the  property  of  keeping  water  cool.    Pop.  7,600. 

EB^taary  [from  Lat.  a,e8tua'r%um^  tidal  water ;  deriv.  of 
a^esttta,  flood,  streaming  water,  ebb  and  flow  of  tide] :  the 
widening  mouth  of  a  river  of  moderate  depth  where  the  tides 
run  in  from  the  sea.  An  estuary  is  generally  formed  by  the 
moderate  submergence  of  the  lower  part  of  a  valley,  after 
which  it  may  be  widened  by  wave  and  tidal  action  on  its 
shores  and  shoaled  by  deposition  of  land  waste  brought  in  by 
rivers  and  tidal  currents.  Estuaries  are  therefore  frequent- 
ly of  difficult  navigation  from  their  shifting  bars  oi  sand 
and  inuiL  The  tides  of  estuaries  exhibit  a  rapid  rise  and  a 
slow  fall,  thus  making  the  period  of  flood  ana  ebb  unequal. 
The  rise  of  flood  tide  is  sometimes  so  rapid  as  to  form  a  wall 
of  water  advancing  up  stream.  This  is  known  as  a  bore  in 
the  estuary  of  the  Severn,  England,  as  a  masraret  in  the 
lower  Seine,  as  a  pororoca  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon. 
Typical  estuaries  are  seen  in  the  lower  course  of  the  Dela- 
ware and  Potomac  in  the  U.  S.,  the  Thames  and  the  Firths 
of  Forth  and  Clyde  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  Elbe  and  Gi- 
ronde  in  continental  Europe.  W.  M.  Davis. 

Etah :  a  district  (and  town)  of  Agra,  Northwest  Prov- 
inces, British  India ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  be- 
tween the  parallels  27'  30'  and  28°  1'.  Area,  1,789  sq.  miles. 
It  is  an  elevate*!  alluvial  plateau,  with  dry  uplands  in  the 
W.  and  occasional  saline  efflorescence  in  tne  cultivated 
plains  nearer  the  Ganji^es.  Extensive  canals  are  used  to  irri- 
gate the  western  fK>rtion.  The  principal  products  are  wheat, 
cotton,  sugar-cane,  in<lig(),  and  opium.  The  climate  is  dry 
and  healthful,  but  sand  and  dust  storms  are  common,  fitah 
town  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Kailway,  in  lat.  27^  34'  N., 
ion,  78"  42'  E.  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  5-E).    It  has  about 


10,000  inhabitants.    Pop.  of  district  nearly  800,000,  nine- 
tenths  Hindus.  M.  W.  HARaiNOTON. 

Istampes,  d'taanp',  formerly  Egtampes  (anc.  Stamva) : 
town  of  France ;  department  of  Seine-et-Oise ;  on  the  Paris 
and  Orleans  Railway ;  31  miles  by  rail  S.  S.  W.  of  PanV  (^e 
map  of  France,  ref.'  3-F).  It  has  three  churches,  a  ctisil*-, 
ana  many  flouring-mills ;  also  manufactures  of  hositrv, 
linen  thread,  counterpanes,  and  soap.    Pop.  (1891)  8,270. 

Etawah,  e-taa'w&:  a  district  (and  city)  of  Agra,  North- 
west Provinces,  British  India;  on  the  left  bank  of  tl)»' 
Jumna;  between  the  parallels  26"  20'  and  27'  N.  Anji, 
1,694  sq.  miles.  It  is  on  the  great  alluvial  plain  l>etwHn 
the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and  in  general  requires  irri^'ation. 
About  one-half  of  the  district  is  cultivated.  The  YmA, 
Indian  Railway  runs  through  the  district.  Etawah  ciiv  l< 
on  the  Jumna,  70  miles  S.  E.  of  Agra.  The  town  (st'e  map 
of  N.  India,  ref.  6-E)  is  intersect^  by  ravines,  crossed  hv 
broad  bridges,  and  has  about  85,000  inhabitants.  Pop.  i>f 
district  about  750,000,  of  whom  about  95  per  cent,  are  Hin- 
dus. M.  W.  Harrouton. 

Etchemins :  See  Algonquian  Indians. 

Etching :  See  Engraving. 

Ete'ocles  (in  Gr.  •ErtoicX^s) :  a  mvthical  king  of  TheU^ 
(in  BoBotia)  and  a  son  of  GCdipus.  He  and  his  brother  P«>U- 
nices  agreed  to  reign  alternately  over  Thebes,  but  Kt^^xlU 
usurped  the  throne  when  his  brother's  turn  to  reign  caim'. 
The  famous  expedition  of  the  Seven  against  ThelK?>  uc^ 
undertaken  to  restore  Polynices,  who  killed  Eteoeles  in  sin- 
gle combat. 

Ete'slan  Winds  [eteaian  is  from  Gr.  ^nyo-lai,  InHrlu 
fSofMiun,  periodic  winds;  Ito»,  year];  northerly  and  noriti- 
easterlv  winds  which  prevail  in  summer  throughout  a  pivai 
part  01  Europe  and  in  Northern  Africa.  The  name  wt  ur- 
m  its  Greek  form  in  several  ancient  writers,  and  is  now  ««• 
casionally  seen  in  meteorological  works.  These  winds  aris* 
in  a  great  degree  from  the  heat  of  the  African  Sahara. 

Etex,  o'teks',  Antoine  :  sculptor,  painter,  engraver,  an  h- 
itect,  and  author;  b.  in  Paris,  Mar.  20, 1806;  educattt!  ih.  re 
and  in  Rome,  and  achieved  distinction  in  all  the  departim  in- 
to which  he  gave  attention.  He  published  an  Eattoi  Aur  U 
Beau  (1851) ;  Coura  elemeniaire  de  Deaain  (1859) ;  ami  J. 
Pradier,  Ary  Scheffer  :  ^tudea  (1859).    D.  July  17,  lHs.s. 

Eth'elbert:  King  of  Kent;  ascended  the  throne  in  W» 
a.  d.  He  became  the  most  powerful  prince  (l)retwal«l.n)  -f 
the  heptarchy  about  590.  His  wife,  IJertha,  a  daui:ht<  r  .  f 
the  King  of  Paris,  was  a  Christian,  and  induee<l  Kthtlln  n 
and  his  subjects  to  profess  Christianity  in  597  a.  n.  St. 
Augustine  was  instrumental  in  their  conversion.  Etlulbt^r 
gave  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  their  first  written  code  of  laws 
D.  Feb.  28,  616  a.  d. 

Eth'elred  (or  l^.thelred)  I. :  Anglo-Saxon  King  of  Em- 
land  ;  succeeded  his  brother  Ethelbert  in  866  a.  d.  In  tK». 
first  year  of  his  reign  the  island  was  invaded  by  Dancfj.  wh.. 
conquered  a  large  part  of  his  kingdom.  His  brother  Al- 
fred defeated  the  Danes  in  870.  Ethelred  was  killed  in  \^\- 
tle  with  the  Danes  in  871  a.  d.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alfn^i 
the  Great. 

Ethelred  II.,  sumamed  The  Unready  :  Anglo-SiiMT 
King  of  England;  a  son  of  Edgar;  b,  in  968  a.  d.  Hi- 
mother  was  Klfrida,  notorious  for  her  crimes.  He  sm- 
ceeded  his  half-brother,  Edward  the  Martyr,  in  978.  In  1'  - 
disastrous  and  inglorious  reign  the  kingdom  was  in^aii*  i 
and  ravaged  by  the  Danes,  to  whom  he  paid  large  suIIl<^  >•' 
money  to  purchase  peace,  but  they  soon  renewed  tlieir  ju'-a:- 
ical  incursions.  The  Danish  king  Swevn  took  l^»n«loii  n 
1014,  and  Ethelred  fled  to  the  court  oi  the  Duke  of  N  <r 
mandy,  who  was  his  wife's  brother.  He  iUed  in  1016.  Na- - 
ing  two  sons — Edmund  Ironside  and  Edward  the  ('onft'rc-«r. 

Eth'elwolf:  Anglo-Saxon  King  of  England;  the  el^.< 
son  of  Egbert,  whom  he  succeed^  in  836  a.  d.  II i>  k::  »'- 
dom  was  harasfied  by  several  incursions  of  the  Pant-^.  v»  i 
pillaged  London  in  851.  He  defeated  these  invaders  r 
Okely  in  that  year.  He  married  in  856  Judith,  a  daui;)'!  ' 
of  Chai-les  the  Bald,  King  of  Prance.  D.  in  858  a.  d.  ii 
left  four  sons— Ethelbald,  Ethelbert,  Ethelred,  and  Alfn  - 
the  Great. 

E'ther  [Lat.  aether  =  Gr,  al0^ip,  clear  sky,  upper  reir^t  i  - 
of  air;  cf.  oWprj,  fair  weather;  df0ciy,  bum,  glow] :  h  h\\< 
thetical  medium  which  is  assumed  to  pervade  all  sjnict-.  a- 
is  regarded  as  possessing  extreme  tenuity  and    elaMi«i". 
and  as  being  the  medium  of  the  transmission  of  light  a 


204 


ETHIOPIC  LITERATURE 


the  Semitic  family.  Its  relation  to  the  language  of  the  Him- 
yaritic  monuments  (i.  e.  Sabean,  q,  v,)  can  hardly  be  said  to 
be  nearer  than  its  relation  to  the  Arabic  as  now  written.  It 
has,  however,  much  in  common  with  the  entire  Arabic  group 
of  languages,  not  only  in  regard  to  the  stock  of  words,  but 
also  in  regard  to  the  system  of  sounds  and  the  formation  of 
words ;  and  although  it  has  never  attained  the  fullness  of 
forms  of  the  Arabic,  it  has  developed  some  Semitic  pecul- 
iarities, even  more  consistently  tnan  the  written  Arabic. 
But  in  many  words,  roots,  forms,  and  even  in  many  syn- 
tactic forms,  it  agrees  more  with  the  northern  Semitic  lan- 
guages, especially  with  the  Hebrew,  but  also  with  the  Ara- 
maic and  the  Assyrian.  It  must  therefore  be  assumed  that 
the  Geez,  after  its  branching  off  from  the  northern  Semitic, 
<jontinued  to  develop  itself  m  connection  with  the  southern 
Semitic  (Arabic)  lan^ages,  but  separated  itself  very  early 
from  these,  and  continued  to  go  along  its  own  path.  For 
this  reason  it  has  still  many  peculiarities  of  tne  ancient 
Semitic  languages — peculiarities  which  have  been  aban- 
doned even  in  the  Arabic ;  and  in  some  respects  has  re- 
tained the  most  ancient  forms  (o.  g.  it  has  no  article). 
Other  forms  it  has  developed  in  a  peculiar  manner,  contrary 
to  the  method  of  all  other  Semitic  languages  (e.  g.  most  of 
the  prepositions  and  conjunctions).  Especially  in  the 
method  of  construction  it  has  formations  which  are  hardly 
to  be  found  in  the  other  Semitic  languages,  and  has  acquired 
a  flexibility  of  syntax  which  distinguishes  it  favorably  from 
all  the  other  languages  related  to  it.  On  the  other  hand,  be- 
sides many  ancient  and  peculiar  forms  in  the  Geez,  there 
are  met,  strange  to  say,  many  forms  which  the  other  Semitic 
languages  only  reached  in  their  latest  stajB^es  of  development 
(e.  g.  the  disappearance  of  the  inner  passive  and  of  the  par- 
ticipial form,  tne  dropping  of  short  vowels,  etc.) ;  and  it  may 
be  inferred  from  this  that  the  Geez,  as  it  is  presented  in  the 
Abyssinian  books,  has  already  passed  through  a  long  stage 
of  aevelopment.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  tne  study  of  the 
Oeez  is  very  important  and  instructive  to  the  Semitic  phi- 
lologist. 

The  Geez  has  never  been  grammatically  treated  by  native 
(Abyssinian)  scholars.  In  Europe,  after  several  very  incom- 
plete attempts  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
It  was  treated  of  in  a  grammatical  and  lexicographical  ex- 
position, which  for  its  time  was  excellent,  by  Iliob  Ludolf 
\Orammar  and  Lexicon,  1661 ;  2d  ed..  Lexicon,  1699,  Gram- 
mar, 1702).  In  accordance  with  the  demand  of  modern  lin- 
Siistics,  and  on  the  basis  of  a  much  fuller  knowledge  of 
thiopic  literature,  the  language  has  also  been  treated  of  by 
A.  Dillmann  {Grammar,  1857 ;  Lexikon,  1865),  and  in  shorter 
form  by  F.  Pnetorius  (grammar,  with  chrestomathy  and 
glossary,  1886,  one  of  the  volumes  of  the  Porta  Linguarum 
Orientfdium),  See  also  E.  Schrader  (comparison  between 
Ethiopic  ana  the  cognate  languages,  1860) ;  13.  Stade  (on  the 
<]^uadriliterals,  1871) ;  and  E.  KOnig  (on  script,  pronuncia- 
tion, and  forms,  1877). 

The  Geez  is  written  with  peculiar  characters,  which  orig- 
inally were  identical  with  the  Ilimyaritic  and  old  Arabic 
characters  found  in  the  inscriptions  of  Syria  and  Assyria, 
and  were  afterward  only  slightly  modified.  It  is  written 
from  left  to  right,  and  is  a^o  remarkable  in  that  it  sepa- 
rates the  single  words  by  two  dots  (:),  and  that  the  writing 
of  vowels  by  means  of  little  lines  and  hooks,  which  are 
attached  to  the  consonants,  is  uniformly  carried  out.  These 
characters  were  subsequently  used  in  Abyssinia  for  the  other 
dialects  and  languages  also,  especially  for  the  Amharic  and 
the  Tigrifla,  but  enriched  by  several  new  characters,  so  that 
they  can  be  said  to  have  become  the  universal  alphabet  of 
Abyssinia.       August  Dillmann.    Revised  by  C,  H.  Toy. 

Ethiopic  Literature:  the  literary  monuments  in  the 
Ethiopic  Language  (q.  v.).  The  oldest  monuments  of  the 
Ethiopic  characters  and  language  which  are  known  at  pres- 
ent do  not  date  beyond  the  first  centuries  of  the  Cnris- 
tian  era.  They  are  coins  and  inscriptions ;  among  the 
latter  especially  the  large  inscriptions  of  Axoom,  which 
have  been  made  known  to  the  world  by  Rllppel  in  the 
account  of  his  travels.  They  mostly  show  an  archaic  mode 
of  writing  the  consonants,  and  the  vowel-signs  are  only 
in  their  infancy.  An  Ethiopic  literature  came  into  ex- 
istence after  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Abys- 
sinia (in  the  fourth  centurv),  and  has  always  retained  a 
predominantly  religious  character.  Its  V)asis  was  the 
translation  of  the  Bible,  both  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, together  with  the  semi-biblical,  apocryphal,  an<l 
pseudef)igraphic  books  belonging  thereto,  which  in  the  other 


churches  were  rejected  or  lost  (as  the  book  of  JubilwN  of 
Enoch,  the  Apocalypse  of  Ezra,  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah,  the 
Shepherd  of  Hermas,  and  others).  The  entire  traiislutjon 
was  made  from  the  Greek,  but  was  afterward  revised  Mntml 
times — the  Old  Testament  at  last  even  from  the  Helm  >» ; 
and  it  is  necessary  therefore  to  distinguish  bctw^een  thi-  oi.l, 
middle,  and  latest  revisions  of  the  text.  The  ps<ii(J.pi- 
graphic  books  are  nearly  all  printed.  A  critical  editi(.ri  <.f 
the  Old  Testament  has  l)een  begun  by  Prof.  Dillmann,  urnl 
has  progressed  (1893)  through  the  second  book  of  Kiii^'^ 
The  Psalms  and  Solomon's  Song  have  been  published  ^'mthI 
times.  The  New  Testament  was  printed  at  Rome  in  154^, 
and  was  reproduced  in  the  London  Polyglot  with  man?  mis- 
takes. The  edition  (now  out  of  print)  of  the  Engli>h'}{ihle 
Society  (by  P.  Piatt,  1826)  gives  a  mixed  text,  which  can  not 
be  used  for  critical  purposes.  The  other  literature  tt)nsi-ts, 
for  a  large  part,  of  translations  of  Greek  and  even  (V.ptio 
works,  and  after  Mohammedanism  had  taken  root  in  E^m  j»t, 
the  mother  country  of  the  Abyssinian  Church,  Arabic  w«rks 
also  were  translated.  The  literature  comprises  thcvihi^jical 
and  religious  works  of  every  kind,  such  as  collections  of  nld 
canons  (Clementina,  Didascalia,  Synodus),  catenae,  and  homi- 
lies, exegeticAl  and  dogmatical  writings  (especially  thf»sc  of 
Cyril,  Epiphanius,  Chrysostom,  and  also  of  the  Syrian 
Fathers,  especially  those  of  the  Monophysitic  Chuixh; 
Haun&nota  A  ban  (i.  e.  a  large  collection  of  confessions  of 
faith  of  the  monophysitic  teachers);  lectionaries  for  the 
whole  ]rear,  especially  for  the  fasts  and  the  Passion-tinn •; 
horologia,  liturgies  of  the  mass,  and  church-books  for  t  he 
other  sacraments,  and  for  burials,  church  discipline  (Faus 
Manf&sawi),  and  church  law  (Fetha  Na^ast),  Acta  Sani't<»- 
rum  (Sjrnaxa),  a  large  number  of  monastic  rules  and  monH.<«- 
tic  writings;  in  sacred  and  profane  history  and  chnmoio^^ 
the  works  of  Joseph  Ben  Gorion,  George  Ben  Amid,  Alui- 
shaker,  and  others,  and  even  something  relating  to  philo- 
sophy and  the  natural  sciences. 

Among  the  native  productions  of  the  Abyssinians  them- 
selves are  dogmatic  treatises,  pseudonymous  apocalyj>ticai 
writings,  numerous  prayer-books  and  formulas,  meditation^?, 
eulogies  and  biographies  of  saints,  martyrs,  monks,  and  an  h- 
angels  in  prose  and  verse,  mostly  productions  of  monkish 
imagination  and  an  insane  belief  in  miracles.  2^1ore  im- 
portant in  their  way  are  the  lai^e  ancient  hvnm-books 
(Degwfi,  Maw&s*et,  Me'rfif),  with  hymns  and  antiplionies  not 
only  for  Sundays  and  holidays,  but  for  every  day  in  thf 
year,  and  containing  formulas  for  the  ceremonies  in  honor 
of  all  the  saints  oi  the  calendar,  with  peculiar  notes  for 
sinking,  the  use  of  which  has  been  very  imperfectly  ex- 
plamea.    Most  of  these  works,  which  indicate  a  considerable 

Progress  in  religious  poetry  and  music,  have  been  tratrii 
acK  to  a  certain  Jareu  in  the  sixth  century.  Besides  th^-^*' 
there  were  also  large  works  on  native  history,  and  explicit 
annals  of  the  several  kings  (from  which  J.  Bruce  in  the  s<-<- 
ond  volume  of  his  travels  has  given  extracts),  which  w»Tt' 
written  in  a  peculiar  language,  a  mixture  of  the  Geez  and 
the  Amharic.  After  the  extinction  of  the  Geez  a  beginning 
of  grammatical  and  lexico^aphical  work  was  made.  an<l 
was  deposited  in  many  Ethiopio- Amharic  glossaries  (Sava- 
sev). 

Much  was  also  written  during  this  period  on  meilirine, 
witchcraft,  exorcism,  and  divination  for  the  superstitious 
people,  either  in  Ethiopic-Amharic  or  entirely  in  the  Am- 
nanc  language.  The  poetry  was  almost  entirely  in  the 
service  of  the  Church  and  of  religion.  At  all  events,  pmnis 
on  secular  affairs  in  the  Geez  language  have  not  bi»t*n  pn^ 
served.  Besides  the  peculiarly  arranged  hymns,  only  lyrical 
poetry  was  developed.  The  poems  are  divided  into  j«tn»ph*^ 
of  equal  length.  The  construction  of  the  strophes  shows 
many  varieties:  the  lines  are  rhymed;  the  syllables  art- 
neitner  measured  nor  counted.  Of  real  poetic  genius  then? 
are  but  few  traces  in  these  poems;  many  have  of  jiiM*tr? 
nothing  but  the  rhyme. 

Of  the  entire  lit^erature  there  have  been  prints  bt*s>i«li  ^ 
the  Bible  the  Jlermas  Paster  (1860) ;  Ethiopic  liturgies  and 
prayers  (1865) ;  Physiologus  (1877) ;  and  a  number  of  thin^'? 
in  tlie  journals  of  the  French  and  German  Oriental  s^n  ii- 
ties.  It  is  very  fully  represented  in  manuscripts  in  all  iht 
large  libraries  of  Europe,  especially  in  Rome,  Paris,  Oxford. 
London,  Tubingen,  Frankfort -on-the-Main,  Vienna,  an-i 
Berlin.  Since  the  Abyssinian  war  in  1868  the  coUtH,'tion  of 
the  British  Museum  has  been  so  largely  increased  that  it  i^ 
without  doubt  the  largest  in  EuroiMj.  All  the  oIiKt  hvA 
most  of  the  later  manuscripts  are  written  on  beautiful  pnrrh- 
ment.    Among  the  mahus(Tipts  none  date  further  back  than 


206 


ETHNOLOGY 


received  universal  or  even  ^neral  acceptance.  An  attempt 
has  been  made  to  classify  languages  genetically  by  throwing 
together  those  having  a  common  origin.  To  a  large  extent 
this  classification  is  based  upon  vocabularies,  and  to  a  slight 
degree  upon  grammatic  characteristics.  This  classification 
is  yet  incomplete.  Many  families  or  stocks  of  languages  are 
now  recognized,  but  there  are  numbers  of  languages  outside 
of  the  recognized  stocks  that  have  not  yet  been  studied  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  reveal  their  proper  afi)nities  and  indi- 
cate the  groups  to  which  the^  belong.  The  work  of  classify- 
ing languages  is  one  of  vast  extent,  requiring  long  and  pains- 
taking research,  and  it  must  be  many  years  before  the  task 
is  completed. 

Formerly  it  was  expected  that  linguistic  research  would 
reduce  the  families  of  languages  to  a  very  small  number, 
and  by  some  it  was  even  supposed  that  all  would  be  traced 
to  a  common  primeval  speech ;  but  these  expectations  have 
not  been  realized,  though  many  languages  so  diverse  as  not 
to  be  mutually  understood  by  the  speakers  have  been  traced 
to  common  origins.  On  the  other  hand,  research  has  brought 
to  light  a  greater  number  of  distinct  families  or  stocks  of 
languages.  With  the  progress*  of  culture  languages  of  the 
same  stock  have  differentiated,  while  the  lower  tribes  of 
mankind  appear  to  have  a  great  number  of  languages  be- 
longing to  totally  distinct  stocks ;  so  that,  while  there  has 
been  some  differentiation  of  languages  within  the  same  fam- 
ily, the  general  progress  has  been  toward  their  unification. 
As  culture  progresses  fewer  tongues  are  spoken,  and  a  single 
tongue  is  common  to  an  ever-increasing  body  of  people. 
Often  distinct  languages  of  the  same  stock  are  formed  by 
amalgamating  with  languages  of  other  st-ocks,  so  that  inde- 
pendent tongues  disappear  and  are  found  only  as  integral 
elements  in  stocks  that  are  preserved.  All  eviclence  goes  to 
show  that  in  savage  society  a  vast  number  of  wholly  inde- 
pendent languages  are  developed,  and  that  these  languages 
coalesce  to  some  extent  and  many  become  extinct. 

Literature. — The  lower  tribes  of  mankind  who  hate  not 
developed  written  languages  are  always  possessed  of  a  great 
body  of  myths,  folk-lore,  and  legen(ls,  which  are  handed 
down  orally  from  generation  to  generation.  In  it  the  super- 
stitions of  the  people  are  almost  inextricably  confounded 
with  their  history.  Whenever  such  a  people  in  the  progress 
of  its  culture  .becomes  possessed  of  the  art  of  writing,  more 
or  less  of  this  oral  literature  is  permanently  recorded,  es- 
pecially in  songs  and  tales ;  such  is  everywhere  the  root  of 
literature.  With  the  more  advanced  peoples  poetry,  romance, 
and  drama  are  abundantly  developed,  until  gradually  a  lit- 
erature of  science  springs  up. 

The  cBsthetic  or  fine  arts  also  belong  to  the  subject  of 
ethnology.  For  this  science  the  term  cesthetology  has  been 
proposed.  It  treats  of  the  origin,  development,  and  charac- 
teristics of  the  fine  arts.  Authors  are  not  wholly  agreed  as 
to  what  are  the  fine  arts.  Some  would  include  poetry,  ro- 
mance, and  drama  in  the  fine  arts ;  others  classify  these  arts 
as  literary.  All  agree  that  sculpture,  painting,  and  music 
belong  to  the  fine  arts,  and  by  most  authors  architecture  is 
considered  one  of  the  fine  arts,  though  perhaps  with  less 
substantial  reasons.  When  the  term  architecture  was  ap- 
plied to  the  construction  of  temples  and  ^eat  public  works, 
and  especially  when  these  worl^  were  highly  symbolic,  the 
inclusion  of  architecture  in  the  fine  arts  could  be  supported 
with  cogent  reasons,  but  in  modern  times  the  term  archi- 
tecture is  applie'U  to  the  construction  of  all  classes  of  build- 
ings. To  an  overwhelming  extent  the  art  is  applied  to  in- 
dustrial structures.  For  tnis  reason  architecture  may  be 
included  among  the  industrial  arts,  its  chief  motive  being 
the  production  of  the  economically  useful. 

Sculpture  has  a  very  lowly  beginning  with  primeval  man, 
for  the  lowest  tribes  of  which  there  is  knowledge  carved 
images  of  men  and  animals  in  stone,  bone,  wood,  and  other 
materials,  chiefiy  to  develop  the  paraphernalia  of  religious 
worship.  This  art  attained  a  very  high  degree  of  develop- 
ment in  early  civilization,  especially  among  the  Greeks, 
whose  works  are  renowned  for  beauty  and  artistic  expres- 
sion. 

Painting  also  begins  in  the  lowest  known  stage  of  culture, 
when  rude  picturt»s  are  formed  of  human  beings,  the  lower 
animals,  and  various  inanimate  objects.  The  purpose  of 
these  cnide  pictures  seems  to  be  in  the  main  mnemonic,  and 
they  are  known  as  picture-writings.  Such  graphic  art  is 
rude  and  conventional,  but  it  steadily  develops  through 
savagery,  barbarism,  and  civilizution  along  two  distinct 
lines.  On  one  hand  the  picture-writings  become  more  and 
more  conventional,  until  ideographic  writing  is  proiluced, 


then  syllabaries,  and  finally  alphabets.  On  the  other  hand, 
picture-writing  develops  into  modern  painting,  and  beconiee 
properly  an  festhetic  or  fine  art.  The  stages  of  this  develo(>- 
ment  may  in  a  general  way  be  characterized  as  Uie  flat 
stage,  the  reHef  stage,  the  perspective  stage,  and  the  chiar- 
oscuro stage.  In  the  first  the  picture-writings  are  mainlj 
flat  representations  of  objects,  without  relief  or  perspective, 
and  are  often  found  as  monochromes.  The  picture- writ  in  i^ 
of  the  North  American  Indians  are  chiefly  of  this  character. 
In  the  second  stage  skill  in  the  representation  of  relief  i.s 
developed.  Most  of  the  known  graphic  art  of  Egypt  is  of 
this  character.  In  the  third  stage  the  power  to  reprciif  nt 
objects  as  related  in  perspective  is  developed.  The  stru^ru'le 
of  art  through  the  stages  of  perspective  drawing  is  i»tU 
illustrated  in  Chinese  and  Japanese  art,  where  imoerftrt 
perspective  and  conventional  forms  are  often  found^  Tlip 
lourth  stage  is  represented  by  modem  graphic  art,  where  to 
relief  and  perspective  is  added  aSrial  perspective,  with  a  nic«f 
gradation  of  lights  and  shades  and  a  high  appreciation  of 
the  values  of  the  constituent  parts  in  developing  the  central 
thought  of  a  work  of  art. 

Music  is  bom  of  the  dance,  and  the  earliest  is  pure  It 
rhythmic,  its  purpose  being  to  mark  time  for  terpsichon-ari 
t)erformances.  Tne  music  of  the  American  Indians  is  Inru^^- 
ly  of  this  character,  though  a  slight  development  of  niel<Mir 
is  discovered.  The  second  sta^e  is  the  melodic,  in  wliicii 
themes  are  repeated  with  variations.  The  third  stage  is  the 
harmonic,  which  is  a  union  of  coexistent  melodies.  Th»' 
fourth  stage  is  the  symphonic,  when  music  is  a  succes^ion  of 
harmonies  with  varying  themes.  Often  the  s^thetic  arts 
are  combined  in  song,  music,  and  poetry ;  while  in  the  ojiera, 
music,  poetrv,  drama  or  hlstriomc  art,  and  even  painting:. 
are  combinea. 

Religions^  as  naturally  developed,  are  usually  included  in 
the  subject  of  ethnology,  while  the  subject  or  revealed  re- 
ligion, or  theology,  is  excluded  therefrom.    The  subject  cf 
natural  religion  is  presented  under  two  heads:  mytholopi***, 
as  theories  of  supernatural  beings  and  their  relation  to  man- 
kind and  the  universe ;  and  worship — to  which  the  temi  re- 
ligion is  sometimes  exclusively  applied — ^which  deals  with 
the  methods  of  propitiating  and  otherwise  influencing  mi«  tt 
beings.    It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  whole  subject  of  my- 
thology is  logically  included  in  the  science  of  opinions.  mA 
the  term  religion  should  then  be  applied  only  to  W(irshif>. 
but  the  more  common  usage  makes  it  incluae  roytholo*:) 
and  worship.    Religions  are  many.    In  tribal  societv  e\crT 
tribe  has  its  own  religion,  consisting  of  a  pantheon  of  su})tT- 
human  beings  and  a  system  of  worship.    Each  tribe  rei^^<  de- 
nizes the  religion  of  other  tribes,  and  ctdtivates  it^  own 
religion  for  a  variety  of  purposes:  to  preserve  health,  te 
cure  disease,  to  bring  abundant  harvest,  to  prevent  st*  (rms 
floods,  and  droughts,  and  in  general  to  avert  all  the  e\  il>  u> 
^hich  mankind  is  subject,  as  well  as  for  the  pur}><>:«f  <f 
exalting  its  own  deities  and  obtaining  their  assistanr*'  m 
thwarting  the  deities  of  hostile  tribes.    In  these  natural  rv- 
ligions  four  stages  of  philosophy  or  theology  are  dis<.f>vtT»*'L 
The  first  has  been  characterized  by  Tylor  as  animi<m,  m 
which  inanimate  things  are  supposed  to  have  supematunil 
powers,  and  to  be  endowed  with  life  and  mind ;  mountaii.% 
rivers,  trees,  stones,  and  other  inanimate  things  are  hehl  to 
be  of  eoual  power  with  the  animate  world,  the  lower  ani- 
mals ana  man.    The  second  stage  may  be  styled  zo^ikfism, 
in  which  the  distinction  between  the  animate  and  inanimate 
is  made;  spirits  of  mountains,  rivers,  and  other  p^reat  t:***'- 
graphic  features  there  are  still,  but  these  are  usually  «-);;>- 
posed  to  have  animal  forms.    The  pantheon  is  chiefly*  nijvk 
up  of  beings  with  animal  forms — wonderful  mammals,  bini*. 
reptiles,  and  fishes,  and  mythic  articulates,  mollusks,  and  n\- 
diates.   The  people  do  not  worship  the  live  animals,  but  oi.iv 
mythic  animals,  to  which  are  attributed  many  powers,  .nni 
which  are  supposed  to  have  a  supernatural  existence,  an : 
to  have  been  the  progenitors  or  prototypes  of  the  oxiMnn: 
animals.     In  this  stage,  too,  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  anti  o\\:k  r 
heavenly  bodies  and  phenomena  are  worshiped  as  gi>ds  ai.v! 
they  are  supposed  to  have  the  forms  of  the  lower  aiiinmN. 
though  sometimes,  but  rarely,  of  men.    The  third  sta^  \\\a\ 
be  characterized  a,s phy8iiheism,in  which  the  heavenly  U^^ii-  ^ 
and  the  great  powers  and  phenomena  of  nature  are  fH»rs<^i«- 
fled  and  deified.    The  fourth  stage  may  be  deiiominat>  : 
psychotheism.    Gradually  the  natural  gods,  as  pow*»rf .  .i- 
suine  especial  psychic  characteristics  and  come   to  prr^nl-- 
over  realms  of  life,  passion,  and  human  interests :  thus  th«-r 
is  a  god  of  war,  a  god  of  love,  a  god  of  revenge,  a  gin! 
agriculture,  etc. 


HP 
I 


208 


ETRURIA 


ETYMOLOGY 


ing  the  greater  part  of  the  historic  period  the  political  con- 
stitution was  an  aristocracy. 

Origin  and  History. — The  question  of  the  origin  and 
affinities  of  the  Etruscans  has  long  exercised  the  ingenuity 
of  scholars  and  antiauaries,  but  it  still  remains  undecided. 
The  opinion  generally  adopted  by  Roman  writers  ascribed 
to  them  a  Lydian  origin.  The  earliest  authority  for  this 
tradition  is  Herodotus,  who  states  that  he  received  it  from 
the  Lydians.  This  opinion  was  rejected  by  Hellanicus, 
who  represents  the  Etruscans  as  Pelasgians,  and  by  Dio- 
nysius  of  lialicarnassus,  who  considered  them  indigenous 
{autochthones)y  and  states  that  in  his  time  they  were  very 
distinct  from  every  other  people  in  language  as  well  as 
in  manners  and  customs.  Nieouhr  maintained  that  they 
were  a  miitture  of  Pelasgians  and  Umbrians  with  a  race  of 
northern  invaders  (Riisena),  who  conquered  them  at  an 
unknown  date.  He  believed  that  the  Rasena  or  Etruscan 
nobility  came  originally  from  the  Rluetian  Alps,  Knowl- 
edge of  the  history  of  the  Etruscans,  even  during  the  period 
of  their  greatest  power  and  prosperity,  is  very  vae^e  and 
imperfect.  The  Etruscan  language  is  thought  to  be  Indo- 
European  in  its  grammatical  construction,  though  its  vocab- 
ulary, so  far  as  ascertained,  can  not  be  with  any  certainty 
affiliated.  There  is  no  Etruscan  literature  extant,  and  no 
bilingual  inscriptions  of  any  length  have  been  found.  There 
were  three  Etrurian  centers  of  occupation:  (1)  from  the 
Tiber  northward  to  Pisa,  where  the  Etruscans  seem  to  have 
been  limited  by  the  Ligurians;  (2)  the  settlement  on  the 
Po,  of  which  Bologna,  Verona,  and  Mantua  were  the  prin- 
cipal cities ;  the  Etrurian  population  is  shown  by  inscrip- 
tions to  have  extended  northward  as  far  as  the  Rhzetian 
Alps ;  (3)  that  in  the  Phlegrap-an  plains  surrounding  Capua 
and  Nola,  which  are  regarded  as  Etruscan  cities.  Livy 
states  that  before  the  Romans  became  the  dominant  people 
of  Italy  the  power  of  the  Tuscans  was  widely  extendea  both 
by  sea  and  land.  Several  Greek  writers  attest  the  facts  that 
they  were  bold  and  enterprising  navigators,  and  fitted  out 
large  fleets  for  naval  warfare.  In  538  b.  c.  they  fought  a 
naval  battle  against  the  Phocaeans  at  Corsica.  The  Tuscans 
and  Cartha^nians  were  allies  on  this  occasion,  and  in  other 
battles  against  the  Greek  colonies  of  Italy.  Besides  the 
twelve  cities  of  Etruria  proper,  these  people  possessed  an- 
other state  or  confederacy  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Apen- 
nines. According  to  the  Roman  traditions,  the  Tuscans 
were  a  powerful  nation  before  the  foundation  of  Rome,  753 
B.  c.  It  probably  attained  its  great-est  power  about  150 
years  later.  The  Tuscan  cities  of  Clusium  and  Veii  were 
involved  in  several  wars  against  the  rising  power  of  Rome. 
Tradition  indicates  the  establishment  of  an  Etruscan  dy- 
nasty at  Rome  under  the  later  kings,  the  two  Tarquins,  and 
assigns  to  this  period  of  Etruscan  domination  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Cloaca  Maxima  and  the  Capitol.  About  508  b.  c, 
Porsena,  King  of  Clusium,  marched  against  Rome,  and,  as 
the  best  critics  believe,  captured  it.  Hostilities  continued, 
with  occasional  intervals,  between  the  Romans  and  the 
Veientes  from  483  b.  c.  to  396  b.  c,  when  Veii  was  captured 
by  Camillus  and  destroyed.  It  does  not  appear  that  the 
other  Tuscan  cities  gave  any  aid  to  Veii  during  this  period. 
This  apparent  neutrality  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that 
their  northern  frontier  was  then  infested  by  predatory 
hordes  of  Gauls,  whom  they  were  scarcely  able  to  repel.  In 
the  subsequent  wars  it  was  sometimes  Tarquinii  and  some- 
times Volsinii  that  fought  against  Rome.  About  309  b.  c. 
the  combined  forces  of  several  Etruscan  cities  were  defeated 
by  Fabius  Maximus  in  a  battle  which  gave  the  first  decisive 
blow  to  their  j)ower.  The  conquest  was  completed  by  a 
victory  which  the  lioraans  gained  at  the  Vadimonian  Lake 
in  283  B.  c.  The  Etrusc^ans,  however,  retained  long  after 
this  event  their  own  language,  customs,  religious  rites,  and 
nationality.  They  were  admitted  to  the  Roman  franchise 
in  89  B.  c. 

ArtH  and  Cimlizaiion, — Ancient  writers  concur  in  repre- 
senting tlie  Etruscans  as  the  most  cultivated  and  refined 
peojile  of  ancient  Italy,  and  as  especially  skillful  in  orna- 
mental and  useful  arts,  in  which  the  ideas  and  patterns  used 
singularly  resemble  those  of  Egypt.  The  Romans  derived 
from  them  many  arts  and  inventions  that  conduce  to  the 
comfort  of  life.'  The  genius  of  the  Etruscans  appears  to 
have  been  practical  ratlier  than  speculative.  They  excelled 
in  agriculture,  navigation,  engineering,  and  in  useful  public 
works.  They  had  made  great  progress  in  architecture,  sculp- 
ture, and  painting,  and  especially  in  bronze-work  and  gold 
jewelry ;  but  their  artistic  ability  was  far  inferior  to  that 
of  the  Greeks.    The  so-called  Tuscan  order  of  architecture 


is  a  Roman,  and  more  especially  a  Renaissance  modificatir*r. 
of  the  Doric.  The  Cloaca  Maxima  at  Rome  proves  that  th<'\ 
were  acquainted  with  the  true  principle  of  tne  arch,  and  <  x- 
emplifies  their  skill  in  the  construction  of  sewers.  Of  tlnir 
temples,  theaters,  and  amphitheaters  no  considerable  u^ 
mains  have  been  preserved.  Among  the  existing  monu- 
ments of  their  massive  and  cyclops^an  masonry  are  frag- 
ments of  walls  which  defended  the  cities  of  Cortona,  Fa*s iil.»', 
Clusium,  and  Volaterne.  Their  tombs  are  in  some  chm  > 
chambers  hewed  in  a  cliff  or  solid  rock,  and  adorned  outM«i« 
with  tajqwXes  like  those  of  temples.  The  interior  walls  an 
decorated  with  paintings,  and  the  tombs  contain  vast  num- 
bers of  vases,  tripods,  urns,  etc.  The  Etruscans  exceiknl  in 
several  branches  of  plastic  art,  especially  in  the  fabricatiou 
of  bronze  articles  and  pottery.  Bronze  statues  and  uteuMh 
were  exported  from  Etruria  in  immense  numbers.  Among 
the  extant  specimens  of  their  bronze-work  are  probably  t)h> 
figure  of  a  sno-wolf  in  the  Capitol  of  Rome,  of  which  gn»uj.. 
however,  the  two  children  are  modem,  and  the  Chima^ra  in 
the  Museum  of  Florence.  The  painted  vases  called  Etrus- 
can, which  have  been  found  in  great  numbers,  especially  at 
Chiusi  (Clusium)  and  Vulci,  are  Greek  in  design  and  W(*rk- 
manship.  The  metallic  specula  or  mirrors,  adorned  with 
figures  on  one  side,^  peculiarly  Etruscan  manufacture,  arv 
prized  as  illustrative  of  customs,  mythology,  etc. 

Authorities.— K.  O.  MilUer,  Die  EtnMer  (2  vols.,  1>^» ; 
Deecke's  Etrvskische  Forsehungen;  Pauli*s  Etr^inkischt 
Siudien ;  Abeken,  Mittel  Itcdien  (1843) ;  Dennis,  Cities  and 
Cemeteries  of  Etruria  (1848) ;  Inghirami,  Monumenti  Etnt*- 
chi  (7  vols.,  1821-26);  Micali,  Storia  degli  Antiehi  FupoU 
Italiani  (3  vols.,  1832);  the  writings  of  Isaac  Taylor  and 
of  Crawford  on  Etruscan  Inscriptions;  Bninn's'  Jiilitri 
delle  Ume  Etrusche  (Rome,  187(5);  Jules  Martha,  LWri 
£tru8que  (1888);  and  E.  S.  Bugge,  Etruekisch  vnd  Ar- 
menisch  (1890).  j^vised  by  C.  K.  Adaxs. 

Etrascan  Language :  See  Etruria. 

Ett'mtiller,  Ernst  Morffz  Ludwig  :  philologist  and  an- 
tiquarv;  b.  at  Gersdorf,  near  L6bau,  Saxony,  Oct.  5,  1N(>2: 
studied  at  Leipzig  and  Jena.  He  became  Professor  of  (it-r- 
man  at  Zuricn  in  1833,  and  gained  distinction  br  hi^  re- 
searches in  mediaeval  German  literature.  He  producetl  hu 
epic  poem  caXled  Deutsche  StammkSnige  (1844),  and  Lfji- 
con  anglo-saxoni/mm  (1852).  He  also  edited  the  works  of 
several  old  German  poets.    D.  in  Zurich,  Apr.  15, 1877. 

Et'trlck :  a  pastoral  vale  in  Selkirkshire,  Scotland :  ex- 
tends along  the  Ettrick  river,  which,  after  a  course  of  2m 
miles,  enters  the  Tweed  2  miles  below  Selkirk.  It  is  n- 
markable  for  beautiful  scenery.  Ettrick  Forest,  a  royal 
hunting  tract,  included  all  Selkirkshire.  It  is  nearly  di- 
vested of  trees.  James  Hoqg  {q.  v.),  the  poet,  calknl  th»^ 
"  Ettrick  Shepherd,"  was  bom  in  the  vale  and  parish  of  Et- 
trick, which  was  also  the  haunt  and  residence  of  the  famous 
freebooter  Adam  Scott,  the  King  of  the  Border. 

Etty,  William  :  figure-painter ;  b.  in  York,  England,  Mar. 
10,  1787;  pupil  of  Royal  Academy,  London,  and  of  Sir 
Thomas  Lawrence;  Royal  Academician  1828.  He  {wiint»il 
the  nude  successfully.  His  pictures  are  agreeable  in  color. 
Head  of  a  Cardinal  (1844)  is  in  the  South  Kensingt<^n  Mu- 
seum; four  works,  including  Bather  (1844),  National  Gul- 
lery,  London.    D.  in  York,  Nov.  13, 1849.  W.  A.  V, 

Etymology  [from  Gr.  h-vitoXoyiax  l^v/ioy,  the  true  or 
original  sense  of  a  word  (^rv/uos,  true)+x47o»,  discourx^] : 
that  department  of  scientific  grammar  which  ccmcoms  it- 
self witn  the  history  of  individual  words  both  as  to  furin 
and  signification.  In  the  common  usage  of  the  ordiimry 
descriptive  grammar,  however,  the  term  is  applied  to  that 
part  of  the  ejammar  which  deals  with  modifications  in  \  ho. 
form  of  words,  i.  e.  with  inflexion  and  derivation.  The  ety- 
mology of  scientific  grammar  seeks  to  reconstruct  the  primi- 
tive form  and  meaning  of  words  by  tracing  their  earli.  r 
forms  and  values  and  by  comparison  of  cognate  langu.*;:*'^ 
or  dialects,  or  at  least  in*  case  of  later  formations  tt)  dtM •er- 
mine their  connection  as  derivatives  or  compounds  vMth 
primitive  word-forms  or  with  groups  of  word-iorms  united 
severally  in  the  possession  of  a  common  element  kno%%n  a* 
the  root.  The  tracing  of  earlier  recorded  forms  inoludt»s  tho 
many  cases  in  which  a  word  can  be  followe<l  into  the  terri- 
tory of  another  language  from  which  it  has  been  lx>m»W(Nl. 

Prior  to  the  establishment  in  the  nineteenth  century  of 
the  science  of  comparative  philology,  etymology  was  litt)* 
better  than  learned  guesswork.  It  relied  merely  uiion  strik- 
ing resemblances  of  form  or  meaning,  and  lackou  entirt'l\ 


210 


Erc'HARIST 


frtim  Utr  dc«iL'*  Thr  (»xrit4*m(«nt  which  f<il)(>WMl  this  an- 
titfunmurnt  wm  nuch  thnt  tin*  Kni|M'n>r  of  (trriimnr, Charh'S 
11.  (1.  of  Fnuu'<»,  fill  1«*<I  ** the  Buhl"),  ilinM*t*«*l  c-ounter-**!- 
IKMittortR  t4»  Im*  pHMmriMl  by  J<»hiinn«*4  Statin  nmi  Rat  renin 
^othcrwi^  rallcMl  Ht'rtrenni).  Th«»  wurk  of  ^H•otu^  though 
oftvn  cited  in  wiliMM{U(*ut  crnturictt.  has  penshwl:  that  nt 
Hat  rem n  it  Ktill  extant.  Hoth  held  that  the  coiuwret^Ml 
brratl  and  wine  in  the  Kuchanttt  are  onlr  ftij^riiA  or  HvnilioK 
and  n<>i  the  veritable  btwly  anti  bhMMi  of  i^?hrit(t ;  but  in  the 
Work  of  K«tremn  there  are  winie  thin^  mid  on  thii«  (M)int 
which  are  ambifoiou^  or  ol>!«'ure,  while  SiH»tiw,  on  the  other 
hand.  i«  (uiid  to  have  been  |M*n(|»icuou«,  di.ttinct.and  intelli- 
ffihle.  t>ul  of  this  dijtfmte  anH(>  m^mc  extraordinary  and  nv 
imNive  ATcondary  iNititroverHifji,  aa  to  the  natural  con?«*v 
quem-e*  of  taking  into  the  «toma4'h  and  dif^*>tin*f  the  c«>n- 
•ecret4*d  element*!,  whatever  view  be  taken  of  their  nature, 
for  which  thi^r  who  dt^ire  t4i  untlerntaud  them  must  refer 
to  the  e(>i'li*<»iji*ti<nl  hiMorieM. 

The  doi'tnnr  of  IV^^'aniuj^  or  at  leant  his  flrst  proposition, 
found  no  sjuaII  numlier  of  a<lherents,  but  the  Htru^t^le, 
thi»uich  warm,  wan  a  Mru^^lc  of  privnte  opinions,  and  not  of 
ot>inion4  with  authont  v.  The  Church  set  forth  no  definition 
oi  her  own  views  on  tfie  subj<H*t,  and  the  excitement  after  a 
time  a>iat(*<L  AUmt  two  centuries  later,  however,  the  t*on- 
irtivrrwy  was  renewed  in  a  manner  which  prerw'ntly  led  to 
the  interiMMition  of  the  Kiiman  [MmtifTs.  and  !(ulMH*<)uently 
of  c^mnciU  «»f  the  I'hun'h.  The  first  inciijent  in  thi^  renewal 
was  a  de«'laretion,  in  lom,  by  Ijeutheric,  Archbishop  of  Sens, 
to  the  effeet  that  none  but  the  sincerely  pious  ntH-eive  the 
boily  of  (*hn4t  in  the  Holy  (\>inraunion.  It  is  eti.><^  to  nee 
what  questions  may  an««e  tmt  of  a  doctrine  like  this,  eft|io- 
cially  with  tho«e  wh(»  hold  the  <>ertaintv  of  the  real  pn*st>nce. 
Ijater,  in  104A.  the  cM^lebreteil  Bereufn^rius,  at  that  time  Arch- 
deMMm  of  Anfc^ni,  takinj;  the  work  of  Johannes  Sc«»tus, 
above  mentioiii^i.  as  his  text  and  guide,  attai'ked  with  veh^ 
mencv  the  dtN-tnne  of  the  rwil  prvsence.  He  was  met  by 
Bnin<i,  hu  own  bii«hof>  (of  Anfrtrs).  and  also  by  Hufch  <>f 
Lan^i^s  and  Adelman  of  Br<*sAe.  But  his  mu«t  powerful 
ami  m(«<t  danKertJus  an  tampon  i«t  was  the  pf>pe,  beo  IX..  who 
aMirmblcd  two  cxmncils  in  1(XV)— one  at  Rome  and  one  at 
V'erceMi — where  he  cau^ied  the  writings  of  BerenKarius  to  be 
c«»n4bMnneil  an<l  bumeit  and  excommunicated  their  author. 
Retinnff  into  Normandv,  Beremn^riussoutirht  the  sum>ort  of 
William  (afterwanls  "the  conqueror**  of  Knf(land),  but  this 
pnm-e  having;  convenetl  an  ai«embly  of  the  princi|)al  prel- 
ates and  the*>lo|Cians  of  his  province,  the  unfortunate  polem- 
i%t  w«»  aAin  c^indemned;  and  in  the  (Nmncil  of  Paris, 
called  by  Hennr  L  in  the  same  year  <105(»,  he  was  not  only 
c«>Ddrmiied  still  a  thinl  time,  but  deprivwl  of  his  tM*neflce«. 
The  »4ilMr«juent  hi*t«»ry  of  Iterenf^rius  iia jwinful  one.  t)n 
three  tiifTrrrnt  w^'jt^ions*  under  three  ilinerent  succt'ssive 
|iii|ie4,  Viri<»r  II.,  NirholjiA  U.,  and  (ire^pory  VII.,  he  was 
i^im(M-)liil  by  thn*at»  and  intimi«Uti<m  to  renoum*e  hin 
opiiii«in**;  and  on  two  of  th«*i«e  (M'<-Hi<ions  to  sulHcribe  to 
di^*Ureth*n«  drewn  up  for  him  by  hi**  enenii<*s.  The  flm  of 
tht'^e  d«<«-Uretifin%  ma<)e  at  what  may  l>e  called  his  MH*ond 
triAl.  under  Nu-holas  II.,  was  to  the  effect  that  **the  brt^ad 
aiwl  wine  after  c^m^n'retion  are  not  only  a  -tacremeiit,  Imt 
ai«»  thr  rral  Uwlv  and  blimid  of  Jwu^  i*hri«t ;  and  thnt  this 
Ualy  ami  bliHMl  are  h»ndl«^l  by  the  priests  and  c«msum(*4l  by 
the  faithful,  ami  not  in  a  «a4'remental  iien«e.  but  in  reality 
and  truth,  as  <»ther  si-n^iblr  i»l»j««<'t<i  are."  He  was  not  only 
fim^i-^l  to  •ul»*'nl»r  to  the*  diH'Urntion, but  aNo  to  ccmfirm  it 
with  *n  oath;  but  h«nll«  had  h*»  rvtunied  to  F*nuu*e  U«for»» 
hr  al'juml  It  uttrrl}.  and  remiiiK^l  the  teai'hiiii;  of  hi«  for- 
mrr  %irn*,  \\r  wa^  ai  I'tinbiiu'ly  arraun"**!  a  thinl  time  and 
thi«  arret i;TirTi**rit  t<M>k  iila*'e  under  (tn-jr^ry  VII.  (Ilildt^ 
Itrandt.  whi«««'fn«  hiin«fif  not  to  have  (tartAkeii  of  the  ex* 
Ir^'me  %!••»»  »»f  It*  r»*iit:ariii*«'«  n'U'iitli*^  |»»*rM-*'utoP».  yrt  to 
ha»r  frit  (MiniM-llr^l  to  o)ili^>  him  to  n'lioutife  In*  own.  The 
urif*>rluiLatr  tiiaii  t^iiti^lraitit'^l  linii'^'lf  e*iii«M*i|u«<iitIy  to  4ul>- 
m  rtiw  tf>  h»*  tit  ,u  f  «if  thr  f«'l]»i«  luif  pni|H»«i(  ii>n.  and  to  r»»n- 
flnn  thi*  d«x  lare'i*«n  b«  an  oath  m/  .  that  ""thr  bn^ail  laid 
«»n  t 'h  aitar  lw«  ofui**,  aft«*r  4  <iIi«n<  ration,  tht*  true  l»o<l\  of 
t  hrt»t,  «tiii  h  wa"  \mtn\  of  ihr  Virt'ui,  •ufTt-n-^l  on  thr  vum^ 
ktid  eiow  vit*  al  thr  ru'ht  hand  of  thr  Ki*thrr:  an«l  the  wirir 

•  i  »•  *n1   on   thr  ailar    lii<i»fiif*    a(t#"r  «"•  •(»••<  rat  imu.  the   true 

•  I  --I   «h.<  h   rt  <itt-«l    fr>'Mi   thr  •!  h    of  Thrift"     Th»  rv  aa* 
a'^i'MMil    to   )■•   an    aiM-,^".iM    in    tfi:«   di*  i.*rnt  ion,  |H"rlm|r« 

^'r  •«  'iif  iw^i\  of  thr  *  •  riotr.i,  *  .||  ii.  !«•  put  ut***!!  thr  Word" 
'  I  I.  >'  p.v  •  <1.  tif>>'i  Ihr  at'  tr  "  \t  niM  rnlr.it  did  Hot 
•.»•  '»  t»H  ♦  ri*  »',i«-»  .»f  lit  ri  i)tr«trii)«.  anil  hr  aa*  t'lrri  forr  >»nt>- 
j  *  •!  (•>  th*  h  .rii.iiAiiiin  of  *\i\t^  rihtru*  AiHt  in«kiiii,'  oath  to 
•  !..,  ii,   *htf     .i.f. -i.-in  of  faith,  m  th<  fuliiia ji,^  ai»rd» — *.i,. 


It  wM 


rcf^anis  the  ceremonial  conmHTation  and  nla^^inc  Df> 
altar  of  the  elements  as  a  sacrifice,  in  whirh  tin 


I 


that  **thf  bread  and  wine  are,  by  the  rovsten<Ms  mflvt  • 
of  the  holy  prerer  and  the  wortls  of  our  ft«Nlr«*mer.  *»u*^' 
tially  chan»red  Into  the  tnie,  pro|)er.  and  vtvtfvini;  hmu  .•  t 
blood   of  Ji»su8  Christ";  to  which    was  athd^l.  tK»i  -o* 
bread  and  wine  an\  after  conswretion,  c<»n*«  rir«i  in    ••. 
real  borlyand  blood  of  Christ,  not  only  in  qualit;i  ofritt--k 
si^rns  and  sacremental  representations,  but  in  thnrr^*  4 
pn>(^H*rties  and  t«ulMtantial  realitr.**    Thi<tfonn  of  ^lf:<  <-    • 
navinic  been  fully  complete<l,  ftifie  (Jn'>ff»ry  di'^miw**;  ". 
humble  prelate  with  many  marks  of  (iep*o'nal  r<r»f    «•  • 
visible  and  liborel  evidem^es  of  his  friendship.     S***"- 
standing  which,  no  s(H)ner  was  Berenpiriu«  in  hi«  rmn  ••  .t 
try  apiin,  than  he  retracted  this  last  d«H'laretion.  »•  b*  * » 
done  all  the  former,  and  nretiared  an  eUUtrete  rrfutat.  r    ' 
the  doctrines  to  which  he  nau  just  suh^'nl»e<l.  Thr  \m^  t  • « 
no  notice  of  this  retractation,  whenct*  the  infervmT  ha«  *•-« 
drewn  that  Orej^ory  himv»lf  was  perMtnallv  not  far  tr  n.  • 
tertaininx  the  same  opinions  as  BeriMip^rius.    Thr  nf.    i 
of  the  days  of  this  f^reatly  tri*»d  clmmpion  of  thr  r.if  ' 
fnMHlom  of  opinion  where  the  C*hurT*h  has  n^it  «fa>irr,  v» 
(Missed  in  acts  of  nenance  and  mortification,  t^i  wht  h  *» 
subjected  hinLself  in  expiation  of  the  K^ilt  of  his  dim  t* 
lati(m  and  perjury  at  Rome. 

It  was  not  till  the  af«embling  of  the  fourth  LA*«vir. 
Council  by  Innocent  HI.,  in  the  year  1215,  that  the  1  •.*  < ' 
the  Roman  (*hurch  was  authoritatively  uttemlaa  ti  t.'-  trv 
«lcH»trine  of  the  Eucharist,  That  f»o|>e,  thnmtrh  a  <l^f*»  f 
that  council,  declared  the  true  faith  to  be  that  the  f  U»  •-H 
of  bri*afi  and  wine  are  really  and  truly,  after  ci)ri%-i  r*:,  «. 
the  Usly  and  blcKxl  of  Jesus  Christ  in  actual  sulMtaii  '.  r^ 
niainin^  bread  and  wine  only  to  outward  a}iprarmz>tv  .  «ai( 
he  himsidf  invented  and  introduc*ed  the  term  **trmn«u'«u»| 
liation,**  by  which  this  doctrine  has  l>een  evrr  *ifn»  kti-  w^ 
and  recopiized  as  a  d<»ctrine  of  the  Roman  Chun-h.  It  * 
a  naturelinmsequence  of  the  admi*ision  of  this  (l*«t 
an  established  dof^a  that  tluU  view  of  the  KurhATta 

C  Of  -  »•< 

fn^at  sai'rifice  u|K>n  ('alvary  is  |ier|tetually  rvnrWfil.  !  .H 
easy  ac<t*ptJUice ;  and  other  consetjuenct'*  have  irt:  •..< 
worship  of  the  conse<'ret*Hl  elements,  a*  l»emic  a  •..•^'  1 
directly  paid  to  Christ  himt«elf ;  the  elrvation  ^4  tU  :i  ^ 
in  the  celebretion  of  mass,  that  it  may  k»e  M^n  an-i  *-  '1 
emtnl  by  the  (»eople ;  and  the  custom,  prrvah  nt  in  U  4 
(^atholic  count  rii*!*,  of  carry  in  if  this  con««vret»-^l  brv«i*.  **■  i 
in  solemn  pnwe!*ion«  thnmjcn  the  public  Mrv^rt%,  t-*  f«  ■! 
minintered  to  the  sick  and  dyinfr. 

Another  tHmtniven»y  in  rejrani  to  the  Ku<  han^t  a"^*»  I 
the  sixtivnth  century,  which  C(mtinu«>s  still  to  du*>.*  t 
ions,  the  Church  not  haviuff  formally  drt  larvtl  <«  1^ 
rtide.  It  was  (and  is)  held  by  the  Jesuits  and  tw«n.  \.^ 
that  the  sacraments  have  In  them«idve*«  an  in*tran»*-.'»  a-j 
enicient  jMiwer  by  virtue  of  which  thi'y  »t>rk  in  tbr  *  .  \ 
defiendently  of  any  previous  pre|karetion  or  •««!••  (  t) 
pro|iensiti<*s,  a  dis|Misition  to  re<x»ive  the  divii>r  irr»*  s^ 
this  they  call  the  opuA  ttperatum.  Thus,  arc«mlirtir  t«.  *^H 
view,  neither  knowle«lKe.  nor  wisilom,  nor  bur.  If  i< 
faith,  nor  devotitm  is  ne<n*9isary  to  the  eftltac-y  (.f  t.*«r  mti 
ments.  whose  prevail inir  enericy  nothing  Imt  m  ttm  r'a.  i 
can  n»sist.  Hence,  therefc»np,  ae(x>nlinK  to  th*-*Ti  t""*1 
may  fn^^  iinme<liate  ab«r>lution  to  all  who  r<inf«*M  t^  r  «^ 
det^ds  and  evil  thoughts  and  wicked  •enttm4*ri*«  aAt  vi 
pensities,  and  admit  them  directir  to  tlir  u««*  ff  t^^  «•! 
ments.  Thi^  view  was  resisted  by  the  Jaii^  i.i«4a.  as-c| 
rejei'tfMl  bv  all  In  the  Roman  communion  wh<»  hjavr  it^  ^ 
re^  of  vftal  and  practical  rvli^i>n  trulv  at  h«^an.  T^i 
ilemand  that  none  Mhall  tie  ailmitted  to  the  sm  r&n-«Tt  t  | 
H«»ly  C«»mmunion  who  do  n«»t  gi^e  e»iden<^  t»f  tr-.-  pri 
teiice,  and  of  an  intent  hem^'forth  ti)  le*il  a  !.«■«  .  *  I 
lowing  the  commandments  of  God,  aod  walking  ta  t^  ^ 
wavR, 

The  name  century  saw  the  ifreat  unnsiric  ^pm-.Tj* 
al>u<M^  which  hail  in^lually  crept  into  tm  Ch.Ar<  h  '  1.  ^ 
<^»iiiinoiil>  talUsl  tlir  Reformation,  inau^urat«'*i  I  «  *■  •  \ 
Martin  liUtlnT.  It  mtt^n  ap|M*art'<d  tluU.  U(Mitt  «..  «  ,««•  •{ 
|ioints  of  tltM'tnne.  thrrr  «a<*  as  Iittlr  harrnoiiv  if  ^  »«--■  | 
thr  rnnkn  of  thr  Ki-fMrtiirr*  a^  tlirn*  ha<l  It*u  in  t>,  «•  • 
Chun  h.  In  rrL'Hpl  t«»  the  Kurhan»t.  11m*  dt<T«  r*  tww  ,••  i| 
Liithrr  and  /\»ini:h.  if  rn^t  quite  mi  «id<*.  «  k^  ut'  M 
irriMM tilt  itnhir  a.*>  thnt  In  tar*>n  thr  Jr«uit*ai>**  tt"  Jaaw'l 
or  thai  of  thr  ninih  i^Mitury  Uiwrt-n  R*l'i^ri  mt  '  ^  \ 
Liithrr  iiiaintainril  that  thr  XnmU  and  blmvl  «.f  |  »  «  ^| 
r^all\,  though  in  a  innnnrr  far  lietitfMl  h»im«rt  f.  .  .  «,{ 
sioti.  present  in  thr   Ktii  liart«t,  and  are  ethitHt««l   ;  <>| 


212 


BUDOCIA 


KUGENIUS  III. 


of  free  oxygen  in  the  tube.  Allowing  for  the  hydrogen  on- 
consumed,  the  volume  of  nitrogen  is  readily  seen.  The  re- 
sults are  then  reduced  to  a  percentage  of  volumes. 

Eado'cia  (in  Gr.  Ev8o«r(a;  Fr.  Eudocie),  sometimes  called 
Eadoxia:  the  wife  of  Theodosius  II.;  b.  in  Athens  about 
893.  She  was  a  daughter  of  the  sophist  Leontius,  and  her 
name  before  she  was  converted  to  Christianity  was  Athe- 
nab.  She  was  very  carefully  educated  and  thoroughly  con- 
versant with  Greek  literature  and  philosophy ;  she liau  even 
studied  the  sciences.  A  qimrrel  with  her  brothers  about 
the  inheritance  after  her  father*s  death  brought  her  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  she  wished  to  lay  her  case  before  the  em- 
peror. Theodosius  was  completely  captivated  by  her  beauty 
and  her  accomplishments,  and  in  421  he  married  her,  she 
having  in  the  meantime  embraced  Christianity.  In  438 
she  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  imitating,  in  a 
rather  ostentatious  manner,  the  Empress  Helena,  the  mother 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  and  distributing  enormous  sums 
as  alms  and  donations  for  pious  purposes.  Shortly  after 
her  return  an  estrangement  took  place  oetween  her  and  her 
husband,  some  imprudence  upon  her  side  having  aroused 
his  jealousy,  and  in  449  she  was  banished  from  the  court. 
She  settled  in  Jerusalem,  and  devoted  herself  entirely  to 
the  study  of  Christian  theology  and  to  religious  exercises. 
She  died  there  in  460.  She  wrote  paraphrases  in  heroic 
verse  of  the  Octateuch,  Daniel,  and  Zechariah,  and  a  poem 
on  the  martyrdom  of  Cvprian,  etc.  See  P.  Gregorovius, 
Atheiiais  (1882). 

Eudox'ns  (in  Gr.  EtfSo^os):  a  Greek  astronomer;  b.  at 
Cni(jlos  in  Caria ;  flourished  about  366  b.  c.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Archytas  and  of  Plato,  and  he  opened  a  school  at  Athens 
or  Cnidos.  Cicero  called  him  the  prince  of  astronomers. 
Eudoxus  computed  the  length  of  the  year  to  be  365^  days, 
and  appears  to  have  originated  the  doctrine  of  concentric 
solid  crystalline  spheres,  by  which  he  explained  the  appar- 
ent motions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets.  He  is  frequently 
referred  to  by  ancient  writers. 

Eafaula,  yu-faw'la:  city  and  railway  junction;  Barbour 
CO.,  Ala.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Alabama,  ref. 
6-E) ;  80  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Montgomer)' ;  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Chattahoochee  river,  which  is  navigable  to  this  point 
for  its  largest  boats  at  all  seasons.  The  city  is  a  winter 
health  resort,  and  has  a  college  for  young  women,  a  school 
for  colored  people,  a  bagging-factory,  several  cotton-ware- 
houses, a  fair-ground,  water-works,  etc.  Over  50,000  bales  of 
cotton  are  sold  here  annually.   Pop.  (1880)  3,836 ;  (1890)4,394. 

Engine :  city ;  capital  of  Lane  co..  Ore.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Oregon,  ref.  4-B) ;  71  miles  S.  of  Salem ; 
on  railway  ana  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Willamette  river, 
which  is  navigable  for  steamboats  during  several  months  of 
the  year.  It  is  the  business  center  of  the  upper  Willamette 
vallev,  and  the  educational  center  of  the  State.  It  contains 
the  Cniversity  of  Oregon,  located  here  by  act  of  the  Legis- 
lature in  1872,  a  fine  Masonic  temple,  a  large  flouring-mill, 
steam  saw  and  planing  mills,  fumiture-manufacterv,  and  a 
woolen-milL     Pop.  (1880)  1,117;  (1890)  estimated,  3,000. 

Editor  of  **  Oregon  State  Journal." 

Engene,  yu-jeen'  (in  Fr.  Eugene ;  Germ.  Eugen),  Prince, 
or,  more  fully,  FranQols  Eugene  de  Savoie :  general ;  b. 
in  Paris,  Oct.  18, 166ii.  He  was  a  son  of  Eugene  Maurice, 
Count  of  Soissons,  and  Olympia  Mancini,  a  niece  of  Cardinal 
Mazarin.  Having  been  offende<l  by  Louis  XIV. 's  refusal  to 
grant  him  a  commission  in  the  army,  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  Emperor  of  Austria  in  1683.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  war  against  the  Turks,  and  was  rapidly  promoted. 
In  1691  he  obtained  command  of  the  imperial  army  in  Pied- 
mont, where  he  fought  against  the  French.  Louis  XIV. 
afterward  oflfered  him  a  marshal's  baton  if  he  would  enter 
the  French  service,  but  he  declined.  Having  been  ap(X)inted 
commander  of  the  Austrian  army  in  Hungary,  he  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  Turks  at  Zenta  Sept.  11,  1697.  In 
the  great  European  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  which 
broke  out  in  1701,  Eup^ene  first  commanded  in  Italy,  where 
he  was  opposed  by  the  able  French  marshal  Catinat,  and 
afterward  by  Villeroi,  whom  he  surprised  at  Cremona  and 
took  prisoner  in  Jan.,  1702.  An  indecisive  battle  was  fought 
at  Luzara  in  Aug.,  1702,  by  Prince  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of 
Vendome.  About  the  end  of  that  year  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  council  of  war  in  Vienna.  lie  commanded 
the  imperial  army  which  co-operated  in  German v  with  the 
English  army  untler  the  Duke  of  Marllwroii^h.  "these  allies 
defeated  the  French  and  Bavarians  at  the  great  battle  of 


Blenheim,  Aug.  13, 1704.  In  1705  he  took  command  of  the 
anny  in  Italy,  and  was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Vendnme 
at  Cassano  in  August  of  that  year.  He  gained  avictor>' 
over  the  Duke  of  Orleans  at  Turin  in  Sept.,  1706,  expelled 
the  French  from  Italy,  and  returned  to  Vienna  in  1707. 
The  seat  of  war  was  next  transferred  to  Flanders,  whert* 
Prince  Eugene  was  associated  with  the  Duke  of  Marlbor- 
ough in  the  command  of  the  combined  armies.  They  de^ 
feated  the  French  at  Oudenarde  (1708),  and  claimed  th»* 
victory  at  the  great  battle  of  Malplaouet  (Sept  11,  1701»). 
where  they  remained  masters  of  the  field  but  lost  about  25.- 
000  men.  In  1712  he  was  sent  to  London  on  a  diplomatic 
mission,  the  object  of  which  was  to  persuade  the  Engli>h  tf> 
continue  the  war  and  to  restore  Marlborough  to  the  com- 
mand, but  he  was  not  successful.  A  victory  which  Marshal 
Vilkrs  ^ined  over  the  Duteh  allies  of  Prince  Eugene  at 
Denain  in  July,  1712,  induced  Austria  to  negotiate  for  peace. 
In  Mar.,  1714,  he  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  at  RastadU  He 
defeated  a  large  Turkish  army  at  Peterwardein  Aug.  5. 
1716,  and  took  Bel^frade  from  the  same  enemy  in  1717. 
After  the  end  of  this  war,  in  1718,  he  rendered  important 
services  as  a  statesman,  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the 
Emperor  of  Germany,  D.  in  Vienna,  Apr.  21,  1736.  St»e 
John  Campbell,  Military  History  of  Prince  Eugene  and 
Marlborough  (2  vols.,  1736),  and  Von  Sybel,  Prim  Eugen 
von  Savoyen  (London,  1868). 

Eoge'ni^:  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  familv 
MyrtaeecB,  nesLTly  related  to  the  myrtle.  It  comprises  n  u- 
merous  species,  which  are  natives  of  tropical  ana  subtn»|i- 
ical  countries,  and  some  of  them  produce  delicious  fruiis 
remarkable  for  their  pleasant  balsamic  odors.  The  fni:i 
is  a  berry  of  one  or  two  cells,  with  one  seed  in  each  a-ll 
The  Eugenia  malaccensis,  a  native  of  the  Malayan  Archi- 
pelago, IS  a  small  tree  which  bears  a  red  fruit  nearly  as  lar*:** 
as  an  apple,  with  a  juicy  pulp  and  an  agreeable  *odor  like 
that  of  a  rose ;  hence  it  is  called  rose  apple.  The  last  name 
is  also  applied  to  the  fruit  of  the  Eugenia  jambos,  an  Ea.-;i 
Indian  tree,  now  cultivated  extensively  in  many  tropical 
countries.    Florida  has  five  or  more  unimportant  species. 


Eugenie,  d'zha'nee',  or  Eag^nie  Marie  de  Montyo.  ihv. 
on'tee^ho:   ex-Empress  of  the  French;   b.  in   Granatin, 


mon 


Spain,  May  5, 1826.  Her  father  was  the  Spanish  Count  <lt* 
Montijo,  and  her  mother  was  Maria  Manuela  Kirkpatri^  k. 
who  was  of  Scottish  extraction.  Eugenie  was  styled  tlie 
Countess  of  Teba  in  her  youth.  She  was  married  to  Na|Ht- 
leon  III.,  Jan.  30,  1853.  and  bore  a  son  Mar.  16,  1856.  As  n 
zealous  Roman  Catholic  she  used  her  influence  to  promn!.* 
the  power  of  the  nope.  She  acted  as  regent  in  1859  whi-n 
Napoleon  was  in  Italy,  in  1865  during  his  Algerian  t<»ur. 


and  again  in  the  interval  between  his  departure  for  the  s«nt 


at  Chislehurst,  afterward  removing  to  Fanioorough.  Tl.»» 
constant  litigation  to  which  her  claims  against  the  Frcnvh 
Government  gave  rise,  and  her  frequent  visits  to  the  Con- 
tinent, kept  her  name  before  the  public.  The  latter  ycar<. 
of  her  life  have  been  greatly  saddened  by  the  death  of  il.e 
young  prince  imperial,  June  1, 1879.  Eu^nie  is  the  auth^.r 
of  Some  Recollections  from  My  Life  (1885). 

Enge'nlns:  Bishop  of  Toledo  from  646-57;  a  writer  of 
Latin  poems  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects  in  various  incju^ 
ures,  including  some  acrostics  and  telestichs.  (See  I>r%- 
coNTius).  The  poems  were  edited  by  Sirmond  (Paris,  161*>-. 
and  by  Migne  in  vol.  Ixxxvii.  of  the  Patrologia  Latinn,  \ 
new  ed.  by  R.  Peiper  is  promised  for  the  Vienna  Corpus  S^ 
eccl.  lat  M.  W. 

Eugenlns  I. :  pope ;  consecrated  Aug.  10,  654  a.  d.,  n> 
the  successor  to  Martin  I.,  who  was  banished  by  the  Em|vi-r«  r 
Constans.    D.  June  1,  657. 

'  Eu^enins  II. :  a  native  of  Rome ;  succeeded  Pascal  I_  .. 
pope  m  June,  824  a.  d.  He  called  a  council,  which  n»i-t  ?. 
Rome  in  826  for  the  reformation  of  the  clergy.  D.  Au. 
27,  827,  and  was  succeeded  by  Valentinus. 

Eiigenius  III.  (Bernard  Paoanelli):  a  native  of  Pi>c, 
was  chosen  pope  Feb.  15, 1145,  in  place  of  Lucius  II.  'V 
Romans,  excited  by  the  preaching  of  Arnaldo  da  Bre?**  .- 
had  revolted  against  Pope  Lucius.  Eugenius,  being  una  I  . 
to  enforce  his  authority,  retired  to  France  and  held  a  cx»ii- 
cil  at  Rheims  in  1148.  He  also  promoted  the  secon<i  or: 
sade.    D.  July  8,  1153,  and  was  succeeded  by  Anast.&si 


J!-^ 


214 


EUPATORIUM 


KURK 


coast  of  the  Crimea ;  38  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Simferopol  (see 
map  of  Russia,  ref.  ll-<?).  It  has  a  shallow  harbor,  a  cus- 
tom-house, a  hospital,  and  a  handsome  Tartar  mosque. 
Grain,  wool,  hides,  and  salt  are  exported  from  this  place. 
The  Kngiish  and  French  armies  landed  here  in  Sept.,  1854, 
and  the  Russians  were  repulsed  here  in  Feb.,  1855.  Pop. 
14.000. 

Enpato^rlniaJTsaid  to  have  been  so  named  from  Mithri- 
dates  Eupator,  King  of  Pontus  (d.  63  B.  c.)] :  a  genus  of 
plants  01  the  family  CamposiicB,  having  the  florets  all 
tubular  and  perfect.  It  comprises  many  species  of  peren- 
nial herbs,  mostly  American.  The  JSupatorium  perfolia- 
tum^  called  boneset  and  thoroughwort,  is  a  native  of  the 
U.  S.,  and  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  tonic,  stimulant,  and 
sudorific  The  leaves,  as  the  specific  name  denotes,  are  con- 
nate-perfoliate — i.  e.  united  at  the  base  around  the  stem. 
The  tiemp  agrimony  {Eupatorium    cannahinum\    which 

frows  wilu  in  England,  has  been  used  in  medicine.    The 
lupatorium  purpureum  and  several  other  American  species 
appear  to  have  valuable  diuretic  properties. 

IBapen,  oi'pen  (in  Fr.  Niau) :  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia ; 
on  the  Vesdre ;  in  a  beautiful  valley  10  miles  b]^  rail  S.  S.  W. 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  5-C). 
It  is  well  built  and  flourishing,  and  derives  its  prosperity 
chiefly  from  its  manufactures  of  woolen  goods  (broadclotfais 
and  cassimeres).  It  has  fourteen  woolen-mills,  dye-works, 
and  manufactures  of  machinerv.  Down  to  the  Peace  of 
Luneville  (1801)  Eupen  belonged  to  the  duchy  of  Limburg, 
and  consequently  to  the  Austrian  crown.  Pop.  (1890)  15,- 
445. 

Enphemlsm  Ff rom  Gr.  c^^^^/t^t,  deriv.  of  ^HfiiH^h  utter- 
ing words  of  gooa  omen,  abstaining  from  inauspicious  words ; 
f6,  well  +  ^cUu,  speak] :  a  figure  in  rhetoric  by  which  an  un- 

?leasant  idea  is  expressed  by  indirect  and  milder  terms, 
'he  euphemisms  oi  the  ancients  generallv  originated  in  a 
desire  to  deprecate  the  ill-will  of  malevolent  powers  by  at- 
tributing to  them  characteristics  opposite  to  those  wtiich 
really  belonged  to  them.  Thus  the  Furies  were  by  the 
Greeks  termed  Eumenides,  "  gracious." 

Eaphor'bia  [named  in  honor  of  Euphorbus,  physician  to 
Juba,  King  of  Mauritania] :  a  genus  oi  plants  of  tne  family 
Euphorbiacea*y  having  an  acrid  milky  juice  and  moncecious 
flowers,  included  in  a  cup-shaped,  four  to  five-lobed  invo- 
lucre resembling  a  calyx.  More  than  100  species  of  this  ge- 
nus are  natives  of  the  IT.  S.  Several  species  bear  the  popu- 
lar name  of  spurge.  The  seeds  of  "  caper  spurge  "  {Euphor- 
bia lathyris)  of  Europe  and  the  U.  S.  yield  the  fixed  oil 
known  as  oil  of  euphorbia,  a  powerful  cathartic.  Some 
African  euphorbias  are  large  trees.  Some  species  are  quite 
cactus-like  in  appearance,  and  are  uopulany  classed  with 
them,  e.  g.  Euphorbia  splend&ns^  a  neshy,  prickly  plant  of 
the  greenhouM»8 ;  Euphorbia  meloformis,  from  South  Africa, 
closely  resembles  a  melon  cactus.  Euphorbia pilulif era  is  a 
drug  valuable  in  the  treatment  of  asthma.  See  Euphorbium. 

Enphorbiam :  an  a<;rid  and  inodorous  gum-resin  pro- 
duceci  by  the  Euphorbia  offieinarum  of  Southern  Africa 
and  some  other  species,  including  Euphorbia  canariensis  of 
Western  Africa,  and  Euphorbia  nnfiquarum  of  the  Levant. 
It  is  a  violent  emetic  and  purgative,  and  is  sometimes  used 
in  the  composition  of  plasters  and  in  veterinary  medicine. 

Enphorlon :  a  Greek  poet  and  grammarian  ;  b.  at  Chal- 
cis  in  Eubopa ;  flourished  about  250-220  B.  c.  He  became 
librarian  to  Antiochus  the  Great,  and  produced  epic  poems 
and  elegies  besides  several  prose  works,  all  of  wnich  have 
perished.  He  was  learned  to  obscurity  like  Callimachus 
and  Lycophron.  and  like  these  had  his  admirers  and  stu- 
dents, among  them  the  Roman  poet  Gallus.  Fragments  of 
his  writings  may  be  found  in  Meineke's  Analecta  Alexan- 
dn'na,  p.  3. 

Enphra'nor  (in  Gr.  Ewppdymp) :  Greek  painter  and  sculp- 
tor ;  f).  at  Corinth :  flourisluMl  al>out  350  B.  c,  a  ccmtempo- 
rary  of  Aik'IU's.  He  excelled  both  in  pninting  and  in  sculp- 
ture. Amone:  his  works,  which  are  highly  praised  by  Pliny 
anil  Plutarch,  was  a  painting  of  Ulysst»s  in  his  feigned  in- 
sanity. 

En'phrasy  [from  Gr.  cv^potrfo,  choorfulness,  deriv.  of 
fu<ppcdtft<r$€u,  to  no  happy;  fJ,  well  +  ipfrijr,  niincl],  or  Eye- 
briirht :  a  plant  of  the  family  Scrnph n hi riarefp.  \hi}  Euphra- 
sia tiffirinah'fi.  a  small  annual  horl)  from  2  to  8  inches  hi^h, 
a  native  of  Asia,  Euro|n',  ami  North  America.  Milton  in 
his  Paradise  Lost  speaks  of  its  virtues  in  clearing  the  eye- 
sii^ht.     It  is  [)robably  somewhat  useful  in  inflammation  of 


the  eyes,  from  its  astringent  character.  Some  varietie^  are 
said  to  have  in  their  blossoms  a  sp<jt  or  **  signature '*  re- 
sembling the  eye,  and  this  spot  caused,  or  at  least  strength- 
ened, the  popular  faith  in  its  powers. 

Enphra'tes  (in  Gr.  Ev^p6riis;  Turk.  El-Frat):  a  Inrire 
river  of  Western  Asia,  celebrated  in  all  periods  of  hi>t<ry 
for  the  important  events  which  have  occurred  on  its  banU 
and  the  magnificence  of  the  cities  whose  walls  it  wa>hMi. 
It  rises  in  Armenia,  in  the  Anti-Taurus  Mountains,  by  twr. 
branches — the  Moorad  and  Kara-Soo— which  unite  near  Int. 
39'*  N.  and  Ion.  89"  E.  The  stream  formed  by  this  junction 
flows  first  southwest  ward,  effects  a  passage  through  a  dtfiir 
of  Mt.  Taurus,  and  forms  the  boundary  between  ancitni 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia.  Near  the  town  of  Bir  it  nf»- 
proaches  within  100  miles  of  the  Mediterranean.  Aftir 
crossing  the  36th  parallel  of  N.  latitude  it  pursues  a  g^niTal 
southeastern  direction,  flows  through  the  extensive  alhivihl 
plains  of  Babylonia  and  Chaldsa,  and  enters  the  Persian 
Gulf  at  its  northwestern  extremity.  Its  total  length,  saxs 
Guyot,  is  1,750  miles,  and  the  area  of  its  drainage  is  25o.(mio 
sq.  miles.  It  is  navigable  from  Someisat  to  its  mouth,  1,1  !i5 
miles.  Its  principal  affluent  is  the  Tigris,  which  is  nearly 
as  large  as  the  Euphrates  itself.  It  receives  no  large  tribu- 
tary from  the  right  hand.  The  width  in  some  pla^-c>  i> 
nearly  600  yards,  but  below  Hillah  its  volume  and  width 
are  reduced  by  numerous  canals  cut  for  irrigation.  Th»^ 
name  Shatt-el-Arab  is  given  by  the  natives  to  that  itart  of 
the  river  below  the  mouth  of  tne  Tigris.  The  melteu  snows 
of  the  mountains  of  the  Taurus  and  Anti-Taurus  eauM*  & 
periodical  inundation  of  the  Euphrates  in  the  spring.  Tht- 
water  is  highest  in  May  and  June.  In  some  parti<  of  it> 
course  above  Someisat  the  river  passes  througn  de<'p  an<i 
narrow  defiles  or  gorges  between  precipices  nearly  1,500  ftnt 
high,  and  presents  much  picturesque  scenery.  In  ancient 
times  the  chief  city  on  its  oanks  was  Babylon. 

Enphros'yne  [Gr.  Eif^poa^ ;  tl,  well  +  ^r,  mind] :  r»ne 
of  the  three  Graces  in  Greek  mythology;  a  personification 
of  the  genius  of  mirth  or  joy.    See  Gbaces. 

Ea'phnism  [from  Gr.  c^v^s,  well-endowed;  c9,  well  + 
^v^,  natural  growth]:  an  affected  style  of  speaking  and 
writing  which  became  a  fashion  in  the  reign  of  Quei-n  Kli/a- 
beth.  The  term  originated  in  the  title  of  a  pedantic  ro- 
mance called  Euphues  (1580),  written  by  John  Lilly  (Lylv» 
and  abounding  m  antithesis,  alliteration,  and  i]lustration> 
drawn  from  a  fabulous  natural  history. 

Enplexop'tera  [Mod.  Lat  from  Gr.  #5,  well  +  I^t. 
plexus,  a  folding  +  Gr.  vrcp^v,  wing] :  an  onler  of  ius^^cii^ 
See  Entomology  and  ForficulidwE. 

Ea'polis  (in  Gr.  ElhnKu):  Greek  comic  poet  of  the  fifth 
century  b.  c. ;  in  wit  and  grace  second  only  to  AristophanvN 
if  second  even  to  him.  A  friend  and  collaborator  of  hi> 
great  contemporary,  he  took  part  in  the  composition  of  the 
Knights,  but  the  poets  soon  quarreled  and  accusc<l  earh 
other  of  plagiarism.  Alcibiades  was  one  of  the  chief  t-arjL:t  t> 
of  his  satire,  and  it  was  fabled  that  he  took  vengeancv  cd 
the  poet  for  his  Dunkards  [Gr.  B^hrrcu]  by  drowning  him. 
The  origin  of  the  story  was  doubtless  the  fact  that  KufH>li> 
perished  in  a  naval  engagement  411  b.  c,  in  consequent  <f 
which  disaster  the  Athenians  are  said  to  have  exeniprt^l 
poets  from  service.  No  less  than  seven  of  his  pieces  out  of 
no  more  than  seventeen  received  the  first  prize.  The  f  rai;- 
ments  may  be  found  in  Meineke's  and  Kock*s  collections. 

B.  L.  GiLDERSLEEVtU 

Earasia:  the  continent  comprising  Europe  and  A^itl, 
which  are  themselves  more  usually  termed  continents. 

Enra'slans  [formed  from  Europe  +  Asid],  or  Half- 
castes:  the  offspring  of  European  fathers  and  A>xat:o 
mothers.  The  term  is  properly  restricted  to  East  In«h:u 
where  persons  of  this  class  are  esf)ecially  numerous  in  t  ht 
large  cities,  as  Talcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay.  They  fz^xi*  r- 
ally  receive  a  European  education,  but  although  they  >|h  ;l^ 
English  grammatically  they  have  a  peculiarly  disagnvat  .♦ 
pronunciation.  The  girls  are  sometimes  very  beautiful,  itiM 
often  marry  British  officers;  while  the  young  men  •'iit.r 
the  Government  offices  or  serve  as  clerks  with  raeri^hnn*^ 
They  are  very  useful  in  this  position,  but  as  soon  as  tin  » 
liecome  rich,  or  ailvanee  to  higher  offices,  they  general!}  !  t- 
come  insolent  and  wild.  The  Europeans,  who  alstZ  »•«. 
them  **Vepery  Brahmins,"  do  not  hold  them  in  high  e>i; 
mat  ion.     The  natives  call  them  "  ('heechee.*' 

Enre  (Pr.  pron.  er):  a  department  in  the  northern  nar 
of  France;  a  part  of  the  old  province  of  Normandy,      It    > 


216 


BUROCLYDON 


EUROPE 


won  posterity  for  the  poet  of  humanity,  and  "  Euripides, 
the  human,  with  his  dropping  of  warm  tears,**  ruled  the 
stage  from  his  death  down  to  the  present  century,  and  while 
most  scholars  nowadays  see  in  him  a  departure  from  the 
Hellenic  standard,  which  from  the  Hellenic  point  of  view 
must  be  called  a  decline,  all  recognize  the  greatness  of  the 
genius  who  opened  to  the  world  a  new  realm  of  dramatic 
art.  His  language  may  lack  the  large  utterance  of  ^sch}r- 
lus,  and  the  variety  of  its  tones  may  produce  an  inharmoni- 
ous effect.  His  meters  and  rhythm  may  mark  a  departure 
from  the  high  standard  of  a  severer  art  and  display  too 
much  laxness  here,  too  much  mechanical  uniformity  there; 
and  his  sensational  monodies  and  trivial  melodies  may  de- 
serve all  the  censure  so  freely  dealt  out  by  critics  ancient 
and  modem.  His  plot^  mav  lack  the  subtle  articulation  that 
makes  the  plays  of  Sophocles  as  inevitable  as  is  life  itself ; 
the  choruses,  exquisitely  beautiful  sometimes  in  themselves, 
may  show  too  plainly  that  they  are  adornments  and  not  in- 
struments of  tne  drama ;  the  dialogue  may  degenerate  into 
dialectic  digladiation ;  there  may  be  too  much  moralizing 
and  too  much  paradox ;  but  Euripides  is  a  great  poet,  not 
merely  a  great  preacher ;  and  both  as  poet  and  preacher  he 
still  retains  his  nold  on  those  whose  judgment  is  not  swayed 
by  critical  cant.  Editions  of  separate  plavs  are  too  numer- 
ous to  mention.  Important  editions  of  the  text  have  been 
put  forth  by  Kirchhoflf  (1855),  and  by  Nauck  in  the  Teubner 
series,  an  eaition  with  notes  in  English  by  F.  A.  Paley.  There 
are  valuable  selections,  with  notes,  by  Wecklein  and  by 
Weil.  Especially  noteworthy  are  von  Wilamowitz-MOllen- 
dorffs  various  contributions  to  Euripidean  study.  See  the 
introduction  to  his  Herakles  (1889).  Of  English  renderings. 
Potter's  translation  in  verse  is  out  of  date.  A  new  transla- 
tion in  prose  by  E.  P.  Coleridge  is  in  progress  (1893).  Fitz- 
gerald's Hippolytus  and  Webster's  Medea  may  be  added  to 
the  translations  incidentally  mentioned  above.  See  also  W. 
C.  Lawton,  Three  Dramas  of  Euripides  (Boston,  1889). 

B.  L.  GiLDERSLEEVE. 

Earoc'lydon  [Or.  ^bpmtxH^v,  corrupt  reading  Acts  xxvii. 
14  for  cvpmAMv  =  Lat.  euraquilo^  northeast  wind]:  a  vio- 
lent wind  of  the  Mediterranean  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii.  14. 
The  Vulgate  renders  it  euro-aquilo,  1  e;  northeast  wind. 
But  in  some  of  the  best  manuscripts  (Sinaitic,  Vatican,  and 
Alexandrian)  tvpcuc^Xw,  east  northeast  wind,  is  the  reading, 
instead  of  t dpo«cA^8«y,  northeast  wind ;  and  this  reading  is 
adopted  by  the  best  recent  editors.  The  wind  in  question  is 
said  to  be  half  a  point  N.  of  E.  N.  E.  See  Smith's  Voyage 
and  Shipwreck  of  St,  Paul  (1856 ;  3d  ed.  1866). 

Euro'pa  (Gr.  Zho^hni) :  in  classic  mythology,  a  daughter 
of  Agenor,  King  of  Phoenicia,  and  a  sister  of  Cadmus.  Ac- 
cording to  a  poetic  legend,  Jupiter,  in  the  form  of  a  bull, 
carried  her  on  his  back  to  Crete,  where  he  assumed  human 
form  and  won  her  love.  She  bore  by  him  Minos,  Sarpedon, 
and  Rhadamanthus. 

Enrope,  yu'rup  [Lat.  Euro'pa,  so  named  by  the  Asiatic 
Greeks,  either  from  its  wide  coast  or  from  the  PhGenician 
Princess  Europa] :  one  of  the  four  great  continents,  and 
historically  the  most  notable ;  occupies  an  area  of  about 
3,781,647  sq.  miles ;  bounded  N.  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  E.  by 
Asia,  S.  E.  by  the  Caspian,  S.  by  Asia,  the  Black  Sea,  and 
the  Mediterranean,  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic.  The  bounda- 
ries are  well  defined  except  on  the  E.  and  S.  E.,  where  the 
Ural  and  Caucasus  Mountains  do  not  exactly  coincide  with 
the  frontiers  of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia ;  Caucasia  es- 
pecially is  variously  classified  and  mapped  as  in  Europe  or 
Asia.  Its  greatest  breadth  is  about  3,400  miles,  and  its  ex- 
tent from  N.  to  S.  2,400  miles  at  the  extreme  points.  Its 
territory  has  been  more  carefully  mapped  out  than  any 
other  part  of  the  earth's  surface.  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, although  distinct  islands,  always  rank  as  a  part  of 
Europe,  having  been  separated  from  the  continent  at  no 
very  remote  neri<xl.  In  the  N.,  Iceland  and  Nova  Zembla, 
and  in  the  Mediterranean,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  Malta, 
Crete,  the  Ionian  and  the  Balearic  islands  also  belong  to 
Europe.  Europe  is  only  about  one-quarter  as  large  as 
either  Asia  or  America,  and  is  more  populous  in  proportion 
to  area  than  any  other  continent,  having  about  ninetv-five 
in  habitants  to  the  square  mile.  The  length  of  coast-line  is 
about  20,000  miles,  8,000  of  this  being  on  the  Atlantic,  3,600 
on  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  7,800  on  the  Mediterranean  and 
Black  Seas,  giving  unequaled  advantages  for  commerce.  Its 
three  g^reat  southern  peninsulas — Italy,  the  Grseco-Balkan 
Peninsula,  and  the  Iberian  Peninsula  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
— form  very  marked  features  of  its  topography. 


Geology, — The  great  Mediterranean  basin  is  the  |jeol 
ical  feature  of  Southern  Europe,  having  its  north  limit  iii 
the  chains  of  mountains  known  as  the  C^vennes,  the  Jura, 
etc.  The  prevailing  rocks  are  plutonic  and  metamoq>liic, 
of  which  tne  Alps  are  composed,  and  which  are  fouml  in 
France,  Germany,  Scandinavia,  ete.  In  Spain  the  Silurian 
rocks  are  founa.  Other  Palieozoic  rocks— the  Devon  inn. 
Carboniferous,  and  Permian — occupy  large  areas  in  Ru>-^i.i, 
the  British  islands,  etc.  Germany,  France,  and  EngbiTul 
have  extensive  strata  of  the  Secondary  formations,  and  ttio 
Tertiary  are  still  more  widely  distributed.  Cretaceous  nuks 
abound  in  Denmark,  Greece,  and  Southern  Russia,  besids 
forming  a  large  part  of  the  Paris  basin  and  tlie  basin  of  tlu* 
lower  Rhine.  Mineral  wealth  abounds.  Mines  of  iron  on*, 
lead,  copper,  coal,  and  salt  are  extensively  worked,  whili 
for  gold  and  silver  Europe  is  mainly  dependent  on  otlu  r 
countries.  Europe  abounds  in  mineral  springs  of  gn-ut 
variety  and  chemical  virtue. 

Mountains  and  Plairhs. — The  leading  physical  featun.H 
are  the  mountainous  region  in  the  S.  and  the  low  district  iu 
the  N.  and  E.  The  central  mountain  s>'stem  is  the  Al|r,>, 
which  extend  in  a  great  arc  of  about  700  miles  along  tlu- 
frontiei's  of  Italy  and  France,  through  Switzerland  and 
western  portions  of  the  Austrian  empire,  and  along  the  bor- 
der of  Southern  Germany.  They  culminate  in  Mont  Blanc. 
15,779  feet  in  height,  the  highest  point  in  Europe  (if  we  ex- 
clude the  Caucasus),  but  inferior  to  the  chief  summits  iif 
Asia,  Africa,  North  and  South  America.  N.  and  E.  of  the 
Alps  are  the  Jura,  Vosges,  Black  Forest,  Sudetic  Mount aiii<, 
Carpathians,  and  other  ranges  of  Central  Europe.  Wi'>t- 
ward  the  Cevennes  and  other  mountains  of  Southern  Fraiire 
form  connecting  links  between  the  central  highland  n>tri4>n 
and  the  Pyrenees.  This  latter  range  extends  in  an  almnst 
uniform  wall  along  the  border  of  France  and  Spain,  and 
reaches  a  height  of  over  11,000  feet.  All  of  the  souilu-rn 
peninsulas  are  in  general  mountainous  or  elevated.  The 
Grjpco-Balkan  Peninsula  has  the  Balkans,  Pindus,  and  vari- 
ous groups  of  Greece ;  Italy  is  traversed  by  the  Apennint-^. 
whose  principal  peak  is  over  9,000  feet  high ;  and  S{iain  i>  a 
table-land  crossed  by  chains  whose  southernmost,  the  Sierm 
Nevada,  has  about  the  elevation  of  the  Pyrenees.  The  low- 
lands comprise  considerable  portions  of  Western  and  N(»rtli- 
em  France,  Belgium,  Netherlands,  Denmark,  Nortliern 
Germany,  Galicia,  and  Russia.  Scandinavia  is  traverM-d 
by  mountains,  while  the  British  islands  are  undulating, 
hilly,  and  in  places  mountainous. 

divers. — Tne  principal  rivers  are  the  Danube,  Vol  era, 
Ural,  Dnieper,  Don,  Neva,  Petchora,  the  two  Dwinas,  Nn- 
men,  Oder,  Rhine,  Elbe,  Vistula,  Tagus,  Ducro,  Ebn>.  Gua- 
dalquivir, Loire,  Garonne,  Rhone,  Seine,  Thames,  Severn, 
Humber,  Po,  etc.  The  Volga  drains  500.000  sq.  miles  nf 
Russian  territory,  and  the  Danube  has  a  basin  estimated  at 
300,000  sq.  miles.  The  flow  of  some  of  these  is  very  im»iru- 
lar,  and  the  Danube,  the  Elbe,  the  Loire,  and  others  are 
subject  to  serious  floods.  Extensive  engineering  works  t«» 
promote  navigation  and  diminish  the  dangers  of  flooiis 
nave  been  executed.  The  rivers  penetrate  the  whole  waiti- 
nent,  fertilizing  the  soil  and  rendering  great  natural  fatili- 
ties  to  commerce.  No  European  river  has  a  great  waterfall. 
The  famous  Staubbach  fall  is  a  mere  rill,  although  the  whole 
descent  is  about  1,000  feet. 

Lakes, — Europe  abounds  in  lakes.  Lake  Ladoga  in  Rus- 
sia being  the  largest.  Minor  lakes,  celebrated  for  th»-ir 
beauty,  are  found  in  the  mountainous  regions,  as  Lakt-s 
Geneva,  Maggiore,  Garda,  Como,  Neufchatel,  Const  an  cv. 
Zurich,  Lucerne,  etc. 

Climaie, — The  numerous  small  lakes  of  Europe  inon^n-i^ 
the  area  of  evaporation,  and  tend  to  make  the  climHte  far 
more  moist  than  that  of  America  or  Asia.  This  is  fiirtht  r 
increased  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  large  water  j^ur- 
face  penetrating  and  hemming  in  the  continent  has  ap»»wer- 
ful  tendency  to  ameliorate  the  climate ;  and  this  tentleni-_> 
is  greatly  strengthened  by  the  proximity  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
to  the  western  coast  of  Europe.  The  temperature  of  any 
given  parallel  of  latitude  in  tne  greater  part,  of  Earo|»e  i> 
several  degrees  warmer  than  the  regions  of  the  same  laii- 
tude  in  America.  Russia,  however,  has  a  continental  t'li- 
mate.  The  whole  of  Europe  belongs  to  the  north  temjH^r^itr 
zone,  except  the  small  portion  extendin|f  into  the  n«»rth 
frigid  zone.  While  no  part  of  the  continent  touches  t':' 
tropics,  the  south  portion  is  marked  by  the  dryness  of  tli.» 
summer  peculiar  to  the  sub-tropical  zone.  The  rainfall  in-- 
curs  most  largely  in  the  winter  in  Southern  Italy  and  Spain  : 
autumn  and  spring  are  the  rainy  seasons  in  Northern  S{ka:n 


^'^ 


218 


EUROPE 


EURYPTERUS 


Religion, — Paganism  has  but  little  foothold  in  Europe, 
which  is  pre-eminently  Christian.  There  are  three  grand 
divisions — the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  Greek  or  Eastern 
Church,  and  the  Protestant  Church.  Roman  Catholicism 
has  much  the  largest  number  of  adherents,  especially  in 
Austria,  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  A 
comparison  of  the  adherents  of  the  leading  religions,  com- 
pilea  from  the  latest  data,  gives  in  round  numbers : 


OOUNTRnS. 


Qreat  Britain  and  Ireland, 

Oerraany 

France 

lUly 

Austria-Hungary 

Russia 

Spain 

Portugal 

Switzerland 

BeUrium 

Netherlands 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Norway 

Boumania 

Senria 

Bulgaria 

Greece 


Totals,  about 


CfttboUo. 


5,300,000 
17,600.000 

ao,ooo,ooo 
ao.000,000 

27,000,000 
14,000,000 
17.000,000 
4,300,000 
1,300,000 
8,100,000 
1,600,000 


100^000 


154.100,000 


ProtartuU. 


Oiwk 
Orthodox. 


27,400,000 

81,000,000 

700,000; 

60,IH)0 

8,600,000 

6,000,000 


1,700,000 


8,700,000 
2,100,000 
4,500.000 
2,000,000 


80,760,000 


4,500,000 
70,000,000 


4,500,000 
2.000,000 
2,500,000 
2,100,000 


85,600,000 


J«ws. 


100,000 

500.000 

60,000 


1,700.000 
4,000,000 


100,000 

800,666 


6,760,000 


There  are  several  millions  of  Mohammedans,  mostly  in  Turkey, 
Russia,  and  Bulgaria.  There  ar«  also  several  millions  in  Austria- 
HungMy  belonging  to  the  Oreek-Oriental  Church,  and  in  France 
about  7,000,000  who  refuse  to  make  a  statement  of  religlotw  belief. 

History, — The  authentic  annals  of  Europe  commence  with 
the  Greeks.  Greece  founded  colonies,  but  her  people  were 
not  given  to  conquest,  while  the  history  of  Rome,  which 
soon  supplanted  Greece  as  a  political  power,  is  one  of  con- 
tinued aggression  and  territorial  acquisition.  Before  the 
Christian  era  Rome  had  successively  conquered  Sicily,  Spain, 
Greece,  and  Gaul.  In  the  time  of  Augustus  the  Roman 
rule  covered  the  whole  region  now  embracing  Prance,  Bel- 
gium, Spain,  Portugal,  Western  Germany,  Switzerland,  Italy, 
much  of  the  Austrian  empire,  Servia,  Turkey,  and  Greece. 
When  ponstantine  established  the  seat  of  government  at 
Byzantium  (now  Constantinople)  and  made  Christianity  the 
religion  of  his  empire,  his  territorial  outlines  were  nearly 
the  same,  with  the  addition  of  Britain.  The  prominent  facts 
of  the  third  and  foUowin^  centuries  are  the  migrations  of 
the  peoples,  Huns,  Teutonic  races,  and  others,  their  assaults 
on  the  empire,  and  the  empire's  internal  decay,  with  the 
spread  of  Christianity.  In  a.  d.  895  came  the  division  of 
tnis  great  empire  into  Eastern  and  Western,  the  latter  em- 
bracing much  the  larger  territory  and  population.  The 
Western  Empire,  which  formally  ended  in  476,  was  tempo- 
rarily revived  by  Charlemagne  m  800 ;  the  idea  of  a  world- 
empire  was  seen  in  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the  German 
nation,  established  in  the  tenth  century,  important  through 
mediaeval  time«,  and  lingering  with  power  and  prestige 
greatly  diminished  down  to  1806.  Gradually  the  German 
race  became  ascendant.  Angle,  Saxon,  and'  Jutish  king- 
doms were  established  in  England :  a  West  Gothic  kingdom 
was  founded  in  Spain ;  the  Franks  and  Burgundians  formed 
monarchies  in  France  and  Central  Europe ;  the  East  Goths, 
and  after  them  the  Lombards,  ruled  in  Italy.  Somewhat 
later  came  the  great  Slavic  influx  into  Southeastern  and 
Eastern  Europe.  The  Saracens  appeared  in  the  south,  and 
held  a  great  part  of  Spain  for  several  centuries. 

Numerous  conquests  and  changes  mark  the  map  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  great  institutions  of  feudalism  and  chiv- 
alry are  developed.  The  papal  power  of  Rome  becomes 
dominant  in  the  politics  of  many  nations,  and  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches  are  separated.  France  and  England 
stniggle  for  possessions  on  the  Continent ;  Western  and  Cen- 
tral Europe  sends  forth  a  crusade  for  the  recovery  of  Christ's 
sepulcher,  and  the  advance  of  the  Ottoman  power  ends  in 
the  overthrow  of  the  Eastern  empire  by  the  Turks  in  1453. 
The  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  signalizetl  by  the  revival  of 
learning  and  art  known  as  the  RenaiSvsance,  and  by  the  de- 
velopment of  parliamentary  institutions  in  England.  In 
the  fifteenth  century  a  tendenov  towani  absolutism  and 
centralization  exists,  together  with  a  spirit  of  discoverv  and 
exploration ;  the  new  trade  routes  lead  to  the  decline  of  such 
powers  as  the  Hanse  citie>5,  Venice,  etc.,  and  the  rise  of  Spain 
and  Portugal.  The  sixteenth  century  is  marked  by  the 
Keformation,  and  by  the  vast  extension  of  the  empire  of 
Charles  V.  over  the  Netherlands,  Spain,  Naples,  and  the 


German  states,  leading  to  wars  and  rivalries  which  la>*Mi 
for  generations.  The  religious  wars  in  Pranw  between  \\ . 
Catholics  and  Huguenots  resulted  in  the  final  trimnpli  of 
the  former,  while  Germany  was  desolated  by  the  poliij,  ,_ 
religious  Thirty  Years'  war  of  1618-48.  In  tne  sevtni(ri:r. 
century  a  prolonged  struggle  in  England  ended  in  favor  •>! 
constitutional  government;  the  same  period  on  theCoii'; 
nent  saw  Spain  displaced  by  Prance  as  the  great  mili:ar. 
power.  In  the  eighteenth  century  Russia  and  Prus>ia  n- 
to  the  rank  of  great  powers,  and  Sweden  sinks  frrmj  f ..' 
position ;  England  and  Prance  carry  on  a  rivalry  for  exja,- 
sion ;  Poland  disappears  from  the  map,  and  Turkey  ( i  .in- 
to  be  threatening.  The  century  closes  with  the  great  irasi 
of  the  French  Revolution. 

Prom  1789-1815  war  again  broke  up  the  political  front  i.^ 
through  nearly  all  Europe,  ending  in  a  temporary  triuihi!! 
of  absolute  government,  followed  by  many  more  or  les^  mji- 
cessful  revolutions,  which  gave  constitutional  or  reprev  i,»- 
ative  government  to  most  of  the  nations.  A  revoluiionarr 
wave  in  1830  caused  various  changes ;  Belgium  bewinu  & 
separate  constitutional  kingdom.  Prance  placed  Loui'?  Pn:- 
lippe,  a  constitutional  king,  on  the  throne,  and  al)out  w.- 
time  the  independence  of  Greece  was  secured.  In  IM*^ . 
revolutionary  storm  swept  over  Europe;  Rome  ex[)ell(ii  i  • 
pope,  and  Sicilv  the  Bourbons ;  Prance  became  temix»nir.  v 
a  republic,  ana  the  King  of  Prussia  was  forced  to  ^n:  a 
constitution  and  a  representative  government  to  the  \*^>\ .-. 
A  reaction  set  in,  however,  which  carried  back  the  ti«i»  •! 
political  reform.  In  1854-56  the  C-rimean  war  was  foiii:!/. 
Great  Britain,  Prance,  and  Sardinia  maintaining  the  n- 
tegrity  of  Turkey  against  Russia.  Great  changes  soon  M- 
lowed  in  Italy,  whose  chief  separate  states  oonsolidH'-ri 
under  one  constitutional  king  in  1861,  though  the  com[i< v 
unity  of  Italy  was  not  efl'ected  until  1870.  Germany  «•  1 
Austria  wrested  Schleswig-Holstein  from  Denmark  m>U 
and  in  1866  the  jealousies  of  Prussia  and  Austria  led  to  i:.» 
victory  of  the  former  and  the  establishment  of  the  N-'-tf. 
German  Confederation ;  1870  saw  the  great  Pranco-Pni<M.ir 
war,  which  lasted  less  than  a  year,  ending  in  the  firm  t^*j»'  - 
lishment  of  the  French  republic  and  the  crowning  (*f  f  • 
Prussian  king  as  emperor  of  the  new  German  em  pin'.  I: 
1877  Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey,  and  but  fv>r  t* 
intervention  of  Great  Britain  and  other  powers  woulu  hat 
swept  her  from  the  rank  of  a  European  nation.  Turk>N 
has  recognized  the  independence  of  Roumania  and  St'r\  ■ . 
now  kingdoms,  while  the  principality  of  Bulgaria,  lati  ly  i  - 
creased  oy  Eastern  Roumelia,  is  practically  indej>en<i<  '.* 
The  growth  of  democracy  and  the  rise  of  socialism,  ir&it— 
unionism,  and  nihilism  must  also  be  noted  among  mo<i<r 
events. 

Of  the  six  great  powers  of  Europe,  Germany,  An>*ri* 
Hungary,  Italy,  France,  Russia,  and  Great  Britain,  the  trr  • 
three  form  the  Triple  Alliance  which  profoundly  influn;  t- 
Continental  politics;  opposed  to  this  league  is  the  l««^' 
bond  of  union  between  France  and  Russia. 

To  maintain  what  was  called  the  "balance  of  power"  in 
Europe  has  cost  a  long  succession  of  bloody  wars,  a  sa<nf'  > 
of  countless  lives,  a  squandering  of  vast  treasure,  a w«i 'I' 
oppression  by  taxes  and  compulsory  militarv  service  ot  ')• 
masses  of  the  people.  The  increasing  facilities  of  inttn-  ih- 
munication,  with  the  steady  growth  of  intelligence,  nmy  y- 
lead  to  better  methods  of  settling  international  diffenn-  ••> 
Several  European  congresses  evince  a  tendency  to  mh^p'  'i:-^ 
cussion  and  arbitration  instead  of  war,  and  some  l>olii-\'  in 
an  ultimate  confederation  of  the  states  of  Eurojie  fur  t'u 
common  benefit  and  advancement  of  all. 

AiNSWORTH  R.  Spoff(>ri>. 
Revised  by  Edmund  Kimball  Aldlx. 

EnrydMce  (in  Gr.  EwpwJdnjJ:  the  wife  of  Orpheu?  {q.  •'- 
She  died  in  consequence  of  the  sting  of  a  sernent,  an«i.  »«- 
cording  to  the  poetic  legend,  Orpheus  descenaed  to  th*'  t:i- 
fernal  regions,  and  persuaded  Piuto  to  re>tore  her  !«•  1'. 
on  condition  that  she  should  walk  behind  Orpheus,  ami  r  -i 
he  should  not  look  back  until  they  had  reached  tln'  \i\]  ' 
world.  But  he  was  tempted  to  look  back,  and  fiuHll\  .  -: 
her.  (See  Vergil's  Oeorgics^  book  iv.,  454.)  There  are  ^  ^" 
other  mvthic^il  persons  bearing  the  name  Eurydiec,  but  ;:  -- 
wife  of  Orpheus  is  the  most  celebrated  of  them. 

Enryp'terns  [from  Gr.  wph,  broad -»- urtp^  winc^:  » 
genus  of  Arthropods  occurring  fossil  in  Silurian  ami  l>t  >   - 
nian  rocks,  which  bears  resemblances  to  both  scorpi«»!*«»  a* 
Limtilus.    It  has  a  square  ccphalothorax  bearing  fiv»«  t  ■  '^ 
of  feet  (one  of  which  terminates  in  a  large  pineer),  ai  •»  * 


EUllOfB  HHDEK-WE  ■ftMAIW '  Mt  CEWllMnf). 


EUMW  UWDM  Tit  CABtOVlllMAlW ' »»  CEimilPr). 


MAP  or  TBE  lAMCUiVGES  Of  EU«0«. 


220 


EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE 


KV ANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION 


to  their  particular  communion.  It  relies  solely  on  the 
moral  power  of  truth  and  love.  After  a  number  of  prepar- 
atory meeting  and  conferences,  the  Alliance  was  founded 
in  a  remarkable  and  enthusiastic  meeting  held  in  Freema- 
sons' Hall,  in  London,  Aug.  19-23, 1846,  composed  of  some 
800  Christians — Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  Independents, 
Methodists,  Baptists,  Lutherans,  Reformed,  Moravians,  and 
others,  and  including  many  of  the  most  distinguished  di- 
vines, preachers,  and  philanthropists  from  England,  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  Germany,  France,  Switzerland,  the  U.  S.,  and 
other  countries.  Sir  Culling  Eardly,  Bart.,  presided,  and 
became  the  first  president  of  the  British  branch.  Nine  doc- 
trinal articles  were  adopted;  not,  however,  as  a  binding 
creed  or  confession,  but  simply  as  an  expression  of  the  es- 
sential consensus  of  evangelical  Christians  whom  it  seemed 
desirable  to  embrace  in  the  Alliance.  These  articles  are  as 
follows : 

1.  The  divine  inspiration,  authority,  and  sufficiency  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures. 

2.  The  right  and  duty  of  private  judgment  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

3.  The  Unity  of  the  Gocihead,  and  the  Trinity  of  the  per- 
sons therein. 

4.  The  utter  depravity  of  human  nature  in  consequence 
of  the  Fall. 

5.  The  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  his  work  of  atone- 
ment for  the  sins  of  mankind,  and  his  mediatorial  interces- 
sion and  reign. 

6.  The  justification  of  the  sinner  b^  faith  alone. 

7.  The  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  m  the  conversion  and 
sanctification  of  the  sinner. 

8.  The  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  resurrection  of  the 
body,  the  judgment  of  the  world  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
with  the  eternal  blessedness  of  the  righteous  and  the  eternal 
punishment  of  the  wicked. 

9.  The  divine  institution  of  the  Christian  ministry,  and 
the  obligation  and  perpetuity  of  the  ordinances  of  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Some  regard  this  doc^trinal  statement  as  too  liberal,  others 
as  too  narrow  (especiallv  on  account  of  Art.  9,  which  ex- 
cludes the  Quakers,  and  Art.  8,  which  excludes  the  Uni- 
versalists),  while  still  others  would  have  preferred  no  creed, 
or  only  the  Apostles*  Creed,  the  simplest  and  most  gen- 
erally accepted  of  all  creeds.  Nevertheless,  it  has  answered 
a  good  purpose,  and  maintained  the  positive  evangelical 
character  of  the  Alliance.  The  Amencan  branch,  at  its 
organization  (1867),  a<lopted  the  nine  London  articles, 
with  the  following  important  explanatory  and  qualifying 
preamble : 

Resolved,  That  in  forming  an  Evangelical  Alliance  for 
the  U.  S.  in  co-operative  union  with  other  branches  of  the 
Alliance,  we  have  no  intention  to  give  rise  to  a  new  de- 
nomination ;  or  to  effect  an  amalgamation  of  churches,  ex- 
cept in  the  way  of  facilitating  personal  Christian  inter- 
course and  a  mutual  good  understanding;  or  to  interfere 
in  any  way  whatever  with  the  internal  affairs  of  the  vari- 
ous denominations;  but  simply  to  bring  individual  Chris- 
tians into  closer  fellowship  and  co-operation,  on  the  basis 
of  the  spiritual  union  which  already  exists  in  the  vital 
relation  of  Christ  to  the  members  of  his  body  in  all  ages 
and  countries. 

Resolved,  That  in  the  same  spirit  we  propose  no  new 
creed ;  but,  taking  broad,  historical,  and  evangelical  cath- 
olic ground,  we  solemnly  reaffirm  and  profess  our  faith  in 
all  the  doctrines  of  the  inspired  word  of  Gotl,  and  in  the 
consensus  of  doctrines  as  held  by  all  true  Christians  from 
the  beginning.  And  we  do  more  especially  affirm  our  be- 
lief in  the  divine-human  person  and  atoning  work  of  our 
Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  as  the  only  and  sufficient 
source  of  salvation,  as  the  heart  and  soul  of  Christianity, 
and  as  the  center  of  all  true  Christian  union  and  fellow- 
ship. 

Resolved,  That,  with  this  explanation,  and  in  the  spirit 
of  a  just  Christian  liberality  in  regard  to  the  minor  differ- 
ences of  theological  schools  and  religious  denominations, 
we  also  adopt,  as  a  summary  of  the  consensus  of  the  vari- 
ous Evangelical  Confessions  of  Faith,  the  Articles  and 
Explanatorv  State tnont  set  forth  and  agreed  on  by  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  at  its  formation  in  London,  1846,  and 
approved  by  the  separate  Euroj)ean  organizations;  which 
articles  are  as  follows,  etc. 

The  Evangelical  Alliance  thus  auspiciously  organized  soon 
spread  throughout  the  Protestant  world.  Branch  Alliances 
were  formed  in  Great  Britain,  German v,  France,  Switzer- 


land, Sweden,  and  even  among  the  missionaries  in  Turk*  j 
and  East  India;  also  in  Australia,  in  Brazil,  and  amoii^*,t.; 
Protestant  missionaries  in  Japan  (Dec,  1873).  There  i*  r. . 
central  organization  with  any  controlling  authority.  ati<i  im" 
General  Alliance  appears  in  active  operation  only  fn»ni  in.i. 
to  time  when  it  meets  in  general  conference,  which  ha-  as- 
sumed the  character  of  a  Protestant  ax?umeni(^al  council.  1. ,( 
differs  from  the  oecumenical  councils  of  the  Greek  and  i^>- 
man  Churches  in  claiming  only  moral  and  spiritual  )M>.v.r. 
The  various  national  branches  are  related  to  each  r)t li.r  a^ 
members  of  a  confederation  with  equal  rights.  Tin*  IJn:  ^r 
branch,  the  oldest  and  largest,  has  the  most corapleit' tirj .i- 
ization,  with  a  house  in  London;  the  continental  bnits. :- 
are  more  elastic,  and  confine  themselves  to  occasional  w.  r% . 
the  American  branch,  which  was  organized  at  tlu*  hi  > 
House,  New  York,  in  1867  (a  previous  attempt  havinj:  f.j  ■  i 
on  account  of  the  anti-slavery  agitation  before  the  civil  w;,' , 
in  a  short  time  became  the  most  vigorous  and  populiir. 

The  Alliance  assumed  from  the  beginning  that  fn «  i  •., 
of  conscience  and  Christian  union,  far  from  being  ir.- ;;- 
sistent  with  each  other,  are  one  and  inse|^>arable ;  that  fr.  - 
dom  is  the  basis  of  union,  and  union  the  result  an<l  >\\\  -  -* 
of  freedom ;  that  a  union  without  freedom  is  only ;».!.; 
mechanical  uniformity;  that  true  union  implies  vari»'t>  ■.-:'. 
distinction,  and  a  full  recognition  of  the  rights  and  |mvi.  ,' 

fifts  and  mission  of  other  members  and  brancht's  of  ( lir  -: « 
ingdom.  The  united  efforts  of  the  different  hranc  Im-  .  f 
the  Alliance,  through  the  press  and  by  deputat  ii  »n>.  1. 1  « 
had  a  considerable  moral  influence  in  bringing  alw.m  v,  - 
remarkable  changes  in  favor  of  religious  lilx»rty  wliirli  ji  i^ 
taken  place  among  the  Latin  races  and  in  Turk»*v.  'i  ■• 
Alliance  aided  in  inducing  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  to  al- .  -  ■ 
the  death  penalty  for  apostasy  from  Mohammedan i^iri  i; 
his  dominions.  It  interceded  ifor  the  Methodists  mtkI  1';- 
tists  in  Sweden,  which  has  since  abrogated  the  f>onal  ■»- 
against  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  not  lM'lnn;:i"j  i 
the  Lutheran  Confession.  It  sent  in  1871  a  lanr*'  •!•  i  .  . 
tion,  in  which  prominent  citizens  of  the  U.  S.  tooK  tli.  h  » 

ing  part,  to  the  Czar  of  Russia  to  plead  for  the  nyipr ; 

Lutherans  in  the  Baltic  Provinces.    It  sent  a  similar  •!    :- 
tation  to  the  embassy  from  Japan,  when  they  \i>iii.| 
IT.  S.  and  the  courts  of  Europe  in  1872.  Xo  reniuti-"..  • 
against  the  persecution  of  Christians,  mostly  Roman  ( .»"  '- 
lies,  in  that  empire,  and  not  long  after  the   j)er^'<  v 
ceased. 

As  regards  the  cause  of  Christian  union,  the  oiljor  t:^  s* 
object  of  the  Alliance,  it  is  promoted  mainly  by  n>r»ii-  ' 
general  conferences  of  an  international  and'intVr-drn«r:. - 
national  character,  which  are  arranged  from  time  ti>  t.r- 
in  different  capitals  by  the  branch  in  whoso  lunirwi-^  * 
meets,  with  the  co-operation  of  the  sister  branches.  'Pi:-- 
meetings  last  from  ten  to  twelve  days,  and  are  >f'tM  h 
prayer  and  praise,  brotherly  communion,  and  disc-us>tc.ri-  •  r 
the  most  important  religious  Questions  of  the  agt'.  Nm 
general  conferences  have  been  neld  so  far.  The  lir-r  ;:►  • 
eral  conference  took  place  in  London  in  1851,  th»' >«  ••■  ' 
the  great  exhibition  of  the  works  of  industrv  of  all  na';  ^  - 
in  the  British  metropolis;  the  second  in  i*aris,  iNVi;  ''- 
third  in  Berlin,  1857;  the  fourth  in  Geneva,  1861 ;  thi- 1  . 
in   Amsterdam,   1867;  the  sixth  in  New  York,  iST^i :  ' 

seventh  at  Basel,  Switzerland,  1879;  the  eighth  at  ( 

hagen,  Denmark,  1884;  the  ninth  at  Florence,  Italy,  l'^:': 
The  U.  S.  branch  held  a  national  conference,  the  tt-iiiij.  r 
connection  with  the  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chiiiii.'',  :i 
Oct.,  1893.  Philip  S<  hah. 

Evangelical    Association,   popularly   but   incom.-  > 
known  as  the  German  Methodist  Chnrch :  a  \^m\\  •' 
American  Christians. chiefly  of  German  descent,  organi/-  ^    * 
the  Rev.  Jacob  Albri^fht,  a  native  of  Eastern  Pennsyhii .  ^ 
Regarding  the  doctrines  and  morals  that  prevaileii  ni  •'• 
German  churches  of  that  part  of  Pennsylvania  as  corn.  : 
Albright  undertook  about  1790  a  work  of  reform  an     , 
them.     At  a  meeting  of  his  converts  in  1800,  calKtl  fnr  '/■ 
purpose  of  deliberating  on  the  measures  best  suittnl  f<.r  . 
vancing  the  new  religious  movement,  Albright  was  ut.:.' 
mously  elected  pastor  or  bishop,  and  authorized  to  own  - 
all  the  functions  of  the  ministerial  office  over  the  nu  nl«> 
of  the  organizaticm.    In  the  course  of  time  annual  o* :  *  * 
ences  were  established,  and  in  1816  the  first  general  i^'i/   - 
ence  was  held  in  Union  co.,  Pa.,  consisting  of  all   thr  t  *.     » 
in  the  ministry.    Since  1843  the  general  conference.  <M»r-  '- 
ing  of  delegates  from  the  annual  conferences,  has  rHin;'. '  ■- 
met  once  every  fourth  year.    During  the  first  thirty  y-^ri 


222 


EVANSTON 


Eyanston :  town ;  Cook  co.,  IlL  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  ^l-C) ;  on  railway,  and  on  Lake 
Michigan ;  12  miles  N.  of  Chicago.  It  is  a  very  handsome 
suburban  town,  the  seat  of  ^bth western  UMVERsrrv 
{q.  V,)  and  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute,  and  has  numerous 
churches.  Pop.  (1880)  6,703 ;  (1890£  18,059 ;  (1892)  esti- 
mated, 16,000.  Eon'OB  of  **  Index." 

Eranston :  town  (founded  in  1868) ;  capital  of  Uintah 
CO.,  Wyoming  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Wyoming, 
ref.  12-F) ;  situated  on  Bear  river  and  on  the  Union  Pacific 
Railway,  76  miles  E.  of  Ogden.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
Asylum  for  the  Insane,  and  has  six  churches,  a  high  school, 
railway  machine-shops  (emploving  200  men),  a  steam  saw- 
mill, and  a  large  flouring-mill.  It  is  the  center  of  a  lar^e 
Tegion  devoted  to  agriculture  and  stock-raising ;  in  the 
vicinity  are  also  valuable  coal  mines.  Pop.  (iSO)  1,277; 
<1890)  1,995 ;  (1893)  estimated,  2,400.    Editoe  of  "  News." 

Eyansyille :  city,  railway  center,  and  port  of  entry  (in- 
<:orporated  in  1847);  capital  of  Vanderburg  co.,  Ind.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  11-B) ;  pleas- 
antly situated  on  a  high  bank  on  the  Ohio  river,  185  miles 
below  Louisville  and  192  miles  above  Cairo.  It  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  E.  and  T.  U.,  Peoria,  Decatur  and  E.,  and 
Ohio  Valle)'  railways,  and  is  161  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  St.  Louis 
by  the  St.  Louis  and  Southern  Division  of  the  L.  and  N.  Rail- 
road. It  has  15  public  schools,  besides  private  and  parochial 
schools,  a  fine  U.  S.  custom-house  and  post-office,  a  U.  S. 
marine  hospital,  one  of  the  finest  temperance  halls  in  the 
countrjT,  5  national  banks,  2  savings  oanks,  8  flour-mills, 
foundries,  machine-shops,  and  industries  in  wool,  leather, 
etc.  The  census  of  the  U.  S.  for  1890  shows  375  manufac- 
tories, with  a  capital  of  $8,432,384,  giving  employment  to 
^,766  persons,  at  an  annual  wage  of  $2,876^398.  The  cost  of 
materials  was  $6,386,368 ;  the  value  of  product  $11,788,672. 
Evansville  is  the  principal  shipping-point  of  Southwestern 
Indiana,  and  in  commercial  importance  is  one  of  the  first 
•cities  in  the  State.    Pop.  (1880)  29,280 ;  (1890)  50,756. 

Editor  of  **  Journal." 

Eyansyllle:  village;  Rock  co..  Wis.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-E);  on  railway;  22 
miles  S.  by  E.  of  Madison.  It  has  5  churches,  a  seminary, 
a  high  school,  2  extensive  tobacco  warehouses,  an  iron- 
foundry,  and  a  large  windmill-factory.  Pop.  (1880)  1,068 ; 
(1890)  1,523.  Editor  of  "  Review." 

Eyaporatlon  [from  Lat.  evapora'tiOy  deriv.  of  evapora're, 
give  forth  steam  ;  e,  out  +  vapor,  steam]  :  the  passage  of  a 
substance  from  the  liquid  or  solid  state  to  the  condition  of 
vapor ;  especially  such  a  change  at  a  temperature  below  the 
boiling-point.  Evaporation  takes  place  in  a  vacuum  more 
rapidly  than  in  the  air.  It  has  been  shown  by  Dalton  that 
the  elastic  force  of  all  vapors  is  the  same,  whether  mixed 
with  gas  or  air,  or  not ;  and  that  air  is  never  truly  saturated 
with  vapor  unless  it  contains  an  amount  sufficient  to  saturate 
a  vacuum  of  the  same  extent. 

Evaporation  is  caused  by  heat  which  is  absorbed  when 
vapor  IS  formed,  and  the  most  intense  degree  of  cold  known 
is  caused  by  the  evaporation  of  volatile  liquids.  The  low- 
est point  yet  artificially  produced,  about  —  220"  C,  has 
been  obtained  by  the  evaporation  in  vacuo  of  liquid  oxy- 
gen. 

Ey'art :  village ;  on  railway ;  Osceola  co.,  Mich,  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  5-11);  situated  in 
the  heart  of  a  great  lumber  countrv ;  60  miles  E.  of  Luding- 
ton.  It  has  saw  and  shingle  mills,  foundry  and  machine- 
shop,  and  is  supplied  with  water-power.  Pop.  (1880)  1,302  ; 
•(1890)  1,269. 

Eyarts,  William  Maxwell,  LL.  D.:  lawyer;  b.  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  Feb.  6,  1818;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  18:37; 
studied  law,  and  in  1840  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  where  he  practiced  with  great  distinction. 
He  was  the  leading  counsel  employed  for  the  defense  of 
President  Johnson  in  his  trial  before' the  Senate  in  Apr.  and 
May,  1868;  Attomey-deneral  of  the  U.  S.  from  July,  1868, 
to  Mar.  4,  1869 ;  one  of  three  lawyers  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Grant  in  1871  to  defend  the  interests  of  citizens  of  the 
U.  S.  before  the  tribunal  of  arbitrators  who  met  at  Geneva 
to  settle  the  Alabama  elairas;  appointed  Secretary  of  State 
bv  President  Hayes  Mar.  7,  1877;  eli'cted  U.  S.  Senator  for 
New  York  Jan.  21,  1HH5.  Among  his  published  addresses 
»re  his  eulogy  on  Chief  Justice  Chtise  (187:});  Centennial 
Oration,  in  Phihidelnhia  (1876);  and  the  oration  at  the  un- 
veiling of  Bartholdi  s  statue  of  Liberty. 


EVERETT 

Eye,  Paul  Pitzsimons,  M.  D.  :  physician;  b.  near  Au?ti5- 
ta,  Ga.,  June  27, 1806;  graduated  at  the  Univewity  of  (n-^r- 
gia  in  1826;  graduated  as  M.  D.  at  the  Univemity  of  IVnn- 
sylvania  in  1828;  studied  several  years  in  Europe?;  «a^  b 
surgeon  in  the  Polish  revolution  of  1831,  and  received  tin 
Golden  Cross  of  Honor  of  Poland  in  that  year ;  becam<*  Pr  >- 
fessor  of  Surgery  in  the  Medical  Colle^^of  Georgia  in  lKf.»; 
in  Louisville  University  (Kentucky)  m  1849;  in  Nushvil> 
University  (Tennessee)  in  1850;  and  in  Missouri  M('<i:..il 
College,  St.  Louis,  in  1868.  In  1870  he  became  Proft*SHT  i.f 
Operative  and  Clinical  Surj^ery  in  the  University  of  Xa-h- 
vule.  Prof.  Eve  was  president  of  the  American  M«-<li.  il 
Association  in  1857.  He  served  as  a  surgeon  in  the  (/onlivi- 
erate  army.  He  was  editoriallv  connected  with  proft»sMiriih'. 
journalism  for  many  years,  and  was  the  author  of  vvr}-  i.u- 
merous  monographs  upon  surgery,  etc  D.  in  Nahlivjile. 
Tenn.,  Nov.  3, 1877. 

Eyection  [from  Lat.  evectio,  act  of  carrying  out ;  f,  <'\ix 
+  ve'here,  vec  turn,  carry] :  an  inequality  of  the  moonV  n:«»- 
tion,  depending  on  the  position  of  the  transverse  axi>  i>f  ilie 
moon's  orbit,  as  compared  with  the  earth's  ra<Hus  ve^inr. 
The  eccentricity  of  the  lunar  orbit  varies  with  the  relative 
position  of  these  lines.  It  is  maximum  when  thev  are  coitt- 
cident,  and  minimum  when  they  are  perpendicular  to  t-h^h 
other. 

Evelyn,  John:  author;  b.  at  Wotton,  Surrey,  Oct.  ^\. 
1620;  educated  at  Baliol  College.  Oxford ;  traveled  abn-,*'! 
from  1641  to  1652;  enjoyed  great  favor  at  the  court  af'-r 
the  Restoration,  and  held  various  positions  of  honor  hu>\ 
trust,  but  no  ofHce.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  and  put- 
lished  Sylva,  an  elaborate  treatise  on  arboriculture ;  ^VatN'M- 
Hon  ana  Commerce^  their  Origin  atw?  Prooress;  an  inin- 
duction  to  a  history  of  the  Dutch  war,  whicn  he  began,  l-ut 
never  finished;  A  Parallel  of  Ancient  and  Modem  -4n',.- 
tecture,  etc.  But  his  most  important  and  most  inti»re-ii.  i: 
work  is  his'XH'ory,  written  witliout  any  idea  of  publicatf  r: 
and  containing  numerous  contributions  to  the  history  of  ir.»- 
time.  The  sixth  edition,  with  his  Life  prefixed,  was  put*- 
lished  in  1879.    D.  in  London,  Feb.  27, 1706. 

Eyelyn  College:  an  institution  for  the  education  <'f 
young  women,  situated  at  Princeton,  N.  J.  It  was  e^t-^- 
lished  in  1887;  legally  incorporated  in  1889,  and  fi)nun.i> 
authorized  to  confer  degrees.  In  the  same  year  res<>luti<  i^ 
were  passed  by  the  board  of  trustees  of  Princeton  Coll.  jr 
granting  to  the  students  of  Evelyn  all  necessary  use  of  it.*- 
Princeton  libraries  and  museums.  In  1890  the  incrta^  1 
number  of  students  made  it  necessary  to  secure  a  s«H:-<-.ii 
building.  The  board  of  trustees  consists  principally  of  pr-- 
fessors  and  trustees  of  Princeton  College  and  Theol<»tn  n. 
Seminary.  The  classes  are  mainly  in  charge  of  the  pn^fi-^- 
ors  in  Princeton  College  and  their  assistants,  and  Mrr 
course  of  study  given  at  Princeton  can  be  made  availn^  .'^ 
for  the  students  of  Evelyn.  There  is  no  co-educational  « It  - 
ment,  and  the  work  is  wholly  separate  from  that  of  Priinv- 
ton  College.  There  is  a  preparatory  school  in  connefti"ii 
with  the  institution.  The  students  in  residence  are  diviii^.l 
into  families  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  each,  in  order  to  '^  - 
cure  healthful  home  influences. 

Evening  Schools:  institutions  established  in  manv  f 
the  larger  towns  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  in't:* 
most  of  the  cities  of  the  U.  S.,  for  the  instruction  of  an  - 
sans  and  others  who  have  been  unable  to  receive  educ*aTi>  r: 
in  childhood.  In  some  instances  such  sch<x>ls  are  ma.r.- 
tained  by  private  benevolence,  but  they  are  general! v  e>i,ir  - 
lished  and  maintained  by  local  or  municipal  autEioritir-^ 
See  Education,  Manual  Tbainino,  and  Schools. 

Everest,  Harvey  W.  :  preacrher,  teacher,  and  author ;  h 
at  North  Hudson,  Essex  co.,  N.  Y.,  May  10,  1831 ;  edui^nti-A 
at  Geauga  Seminary,  Ohio,  the  Western  Reserve  Eiclwtir  In- 
stitute, Bethany  College,  and  Oberlin ;  president  of  Eur*  sa 
College,  professor  in  Kentucky  University,  president  of  lU  *- 
ler  University,  and  chancellor  of  Garfield  University.  I!  - 
work,  7'he  Dirine  Dermmat ration — a  Text-book  of  C/iri.Hf,..  n 
Evidencey  is  used  in  many  colleges.  He  is  pastor  of  \\.k 
Christian  church  (Disciples)  at  Hutchinson,  Kan. 

J.  H.  Garrisi>n. 

Ey'erest,  Moant:  the  highest  mountain  of  the  earth  ;  ir 
the  eastern  range  of  the  Himalavas,  in  Northern  Nriu.:.: 
lat.  27°  59  12"  N.,  Ion.  86**  58  6"  S.    According  to  tJu>  m*.  v-- 
urement  of  Waugh  in  1856,  the  altitude  is  29.002  feet. 

Everett:  city  (incorporated  1893):  Middlesex  co.,  Mi^<^^ 
(for  location  of  coiuity,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  2—11 


224 


EVICTION 


EVIDENCE 


surrounding  country  is  occupied  by  market-gardens.  Here 
Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  afterward  Edward  I.,  defeated 
Simon  de  Montfort  and  the  barons  on  Aug.  4,  1265.  Pop. 
(1801)  5,836. 

Eylction  [trom  Lat.  eviu'cere,  to  triumph,  to  get  control 
by  dispossessing ;  e,  out  +  vincere,  vietum,  conquer] :  in  law, 
the  act  of  dispossessing  one  of  lands  or  tenements,  as  when 
a  landlord  ejects  a  tenant  who  is  in  arrears  in  his  rent,  or 
when  a  thira  person  dispossesses  a  tenant  by  means  of  a  title 
superior  to  that  of  the  landlord,  or  a  vendee  by  a  title  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  vendor.  Originally  eviction,  as  a  legal 
term,  was  applied  only  to  a  dispossession  by  judgment  of 
law,  but  it  is  now  used  to  denote  a  dispossession  under 
paramount  title,  or  claim  of  paramount  title,  as  well  as 
to  many  acts  done  by  the  landlord  to  impair  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  premises  which  in  intendment  of  law  amount 
to  a  dispossession  of  the  tenant  and  justify  him  in  leaving 
them.  In  such  cases,  however,  he  must  actually  leave,  or 
otherwise  he  can  not  claim  to  have  been  evicted.  When 
the  grantee  of  premises,  with  a  covenant  of  warranty,  is 
evicUid,  the  damages  recoverable  are,  in  general,  the  consid- 
eration-money, with  interest.  In  case  of  a  lessee,  however, 
as  the  rent  ceases  on  eviction,  he  can,  as  a  general  rule,  re- 
cover only  the  expenses  of  defending  dispossession.  When 
the  eviction  is  only  from  a  part  of  the  premises,  the  rent  or 
damages  is  in  many  cases  apportioned. 

Revised  by  F.  Stubges  Allen. 

Eyidence  [vi&  Fr.  from  Lat.  eviden'tia,  cle«r  view,  clear- 
ness ;  c,  out,  fully  +  vide're,  see] :  in  law,  the  means  of  estab- 
lishing an  allegation  made  in  a  court  of  justice.  In  an 
action  the  respective  parties  make  written  statements  of 
their  cause  of  action  and  defense.    The  matter  thus  in  dis- 

Sute  between  them  is  called  an  issue.  The  object  of  evi- 
ence  is  to  establish  or  disprove  the  propositions  alleged. 
The  result  of  the  evidence  is  called  proof.  Evidence  may 
be  considered  under  a  number  of  divisions:  1.  Its  nature 
and  the  doctrine  of  presumptions ;  2.  The  rules  that  govern 
in  the  production  and  exclusion  of  testimony  ;  3.  Its  effect ; 
4.  The  instruments  of  evidence,  including  witnesses,  and 
the  mode  of  making  use  of  them  as  well  as  writings. 

1.  lis  NcUure,  etc. — ^The  object  of  evidence  is  to  establish 
a  fact.  It  presupposes  a  disposition  in  the  mind  of  a  listener 
to  believe  upon  sufficient  grounds.  Belief  on  the  part  of 
mankind  is  instinctive,  yet  this  instinct  is  modified  by  the 
results  of  observation  and  reflection.  When  evidence  is 
offered  in  a  court  of  justice,  it  is  assumed  to  be  addressed  to 
minds  competent  to  give  it  such  weight  as  its  quality  justi- 
fies. It  may  be  either  direct  or  circumstantial.  It  is  said 
to  be  direct  when  it  is  offered  simply  to  establish  the  fact 
which  it  concerns ;  it  is  circumstantial  when  its  object  is  to 
lead  the  mind  of  the  hearer  to  deduce  or  infer  some  other 
fact  from  it.  In  the  case  of  circumstantial  evidence  the 
minds  of  the  jury  or  judge,  as  the  case  may  be,  go  through 
a  process  of  reasoning  to  arrive  at  the  principal  nict  in  dis- 
pute. It  must  be  resorted  to  with  caution,  in  order  that  the 
conclusion  arrived  at  may  be  sound  and  logical. 

Reference  may  now  be  made  to  the  subject  of  presump- 
tions. These  are  of  two  kinds— of  law  and  of  fact.  Pre- 
sumptions of  law  are  either  conclusive  or  disputable.  A 
conclusive  presumption  of  law  takes  place  when  a  legal 
conclusion  is  arrived  at  which  no  evidence  is  admissible  to 
rebut.  This  doctrine  is  based  largely  on  public  policy,  and 
leads  to  a  series  of  artificial  and  arbitrary  sulwrdinate  rules. 
An  illustration  is  that  a  child  under  seven  years  of  age 
can  not  commit  a  felonious  crime.  The  doctrine  of  estop- 
pel is  another  illustration.  When  evidence  can  l)e  offered 
to  rebut  a  presumption  of  law,  it  is  said  to  be  disputable. 
An  instance  is  the  ordinary  rule  in  criminal  law  tnat  one 
charged  with  crime  is  presumed  to  be  innocent  until  he  is 
proved  to  be  guilty,  or  that  one  having  possession  of  stolen 
gootls  immediately  after  a  theft  became  possessed  of  them 
unlawfully.  Under  this  theory,  when  a  state  of  facts  is 
once  established,  it  is  presuinwl  to  exist  until  there  is  some 
evidence  to  the  contrary.  Thus  a  man  engaged  in  trade 
is  assumed  to  follow  the  ordinary  course  of  business,  or  the 
incumbent  of  a  public  office  to  perform  its  duties  in  the 
usual  manner.  Life  is  presumed  to  continue  unless  there 
is  evidence  of  death,  or  sanity  until  evidence  is  offered  to 
establish  insanity.  A  presunj[)tion  of  fm-t  is  not  a  rule  of 
law  which  can  l)e  announced  to  a  jury  as  binding  upon 
them,  but  in  each  case  must  be  found  by  them  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  though  the  court  may  direct  their  attention  to  the 
propriety  of  forming  the  conclusion.     An  illustration  is  the 


testimony  of  an  accomplice,  which  is  generally  deemed  to  U 
untrustworthy  without  corroboration  from  other  and  tni«>t- 
worthy  sources,  and  an  observation  to  that  effect  may  be  nja*!" 
by  the  judge.  Still  the  iury  has  the  legal  power  to  fiml  a 
verdict  upon  the  uncorroborated  testimony  of  an  accompl:<  «> 

2.  Ths  Rules  which  prevail  as  to  the  Production  of  En- 
dence, — The  leading  rules  are  the  following:  Rule  1.  (Vr- 
tain  matters  may  be  judicially  taken  notice  of  without  pr\*i : 
Rule  2.  Evidence  must  corre^^pond  with  the  allegation'^  it: 
the  pleadings,  and  be  confined  to  the  points  in  issue :  Ku.t 
3.  Only  the  substance  of  the  issue  need  be  proved  ;  Rule  1 
The  burden  of  proof  is  with  him  who  holds  the  aflfirmatnt  -. 
Rule  5.  The  best  evidence  must  be  produced  of  which  rtu 
nature  of  the  case  admits ;  Rule  6.  Hearsay  evidence  i^  in 
general  inadmissible ;  Rule  7.  Testimony  should  in  geiwrjil 
concern  matters  of  knowledge  as  distinguished  from  i<{iiil- 
ion  (though  to  this  rule  there  are  well-established  exMjH 
tions) ;  Rule  8.  Certain  evidence,  otherwise  admissi!»lf.  i^ 
excluded  on  grounds  of  public  policy;  Rule  9.  In  c<»rij.  n 
cases,  principally  by  statute  law,  written  evidence  mu>t  r*^ 
resorted  to  rather  than  oral;  Rule  10.  Oral  contemjh.ra- 
neous  evidence  is  not  admissible  to  vary  the  terms  of  a  writ- 
ten instrument  These  rules  require  some  explanation,  li 
should  be  premised,  however,  that  on  a  trial,  with  or  with- 
out a  jury,  it  rests  with  a  judge  to  determine  whether  th»- 
evidence  is  admissible  under  these  rules.  Whichever  va? 
he  may  decide,  the  opposing  party  may  except,  and  mak" 
his  exception  the  subject  of  an  appeal 

Rule  1.  There  are  certain  facts  of  general  knowltnl;:*-  in 
respect  to  which  it  is  not  worth  while  to  take  up  time  to  mi- 
duce  evidence,  such  as  the  recurrence  of  the  sea.«<oris.  I'.j 
same  rule  applies  to  the  existence  of  foreign  nations  rw-v'- 
nized  by  the  executive  power  of  the  nation,  and  to  gi>ri»  r;iJ 
statutes  of  the  legislature.  Of  such  facts  a  court  i<  said  in- 
take judicial  notice,  and,  if  necessary,  may  resort  for  in- 
formation to  books  and  other  sources  of  knowledge. 

Rule  2.  The  second  rule  excludes  all  immaterial  evidencp, 
and  confines  the  trial  to  matters  in  issue.  Immaterial  ,\V  - 
gations  in  the  pleadings  can  not  be  proved.  For  exam;  • 
evidence  of  the  intent  of  a  party  would  not  be  admi^>  > 
unless  intent  was  material;  and  the  same  remark  rnuy  •*- 
applied  to  evidence  of  good  or  bad  character.  In  an  h«'M  -i 
to  recover  money  loaned,  evidence  of  the  bad  intent  ol  I'l- 
debtor  in  delaying  payment,  or  of  the  cnnlitor's  lm<l  <  r^r. 
acter,  would  be  plainly  inadmissible,  while  in  an  »< :.  u 
for  slander  the  plaintiff's  character  would  be  to  a  ct  rii»'!> 
extent  in  issue. 

Rule  S.  This  rule  means  that  the  minor  and  unimport-irit 
allegations  relating  to  the  issue  need  not  be  establi>heil  a> 
stated.  They  are  such  as  the  statements  res|)ec*tinir  Pa- 
time  or  place  where  an  event  occurred,  or  the  value  <!  at. 
item  of  property.  Still,  even  allegations  in  their  nnt.r 
unimportant  may  become  material  oy  the  mode  in  wti.  - 
they  are  stated,  as  if  they  are  made  descriptive.  In  >w 
a  case  a  difference  between  the  pleadings  and  the  e\  idiii-*, 
called  a  variance,  may  be  fatal.  The  effect  of  this  striutr*  i  J 
rule  has  in  a  number  of  the  States  of  the  U.  S.  been  gn-.r  v 
modified  as  to  civil  actions  by  statutes  of  amen<liiH'i/^ 
The  criminal  law  is  still  disfigured  by  extreme  tec'bni*  ai  t? 
in  this  respect,  and  needs  the  hand  of  a  discreet  n^furr.  ^ 
to  subserve  the  interest*  of  the  public  by  removing  all  air- 
less impediments  to  the  due  administration  of  justit-e. 

Rule  4.  Under  this  rule  he  who  makes  an  allegation  whi<  r. 
is  disputed,  so  as  to  be  at  issue,  must  establish  it  In-  e\'- 
dence.  The  burden  of  proof  is  usually  with  the  plaiii'UT. 
though  in  some  instances  it  devolves  upon  the  dofen«lar.*. 
as  where  he  admits  the  plaintiff's  case,  but  seeks  t^)  a\-  .  i 
its  effect  by  new  allegations — as,  for  example,  infancy.  T.if 
person  who  has  the  burden  of  proof  has  the  right  io  x^*v. 
the  case  and  close  it.  This  in  jur}'  trials  is  often  dt*in.<i 
to  be  a  matter  of  much  importance,  so  that  each  of  thf  r^ 
spective  parties  insists  on  an  adjudication  that  the  Ininvn 
of  proof  belongs  to  him. 

Rule  5.  Under  this  rule  evidence  is  divided  into  pri »[•»'> 
and  secondary.  If  the  primary  evidence  is  aeces'^iMf.  Jt 
must  in  general  l)e  produced  ;  if  it  be  lost  or  destroxt^l.  »-■- 
sort  may  be  had  to  that  which  is  secondary.  Thus  >*  •■•  n 
the  law  requires  a  contract  to  be  reduciMl  to  w^ritinu.  r 
where  the  parties  have  written  out  a  contract  which  nuj;  * 
have  l)een  oral,  the  written  instrument  must  itM»lf  l>e  j  r  - 
duoed  if  it  can  be  obtained.  The  rule  is  relaxed  in  in'r-j  •^ 
cjises  where  public  convenience  mav  require  it.  For  *  - 
reason  a  public  record  may  lie  provecf  by  an  autborixed  ci-; »". 
without  the  production  of* the  record  itself. 


226 


EVIDKNCRS  OF  (  IIRISTIANITY 


of  a  witn<*«  m«T  be  attArkcd  hj  the  opi»<**inir  i»nrty,  rithor 
by  «lii>M*t  ox  hit'nct*  of  hij»  l»*l  rhantc'lrr.  or  mlhtT  rvputn- 
tioii,  or  by  ^howinjf  tlmt  hi*  ha«*  fnun  tiim*  to  time  ^v^n 
dlffen'iit  v«'r*iontof  the  fat't*^  /.  A  cM^^^'tnininwtitii!  is  to 
be  c<»ritinrti  to  ihe  matter*  t>nMij;ht  tnil  «»n  the  dint't  ex- 
aniiiiati«>n.  hikI  the  HAiiie  n*mnrk  ih  apitheahle  to  the  rtMli- 
'xaminittion!!.      ri)  W'riti 

le 


t' 


I*  • 


rwt   aii«l  •luli-'iNjueut   exatninittion^      <*•)  Writihi/M  ft)r  the 
of  tht'  law  of  e\i<ioiief  are  rither  l>uhlie  «»r  privati 


i>uqM»**e^  oT  lilt'  law  oi  exuioiief  are  rimer  pui»lie  «»r  pnvai^ 
PuhUe  wninnf*  an*  eitht-r  jiuiicial  or  not  jtulieiai.  The 
Iftw  pn>viiieH  eompiil-MiPk-  iiumI*-^  of  pnnlueinjj  puhlio  wnt-  ] 
iniT*  f*»r  the  pnqHiNi*^  of  t«*^liinony.  l'«»pi«»H  ar>»  in  ffi»nrral  ) 
n^'-'rti**!  to,  on  ^rpound-*  of  puhlie  eonvenienee.  The 
oftU-^T  haviiijf  the  titM-iiinmt  in  eiiMo<!v  haa,  in  penerai, 
tht*  (M>wer  to  i;i\e  a  rcrlitiiMl  c^tpy,  whirfi  is  a4lnliK^ihU'  in 
evnii'nii\  Copi***  of  juili<>ial  nv« »n Is  are  of  thn-e  varieties: 
enMuphtU'*!  (a  <*opy  either  umltT  tlie  trn-at  s«'al  of  state  or 
uinler  thv  -miiI  t>f  the  f.MirtK  otlice  (e<'rtitie<J  by  the  cU*rk  or 
other  eu*t«Mlmn).  <^r  8wr»ni.  A  nwom  j-opy  i«*  authenticntetl 
b>  the  t«-^tiiiionv  of  a  witne?w  wh<»  ha.**  e«»in|»nre«!  the  origi- 
nal with  tlieeopy.  An  ael  of  Con^re^-s  authoriztnl  by  the 
r.  S.  ConNiituiion.  i>roTnie?»  a  o<»nvenit'nt  ino«!e  of  authen- 
tit-atini;  a  ju<t»nnriit  or  deK'n-*'  of  the  c-ourt.H  <»f  ^t•o^^i 
of  t>ne  State  to  lx»  \i*^^\  in  the  court-*  of  another  State. 
Shouh!  a  ret*oni  be  lieHtroynJ.  it«  content <  nmy  l»e  pn>vc<l  by 
oral  cti'lein-e,  A  private  wrilintj  ii*  provt^l  by  the  pnxluc- 
tn»n  <if  llie  writmtf  itM-lf,  ami  it-*  existence  t»>tabli^hiHl  by 
the  te?*ti»nony  of  a  witni-**.     Whi're  the  writing;  can  nt»t  U» 

t)ro«lm^Ml,  tMNMintlary  evuienc**  «»f  its  (N»nt«*nt-H  rnay  Ije  jjiven. 
n  the  mKxial  cas**  where  it  is  in  the  iM>ss4*>>ion  of  the  o|>- 
(Misite  (nrty  rt*aM>nable  n<itioe  ithouM  l>e  fin^'<'n  to  him  to 
proiluf"e  It  at  thr  trial.  If  he  faiU  to  prixlui*  it,  MM-omlary 
evidence  may  U*  driven  an  hc»for«.  When  a  private  writing 
ift  exe*'ul4Ni  in  t)w  pn'**en<'e  of  a  witness  sult^'ribinu:  his 
name  at  the  n'<|u«*^  of  the  maker  of  it,  thi-*  witness  ealle*!  a 
**»uliwribinjj  wniic*,**  i^  the  pro|)er  i>en*on  to  prove  it.  If 
he  l»e  deail.  or  for  any  nufflrii'iil  rea^m  cnn  not  w  produc<»<l, 
hi*  hamlwntmjf  may  l>e  pn)vt»<l.  with  some  exidem-e  to  i»len- 
tify  the  ftarty  to  tlic  action  a^)»einj;  the  jKTson  who  execute<l 
the  in*trumenl.  Wh»'n  Ihrre  i**  no  <%ulHcribinff  witness,  the 
pr»»|»er  (^ourM'  is  to  call  a  wilm****  a4*i)uaint4Hl  with  the 
Daiidwntiii>;  ot  the  maker  of  the  inurnment  to  te«*tif^  that 
in  ht<*  opintitn  the  in<4rument  or  the  M^iature  in  m  the 
handwntintr  '»f  the  fiarty.  Thouifh  thi**  i»  matter  of  opinion. 
It  \*  adiniti<*«l  from  tht*  ne<vs>Hity  of  the  vam\  Knowhnli^ 
«if  th**  hand  writing  may  l»e  aiNpun**!  in  various  ni<*des  usu- 
ally by  •*N«iiic  li>«»  j»era>n  writo  or  by  having;  transactions  or 
c»>rrr«*(>i»ndtnce  with  him.  Tin*  te-»tiinony  of  ex|»«*rtH  a»  to 
hand  writ  inic  i*  in  w»nie  caAen  ailiiiittetl,  thoii^^h  the  law  ad 
to  tht*  extent  to  which  ther  may  tie  examiiit^l  varies  in  > 
diffen-nt  Stall'*.  In  *»me  ni  the  Stait»s  lh<'re  arv  conven- 
irni  *tjitutor\  nu»de*of  pn^ving  pnvate  writinir*.  A  sin;;le 
in*ian(i'  may  l>e  cii***!  fn»m  the  law  of  N»*w  York,  which 
aijow^  nf«rl>  every  i-ontnut,  if  ackiio>»l4Nlt^«d  by  the  maker 
before  mil  nuthon/f*l  titlirer.  (iu<*h  an  a  notary  public,  to  be 
put  in  t»\j«lrn»^  without  otlier  testimony  by  way  of  autheu- 

th-Alh*n 

The  final  n^mark  may  be  maile  that  the  nil»»sof  evidem-e, 
th"U^h  (i«»^jtive  mid  in  •«»nu*  re^jn-^t-*  arbitrary,  are  larcvly 
tat'K'il  U)Miri  public  C4»n\fiiii'iuv.  and  are  atlnpt«'d  to  the 
want-*  and  haoitf*  of  the  (M>miiiunitT.  T.  W.  Dwioht. 


Efi4f>Br<««f  ClilistlaBlty,  Tke:  pntofji  4*f  the  divir 
i^tn  of  the  rrlijfinn  foimde*!  b\  Jr«ii*<  hrint.    Theeviden<'i 


ivme 
on,:tn  of  the  rrlijfinn  foimde*!  b\  Jr*ii»<'hnHt.  Theeviden^'e* 
€»f  riiri^tiAmty,  by  the  very  faL't  of  tlirir  existence.  alTonl  a 
ptrrt'ii:  pn*<«uinption  in  it«  faxi»r.  They  pl«oe  it  U-forv  the 
«t»rid  a5  at  lea^t  (*Uiinini;  to  In*  foundiil  m  truth  and  KtiitiMi 
t4>  t^M*  r»'*«»n  of  ri.Afi.  Ilmi  it  nin-h*  its  way  by  men'  fonf 
arid  fx'Is'-i.  or  liid  it  no^  n*<|iim'  a^'^i-nt  without  t«'«*iimony 
an  1  •r*:uuM*n!,  i)»«t»'  would  \n-  no  n'-e*!  even  to  iii\e*oti^'ate 
tt*ttMnl»,  It  iiiiiT^it  U'  rl.i^^il  At  tiui-ewith  the  faN' re- 
lifc'i'tfi'  »hn  h  are  ei»iife^w  iJU  without  rea.«-i|mbie  e\  ideiMv, 
if  uM  U-niAth  di*i  u*-*!  'O.  Hut  in  di*>Tinrtion  fn»m  all  othi-r 
•t«*<iii«  It  J •.*»4- •.-*#•*  A  n-*  ••;:nt/«**l  t»"*U  of  ppwtf  *ihi«'h  ha^ 
tirvn  a< « 'ifiiu' i*  1  't;  for  <i;;'i'iin  t^eiit'irieH  under  the  tno'»t 
^ari'-^l  md  *•  .in  M'.^'  *  rit  .<  i-u».  an  I  » lii<  h,  «  h«  n  e\.t'niue<l, 
!•  r  ■•iiid  to  U-  All  Ml  \{  the  «  a*«-  ivluiiti  ^fT  that  an  inti  liu'^eut 
irto'iirrr  < "tii-l  d*  iniiii*!.  >u»  h  an  irnjuirer  nmv  tin  rvi'*n-  In* 
rli.d  ••tij^ttl  at  th»'  thrt^lnid  to  «ii|iinint  loniM-lf  *iil  h  the 
h  •••  rx  "f  th»  i  hnotiAii  t'\ideiiii%  !>•  furr  he  pr««t«d*»  to 
ju<l*;»-  th»  n»  .n  d*  •.*:!. 

//i «''/*■  V  "'  Mr  (  '•rM'i'ifi  //'•!'/-' nvr«,-  T*ie  h'-tory  tif  Chn**- 
tlani'i  i«,  HI  one  \  It  »,  b'lt  ih*  hi^turi  of  it*  ex  i<i»  riti-^  Kx- 
t/Tnai.x.  «t  |e*»i.  it«  mur^  thn  u^'h  the  world  h.*/*  Imi'ii 
marii-*)   bx    «im%«ixr  cn*«-*,  «hen   it  rne.iunter»'d   ^arii-ti* 


forms  of  incre«lnlitv  which  it  became  nfrf-**mn  U 
with  Miitable  evidemM* ;  and  out  of  exery  «J<'h  ctinfli*  • 
emerp**!  with  a  triumphant  vimli<'ation  of  it*  eiAu-.* 
fresh  c(»ntribution  of  proof  to  after  tceneralion^ 

It.s  fin«t  cHMitlict  watt  with  Judaism.    <^i  its  naine  « 
at  its  very  orijfin  it  exciti^l  the  bitter  unlielief  of  thr  J' 
rulers  and  people,  who  repudiate*!  it  ai«  an  impi-u«  *  i'    » 
ture  of  their  own  ancient  rvlipon,  stiirniatize*!  it*  a  r*   -  » 
an  im|M)fftor  or  fal.M?  Me.<*siah,  and  at  lenj^th  O'liifN'o**! 
by  the  dt>ath  of  the  cn»ew  to  Ut^mie  the  first  trn-at  r..*-" 
to  its  truth.     Judaism,  as  a  di5tim't  svstem,  fr^'m  th%:  r  - 
ment  d(*<din<Hl  into  a  mere<lea<l  tradition,  and  ha*  •ii.o 
its  own  prtNlicte<l  fate,  served  but  as  an  unxulluiK  «r  •- 
for  that  Christianity  which  has  U*en  xpreailinic  "Kt  *. 
f^loU*  and  becoming  theiiunmon  berita^v  «ff  all  r.a:i<  u*  a. 
races.     The  life  and  death  of  our  Ixtnl,  im-lu'iint;  tii*  :^- 
coun«ej«,  parabU^s,  and   mirwdt^  as  recxtnhni  in   th^  *  •• 
(roHfxds,  coDstitut<»  the  evidences  of  ('hristianitj  afli>ni<-i  ^ 
it^  ori^n. 

Its  next  conflict  was  with  nai^anisin.  No  aiM^wr  h--  * 
l)een  nnndainuHl  outside  of  Judati  as  a  p>«p**l  t«i  the  hai  ^ 
than  It  encountered  the  decaying  reliin«»ns  <if  iir»-r^*  *:  a 
Rome,  which  desperatelj  rallied  againM  it  as  a  <*  a*  •« 
enemv.  But  its  course  from  city  to  city  was  mar^i^l  •  "i 
crowds  of  converts,  as  well  as  with' jiersecutiitnsaiMi  t<  - 1"  '»^ 
everywhere  accelerating  the  decline  of  lho#s'  old  m»  t  h*  *  ■% 
which  now  figure  only  in  the  classic  literature  ntm^w  tr  .< 
tar^'  to  its  own  defense  and  illustration.  The  plant :r  c  «*  J 
training  of  the  Church,  as  narrated  in  the  Act*  and  Kj  :-*  i 
of  the  aiMwtU's,  together  with  the  A|Hd«*gies  of  Ja*f.'  .  "* 
tian,  Athenagoras,  and  Theophilua,  yield  the  e«idct>'c*  iw 
longing  to  this  period. 

Its  next  wmnict  wa»  with  philosophy.  So  lonir  a*  it  «« 
conten<ling  with  mere  Jewish  and  heathen  «u(ier4iti«<&«  '*4 
leameil  class  could  treat  it  with  di*«Uinful  >ilen**'  •  i 
preat  writers  as  Plutarch,  Sen w*a,  and  Tatitu*  aiiU'i.r  ^  \ 
It  only  in  the  most  distant  manner;  but  aa  it»  rx>  .  i 
claims  gradually  became  known,  its  advaiu^  was  ixiec  r  x  « 
infidel  wing  of  the  Neoplatonic  whool,  le*i  by  4Vi*n*.  V  r 
phxTy,  and  Iliennles,  who  assailed  it  as  a  vulpar  inif-  •'  ••( 
anil  at  lenpth  provoked  the  series  of  blimly  f>cr*r«  -*  i 
which  filltHlthe  cities  of  the  empire  with  ('hn*Uan  ma-*-  ^ 
Itsap|)arent  defeat, however, was  followe<i  l>y  a  virtKr  a.-  M 
ruinitiis.  It  had  alrea<ly  won  from  tl)e  very  rankA  «»f  I'  tr\ 
its  flr>tt  great  attologist,  Justin  Martxr,  and  tt  r»ov  wt***-^ 
so  much  of  philoaophy  itself  as  could  l»e  wrxKich?  i:  *  | 
own  theology;  and  at  length  ap|>eared  u|)offi  tlw  ;hr  !  •  I 
Constant i!u>  as  the  visible  hcml  of  a  new  l'hn*tkao  (-:x  ^ 
tion.  Besides  the«*  worldly  trophies,  its  din^ct  e«  j  *  ^ 
for  this  |keri<Ml  are  to  be  found  in  the  t»-»tim*.o¥  ■  *  'H 
martyrs  and  the  aixdogetical  writings  of  Trrtul.  *n,  i  ,  ^ 
ent.  Origen,  Kusidiius,  Cyril,  Amolnus,  1.^4t*nii««4,  ad 
Augustine. 

Its  next  conflict  was  with  barltarism.  Id  the  IH^  Ari 
following  the  baHtarian  c*ini|U<»*t  and  the  wn-ik  ff  !*i*  i-| 
man  empire,  though  it  was  now  def»rixr«I  of  all  •-••-t-  .t  mM 
it  suInUkhI  the  rude  reli^rions  of  the  North  as  it  h^i  m.  -*^ 
vanquishinl  the  cla.*«»ir  m>tholoci«'<«  of  the  .N«j»h,  ms*  1  *r*m 
ureil  up  from  the  cixili/atitm  of  the  {last  all  thai  «»•  i^-^ 
abl(>  for  that  of  the  future.  While  ctmteniiinjr  wr*-  m.i 
*avnc*  f<»es  it  c<Mild  have  no  other  evidem*-*  t>.*n  •  •  « 
apfteanni  practimlly  in  the  (termanic  mimioDs  *bl  .•  ^ 
great  Chri-^tian  wIumiIs  of  the  Middle  Ac^ 

Its  next  c*>nflict  was  with  Mohamme«laiii*m,    T> 
was  inxadini;  its  domain*  i 
fr»»m  the  Hji«*t  to  the  shore* 

whom  It  hnd  traineil  into  Christian  kni^'ht*  n^'W  I  «  »  <<^ 
si  XT  <*nisad«**  ItattU**!  for  the  tond»  of  the  Saxi"tir.  i.-  •  ^4 
Mp*'  was  dell venil  fn»m  the  infidel.  It*  rthlrr.  ^^  f  *  ^ 
ejMn'h  were  nil  that  could  lie  exiw-ct***! — thr  rij  1. .  t«  .  -f  «  f*^ 
tmn  chivalrv,  the  pnres  wre*te<l  fn»m  Araiuan  irmrr  '  i  aij 
the  n|««i!o.^i'tnrtl  writing  of  th«' S*h<N.lmen  agm.ri<  tt*  J«^ 
and  Mohftmiui*«Un'«  in  M'^'n-^h  Siiain. 

It*  next  ci.nflui  wu*with  nHwirm  rati"nA,''*ni  I» 
at  the  Hef«»riimth»ii  int«i Cath«tiii*i<«m  and  I*n »?e^ *•,••-•- 
t»«iuntere«l  a  tn*mhenHi*  (.«•  whii  h  f»»r  m^^trik.  .*■•  * 
uii'ler  xanou*  i;ui«-**,  has  U*en  nut'j^M'iini:  i'»  «1m  •  .  *•  --^ 
tion*  ti»  the  t-'^t  of  mt-n-  human  rr«*«'n.  H'lt  K  '  •  •  •-  '^ 
•*tr»n;;lh  of  It*  exider»<-e*  ha*  i»nly  K-t-n  pn>xi'«J  t>«  «^  :  md 
i-es^no  a.s*rtijll.  The  Ilalian  uatiinilt^t*  of  t:  «  •.i-«--ij 
4f  nlury.  ouch  a*  Poin{M>iiatius,  Ca^Mtipin.  an«l  4  rvft  ^  -^ 
wlio  heM  Aristotelian  opinions  aiibxtiMxe  r4  rv«r«  -•'  i 
licion  at  the  very  onirt  of  Home  an*!  tinfler  Utz^k^i  ?««  dj 
to  the  Churxd),  wn*ii^ht  their  own  ttefeat  by  th«  ir  tk^^  M 


aohamme«laiii*m,  TtrSar^^ 
rith  the  swftrd  an<l  ti^  K  ^ 
of  S|tain  :  Imt  th^  fl-r<«  t-     ^ 


•  1 


228 


EVIL 


EVOLITIOX 


rvliidon  of  thr  futurr.  If  all  that  is  mt^ant  by  «ich  writrn* 
in  tho  dway  «»f  thoir  own  ChriHimn  fnith,  it  iuhhI  n«>t  tie 
drnicMl  that  many  nMlcw.  9|»<'<Milativc  niuniH  nno  l)n<akin)c 
away  fnmi  Ihoir  ni«w»nnir^  in  tnl^  vjv^^h  and  rnrrupt  >y'»- 
trniH  rial  mine  t<t  lie  4'hn*tinn :  J»ut  if  the  a|»|»n'hfn«*ion  is 
that  ('hriMianity  it.M'lf  i««  <i\intf  out  or  liK^int;  its  \m»U\  ufton 
the  worltt  J*urh  fon'Uxlmc^  ar^'  to  l>o  nt»  more  j**Tiotu*ly 
tn«tt><l  than  Iht*  outrni«»of  mm  tot*inK  ihoir  an<h*>m|ri»  who 
taniy  it  is  the  immovatile  idioir  mini  not  their  own  iittlo 
Tefo^l  that  lA  drift inic  a^Ay*  ('hri*«tianity  has  in  fa(*t  hist 
nnthinic  of  the  evidence  whi«'h  it  has  K'en  aoiuimulating 
»iiK*<*  the  time  when  fir^t  il"«  ininwh***  were  wrou^rhl  ami  iU* 
prophwies  sfHiken.  Not  onlv  diH»»  the  testimony  to  tho(«e 
mirw-Ufi  n*main  uninifM^ju^hiHl,  not  only  is  the  fullUlment  of 
th<»^  nropluHMfH  tttill  p»ini;  on,  but  the  human  seienees 
■im-e  tnen  unfold«Ml  are  >ieldin^  it  a  new  elH?***  of  evidenees, 
afft>rilinf(  it  fn*.sh  ct>nt1rmHtion  and  illust ration,  and  eoio- 
nifmiui):  it  to  the  hivriit^t  intrUtvt  and  culture  of  the  time; 
ami  the  rvasoiiable  pn*^umi>tion  in  that,  one  after  another, 
they  will  yet  e<»rn»U)rHte  all  revealinl  fai-ts  and  dtM-trines, 
untd  everywhere  then*  ^hall  bt»  an  intelliphle  triumph  of 
the  IMrine  thrtm^h  the  human  reanm  orer  all  earthly  error 
ami  sin. 

That  MK'h  an  inoreaw*  of  eridenw  in  this  quarter  Is  pmb- 
able  may  U«  arcuiMl  from  the  very  nature  of  «*<iene<»  aiiu  rev- 
elation as  oimipiementary  fwton*  of  knowK^lije.  It  U  in- 
c«)nr«*ivat>le  that  the  wont  of  (ittd  should  (H)ntnwlirt  his 
works,  or  that  human  rea^>n  c<Miltl  su|M*rse4le  a  divine  revela- 
tit»n :  and  when  any  di^e^e(»anc'i(^s  ap|M.'ar  Ix'tween  nature 
and  Scripture,  we  mu*tt  simply  a^^ume  that  there  has  l)iH.*n 
mmxe  wrtmi(  induction  from  either  or  l>oth  of  them,  and  that 
ultimately,  after  the  whole  tru^  \^  knowrt,  they  will  con> 
Ann  and  illustrate  each  other.  This  has,  in  fact,  been  the 
re^ilt  of  |Mi<  <*onfli<*ts  bt>tween  the  !icientific  and  reli^ous 
|iartieA.  (iiN>tn^phv,  in  the  early  Church,  repudiate<l  the 
idea  of  an  inhabiitHf  >;lolie  an  contrary  to  the  S'n()tun*s,  but 
shipii  now  carry  the  wine  Scriplure«*  to  the  anti|MKlt*s.  As- 
tronomy, durint;  the  Mi* Idle  Agi's,  di-t-riUsl  the  h«'ttvens  as 
hu|?\»  crystal  «phereH  revolving?  aUmt  <»ur  earth,  but  the  very 
iiame  h(«aveius  as  ilevoutly  inteq»rete*l  bv  Kepler,  Newton, 
ami  Uerschel,  still  declare  the  Klory  of  (nul.  (}i*oln|;y  has 
••emed  inconsistent  with  the  hmir-nH-eive«l  inter{>retation  of 
(Jeiie^it,  but  the  "aory  of  the  earth  itmdf,  as  rea^l  by  Miller. 
Hitche(K*k,  and  (iuvM.  Mill  tells  how  it  was  maile  in  aix 
dmr%,  Anthn»i»«»loj:y  i%  full  of  c»onfliciin»f  tl»Miriej*,  some  of 
which  ineiiatvthe  S*ripturt»  «hn*trine  of  the  flrnt  Adam,  but 
he   mu<4   Htm  ply  prx'judo*  the  whole   qui**»tion  apunnt  all 

firec<>ilent  who  an^^rtn  that  man  was  not  maile  in  the  ima^>  of 
•«Mi.  And  in  the  region  of  the  mental,  moral,  and  i«4M>ial 
•ciene*^  where  the  m»e<l  an<l  fa<'t  of  a  revelation  are  ho 
much  more  obviDU*.  the  likelihotsl  iiicn»a'^'«  that  then*  will 
ber%*afler  In*  still  hi)(her  and  tcninder  ill  u»t  rat  ions  of  (Chris- 
tian d'S^tnne. 

It  In  an  em*ouratnni(  nijrn  of  projfres"  in  the  eviden<"es  of 
(*hn<«tianity  that  «<»  many  <»r)cani74Hl  efforts  an*  on  foot  for 
ihrir  pnmn»tion,  and  !w»»ne  of  them  in  the  inten*«t  <»f  true 
science  as  well  as  of  n*li;non.  The  R4iyal  Sn-iely  it»«*'lf  was 
fiiuiidt«l  by  t»hil«»^>phep«  ami  divines  who  vindicatt*il  the 
c*mM^tenry  of  natural  with  «u|teniatiirnl  knowle*}^.  Other 
inMitutions  have  follitwi-il,  expn'*^*ly  di'^iinie^l  for  tlie  ile- 
frn««'  of  the  ChriMian  rrlii;ion,  ^ueh  a«  the  Itoylr  I>^*tun»?», 
the  Hampton  lir<*tun»«^  the  Hridp*»ater  Trt*ati's»s.  the  Bur- 
net Ka*^>^  in  (ireat  BntAin,  and  the  liOWell.  (Graham,  ami 
Kly  l^"*  lurrii  in  the  W  S^  to»frther  with  more  pennaneiit 
ritu'-atiitnal  api>lian«*»^.  «uih  as  <lmirs  of  t'hn*«tian  a|Ntli»- 
lf»-tii*«  in  tlivimty  iMh'"<»U  and  of  •*'ii*m"v  aii<l  r»*liirinn  in  our 
c<»K«  ^■^.  And  the  li*.Tn!tirr«  «hi«  h  ha«  crown  up  in  <'s»nn«'<- 
ti<>n  with  thrw  ii)«ntiit>«iTi<s  arnl  by  dther  inde{»«*iident 
e(T«»rt*,  I*  ain*«<Jy  «»f  *urpn*mi:e\trf»t  and  nfhtn"*%  NotM'e*^ 
of  thi^  literature  mm  Im*  found  m  the  apfM«ndit  to  FarrarV 
CrtttrttJ  ii%»tury  nf  ^Vr^  T^n*n}Kt,  and  the  At*!*'*  MijTtie  has 
puMi*h«|  ■  -iHri***  <»f  twenty  >i<liinii**,  4t«».  eiitttl«*<l  l^rmnn- 
sini'tiffis  A'r«i»,y*/(y«i^«,  (••ntniiinn;  a  full  <  »'II»s  ti<'n  i»f  the 
pruK  i[ial  I'l  1  jfittirtl  tre«ltM-<i,  of  all  w})<h>U  in  all  hc^i^ 
chn»nnlo^'icmil)  arrmnt-e<L  ('MAHtt.**  W,  MllKLlw. 


•  a. 


result  in  the  hijrhest  po*«<ibIe  ;^>od-     It  seem*  r»  f*am 
moral  freiHlom  itM'lf  implies  at  K*a<t  the  |«Nk%it',nt«  i  :  %,i 
evil  choice,  so  that  evil  must  (M>tentially  exi*t  «b«Tr  i^ 
ncss  exists. 

EtII  Eye:  the  mysterious  |s>werof  injury  whi*  h  m  f-  - 
a^i»s   was   p'uerally  a*M'riU'*l  to  the  l«M»k  of  a  ma*i 
|»ep*on.     Tne  (tnn'k  and   Homan  chi-H^Hic^  ivntain  fni**.' 
n»fen'nces  to  this  Udief,  whiidi  wan  alw*  ^er>  ti'i.tn..  n    ■ 
Mid<lle  A^x  in  Kun>|>e.     In  MoliHiniiKHian  and  >4tiMi 
count ri«*s  this  8U^)t>rstition  i!«  still  aliiunt  unt%er>at.  a'* 
by  no  mean**  extinct  amoni;  the  ivanantni  nf  nwrr  «  n 
lands.     It  «*^*|KH•iftllv  pn'vaiU  in  VV'«Mern  AfrHA.     It  %• 
hafw  ba!«etl  u|»on  t)ie  sup|H)Kt<d   tNiwer*  of  fa^  <iia!.< 


•h 


I" 


r    - 


s<'jvh«m1  by  8*»riH'nts,  of  which  much  exa4ri:eral«tl  •»t 
told   an«l   U'lievwL     Charms  wen*  mu«h   »(«ni  t«i  f^  . 
the  miH<'hief  which   it  was  tH'lieve<l  couh!  lie  d'-nr   t-i   *   < 
evil  eye,  which  was  considered  es|K,vially  danp-n.u*  u  %    *  ^ 
child  n*n. 

ET'olate  (s«ee  EvottTioN):  in  mat  hematics,  a  * -"-< 
plane  or  otherwisn»,  around  which,  if  a  flexible  an4  ir.-  »*■  :i 
sible  striiiff  be  wrapfK.'d,  and  then  unwramie«l  undtr  (•  •  •  i 
then*  n*»ult  other  parallel  cur\'eft  calleii  irti^WK/^*.  -  -.  ( 
which  is  descril>e«l  by  every  js)int  of  the  ten**  Mni.^  -  -ri 
windintC;  Everr  plane  curve  has  its  plane  r^olut  ,  t»*  \ 
an  infinite  num()er  of  helical  evolut4**%  lyini;  in  tlwe  •  ..*  -i 
surface  of  the  rndid  iceuerated  by  the  motion  of  XHk  ^  ••! 
plane  curve  parallel  t4>  itself.  The  common  c]nli-i*i,  if  ■  <^i 
cycloids,  ana  the  hypocycloi<U  have  plane  <*toiut«'«  rx**:.! 
similar  U>  themselves,  but  inverted  in  |M«ititkQ.  Thr  .  .t 
rithmic  Hpiral  is  the  only  curve  having  all  its  evolut**  %^ 
lar  to  itM*lf. 

ETolatioB  [from  I^at,  euo/^iyre,  ero/w/ym.  iinn>U.  -.«| 
up] :  the  act  of  unfolding,  development :  in  altrr^^a  in 
arithmetic,  the  extraction  of  njot« :  in  other  w«*rxi*.  f  i 
verse  o|N*ration  to  involution.  The  obje«t  «>f  r%« 
thereft»re.  is  to  aM'ertain  the  quantity  which  multir 
its«*lf  a  state<l  numl>er  of  times  yield*  a  pi*en  nrMilt 
witler  sense,  evolution  mav  be  n»panied  as  syn<»n%m-  •.♦ 
the  solution  of  a  binomial  ec]uation,  for  it  i«  ot>vi«  ■&» 
the  «•*  n»ot  of  any  nunil»er  a  ^ali•^fies  or  i*  a  hmM  (»f  tb«  • 
titin  j«  — a=0.      This  nsit    is  indicated   by   th#   »y. 


BtII  :  the  totAlor  |t«rtiiil  alMfn'^*  «tr  n4>cati«>n  of  i**mm),  and 
thr  p!v*rncr  of  imif  rf»<  ti'-n.  *ufTt'nni;.  or  *ir».  The  <}iit'K- 
t»'»ri  of  the  oncm  of  r\il  h*^  in  ••\tr*  *cf  atlnw-ti'ti  th**  at- 
t«-titi<*n  of  thoij^'htful  rtiiiidv  I'lie  /^iniaotn.in*!  and  (fn«»s- 
tl«  «  tne<l  to  «*lve  It  bt  the  tiurtll^tle  thi<i>r^  of  the  op|M»«i!ion 

of  a  (f»«wl  ai>d  an  ri  d  pniH  ipl*-.  «Mh»T»  have  m'iititnin*-*! 
that  evd  !•  a  ne«H-«^jirt  i*«rt  of  thr  iM^ine  «•<  oti,,n,\.  nmj 
that  umlrr  the  «u|"*niit*  iid<-her  «if  Infinite  Wivlom  e*il  will 


.  1 

■ 


N 


J 


V  a  or  a  • . 

ETolatloa:  primarily,  an  nnrolling  or  an  anf- Mxr^ 
with  respect  to  the  living  world  it  was  u%w!  to  df*i*rrs' 
grtrwth  of  the  g*»rra  within  the  e|nr»  under  the  l»e..-f  t*  »■  | 
«»rgani"*m  existe<l  there  fully  fomietl  and  t^ial  itm  .'•  \ 
was  tmt  the  increase  in  si««*  and  unfolding  of  th^*  r-  j 
germ.  I^ter,  the  term  ont«>trony  has  l>«»«'n  u**«i  f..r  t  -  I 
vrlopment  of  the  egi;  into  the  a'liilt,  while  the  tenr  *  *  \ 
tion  has  lM*en  restrict***!,  in  bu»loi:ifal  laiiiniagr.  t«»  •*•  -  | 
that  continuous  f>n'trress  fn»ni  the  •imple  to  ih^-  *^  -  ^ 
fn»m  the  honioirefMsuis  to  the  heii'n»o'ii«srtiv  w*i>t  h  •  j 
judjrment  of  naturalists,  ha*  l>e«*n  the  met  JhwI  of  »  r'.iT"  '  I 
varie^l  animals  and  plants  which  now  exist  or  «1  >'  }  \4 
exi'*t«»<l.  In  the  limittii  spm^e  available  hrrv  *•*!'¥  •h^  tm^ 
outline  of  thij*  onranic  evolution  can  U*  attrritt-fi^t 

The  World  is  iwenpieil  by  an  enonnous  ntimtHr  *if  »•    '4 
and  plants — hundreils  of  thousands  of  «(h^  i«-^  n*«n*:* 
individuah.     Further,  then*  are  fi»un«l  in  th*  r**  »•— ■•  j 
re<»onU  <»f  i»««4  age-* — an  almost  e<)ualiv  gnrnt  &«>«  if  »  .»»* 
forms  •'oiiieof  ahirh  are  cl<»s»d%   *unil«r  to   ti«iii^  s^*^  ^ 
while  others  are  gn'atly  difTen*rit  fnmi  aniihir.f  t*t  \'     mm^ 
n'lrion  or  even  in  the  world.     Fun hT  all  tt«'s«  f  ^    •     «j 
li\itiL'an*l  extinct,  show  a  wonderful  rauk*^  if  ita:»(-a.    ( 
to  their  function** and  surnMindiDtTN  anil   like  ait«;<a:     • 
iiarts  t«»  the  pur|x»se*  tlie*    ha^'e  to  jirrform       1   »..  .,  ,^^\ 
for  <M tint  ion  )H  this  :  How  did  all   th***e  fomi«  *s  i.*.  .-       J 
istencef  for  the  evidem'e   is  ample  thai   tt»rrt- w»*  •  t*^ 
ning.     S»veral  an«wcp*  have  l»e«'n  attenipt^i,  or  *.%    t»- 
which  ol)tain  much  a*'<*eptan«>e.     The  one  [«re«ii.  a:r«  i*-  ^ 
isti-niv  of  an  <Miini|M>tent  lU'ing  who  tre«lr«l  tt>«  t:i  «»  •    "j 
them;  the  othtT  doi*s  n<»t  deal  with  the  ipie^i'»ti  1  f  t*;*     ^ 
of  life.  I>ut  I'inirns  that  mven  one  or  a  few  on^n*!  f    •"^•j 
life  nil  other  fi'tm*  niii«t   have  c*ime  fn'm  tb**m    t  *  *'• 
cunnilrtti>e  etTiit«  of  intuitnemble  ^mall   van**;  #  «    -.-f^ 
Utiil  with  the  m-tion  of  henNlity.    This  latter  «•  t^»  ••■^ 
of  orjiinie  i*\iiliiiioii.  a  thi**trT  which   Ka«   m^**n  rv^    t 
enoniiou*  lit»-nitiin*.  and  which  f  ae^ffitnil  by  rirt^  w^s\ 
i«t  the   «rii«-]i|   it\i<r.  with    the   eT[i^|i(ion   of   a  vrfv     f#^  ^ 
w.«n*  nln-rtilv  old  men  when,  in  IVitf.  I>arwtn  ftr<*f  i 
idea  U-ff-H'  the  world  in  a  s<%ii«matic  form      Tl^    •, 
uifliT  iif«u«^ion   an*   loendv    tlnMr  of  detail;  Mad  sr   '^ 


230 


EVOLUTION 


tare  whereby  individual  peculiarities  may  be  repeated  in  a 
second  generation,  but  tnat  principle  which  insures  perpe- 
tuity, which  is  expressed  by  the  breeder  as  "like  begets 
like.  We  notice  the  reappearance  of  individual  peculiari- 
tfes  by  inheritance — that  a  six-toed  cat  will  have  six-toed 
kittens — but  one  is  apt  to  lose  sight  of  that  more  wonderful 
fact,  that  a  cat  will  invariably  have  kittens,  not  puppies  or 
whales.  Of  the  universality  of  this  law  none  can  doubt. 
**  Blood  will  tell  ■'  is  but  a  homely  expression  of  it.  In  some 
way  the  parent  is  able  to  impress  upon  the  germ-cell  the 
capacity  of  reproducing  not  only  the  broader  features  of 
class  and  genus  and  species,  but  not  infrequently  the  more 
subtle  characters  of  the  individual  as  well.  To  explain  this 
capacity,  which  is  common  to  both  animals  and  plants, 
various  hypotheses  have  been  advanced  (some  of  which  are 
outlined  m  the  article  Heredity),  but  they  need  not  be  de- 
tailed here. 

Variation  and  heredity  are  contrasting  factors.  Varia- 
tion is  constantly  introducing  change.  Heredity  as  con- 
stantly tends  to  reproduce  the  old  conditions.  Variation 
introduces  new  features,  new  modifications,  into  each  suc- 
ceeding generation ;  heredity  strives  to  perpetuate  the  gen- 
eration that  has  gone  before.  Variation  is  progressive ;  he- 
redity conservative. 

As  was  hinted  above,  it  is  not  yet  certain  whether  all  va- 
riations can  be  perpetuated  by  heredity,  and  according  to 
the  view  taken,  two  schools  of  modern  evolutionists  may  be 
differentiated.  The  one,  the  followers  of  Weismann — Neo- 
Darwinians,  they  are  called — claim  that  there  is  no  satisfac- 
tory evidence  that  those  variations  which  are  the  result  of 
mechanical  causes  (in  other  words,  acquired  variations)  can 
bo  inherited ;  that  every  instance  in  which  the  effects  of  use 
and  disuse,  of  mutilations,  of  prenatal  infiuences,  and  the 
like  are  supposed  to  be  shown,  are  capable  of  explanation 
upon  another  basis.  The  other  school — that  of  the  Neo-La- 
marckians,  which  has  its  stronghold  in  the  U.  S. — maintains, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  "  acquired  variations  "  can  be  trans- 
mitted from  generation  to  generation,  and  that  since  these 
variations  are  and  must  be  adapted  to  external  agencies  and 
surroundings,  and  hence  of  greater  value  to  the  individual 
and  the  race,  it  must  needs  follow  that  such  variations  are 
most  important  in  the  differentiation  of  new  fonns  of  life. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  line  between  the  two  views  is  sharply 
drawn,  and  time  must  elapse  before  the  dispute  is  settlea. 
The  idea  of  the  inheritance  of  acquired  characters  is  the  old 
one,  and  indeed  it  forms  the  whole  of  the  evolution  of  La- 
marck. The  view  of  Weismann  is  new,  but  it  accords  so 
well  with  what  is  known  of  the  constitution  and  phenomena 
of  the  germ-cells  that  it  has  been  most  favorably  regarded 
by  the  majority  of  the  embryological  workers.  Weismann 
has  provided  a  logical  theory  of  heredity,  in  good  accord 
with  what  is  known  of  the  egg  and  sperm  cells,  through 
which  inheritance  must  take  place,  and  in  this  theory  there 
seems  no  place  for  the  transmission  of  acquired  characters. 
How  the  dispute  will  end  can  not  be  predicted.  It  must, 
however,  be  Kept  in  mind  that  the  differences  between  the 
schools  are  upon  methods ;  both  agree  that  variations  exist, 
and  that  some  variations  at  least  can  be  transmitted  from 
generation  to  generation. 

Heredity  furnishes  some  other  interesting  phenomena 
which  have  a  bearing  upon  evolution.  One  of  these  is  re- 
version. This  is  the  reappearance  in  the  progeny  of  char- 
acters or  traits  not  seen  m  the  immediate  ancestors,  but 
which  are  found  in  those  more  remote.  Sometimes  but  a 
single  generation  is  skipped,  at  others  the  number  of  gener- 
ations omitted  is  enormous.  When  pigeons  are  removed 
from  the  somewhat  abnormal  conditions  under  which  they 
exist  in  domestication,  they  exhibit  a  marked  tendency  in 
successive  generations  to  revert  more  or  less  perfectly  to  the 
rock  pigeon,  or  ancestral  condition.  In  other  case^  the  re- 
version is  more  marked  and  more  remarkable.  Evolution 
teaches  that  the  single-toed  horse  has  descended  from  the 
three  and  four  toed  horses  of  the  Eocene  age.  Hundreds  of 
thousands  of  years  have  elajjsed  since  the  three-toed  condi- 
tion wiis  normal,  and  yet  among  mo<lcrn  horses  polydjictyle 
individuals  occasionally  occur,  and  this  three  or  four  toed 
condition  must  be  regarded  as  reversional  or  atavistic  in 
character.  CofK)  has  pointed  out  that  in  man  the  teeth  of 
the  higher  races  are  tending  back  toward  those  of  the 
lemurs,  a  reversion  which  is  not  occasional,  but  which  is  be- 
coming the  normal  conflition.  In  all  cases  of  reversion  or 
atavism,  the  more  recent  the  change  the  greater  are  the 
chances  of  the  occasional  reappearance  of  the  ancestral  i-on- 
dition. 


Another-  feature  of  heredity  is  the  constant  tendpnoy 
toward  reduction  to  the  average  by  the  action  of  the  la^ 
which  Weismann  has  called  panmixia  (or  cessation  of  M-lt-f- 
tlon).  A  supposititious  case  will  illustrate  this :  Suppu-se  an 
animal  appears  with  a  neck  much  longer  than  the  aveni;.v 
in  the  species.  It  pairs  with  another  with  a  nonnal  nt^  k. 
Now,  other  things  being  equal,  the  chances  are  dec'i<l»'<ilT 
against  the  reappearance  of  a  neck  of  the  same  length  in  tht' 
second  generation.  On  the  contrar>%  it  may  safely  be  pre- 
dicted that,  unless  some  selection  be  active,  the  necks  of  thn 
descendants  will,  in  a  few  generations,  be  reduced  to  tht- 
normal. 

Struggle  for  Existence. — As  one  ordinarily  looks  ui*.^!! 
nature,  the  idea  of  a  constant  struggle  seems  absurd.  An 
occasional  bird  may  fall  a  victim  to  a  cat;  a  hawk  ina\ 
pounce  upon  a  snake  or  field-mouse,  but,  as  a  whole.  nHtim- 
seems  quiet  and  peaceful.  A  more  careful  examinatinr;. 
however,  shows  that  this  peai^e  is  but  su})erficial ;  in  rt-ality 
every  plant  and  every  animal  is  in  a  constant  struggle  fnr 
existence.  The  struggle  is  constant,  omnipresent,  an<]  i^ 
effects  are  correspondingly  great.  It  is  a  logical  result  <>i 
the  geometrical  ratio  of  increase  of  all  living  tnings.  Wttv 
the  progeny  of  a  single  pair,  no  matter  how  small,  or  h'«w 
slow  breeding,  to  go  on  generation  after  generation  rejir<«- 
ducing  their  Kind  without  any  check  except  natural  death, 
it  would  require  but  a  short  time  for  the  whole  world  to  \h^ 
come  too  small  for  their  accommodation.  Thus  Darwin,  tak- 
ing the  elephant  (possibly  the  slowest  breeder  of  all  aniituiUi 
concludes  that  in  750  years  the  living  offspring  of  a  siriL.- 
pair  would  number  nearly  19.000,0(X).  Supposing  that  ca«  h 
egg  should  produce  an  adult,  in  twenty-five  years  tin*  a*- 
scendants  of  a  single  pair  of  codfish  would  make  a  ina^« 
larger  than  the  earth.  In  the  lower  forms  the  reproducii-n 
is  even  more  rapid.  Maupas  states  that  were  the  infus<^>r:.iii 
which  he  studied — itself  invisible  to  the  naked  eye — to  on- 
tinue  at  its  most  rapid  rate  of  division  for  thirtv-eight  d}i\<. 
the  result  would  be  a  mass  of  protoplasm  equaling  the  mji 
in  size. 

So  it  is  with  every  animal  and  every  plant.  Uneh«M'ki>ii. 
thev  increase  with  enormous  rapidity;  and  yet  under  n-r- 
max  conditions  there  is  no  such  increase,  but  rather  a  I  .i!- 
ance  of  nature.  The  total  number  of  individuals  renijurt^ 
tolerably  constant,  and  taking  several  years  together  xht 
number  of  forms  in  a  given  area  shows*  but  little  chance. 
Indeed,  the  world  is  about  as  full  of  individuals  of  aniin.iE^ 
and  plants  as  it  can  possibly  be.  Such  being  the  casc\  an! 
such  the  natural  rate  of  increase,  there  must  of  neoes<it>  U 
a  constant  struggle  for  existence,  a  struggle  which  if  not 
outwardly  apparent  is  none  the  less  real;  a  struggle  l^*- 
tween  the  vanous  species  and  a  struggle  between  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  species  as  well. 

In  the  well-kept  garden  the  plants  cultivated  are  to  a 
large  extent  removed  from  this  competition,  but  when  tli*^ 
garden  is  neglected  the  stmggle  begins.  Weeds  sprins:  uj-, 
and  in  a  few  years  they  have  choked  out  the  former  veir.  la- 
tion,  and  even  some  of  the  first  weeds  to  appear  have  thrrr- 
selves  disappeared.  In  a  forest  of  birches  there  is  a  struixjl^ 
between  the  individuals.  Each  year  myriads  of  sewb  a:-- 
produced,  but  of  these  only  a  sufiicient  number  grow  inr- 
trees  to  replace  those  which  die.  If  now  a  single  beech-tn-» 
spring  up  in  the  forest,  the  character  of  the  stnurjt 
cnanges.  No  longer  do  the  birch-trees  have  to  com|t!i 
with  each  other;  they  have  to  struggle  with  the  new  in- 
vader. It  lies  between  beech  and  birch,  and  ultimately,  ex- 
cept in  favored  localities,  the  birch  must  succumb,  Auh'i:: 
animals  it  is  the  same.  Every  species  is  limited  in  nuii)V».r^ 
by  the  question  of  food  as  well  as  by  the  abundance  of  form* 
for  which  it  in  turn  forms  flesh,  to  say  nothing  of  question- 
of  climate  and  the  like. 

Usually  the  factors  which  enter  into  this  competition  .hp 
very  numerous  and  very  complex.    One  of  the  simph'^t  lu- 
stances  is  this:  The  abundance  of  clover  in  any  locality  .> 
directly  dependent  upon  the  number  of  cats  and  owls  in  tN 
region.    Tne  capacity  of  clover  for  reseeding  itself  deJH»!^^ 
uprm  the  fertilization  of  its  flowers,  and  this  fcrtilizatii'i.  i> 
accomplished  chiefly  by  bumble-bees.      Now  bunible-K-- 
form  the  principal  foo(i  of  field-mice.     Hence  fewer  cat* 
and  owls,  more  field-mice,  fewer  bees,  less  seed  an<i    Uv* 
clover  the  next  year.     In  most  cases  the  factors  are  m-  -v 
complex,  and  it  is  a  dangerous  thing  for  man  to  atton.i : 
to  alter  the  balance  of  nature.    Witness  the  ill-ail vis4*ii  ii, 
troduction  of  the  English  sparrow  into  the  U.  S.,  ami  i:!f 
disastrous  importation  of  rabnits  to  Australia. 

Now,  if  there  be  such  a  struggle,  what  is  to  determint 


232 


EVOLUTION 


alteration  by  intense  heat,  and  contain  graphite — a  highlj 
metamorphosed  coal — which  may  be  of  vegetable  and,  possi- 
bly in  some  instances,  of  animal  origin.  In  the  Cambrian 
are  found  numerous  forms  of  life,  but  all  are  extremely 
generalized.  In  the  Cambrian  are  found  generalized  sharks, 
the  lowest  vertebrates  possessing  hard  structures.  In  the 
Carboniferous  the  batrachians  appear ;  the  reptiles  are  first 
known  in  the  Permian,  and  reacn  their  culmniation  in  the 
Cretaceous ;  while  mammals  appear  as  monotremes  or  mar- 
supials in  the  Triassic,  and  then,  after  an  as  yet  inexplica- 
ble absence  from  the  Cretaceous,  reappear  in  higher  and 
more  dififerentiated  species  in  the  Tertiaries.  The  birds 
make  their  appearance  in  the  Cretaceous.  Thus  there  is  in 
the  order  of  appearance  exactly  the  same  progress  from  the 
simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  undifferentiated  to  the 
specialized,  which  evolution  demands. 

The  geological  record  is  more  detailed  than  this.  It  is 
possible  to  trace  clearly,  step  by  step,  the  evolution  of  a 
large  number  of  forms.  The  nistory  of  the  rhinoceroses,  the 
horses,  and  the  crocodiles  is  known  in  detail.  In  the  suc- 
cessive beds  can  be  traced  the  gradual  modifications  of  the 
skeleton  of  Prohatteria  of  the  Permian,  which  resulted  in 
the  gavials,  alligators,  and  crocodiles.  All  the  stages  can 
be  found  which  intervene  between  the  four-toed  Eokippus 
of  the  I'ower  Eocene  and  the  three-toed  Anchitherium  {Jaio- 
hippus)  of  the  Miocene  to  the  single-toed  Pliohippua  of  the 
Puocene  and  the  horse  and  zebra.  Not  only  the  successive 
steps  in  the  evolution  of  foot-structure  are  preserved,  but 
also  every  phase  in  the  development  of  the  complicated 
enamel  pattern  of  the  teeth. 

Neumayr  and  Paul  have  studied  the  fossil  fresh-water 
shells  of  an  old  lake  basin  in  Hungary,  and  Hyatt  has  per- 
formed a  similar  service  for  corresponding  beds  in  Wftrtem- 
berg.  In  both  localities  the  successive  layers  afford  slightly 
varving  forms,  so  that  in  either  bed  can  be  seen  the  gradual 
evolution  of  the  new  species  and  the  extinction  of  the  old. 
In  some  cases  the  causes  of  extinction  can  be  seen,  and  the 
character  of  the  imfitness  demonstrated.  With  this  slight 
reference  the  geological  record  must  be  dismissed. 

A  little  more  detail  may  be  pardoned  in  stating  the  char- 
acter of  the  embryological  record,  since  this  has  not  so 
thoroughly  found  its  way  into  the  popular  works.  If  the 
principle  of  heredity  be  true,  one  would  expect  to  find  in 
the  development  of  animals  and  plants  traces  of  the  line  of 
descent.  If  evolution  be  true,  one  ought  to  find,  following 
back  the  development  of  the  ^gg^  just  as  in  the  geological 
record,  that  specific  details  would  vanish  and  g^ve  rise  to 
more  generalized  features;  that  the  earlier  the  stages  the 
more  the  embryos  of  related  forms  would  resemble  each 
other. 

The  lowest  forms  of  animal  life  are  the  Protozoa,  each  in- 
dividual of  which  is  but  a  simple  mass  of  protoplasm  with 
a  central  differentiated  spot,  the  nucleus.  In  the  language 
of  histology  it  is  a  simple  cell.  The  ^gg  of  a  frog,  for  in- 
stance, can  be  described  with  the  same  language.  In  other 
words,  the  &gg  is  the  representation  of  the  protozoan  stage. 
The  protozoan  can  reproduce  itself  by  dividing  into  two  indi- 
viduals, each  with  its  nucleus.  The  frog's  egg  in  its  develop- 
ment segments  in  a  similar  way,  with  the  same  wonderful 
processes.  In  certain  very  low  forms  (Vo1vox\  sometimes 
chissed  as  animals,  sometimes  as  plants,  the  organism  con- 
sists of  a  hollow  sphere  of  cells  produced  by  the  continued 
division  of  a  protozoan-like  germ.  In  the  developing  egg 
of  tiie  frog  a  corresponding  stage  with  central  cavity  and 
superficiiii  cells  occurs. 

In  the  plane  above  the  Protozoa  comes  the  ^eat  group  of 
Cojle  lit  crates,  in  which  the  body  has  but  a  smgle  opening, 
connecting  the  external  world  with  a  two-walled  sac.  This 
opening  serves  at  once  for  mouth  and  vent,  while  the  inter- 
nal siic  serves  as  stomach.  In  the  next  stage  of  the  frog's 
egg  one  side  of  the  hollow  sphere  becomes  pushed  in,  much 
as  one  might  push  in  one  side  of  a  nibber  ball,  thus  con- 
verting it  into  a  double  sac  like  the  Coelenterate.  The  re- 
semblance goes  further.  The  inner  sac  becomes  the  stom- 
ach, while  the  opening  is  converted  into  the  vent  of  the  adult. 
In  the  Cojlenterate  the  nervous  system  is  but  a  portion  of  the 
outer  skin,  and  all  the  sense  organs  are  differentiations  of 
that  layer.  In  the  frog's  embryo  there  is  a  stage  when  the 
brain  and  sense  organs — eyes,  ears,  and  nose — are  differenti- 
ated from  the  outer  layer  of  tlie  sac. 

Next,  the  frog's  egg  passes  through  what  may  be  called  the 
annelid  stage.  On  eitner  side  of  the  body  are  formed  little 
blocks  of  muscle  which  correspond  to  the  segments  (rings) 
of  the  earthworm,  for  every  vertebrate  is  as  plainly  mtule 


up  of  a  series  of  segments  as  is  any  worm  or  arthropod.  A 
central  circulatory  apparatus  forms,  in  both  frog  and  worm, 
on  the  side  of  the  intestine  opposite  the  nervous  svstem,  and 
further,  in  both,  branches  run  from  this  central  tube  be- 
tween the  blocks  of  muscle.  Some  of  these  in  the  fn>g.  a^ 
in  the  fish  and  shark,  form  the  gill  arteries,  and  they  unite 
above  in  these  forms,  as  in  the  earthworm,  to  form  a  dorv&l 
aorta. 

In  the  following  stage  the  developing  frog  leaves  the  in- 
vertebrate behind,  and  takes  on  true  vertebrate  fe«tun»>. 
The  mouth  becomes  open,  as  in  the  shark,  while  the  ^'iH- 
slits  are  formed,  from  which  gill  filaments  soon  protrudp. 
Somewhat  earlier,  in  both  frog  and  shark,  the  digestive  tract 
forms  a  cartilaginous  rod  on  its  dorsal  surface  (the  n^ttK 
chord),  about  which  the  vertebne  later  appear.  In  the 
frog  can  be  seen  a  shark-like  stage  in  the  aevelopment  of 
the  skull — ^the  same  formation  of  cartilage  rods  and  sense 
capsules,  the  same  formation  of  a  cartilaginous  case  for  the 
brain.  Here  the  frog  leaves  the  shark  behind,  and  deveh*p- 
ing  true  bone,  a  complicated  skeleton  for  the  limbs,  lunpi 
for  respiratory  purposes,  becomes  a  true  frog. 

The  foregoing  is  but  one  of  thousands  of  series  of  corre- 
spondences which  every  naturalist  can  furnish,  in  each  ca?e 
there  bein^  the  closest  parallel  between  the  geological  and 
embryological  records,  and  in  both  there  is  the  same  i^ 
Quence,  the  same  conditions  which  the  theory  of  evolution 
demands.  A  few  coincidences  might  be  explained  as  acci- 
dental, but  they  are  so  numerous,  so  universal,  that  <>nt'  Iv 
fully  warranted  in  the  aphorism  that  the  history  of  the  m- 
dividual  (i.  e.  embryology)  is  a  recapitulation  of  that  of  th** 
race.  So  firmly  has  this  principle  been  established  that  it  i«i 
used  as  the  chief  factor  in  tracing  relationships  and  pedigrt>es 
of  both  animals  and  plants,  especially  in  those  groups  whirv 
there  are  no  hard  parts  for  preservation  as  fossils,  and 
where,  consequently,  the  geological  record  can  not  be  con- 
sulted. 

There  is  also  much  corroborative  evidence  of  varyinc 
character.  Here  is  to  be  enumerated  the  evidence  of  ata- 
vism or  reversion  already  referred  to.  The  occasional  txcur- 
rence  of  well-defined  and  regular  banding  on  horses  iniii- 
cates  a  former  zebra-like  ancestor,  while  the  occasional  rx-- 
currence  of  three-toed  horses  points  clearly  to  the  three-ti««i 
progenitor  of  the  Eocene. 

Here,  too,  one  must  refer  to  the  geographical  distribution 
of  both  plants  and  animals.  Those  forms  which,  both  fri>rti 
embryology  and  geology,  are  known  to  be  extremely  ild 
have  a  verr  wide  range,  and  at  the  same  time  are  poor  in 
species.  Thus  the  scorpions,  dating  from  the  Silurian,  art* 
found,  with  slight  variations  in  form,  in  all  quarters  of  tiu' 
globe.  The  horseshoe  crab,  which  has  existed  in  a  scan^ely 
modified  condition  since  the  Carboniferous,  is  found  in  h<>ih 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  Phyllopods,  which  apfvnr 
in  the  Cambrian,  are  found  all  over  the  world  tCMlay.  Thr* 
primitive  Dipnoi,  or  lun^fishes,  with  but  four  living'speoit^, 
range  from  South  America  to  Africa  and  Australia,  and  <»d^ 
genus  (Ceratodus)  has  existed  since  the  Triassic.  Linfjuhi, 
a  brachiopod  which  occurs  in  the  Cambrian  rocks,  is  found 
in  the  seas  of  the  Carolinas  and  of  Japan.  The  marsupial?, 
already  referred  to  as  among  the  oldest  of  mammals,  arc 
living  in  America  and  Austnuia.  In  all  of  these,  and  hun- 
dreds of  other  instances,  these  old  forms  are  found  widt-ir 
separated  and  few  in  species.  When,  however,  one  studier 
the  fossils,  he  finds  them  distributed  through  all  the  inter- 
vening regions,  and  is  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  ex- 
isting representatives  of  these  groups  are  the  survivors  «  f 
a  formerly  widely  distributed  £una  and  flora  which  is  all 
but  extinct. 

Coming  to  the'  newer  forms,  one  finds  that  there  is  a  closo 
connection  between  the  past  and  present  fauna  and  flora  <  tf 
certain  regions ;  that  these  newer  forms  have  their  centers  •  'f 
origin,  and  have  not  yet  become  distributed  far  from  :t. 
Thus  South  America  was  the  former  home  of  the  edentnt* 
mammals,  and  in  the  same  region  flourish  the  sloths  and 
armadillos  of  the  present  epoch.  In  Australia  all  the  nuim- 
mals  *  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  belonged  either  to  t  \  - 
monotremes  or  marsupials.  In  the  same  island  contin*  va 
is  found  a  rich  fossil  fauna,  but  not  a  single  representati\-. 
of  the  placental  mammals.  The  conclusion  is  that  sH.i- 
this  region  was  first  peopled  by  the  then  existing  hii^h*  ?: 
mammalia,  it  has  been  protected  from  immigration  of  tt.. 
higher  groups  which  have  arisen  in  other  parts  of  tt.** 
world.  On  the  other  hand,  evolution  has  not  been  idle  h<  n\ 
for  in  Australia  the  marsupials  have  evolved  a  ran*rt^  of 
*  Excepting  the  dingo,  or  naUve  dog,  probably  introduced  hj^ 


234 


EVOLUTION 


Speeiea.  Brooks,  Heredity,  Conn,  Evolution  of  To-dap, 
Cnambers,  Vestiges  of  Creation,  Cope,  Origin  of  the  Fit- 
test. Eimer,  Organic  Evolution,  Gallon,  Theory  of  Hered- 
ity. Geddes  and  Thompson,  Evolution  of  Sex,  Haeckel, 
Natural  History  of  Creation ;  Evolution  of  Man ;  Anthro- 
poaeny,  ^oMipriii^  Distribution  of  Animals,  Iluxley,  if on'« 
Place  in  Nature ;  Origin  of  Species,  Le  Conte,  Evolution 
and  Religious  Thought,  Aiivart,  Oetiesis  of  Species,  Mlil- 
ler,  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  Romanes,  Scientific  Evidences 
of  Organic  Evolution;  Animal  Intelligence;  Darwin  and 
After  Darwin,  Schmidt,  Descent  and  Darwinism,  Sem- 
per, Animal  Life  as  affected  by  NcUural  Conditions  of  Ex- 
istence, Spencer,  Principles  of  Biology ;  Factors  of  Organic 
Evolution,  Wallace,  Natural  Seledtofi ;  Darwinism ;  Geo- 
graphical Distribution  of  Animcds,  Weismann,  Studies  in 
the  Theory  of  Evolution;  Heredity.  For  the  pre-Darwinian 
theories,  see  Butler,  Evolution,  Old  and  New. 

J.  S.  KiNOSLEY. 

Evolation  (as  related  to  biological  and  geological  ques- 
tions) :  In  the  use  of  the  term  evolution  it  will  always  be 
necessary  to  discriminate  between  its  different  meanings. 
Literally,  it  is  the  act  of  unrolling ;  the  primary  idea  being 
that  of  the  unfolding  of  the  leaves  of  a  bud,  hence  the  simi- 
lar unfolding  and  extension  of  the  germ  in  a  seed,  and  the 
development  of  the  embryo-cell  of  an  egg  into  an  animal. 
In  a  more  general  sense  it  is  applied  to  anv  process  by 
which  a  thing  rudimentary  or  apparently  homogeneous 
passes  into  a  more  heterogeneous  condition  in  which  it 
displays  more  or  less  complexity  or  distinction  of  parts  or 
organs.  We  may  for  the  present  neglect,  as  exceptional, 
cases  of  retrograde  development  in  which  complex  structures 
become  more  simple.  In  a  hypothetical  sense  the  term  is 
applied  to  any  supposed  change  or  series  of  changes  where- 
by organic  and  livmg  bodies  may  pass  from  simple  to  more 
complex  states,  or  whereby  one  species  or  kind  of  plant  or 
animal  may  be  transformed  into  another,  usually  of  more 
complicated  structure. 

The  present  article  is  intended  to  refer  more  especially  to 
the  hypothetical  employment  of  the  term  evolution  in  cer- 
tain modern  philosophical  discussions,  and  will  allude  to 
the  ordinary  or  matter-of-fact  uses  of  it,  chiefly  in  illustra- 
tion of  these,  and  in  order  to  inquire  what  basis  there  may 
be  in  nature  for  the  philosophical  conceptions  of  evolution 
of  organic  beings  heki  by  Darwin  and  his  followers. 

There  are  certain  data  essential  to  this  ouestion  which  are 
not  usually  sufficiently  considered,  and  wnich  should  there- 
fore be  stated  in  the  nrst  instance. 

1.  Evolution  itself  is  not  and  can  not  be  |m  efficient  cause 
of  anything.  It  is  merely  a  development  of  things  previ- 
ously existing  in  embryo  or  potentiality,  and  is  thus  a  proc- 
ess having  its  beginning  and  its  stages,  but  dependent  alto- 
gether on  previous  arrangements  and  on  contemporaneous 
conditions  or  efficient  causes.  This  is  seen  in  the  develop- 
ment of  an  egg.  It  must  have  an  embryo-cell  potentially 
representing  tlie  chick,  andpabulum  appropriate  and  avail- 
able for  its  nourishment.  To  produce  the  evolution  of  these 
into  a  bird  there  must  be  the  warmth  of  incubation.  It 
would  be  absurd  to  expect  by  any  process  to  hatch  a  bird 
from  a  pebble,  and  an  egg  kept  in  an  ice-house  would  be 
equally  incapable  of  development.  In  every  case  of  evolu- 
tion there  must  be  (1)  something  to  be  evolved  ;  (2)  the  de- 
velopment of  this  according  to  what  may  have  been  poten- 
tially in  it ;  (3)  the  causes  or  conditions  of  the  development. 
In  other  words,  whenever  anything  is  said  to  be  evolved, 
three  things  must  be  considered :  (1)  potentiality,  (2)  devel- 
opment. (3)  causation.  Unfortunately  there  is  too  great  a 
tendency  to  confine  attention  altogether  to  the  second  of 
these  and  to  take  the  first  and  third  for  granted. 

2.  It  follows  from  the  previous  statement  that  evolution, 
even  if  all  the  component  parts  above  described  are  in- 
cluded in  it,  can  not  explain  the  origin  of  anything.  It 
must  presuppose  something  having  at  least  potentially  pres- 
ent all  that  is  to  be  evolved.  In  other  wonis,  it  has  to  take 
for  granted  all  that  is  to  be  produced.  It  is  certain  that 
every  feather  of  the  chick  must  be  potentially  present  in  the 
embryo  in  the  egg,  and  to  explain  the  origin  oi  this  is  there- 
fore quite  as  difficult  as  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  com- 
plete oird.  When  therefore  evolution  pretends  to  explain 
origins  it  becomes  a  process  of  reasoning  in  a  circle,  and  the 
question  resolves  itself  into  that  old  one,  whether  owls  pre- 
ceded eggs  or  eggs  preceded  owls.  This  is  admittea  in 
terms  by  Darwin  and  his  followers,  but  they  constantly 
overlook  it.    The  title  of  Darwin's  famous  book  77ie  Origin 


of  Species  is  an  example.  It  really  says  nothing  of  tl:»* 
origin  of  species,  but  only  of  transmutations  of  specit-x 
ali'eady  in  existence. 

3.  Taking  for  granted,  as  Darwin  had  to  do,  the  exi»t4nu 
of  living  organisms  with  all  their  powers  and  properties,  and 
referring  to  their  development  with  reference  to  caiuM^  and 
effect,  four  kinds  of  this  may  be  recognized,  to  any  of  which 
may  be  given  the  name  evolution,  but  they  are  quit4*  dt-^ 
tinct  from  each  other.  The  first  of  these  is  the  airrct  de- 
velopment of  structures  previously  prepared  and  subjected 
to  the  operation  of  adequate  causes,  as  heat,  moisture,  etc. 
Of  this  kind  is  the  development  of  seeds  and  eggs  into  adult 
plants  and  animals.  A  second  kind  is  indirect  developmeM, 
or  that  which  takes  place  in  adult  organisms  under  the 
power  and  guidance  of  an  external  will.  Such  is  the  arti- 
ficial production  by  men  of  varieties  of  plants  and  auiinaK 
by  processes  of  culture,  selection,  and  isolation.  A  thini 
kind  would  be  a  fortuitous  or  natural  series  of  changes,  by 
which  varieties  or  even  species  might  arise  in  nature,  undt- r 
the  influence  of  external  conditions.  This  has  been  tormrd 
variation  under  natural  selection,  but  in  this  expression  a 
fallacy  is  involved,  unless  an  intelligent  selector  and  varie- 
ties to  be  selected  from  are  assumed,  in  which  case  it  l^e- 
comes  the  same  with  the  second,  except  as  carried  on  by 
some  power  distinct  from  man.  A  fourth  kind  which  h^L* 
been  imagined,  but  is  altogether  unknown  to  science,  is  tht* 
spontaneous  evolution  of  life  and  organization  from  that 
which  is  dead  and  unorganized.  This,  however,  can  not  W 
realized  in  its  causes  and  methods  unless  a  creative  power 
be  assumed,  and  this  acting  in  a  way  different  from  anythinc 
within  the  sphere  of  human  observation. 

These  considerations,  which  do  not  seem  liable  to  any 
doubt,  closelv  restrict  the  sphere  of  organic  evolution  of  tht- 
nature  of  phylogeny,  or  tne  development  of  new  sjierii'^ 
from  forms  previously  existing ;  and  when  we  eliminate  «  r- 
dinary  variation,  in  which  varietal  forms  still  capable  of  n- 
production  with  each  other  and  also  capable  of  reversion  h' 
the  original  type  are  produced,  it  can  scarcely  be  affirnn-i 
that  there  is  any  fact  open  to  observation  justifying  the  as- 
sertion that  any  case  of  the  production  of  a  distinct  sf>e*i'-- 
in  this  way  is  known.  Darwin's  illustration  taken  from  Ww 
domestic  pigeon  is  a  case  in  point.  This  bird,  the  original 
of  which  IS  believed  to  be  the  rock  pigeon  of  Europe  {d^ 
lumba  livia),  has  varied  under  domestication  to  such  an  t  \- 
tent  that  some  of  its  breeds,  if  found  wild,  would  be  regani.-ii 
as  distinct  specifically,  or  even  generically,  from  each  oth^^r. 
Yet  all  breed  together  freely,  and  all  show  reversion  to  tht 
forms  and  colors  of  the  wild  stock.  In  this  case  also  there 
is  an  indirect  development  dependent  on  hnman  agi^ix  y. 
and  Darwin  himself  has  ably  proved  that  it  could  not  <w^Kr 
in  wild  nature.  This  case,  therefore,  shows  that  the  utii)"-* 
efforts  of  artificial  selection,  acting  for  thousands  of  veii-- 
on  a  creature  easily  domesticated  and  of  plastic  organ ;/-»- 
tion,  have  failed  to  develop  a  specific  type.  Obviously  m^*  i> 
here  at  an  infinite  distance  from  any  explanation  of  the  ••ri- 
gin  of  the  rock  pigeon  itself,  and  there  is  no  rea'^n  to  U- 
lieve  that  any  treatment  or  lapse  of  time  would  suffiw  w 
separate  it  into  distinct  species. 

Facts  in  support  of  the  evolution  of  species  being  tl-i^ 
wanting,  its  advocates  fall  back  on  two  kinds  of  eWdeniv — 

(1)  that  of  analogy  between  the  evolution  or  ontogeny  of  rl  i. 
individual,  and  the  phylogeny  or  evolution  of  the  race;  a.-ii 

(2)  the  succession  of  animals  and  plants  in  geological  xxir.r 
The  first  of  these  is  liable  to  the  oojection,  taken  in  the  e.ir- 
Her  part  of  this  article,  to  the  confounding  of  distinct  kind'- 
of  evolution.  It  is  not  logical  to  establish  an  analogy  l-- 
tween  the  evolution  of  a  germ  through  various  stager*  in*" 
an  animal,  whose  parts  were  potentially  present  in  the  jien;.. 
and  the  evolution  of  an  adult  animal  into  an  animal  of  an- 
other kind.  Nor  is  it  logical  to  allege  an  evolution  taki'r 
place  under  special  conditions  of  parental  origin,  iiicui  a- 
tion,  etc.,  to  prove  the  possibility  of  an  evolution  in  rrtrHn: 
to  which  all  these  preparatory  conditions  and  efficient  cMu>e- 
are  absent.  The  only  possible  use  of  the  argument  f n  ni 
analogy  is  that  suggested  by  Weismann,  namely,  that  chum  * 
may  so  affect  the  germinal  matter  in  an  animal  or  a  pLn^i' 
that  the  resulting  germ  to  be  developed  shall  not  repn-.-  • 
potentially  the  parent,  but  something  else.  This  siip}.-- 
tion  accords  with  experience  in  the  production  of  t-ortjin. 
varietal  forms,  but  is  not  known  to  produce  new  species^,  ar-: 
if  it  could  do  this  it  would  effectually  overthrow  the  I»nr- 
winian  idea  of  slow  changes  und<?r  natural  selection,  hi"' 
the  Lamarckian  idea  of  similar  slow  changes  under  the  n  - 
flueuce  of  adaptation  to  environment.    It  would,  in  short,  N 


236 


EVOLUTION 


the  doctrine  of  development  nearer  to  the  position  of  those 
great  naturalists  like  Cuvier,  Louis  Agassiz,  and  Gegen- 
bauer,  who  have  denied  any  genetic  connection  between  the 
leading  animal  types.  He  quotes  Cope  and  Packard  in  sup- 
port of  his  view  on  this  point.  Cope  has,  in  a  series  of 
Drilliant  essays,*  endeavored  to  illustrate  what  he  terms 
"causes  of  tfie  origin  of  the  fittest."  Of  this  kind  are 
growth-force  modified  by  retardation  or  acceleration  of  de- 
velopment produced  by  unfavorable  or  favoring  conditions, 
the  effects  of  use  and  disuse  on  modifying  structures,  the 
law  of  correlation  of  parts  and  the  effects  of  animal  intelli- 
gence. All  of  these  causes  are  ignored  by  the  genuine  Dar- 
winian. Nevertheless  they  exist  in  nature,  though  rather 
as  causes  of  mere  adaptive  variation  than  of  specific  differ- 
ence. 

Another  modification  of  orthodox  Darwinism  is  that  of 
Romanes,  who  may  almost  be  regarded  as  Darwin's  most 

{)rominent  successor.  He  has  introduced  the  idea  of  physio- 
ogical  selection — that  is,  of  the  occurrence  accidentally  or 
from  unknown  causes  of  reproductive  changes  which  render 
certain  individuals  of  a  species  infertile  with  others.  The 
effect  of  this  would  be  an  isolation  amounting  to  the  erec- 
tion of  two  forms  not  reproductive  with  each  other ;  or,  in 
other  words,  of  two  species  not  gradually  differentiated,  but 
distinct  from  the  first.  This  is  really  an  inversion  of  Dar- 
win's theory,  in  which  the  initial  stage  of  Romanes  is  neces- 
sarily the  culmination  of  the  development.  It  differs  also 
essentially  in  eliminating  the  idea  of  use  and  adaptation  to 
change  implied  in  the  theory  of  natural  selection. 

Romanes  even  goes  so  far  as  to  stigmatize  the  adherence 
to  natural  selection  pnre  and  sim^^le  as  "  Wallaceism,"  in 
contradistinction  to  Darwinism,  while  he  admits  that  Wal- 
lace has  a  good  right  to  adhere  to  this  view,  as  having  in 
some  sense  antedated  Darwin  in  asserting  the  dominant  in- 
fluence of  natural  selection.  It  is  fair  to  say,  with  regard  to 
Romanes,  that  while  advocating  the  importance  of  physio- 
logical selection,  he  claims  that  Darwin  admitted,  or  would 
have  admitted,  this  factor,  since  he  believed  that  in  the  ab- 
sence of  infertility  to  prevent  intercrossing,  natural  selection 
would  fail  to  produce  new  species.  It  is  worthy  of  remark 
here  that  both  Romanes  and  Wallace  seem  to  be  aware  that 
this  admission  might  be  fatal  to  the  doctrine  of  natural 
selection,  unless  they  can  show  some  other  cause  capable  of 
producing  infertility. 

In  the  meantime,  Weismann  in  Germany  has,  in  the  name 
of  what  has  been  called  pure  Darwinism,  introduced  into  the 
discussion  facts  and  considerations  as  destructive  to  the 
usual  doctrine  as  Puritanism  would  be  to  High  Churchism. 
He  contends  that  all  evidence  is  against  the  perpetuation  by 
heredity  of  characters  acquired  by  the  inaividual.  Only 
characters  bom  with  him  can  be  perpetuated.  For  example, 
a  man  born  with  six  fingers  on  his  hand  may  have  six- 
fingered  children,  but  a  man  who  acquires  in  his  lifetime 
manual  dexterity,  or  who  loses  a  finger  by  accident,  will  not 
transmit  either  peculiarity.  Weismann  has  undoubtedly 
made  out  a  strong  case  in  favor  of  this  contention,  which 
would  at  once  overthrow  the  Lamarckian  theory  of  evolu- 
tion, and  would  remove  one  of  the  subsidiary  props  of  Dar- 
winism, throwing  it  back  entirely  on  the  natural  selection 
of  fortuitous  congenital  variations.  Purified  in  this  way, 
and  re<luced  to  chance  variation,  perpetuated  by  accidental 
action  of  favoring  circumstances,  Darwinism  would,  accord- 
ing to  some  of  its  adherents,  evaporate  without  leaving  any 
residuum.  Nor  has  it  escaped  notice  that  the  theory  of 
Weismann  implies  profound  and  far-reaching  considerations 
respecting  the  independence  of  the  germinal  matter  of  ani- 
mals of  individual  peculiarities,  and  its  constancy  to  the 
ideal  plan  of  the  species,  which  would  help  to  account  for 
the  wonderful  permanence  of  types  in  geological  time,  while 
it  would  oppose  change,  except  when  this  arises  from  causes 
directly  affecting  the  repro<hictive  function. 

Another  important  point  involved  in  Weismann's  results 
is  the  probability  that,  while  asexual  reproduction,  as,  for 
instance,  that  of  budding,  tends  to  perpetuate  individual 
peculiarities,  whether  of  advance  or  retrogression,  ordinary 
reproduction  tends  to  eliminate  all  variations,  whether  pro- 
duced by  habit  and  use  or  by  obscure  causes  affecting  the  in- 
dividual in  its-  lifetime.  Thus  there  is  a  strong  barrier  set 
up,  especially  in  the  higher  organisms,  against  either  deg- 
radation or  elevation.  Advantage  has  been  taken  of  this 
by  some  speculators  to  suggest  that  new  species  may  have 
originated  by  parthenogenesis,  that  is  to  say,  by  what  theo- 
logians would  call  miraculous  conception,  and  this  idea  has 
*  Origin  of  the  Fittest^  in  American  NaturaliMt. 


by  some  of  them  been  connected  even  with  the  nativitv  nf 
oiir  Lord  on  the  earth.  But  such  specuUtions  &re  very  far 
removed  from  even  the  borders  of  science. 

A  curious  point,  little  thought  of  by  most  evolutioni'-tH. 
but  deserving  consideration  here,  is  that  to  which  HerUrt 
Spencer  has  given  the  name  **  direct  equilibration,"  or  ih* 
balance  of  parts  and  forces  within  the  organism  itself.  Thr 
body  of  an  animal,  for  example,  is  a  very  complex  macbint. 
and  if  its  part-s  have  been  put  together  by  chance,  and  an- 
drifting  onward  on  the  path  of  evolution,*  there  must  nt^v^ 
sarily  be  a  continual  struggle  going  on  between  the  diffen^iit 
organs  and  functions  of  the  body,  each  tending  to  swallow 
up  the  other,  and  each  struggling  for  its  own  exist  cm  .• 
Tnis  resolution  of  the  body  of  any  animal  into  a  houst-  di- 
vided against  itself,  is  at  first  sight  so  revolting  to  common 
sense,  and  so  hideous  to  right  &ling,  that  few  like  to  o<»n- 
templateit;  but  it  has  been  brought  into  prominemv  i>> 
Roux  and  other  recent  writers,  especially  in  Germany,  an-l 
it  is  no  doubt  a  necessary  outcome  of  the  evolutionary  i<i*x 
For  why  should  not  the  struggle  of  species  against  sjk^  :4'^ 
extend  to  the  individuals  and  the  parts  of  the  indivuluiur 
On  this  view,  the  mechanism  of  an  animal  ceases  even  ti>  l*^ 
a  machine,  and  becomes  a  mere  mass  of  c*onflicting  pan.* 
thrown  together  at  random,  and  depending  for  its  eontiiiuiti 
existence  on  a  chance  balance  of  external  forces.  Foriu- 
nately,  geological  history  completely  negatives  this  idea,  by 
showing  the  extreme  permanence  of  many  forms  of  lift' 
which  have  continued  to  propagate  themselves  through  al- 
most immeasurable  ages  and  great  changes  of  environment, 
without  material  variation,  and  the  apparent  fixity  of  tht  ^t- 
in  their  final  forms. 

Viewed  rifhtly,  the  direct  equilibration  of  the  part>  nf 
animals  and  plants  is  so  perfect  and  so  stable,  and  Mi'*h 
great  evils  arise  from  the  slightest  disturbance  of  it  hj  iht- 
selective  agency  of  man,  that  it  becomes  one  of  the  5tron£:»->t 
arguments  against  the  production  of  new  species  by  vana- 
tion.  This  has  been  well  shown  by  T.  Warren  d'NVill  * 
who  adduces  a  great  number  of  facts,  detailed  by  Darwin 
himself,  to  show  that  when  the  stability  of  an  origani5m  i> 
artificially  altered  by  man  in  his  attempt  to  establL-^h  r..  v 
breeds,  infertility  and  death  of  these  varieties  or  bree<1s  re- 
sults; and  if  tHis  happens  under  the  fortuitous  si>h'4'i<r 
supposed  to  occur  in  nature,  any  considerable  variath)i. 
would  result  either  in  speedy  return  to  the  original  tvf-r  or 
in  speedy  extinction.  In  other  words,  so  beauti fully  bal- 
anced is  the  organism  that  an  excess  or  deficiency  in  aiir  •>' 
its  parts,  when  artificially  or  accidentally  introduced,  si  <.n 
proves  fatal  to  its  existence  as  a  species ;  so  that,  unle>$  n*- 
ture  is  a  vastly  more  skillful  breeder  and  fancier  than  man. 
the  production  of  new  species  by  natural  selection  is  an  iui- 
possibility. 

Two  remarkable  books  by  two  of  the  ablest  exponents  of 
the  Darwinian  theory  of  evolution  have  appeared,  whirh 
may  be  taken  as  specimens  of  the  evolutionary  metho<l.  an«*. 
may  be  commended  to  those  who  desire  to  know  this  th^<  rr 
as  defended  and  extended  by  its  friends-f  One  of  th--* 
works  is  by  Alfred  Wallace,  who  mav  be  truly  said  to  hu.*^ 
anticipated  Darwin  in  the  theory  of  natural  selection — iW 
other  by  Dr.  Romanes,  Darwin's  successor.  Both  chiim  to 
be  orthodox  Darwinians,  though  each  accuses  the  other  of 
some  heresy.  Wallace's  book  may,  however,  be  accepte*!  as 
the  best  English  exposition  of  Darwinism  in  general,  t  hut  f 
Romanes  as  the  ablest  attempt  to  explain  on  this  theory  t  "«■ 
evolution  of  the  higher  faculties  of  man.  Neither  pn>ti'»»^ 
to  explain  the  origin  of  life,  but  both  profess,  life  and  <<t  *'^ 
cies  of  animals  being  given,  to  explain  their  developmen*  .%* 
high  as  man  himself,  though  they  differ  materially  as  to  th> 
highest  stage  of  evolution,  and  also  as  to  the  omnipotence  'f 
natural  selection.  The  judicious  reader  will,  however,  ob- 
serve that  both  take  for  granted  what  should  be  ppo>  eii :  ir» 
other  words,  reason  constantly  in  a  narrow  circle,  and  '••»Ti- 
stantly  use  such  formulae  as  "  we  may  well  suppose  '*  instt^ni 
of  argument. 

Take  as  a  specimen  from  Wallace  the  history  of  evcduti  t 
of  the  water-ouzel  or  dipper.    It  may  serve  as  an  exami  > 
of  the  questions  which  are  raised  by  the  Darwinian  ev.  Ii. 
tion,  and  which,  if  they  have  no  other  advantage,  ter.d  u- 
promote  the  minute  observation  of  nature,  of  which  W,-. 
lace's  book  shows  many  interesting  examples.    It  serv<*>s  at 
the  same  time,  to  illustrate  that  peculiar  style  of  reas*'nivz 
in  a  circle  which  is  characteristic  of  this  school  of  thoui;' ' 
This  special  illustration  from  Wallace  has  been  chosen  N 


♦  Refutation  of  Darwin  (Philadelphia,  1880). 

t  Dariotnism,  by  Wallace;  Menial Blvolutifm  in  Jfaf^bj 


r** 


238 


EVOLUTION 


Viewing  the  matter  in  this  light,  it  is  evident  that  neither 
the  theological  idea  of  creation  nor  the  evolutionist  notion, 
in  either  of  its  phases,  can  have  any  close  dependence  on 
biological  and  geological  science,  which  studies  the  nature 
and  succession  of  organic  forms  without  ascertaining  their 
origin  ;  either  hypothesis  may,  however,  appeal  to  scientific 
facts  as  more  or  less  according  with  the  consequences  which 
might  be  expected  to  follow  from  the  origins  supposed.  It 
is  further  evident  that,  should  evolutionists  be  driven  by 
natural  facts  to  admit  the  sudden  apparition  of  organic 
forms  rather  than  their  gradual  development,  there  may  be 
no  apparent  difference,  as  to  matter  of  fact,  between  such 
sudden  apparition  and  creation,  so  that  science  may  become 
absolutely  silent  on  the  question. 

Palieontology  has  indeed  tended  to  bring  the  matter  into 
this  position,  as  Barrande  and  others  have  well  shown. 
The  writer  has  elsewhere  adduced  the  advent  of  the  Cam- 
brian trilobites,  of  the  Silurian  cephalopods,  of  the  Devo- 
nian fishes,  of  the  Carboniferous  batrachians,  land  snails 
and  myriapods.  of  the  marsupial  mammals  of  the  Mesozoic 
and  the  placental  mammals  of  the  Eocene,  and  of  the 
Palseozoic  and  modern  floras,  as  illustrations  of  the  sudden 
swarming  in  of  forms  of  life  over  the  world,  in  a  manner 
indicating  flows  and  ebbs  of  the  creative  action,  inconsistent 
with  Darwinian  uniformity,  and  perhaps  unfavorabj^  to  any 
form  of  evolution  ordinarily  held.* 

This  neutral  attitude  of  science  has  been  stron^lj^  insisted 
on  by  Dr.  Wigand  f  in  his  elaborate  work  Dartvtnismus^  in 
which  he  holds  that  this  doctrine  does  not  represent  a  defi- 
nite and  consistent  scientific  effort  and  result,  but  merely 
an  "  indefinite  and  confused  movement  of  the  mind  of  the 
age,"  and  that  science  may  ultimately  prove  its  most  dan- 
gerous foe.  In  like  manner  the  veteran  German  physiolo- 
gist Virchow,  in  an  able  address  before  the  Assembly  of 
German  Naturalists  at  Munich,^  taking  the  spontaneous 
generation  of  organisms  and  the  descent  of  man  from  ape- 
like ancestors  as  test  questions,  argues  in  the  most  conclu- 
sive manner  that  neither  can  be  held  as  a  result  of  scientific 
investigation,  but  that  both  must  be  regarded  as  problems 
as  yet  unsolved. 

fiut  in  the  face  of  such  opinions  as  these,  one  is  struck 
with  the  fact  that  eiiiinent  men  of  science  in  England  and 
America  assert  that  science  demands  belief  in  the  theory  of 
evolution,  and  this  in  its  atheistic  as  well  as  its  theistic 
phase.  When,  however,  reasons  are  asked  for  this  demand, 
those  who  make  it  are  themselves  obliged  to  admit  the  ab- 
sence of  a  scientific  basis  for  the  doctrine.  For  example, 
reference  may  be  made  to  the  able  and  elaborate  address 
delivered  before  the  American  Association  by  its  president. 
Prof.  Marsh.  He  says :  "I  need  offer  no  argument  for  evo- 
lution, since  to  doubt  evolution  is  to  doubt  science,  and 
science  is  only  another  name  for  truth."  In  the  sequel  of 
the  address  he  limits  himself  to  the  evolution  of  the  verte- 
brate animals,  admitting  that  he  knows  nothing  of  the  ab- 
solute origin  of  the  first  of  them^and  basing  his  conclusions 
mainly  on  the  succession,  in  distant  times,  and  often  in  dis- 
tant places,  of  forms  allied  to  each  other,  and  advancing  in 
the  scale  of  complexity.  Such  succession  obviously  fells 
far  short  of  scientific  proof  of  evolution ;  and  other  than  this 
no  evidence  is  offered  for  the  strong  assertion  alx)ve  quoted. 
In  the  conclusion  of  the  atldress  he  asserts  that  life  may  be 
a  form  of  some  other  force,  presumably  physical  force ;  but 
admits  in  the  same  breath  that  we  are  ignorant  of  its  ori- 
gin ;  and  finally  he  makes  an  appeal,  not  to  facts,  but  to 
faith :  **  Possibly  the  great  mystery  of  life  may  thus  be 
solved ;  but  whether  it  be  or  not,  a  true  faith  in  science  knows 
no  limit  to  its  search  for  truth." 

Another  eminent  apostle  of  evolution.  Prof.  Tyndall,  as- 
serts, in  a  public  address,  that  '*  it  is  now  very  generally  ad- 
mitted that  the  man  of  to-day  is  the  child  and  product  of 
incalculable  antecedent  time.  His  physical  and  intellectual 
textures  have  been  woven  for  him  through  phases  of  history 
and  forms  of  existence  which  lead  the  mind  back  to  an 
abysmal  past."  But,  however  generally  this  may  be  "  ad- 
mitted," it  is  nevertheless  true  that  the  oldest  known  men 
are  as  truly  human  in  their  structures  as  those  now  living, 
and  that  no  link  between  them  and  lower  animals  is  known. 
In  a  previous  address  he  had  gone  further  back  still,  and 

♦  In  England,  Davidson,  JeffreyR,  WIlHamson,  Carnithers,  and 
other  eminent  naturalists  have  strongly  insist«>d  on  the  tendency  of 
palaeontological  facts  to  prove  permanence  of  type  and  intermittent 
introiiiiction  of  new  forms,  as  distinguished  from  descent  with  grad- 
ual modification. 

t  Dr.  Albert  Wigand,  DanoiniMtnui  (1876-77). 

X  On  the  Liberty  of  Science  (1877). 


afi[irme<l  that  in  material  atoms  reside  the  '*  promise  and 
potency  of  life  " ;  yet  in  his  capacity  of  physicist  he  haa  hj 
rigid  experiments  in  his  laboratory  done  as  much  hs  ari\ 
man  living  to  convince  us  that  science  knows  no  pos^sibiiitj 
of  producing  the  phenomena  of  life  from  dead  matter. 

The  man  who  in  a  popular  address  or  in  a  tezt'lKK>k  in- 
troduces the  "descent  of  species"  as  a  proved  result  of 
science,  to  be  used  in  framing  tlassifications  and  in  (in- 
structing theories,  is  leaving  the  firm  ground  of  nature  &Dd 
takinc^  up  a  position  which  exposes  him  to  the  su$i|>i<-i<tu  i4 
bein^a  dupe  or  a  charlatan.*  He  is  uttering  founterf»-i'* 
of  nature's  currency^.  It  should  not  be  left  to  theojoirian* 
to  expose  him,  for  it  is  as  much  the  interest  of  the  horaM 
worker  in  science  to  do  this  as  it  is  that  of  the  hankor  ♦r 
merchant  to  expose  the  impostor  who  has  forged  anoth«T*^ 
signature.  In  the  true  interests  of  science  one  is  called  on 
to  follow  the  weighty  advice  of  Virchow ;  **  Whoever  s^x  aL<: 
or  writes  for  the  public  ought,  in  mv  opinion,  doubly  to  di- 
amine just  now  how  much  of  that  whicn  he  says  is  obje<ti(<« 
truth.  He  ou^ht  to  try  as  much  as  possible  to  have  all  in- 
ductive extensions  which  he  makes,  all  conclusions  arrive* 
at  by  the  laws  of  analogy,  however  probable  thpy  may  s<?<  ni. 
printed  in  small  tvpe  under  the  general  text,  and *t«i  put 
into  the  latter  onfy  that  which  is  obiective  truth."  To 
practice  such  teaching.may  require  mucn  self-denial,  akin  t- 
that  which  the  preacher  must  exercise  who  makes  in»  \.\s 
mind  to  forego  nis  own  thoughts,  and,  like  Paul,  to  Lnnw 
nothing  among  men  but  God's  truth  in  its  simplicity.  Th»» 
mischief  which  may  be  done  to  science  by  an  opposite  couiv 
is  precisely  similar  to  that  which  is  done  to  religion  by  ^  ri- 
sational  preaching  founded  on  distortions  oi  scripture: 
truth,  or  on  fragments  of  texts  taken  out  of  their  connect:,  i 
and  used  as  mottoes  for  streams  of  imaginative  declamati«r.. 

To  render  such  evils  impossible,  there  must  be  a  m<<rc 
general  and  truthful  teaching  of  science.  It  is  a  great  mi" 
take  here  to  suppose  that  a  little  knowled^  is  dang(>n>Ls. 
every  grain  of  pure  truth  is  precious,  and  will  bear  pnn  i<  j* 
fruit.  The  danger  lies  in  misusing  the  little  knowle<l(re  fir 
purposes  which  it  can  not  serve ;  and  this  is  most  likf  !t  t«' 
take  place  when  facts  are  not  known  at  all,  or  impcrft^itl^v 
comprehended,  or  so  taught  as  to  cause  a  part  of  the  tnitl. 
to  be  taken  for  the  whole.  Let  the  structures  of  aiiin  ai^ 
and  plants  in  some  of  their  more  prominent  forms  be  «<-!. 
known,  along  with  their  history  in  geological  time,  and  t'^t 
attempt  to  explain  their  origin  by  anv  crude  and  simple  Y  \ 
potheses  like  those  now  current  will  become  unreal  a>  a 
dream. 

It  may  be  useful  in  conclusion  to  say  a  few  words  on  *\\* 
application  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution  to  other  line>  <.>f  .r 
vestigation  than  that  of  organic  development.  Here  u  i> 
scarcely  necassary  to  remark  that  when  one  speaks  of  •  •  p 
evolution  of  the  physical  universe  from  disseminated  ati  :un 
of  chemical  elements  from  one  original  substance,  of  nr- 
tinents  and  mountain-chains  in  geological  time,  or.  •  l 
the  other  hand,  of  the  arts  and  langua^s  and  histiirr 
men,  new  and  diverse  fields  are  entered,  in  which  the  <iex 
opments  which  may  occur  are  altogether  different  in  tt'-:'' 
nature  and  dependent  on  different  causes;  in  which  tHC?*- 
quently  the  term  evolution  must  in  each  case  have  a  di>i.L' : 
and  peculiar  meaning,  unless  indeed  the  reader  is  prejmnii 
to  use  it  to  designate  any  mode  of  doing  anything,  in  whu  i 
case  it  loses  all  distinctive  significance. 

In  the  case  of  the  physical  universe  one  must  a^^'urrt* 
space  and  time,  matter  and  energy,  with  all  their  law>au<. 
potencies,  and  has  then  before  Him  the  question  of  »bt 
possible  interactions  of  these  in  time,  their  possible  drtt^r- 
mination  in  a  given  direction,  with  or  without  a  pl&iinr  c 
creative  mind,  and  in  the  things  developed  one  has  tn  «:t  a. 
with  the  inorganic  and  the  dead,  altogether  destitute  of  t!i» 
plastic  and  progressive  vital  energies  of  the  organic  wt»:!.i 
Evolution  in  this  sense  is  merely  the  movement  of  a  n.a- 
chine,  the  original  construction  ot  which  no  theory  i»f  «v- 
lution  can  per  se  explain.  When,  on  the  other  hand.  tt.>- 
evolution  of  human  nistory  or  human  art  is  discu>'^'^l  an 
entirely  different  plane  is  reached.  Here  a  plannin&r  in- 
telligent mind  deals  with  external  objects  and  roi>Uls  tl  i' 
to  its  will.  Here  also  the  new  factor  of  genius  apjx»ar>  a>  a 
sudden  inspiration  from  time  to  time,  giving  at  once  a  grrai 

•  Huxley,  in  the  preface  to  the  ManvuU  of  the  Anatomtp  of  tSt 
Tnv^rtebrated  Animals  (1H78),  has  taken  this  ground.  He  sayy  :  **1 
have  abstained  from  dl««ouBsing  questiona  of  eetiology,  not  hIex'auA 
I  underestimate  their  importance,  or  am  insensible  to  the  interv^t  ».«f 
the  great  problem  of  evolution,  but  because,  in  my  miod.  the  gn* 
ing  tendency  to  mix  up  etiological  speculations  with  inorphohxrK'»< 
generalizations  will,  if  unchecked,  throw  biology  into  confiuci^m  *' 


/ 

4    1 


«  .- 


240 


RWELL 


EXCELLENCY 


tillery  m  an^iMaot  pr«>fc;(Mir  at  the  U.  S.  Military  AcademT 
1893-36;  resijmed.  lKt6:  civil  en^nwr  1K36-;J9;  Profess*)r 
of  Mathematu^  ami  Natural  Phil<H«4>|»hy  at  Hampden- 
Sydney  Collr^fo  iKttMli;  Pn»f<"««>r  of  Mftth»'matics  and 
Militai7  Sii-nti*  at  Wa^hinvrton  (\»lle^'i*  IH46-4M:  at^tinjc 
president  an4l  I'rof(«)M)r  of  Mathematicy,  ('<)11«'^>  of  William 
and  MarT«  1H4H-49:  Pn>fc!Mir  of  Mathematio  and  Natural 
Sienee  iH4JMIl ;  prenidtnt  1H,VMW.  H».  Hervinl  in  the  (\m- 
federate  amiT  in  eommand  of  the  Thirty-fjecond  Kefcniuent 
Virjfinia  Volunt*»er»  1861-62,  and  a**  a<ljutant-fc«^'neral,  with 
the  rnnk  of  colonel,  to  Oen.  JoM*i)h  Vi  Johnst4»n,  while  coin- 
man«linK  the  de^iartments  of  Tenne^Mee  and  Mit«M?«}*ippi 
1862-64.  li*H>MVtHl  the  dejrree  of  LU  1>.  from  Hobart  I  ol- 
lejfe.  N.  Y.,  IHT4;  ehvt***!  honoranr  member  of  the  Royal 
Uifttoricai  Sxhty  of  Great  BriUin,'l8Ha 

Ewell,  Ki«  HARD  Stodoert:  ^>n  of  Dr.  ThomaM  Ewell  and 
KliMU'lh  Stotldert;  h.  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  Feb.  8, 
1817:  >rra<luat4Nl  at  Wert  Point  in  1840;  servwi  with  «li(*- 
tinction  on  the  frontier  and  in  the  Mexican  war  an  lieutenant 
anil  ca|itam  in  the  Fir^t  H4*{;iment  of  Dra^rr^inK  1840-61 ;  I 
re^iifneil  and  «t»rY«»«i  with  the  ConfnlrrateH  a»  lieutenant- 
colonel,  c«»lon«d.  bripidier-jreneral,  nmjor-ifeneral,  and  lieu- 
tenant-c<>neral  1861-65,  [Mirtici|iatinfC  in  the  IwltleA  of  first 
and  •«*cond  Manaa^tas  in  the  latter  of  which  he  ht^t  a  K% 
Frimt  KA»\al,  Cn**  Keys,  Fort  K^'public,  and  Cedar  Moun- 
tain ;  ax^i^)e<l,  (in  the  ileath  of  JM'k)«on,  t4>  the  command  of 
his,  the  S'^'ond,  corps  of  I<^»'s  army,  which  he  led  at  the 
caiitun'of  Winchester, at  (Jettynburjc,  Wilderness  and  Spott- 
tylTaiiia  (*ourt-hou!«e;  relievinl  fnnn  duty  in  the  field  be- 
cau*ie  of  physical  inability,  and  ordered  to  take  ehar^  of 
the  department  of  Hichmond :  capture*!,  on  I>ee'«  retreat, 
at  Fi-^her's  CnM*k  ;  moved  after  the  war  to  Tennesaiee.  D.  in 
Springfield,  Tenn.,  Jan.  25.  18?2. 

Ewer.  yu>r.  Ferdijcaxd  Cartweigrt:  clerjryman;  b.  at 
Nantucke't,  MaM..  May  22.  1826;  jrnMluated  at  Harvard, 
1H48;  was  orilain«'<l  a  mini'^ler  in  San  Francisco,  1h.V»;  came 
to  New  York  in  l»i60;  biNjime  a.Hd«iMant  minister  of  .St.  Ann's ; 
in  1863  rector  of  Chrijit  Chun-h;  but  developing  ritualistic 
t4«ndenci«*«  he  ni*i)ni«l,  and  his  friends  forme<i  for  him  the 
new  Chureh  of  St.  Ignatius,  1871,  in  the  same  city,  and  he 
was  itA  rrct4ir  till  his  death.  He  made  a  great  stir  by  his 
Sermons  on  the  Fa  Hun  of  I^tentantimn  (New  York,  186U). 
Died  while  on  a  riiiit  to  Montreal.  Oct  10,  1883. 

Ewllir.  yu  ing,  FiNW :  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Cumber- 
land Pn'sbyiennn  Church :  b.  in  Bedford  co.,  Va.,  June  10, 
1773,  of  Scotrb-lrinh  stm'k:  is  said  to  have  studie<l  for  a 
time  in  c>i»llege.  He  remnvwl  to  a  place  near  Na«*hville, 
Tenn.,  and  in  IH23  marriiHl  a  daughter  of  (ien.  William 
Davidsim;  joiniMj  a  Pre!«byterian  church,  and  s4K>n  after  re- 
moTe«l  to  Kentucky.  Awakene<l  in  18<M)  to  a  new  reliinous 
life,  he  was  lii*enwd  to  preac^h,  and  in  18(K)  was  onlained  by 
the  (^umlrrland  presbytery.  His  ordination  not  U*iiig  reo- 
ofrniied  by  the  Kentucky  sTn«Ml,  the  prenbvtery  U'ing  dis- 
•olvcd,  and  the  ai'tHm  of  the  syn«Nl  Iteiiig  su^taintnl  by  the 
General  Assembly,  he  with  two  others  in  1810  fnnne«'l  the 
germ  of  the  new  Cuml>erland  Presbyterian  Church.  In 
182<»  he  removed  to  Missouri.  D.  in  ijexington.  Mo..  Julr  4, 
1841. 

Ewinf .  Jambh  AtjriKD,  B.  Sc^  F.  R.  S. :  Professor  of  En- 
ginei'ririg  and  writer  on  ele<'tro-te<-hnicH,  ef«iKHiallv  in  the 
doniAin  of  magnet ii^m  :  b.  in  Dundee,  .Si>ilHnd.  .Mar.  27. 
1855;  educat«Nl  nt  the  Hik'h  .Si-h«M»l  of  Dundee  and  at  Kdin- 
burirb  Cuiver«itv.  where  he  gradimied  iti  «M-i«'ru'e :  was  as- 
•Mtanf  ti>  Sir  \\  illiain  Thon»'«»n  in  teii^rnph  entcin^-enng. 
tlMii  Pn»fi'**or  of  Knvrinwniig  at  the  I  n»\er«itv  of  Tokio 
1h7k  m3.  Since  1*«3  he  ha^  U-en  Pr«>fe'«M>r  t>f  Fj)gini»enrig 
in  Cnnrrxin  (VilU^e,  Dun'lee.  Pri»fe^**»r  Kwini;  i^*  the 
author  of  an  ini|M>rtant  work.  Mo</nftte  JnJurtiott  tn  Inm 
arui  uthrr  Metais  (l*<rj):  ai^i  of  man)  inifMirtant  |m|«ers«  in 
ele«intilv  atid  nin^'nrli^n).  and  u|N.ti  the  iiiea^ureiiM-nt  of  | 
earth'i'iAKr  inoiion,  *  *ubje»t  to  ulurh  he  fc'H\e  much  atten- 
tion while  tn  J«)«n. 

Ewl«|r,  TntmAs.  M^D. :  •tate^mnn:  b.  near  W«»*t  LiU«rtv. 
Ohio  r<...  Va..  I>»^.  2x.  ITM*.     In   1 71*2  he  rrmove«l  with  hi*  ; 

{iarrnt«  to  Ohio.  In  hm  ^ntith  he  pn'j»Ar»il  hiinsilf  fi.ro>l.  , 
eifr  by  nu'ht--tudr.  while  riui.l.mtl  m  the  KHTinrnhn  •alt-  ■ 
Work*.  In  |Hi.%  )ii>  ^Ta'iuiiti'il  at  i*Uu*  l*nMep.it\  at  Athiti*.  | 
r«-«iung  the  flrM  d<grie  i.f  A.  It  vmt  mnfernNl  in  that 
>tate.  Ilr  wm  t  jiilf<l  to  the  tuir  in  l^lfl;  C.  .s,  .'^•imtor  fn>m 
<>h.o  1K»I^I7  and  IkV>-^1  :  {  .  S.  .Srervtar^  of  the  Tn'**ury 
<l**41)  under  Harriv  n.  and  StHntarr  of  the  Inteni.r  iimleV 
Ta,iit»r  ilH4Ui.     lit-  na*  the  fniher  of  tWn.  TlMnna*  Kwing 


and  father-in-law  of  Gen.  W.  T.  Sherman.  D.  at  La:-  m^:  i 
O.,  Oct.  26.  1871. 

Exftftions  [fi^)m  I^t.  exor/io.  act  of  dri«ini:  <  u*  ' 
ing  out,  a  forcetl  contribution  ;  deriv.  of  ej-t  t/**^,  »\i  .^ 
out  +  agere,  drive]:  a  Iceal  terra  of  eccU"^ia.»M«  a)  ;  -  -j 
dence,  use<l  in  the  Middle  Age5  to  demtte  m*.  h  i  .  •  i 
c<mtributioni<.  demanded  by  the  clergy  of  tht  ir  |«r  «'  -^ 
as  were  extraordinary,  either  l»ecau»e  they  werr  r-«  4»| 
ajniinst  cuMom  or  IwH^auM*  their  amount  wa*  ur  ;       >) 

creaMMl.     They  were  illicit,  and  it  wa*  ft»iind  m^» h, 

IH»atcilly  to  denounce  their  unlawfulnt^^vn.  The  |«.«f'  '  •( 
clergy  over  their  parishionent.  or  of  tlie  bt^tM>|f«  •  !••  :•( 
9ul>oi-dinate  clergy,  waa  so  great  that  it  wai^  r-a«t  f  r  .-i 
to  make  the  most  outrageous  exactions  In  «>4f  t  »  ^ 
i^ouncil  of  Toletlo  forbaile  the  bi!thor«  **(*xa<*tti '!•«-•  :  *H 
vel  damna  inflipirt*,"  and  the  meaning  of  thi*  i*  ^  ^  •% 
actly  deflned  by  Ixm)  IV..  who  in  858  forliaile  thf  I  i-  -  1 
exact  from  the  clergv  and  erclesiantical  inMituti'-n*  < '  I 
dioct^fle^  **dationeH  ultra  ntatuta  |>atnirn  aut  f*u|«  r  »r  »*i 
in  angariitt."  Yet,  in  1179,  Alexander  III.  foumi  it  r«  "^ 
to  re|)eat  :  **  ProhilK^mna  ne  ab  abliatibu«,  vel  tv**  ■! 
alii?fve  pnelatii*  novi  ren)«u«im(Mmantnr  e(yl**«ii«^  nn  \>-ri 
augeantur,  nee  partum  redituum  suia  u^ibu*  apfrfr^ 
pnettumant.** 

ExftlBpl^bookB :  same  as  ExKMriu-iMMiK'*  19.  r.L 

Ezftirh  [fn>m  Gr.  ft^x***  lea<ler,  chief) :  in  aiw  1.  '■.t  (Jr^ 
the  |»enK»n  who  ronducteti  the  dramatic  choru*  tiur  •;  •] 
performance,  as  distinguished  from  the  o»rrph«-u»  ar»-  \ 
choregifc*.  of  whom  the  former  wan  the  teacher  of  tb*  '  1 
generallv  the  author  of  the  ^)lay,  while  the  lafT#*r  w**  *  -i 
»ome  ric^  citizen  who  supiilie<i  the  ctist*  of  th«-  *K*tf  •  \\ 
chorufi.  I^ter  on  the  title  was  umhI  in  the  F.a*^t«n*  1  -  J, 
to  denote  the  highest  ecTle^^ia^tical  dignity,  arul  w«.»  («-*■  ^ 
on  the  bij(ho|m  of  Alexandria,  AntitK-lu  F.|  hr^UK  i  m^m^ 
and  Constantinople,  but  wa^t  Mton  exchange ^1  in  ».•«<:  ^ 
for  that  of  patriarch,  though  it  never  wa^  mb«>i;y  a'«  'i 
At  present  it  denotes  a  chancellor  «)r  deputy  ur  '  \ 
patriari'h  in  the  UuHtuan  Gn^ek  Chun^h.  He  tr««'  •  i^ 
delegate  fnim  the  patriarch  through  the  dio**e*r.  .1.1.-  ^ 
ing  the  di^'ipline  of  the  monai«terit*s  an«l  the  i'i<*«-nmr.  •! 
the  canons,  and  f«)rming  a  kind  of  ctnirt  of  a|  !»*.«  9 
eiH'lesiastical  cases  arising  iK'tween  the  <'lergy  ami  it*  ••  1 

As  a  civil  oftlcer,  an  exari'h  nas  a  victn>y  irirru<  ■  ^ 
the  administration  of  one  or  more  pr«>vincr^  Tt*  i  i 
given  e>|»eiially  to  the  preftH'ts  who  from  the  n:i  h  .-  'I 
Mxth  tvntury  until  the  middle  of  the  eighth  p-icn  .  '\ 
part  of  Italy  which  wax  subjwt  to  the  Bw-ir  t-.-  •-  j 
The  line  U^ifiin  with  NarM's,  an  oftlcer  of  Ju*t.r.Ar.  •  1 
eon«|uen*«l  Italy  from  the  (Mrog«»ths,  Thei  brM  \:  •  ( 
at  Kaveiina,  combining  civil,  military,  aiitrnftrn  r«i  *4 
cal  authority.  They  ap|M»int«*4l  duke*«  a»  vhn  jr  %rr-  ^ 
ft«'verai  |»art«»  t»f  Italy,  and  thcM*  often  niaile  tr.*r  ^  ••• 
de|t<'ndenl.  The  exan-hiite  wai»  tliially  dt-^tr*  ««•.  (• 
IjomlmnN  in  7.Vi;  thn-e  yean*  later  iVpm  of  f*»»-  | 
i|uere<l  Havenna  and  ce<icd  it  to  the  \n*\<*-.  Tt-  '  4 
ex%rch  for  hi^di  civil  and  military  otiu-er*  «^  cr.;  «  -^ 
W<*?item  Kun>|>e  until  the  twelfth  <*entury. 

HevLM'ti  byS.  A.  Ti»ttm*^  ( 

Exram'biOD  [a  doublet  of  ejrrhrtnyr,  raramh^mm  »•-■•  J 
Meil.  I^t.  f<»rm  of  Ital.  sramhto,  sulVt.  of  acomttjw  \ 
ex  +  eamhia  r^\\  in  the  law  «»f  St^itland,  an  %x  '  ».  ^ 
land-*,  or  the  ct»ntrai't  bv  which  one  pn^'^  tif  ^x.  t  • 
chanir«*<i  for  another.  The  tenn  is<hierty  uvil  .t-  :»•  ■ 
In-HtiM*^  relating  to  the  riifhts  of  h«  ir»  i*-***-**.- ^-  ^ 
under  tltM'«N  of  entail.  Thev  are  emi«»»rf*i|  ti.  •  t  *  ^ 
excainb,  <»«Ttain  jM»rtion*»  <»f  them  in* tt  ani*-<.r>*  f^ 
to  moD'  than  ont^fourth  in  value  of  the  rri*];  «i  ««£* 
other  lands  c'4intigu«;u<*  t4>.  or  (n>n%eiiivnt  tt>  1*  ».  «  ^ 
entailetl  lands.  Ke%iM*il  by  F.  >it  aui*   \  :     ^ 

Ex  rath'edni  (l<at..  from  out  the  duiir;  I^t  r^%*^^  \ 
(tr.  W90i\f^  S4>iit|:  a  phriuvt  4ini;inalh  app'.-'a  t«  .«>  | 
iri\f*n  by  |>o|ics  or  f>n'iat4*«  in  a  M»|in>n  ji.  t)>  «  s  m^ 
llenee  it  |h  Hpplletl  to  r\rry  de*-l*»on  pntti--*.4i- •*(  *  •  a 
in  the  everriM'  of  hi"*  pn»|««'r  auihonty.  aa  a  ;  ..i^  ;{ 
lH'n«'h.  ete. 

Exrellfncy  (from  Ijtt.  ej-jv/Zra/m,  ■ufwnt  ntt  »*-— | 
rxr^/ /rr^.  Im*  eminent  ] :  a  title  of  honor  gMrti  t*  ^sm  \ 
d'»rs,  p»\eniors  of  Hnii^h  oidoniea.  and  tti*  *».«••— | 
Mas^^m-huM^ttv  The  President  of  the  C.  >  %m^\  tj« 
ernors  of  many  of  the  Statm  have  the  •an>«  \\\\m  ^«  \ 
esy.      In    f«*rmer   tinier   it    waa  appli*^!   «tnly  t<>  ^    •  ^ 

prUM-T"!. 


242      EXCHEQUER  CHAMBER,  COURT  OF 

fixed  from  year  to  year  and  can  never  exceed  5J  per  cent,  per 
annum.  It  is  now  usually  about  2^  per  cent.  At  the  end 
of  each  twelve  months  the  holders  may  claim  payment  of 
the  principal  sum  named  on  the  face  of  the  bill,  but  at  no 
other  time.  They  are  used  as  re^rves  of  the  English  banks 
and  bankers,  ancl  may  be  tendered  during  the  last  six 
months  of  every  year  in  payment  of  customs,  excise,  and 
other  duties  payable  to  the  Government.  They  were  first 
brought  into  use  by  Chancellor  Montague,  Earl  of  Halifax, 
at  the  time  of  the  great  financial  difficulties  attendant  upon 
the  recoinage  and  the  over-issue  of  the  Bank  of  England  to 
the  Government  in  the  earliest  years  of  its  existence.  Prom 
that  time  on,  through  two  centuries,  they  have  been  so  use- 
ful as  to  have  become  a  prominent  feature  of  the  British 
fiscal  system.  Their  normal  function  is  to  anticipate  the 
income  of  those  taxes  which  are  payable  only  at  such  peri- 
ods as  are  too  distant  from  each  other  to  meet  the  daily 
drafts  upon  the  treasury.  The  taxes  of  this  class  amount 
to  about  the  half  of  the  annual  revenue  of  the  kingdom, 
and  in  that  proportion  require  an  artificial  adjustment  as 
to  the  times  of  answering  to  their  current  disbursement. 
The  bills  are  usually  made  redeemable  about  the  time  the 
incoming  taxes  shall  reach  the  treasury.  One  of  their  ex- 
cellent ulaptations  to  service  is  in  the  circumstance  that 
they  furnish  the  funds  to  the  common  currency  by  the  price 
at  which  they  are  sold  to  capitalists  in  advance  of  the  equiva- 
lent demand  made  upon  the  taxpayers,  providing  the 
Government,  at  a  small  rate  of  expense,  with  the  avails  of 
the  internal  taxes,  and  at  the  same  time  providing  before- 
hand the  currency  for  payment  without  affecting  the  gen- 
eral volume  in  the  service  of  the  business  community.  The 
U.  S.  has  never  had  anything  corresponding  to  the  British 
exchequer-bills  policy.  Revised  by  A.  T.  Hadley. 

Excheqner  Chamber,  Court  of:  in  England,  originally 
a  court  01  all  the  judges  of  the  three  superior  courts  of  com- 
mon law,  assembled  for  the  decision  of  matters  of  law.  By 
1  Will.  IV.,  c.  70,  this  court  was  constituted  the  proper  tri- 
bunal for  the  trial  of  writs  of  error  from  the  three  superior 
courts  of  common  law.  The  judges  of  two  of  these  courts 
always  formed  the  court  of  appeal,  which  reviewed  the  deci- 
sions of  the  third.  Error  lay  from  this  court  to  the  House  of 
Lords.  It  is  now  abolished  and  its  jurisdiction  in  appeals  is 
transferred  to  the  court  of  appeal  under  the  Judicature  Acts. 
See  Courts.  Revised  by  P.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Excheijaer,  Chancellor  of  the :  the  title  of  the  highest 
finance  mmister  of  the  British  Government.  This  office  is 
from  its  nature  necessarily  intrusted  tt>  a  Commoner.  When 
the  Prime  Minister  is  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
he  sometimes  holds  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 
See  Chancellor. 

Exchequer,  Court  of:  in  England,  one  of  the  three  su- 
perior courts  of  common  law  which  were  abolished  by  the 
'  Judicature  Acts,  this  court  bein^  constituted  the  exchequer 
division  of  the  high  court  of  justice.  It  was  originally 
established  for  the  recovery  of  the  king's  debts  and  ordinary 
revenues  of  the  crown.  The  judges  of  this  court  consistea 
origin^ly  of  the  Lord  Treasurer,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, and  three  puisne  judges,  which  last  were  called 
barons  of  the  exchequer.  In  its  later  shape  it  became,  in 
fact,  a  combination  of  eight  distinct  ancient  courts.  It  ac- 
quired concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  other  two  superior 
courts  in  all  personal  actions  by  the  fiction  of  the  plaintiff 
being  a  debtor  to  the  king — a  fiction  which  was  abolished 
by  2  Will.  IV.,  c.  39.  It  had  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  cases 
in  which  the  roval  revenue  was  concerned,  and  also  had  an 
equitable  jurisctiction,  which  was  abolished  by  5  Vict.,c.  5, 
and  transferred  to  the  court  of  chancery.  The  court  at  the 
time  of  its  abolition  consisted  of  six  judges — viz.,  the  chief 
baron  and  five  barons  of  exchequer.  Error  lay  from  this  court 
to  the  Court  ok  Excheqi:er  Chamber  {q.  w) ;  see  also  Courts. 

Ireland  had  a  court  of  exchequer,  consisting  of  a  lord 
chief  baron,  three  barons,  and  a  master,  with  the  necessary 
clerks  and  other  inferior  officers,  but  it  was  abolished  as  sucn 
by  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  Act  (Ireland),  1877, 
being  constituted  the  exchequer  division  of  the  high  court 
of  justice  in  Ireland.  Scotland  had,  until  the  year  1856,  an 
exchequer  court  which  decided  questions  relating  to  revenues 
and  customs,  and  to  honors,  estates,  forfeitures,  and  penalties 
arising  to  the  crown.  Its  authority  and  jurisdiction  was 
transferred  to  the  court  of  session,  which  was  declared  to 
be  the  court  of  exchequer  in  Scotland.  One  of  the  lords 
ordinary  appointed  by  the  crown  acts  as  a  lord  ordinary  in 
exchequer  cases.  Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 


EXCOMMUNICATION 

Exchequer  TftllieB  [tally  is  connected  with  Fr.  taxlH 
to  cut] :  tallies  of  wood  by  means  of  which,  up  to  tho  )\i-^ 
1783,  the  English  excheauer  checked  its  accounts,  it^ 
checking  was  done  as  follows:  Seasoned  wands  of  ha/el, 
ash,  or  willow  were  inscribed  on  one  side  with  the  sum  f<>r 
which  the  tally  was  an  acknowled^ent,  and  on  the  r<t!.tr 
with  the  Roman  characters  indicative  of  the  same  sum.  with 
the  date  and  payer's  name.  Notches  of  varied  appearaiKr 
stood  for  various  amounts.  *  The  deputy  chancellor  th^n 
split  the  stick  with  knife  and  mallet  in  such  a  way  that 
each  check  was  divided ;  and  when  the  payer  presentetl  his 
tally  for  payment,  it  was  first  matched  with  it^  com\';(M-ri<l- 
ing  tally  in  the  exchequer  office.  This  ancient  and  ilufu^T 
device  was  nevertheless  an  almostperfect  protection  again-t 
forged  applications  for  money.  Tne  old  tallies  were  >tnrHl 
in  the  Parliament  House,  and  in  1834  Parliament  c>ni<  ri^i 
them  to  be  bunied.  The  flues  became  superheated  in  cod- 
sequence,  and  the  building  itself  was  destroyed. 

Excipient,  or  Tehicle  [excipient  is  from  Lat.  excijyre, 
take  up,  undertake;  ea;,  out  4-  ea'pere,  take]:  in  pharma/}, 
an  inert  substance  used  to  give  form  and  consistent'  to 
solid  preparations,  such  as  pills  and  dragies^  or  to  givt- ;  al- 
atabihty  and  the  necessary  qualities  for  adininistratif  ii  to 
any  medicine.  The  various  conserves,  also  honey,  tr«a  1», 
simple  sirups,  glycerin,  white  of  e^g,  and  mucilage  ot 
acacia,  are  among  the  most  useful  excipients. 

Excise,  ek-siz'  [by  folk-etym.  corruption  (as  if  meaning'* 
cutting  out)  from  m.  Eng.  assise  <  0.  Fr.  osiM,  assise,  dcrn. 
of  asseoir  <  Lat.  asside'ref  sit  down  to :  assize  is  the  continu- 
ance of  the  correct  form]:  a  tax  on  goods  of  home  pn.<i lo- 
tion, as  distinct  from  customs  or  duties  on  imports.  1  ii* 
term  excise  is  chiefly  used  in  Great  Britain,  the  correv|w.T  \. 
ing  tenn  in  the  U.  S.  being  internal  revenue.  The  Hr>t:-h 
excise  system  as  a  system  dates  from  the  Long  ParlimiK  i.i 
in  1643,  duties  being  levied  to  support  the  army  al'h"«* 
Charles  I.  It  was  continued  after  the  Restoration,'  and  f ne- 
ther extended  in  1733.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nin<  tt-i  i.r. 
century  taxes  of  this  kind  were  widespread  and  oppnr-.w\ 
Under  the  leadership  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  beginning  jti-;.i 
1844,  there  was  a  gradual  abolition  of  the  excise  duty  u;  l 
many  articles,  with  the  most  useful  results  to  trade,  in  M-' 
the  boards  of  excise,  stamps,  and  l<axes  were  united  a> nii- 
missioners  of  inland  revenue.  The  present  revenue  «»f  v- 
United  Kingdom  from  taxes  of  this  kind  is  upward  of  L'2\- 
000,000.  The  chief  duties  of  the  sort  in  Fnince  are  il  -• 
upon  spirits,  wine  and  beer,  on  tobacco  and  snuff.  ar«i  '  r. 
gold  aild  silver  plate,  while  with  them  may  be  inchidi-<i  i<  ^- 
acy  and  succession  duties  and  stamp  taxes  on  various  c<  t.i- 
mercial  transactions.  For  similar  taxes  in  the  U.  S..  *«<f  In- 
ternal Revenue  and  Finance.  A.  T.  Uadllt. 

Excito-mofor  Action  :  in  physiology,  that  variety  <if  ^- 
flex  action  which,  arising  from  impressions  made   at  t : 
periphery  (internal  or  external),  is  first  transmitted  b>  HtT»  - 
ent  nerve-filaments  to  a  nerve  center,  and  thence  rt'll.  <  '•  i 
without  volition  along  motor  (deferent)  nerve-fllainent>  t-   * 
muscle,  which  is  thereby  aroused  to  action.    For  exanif  !••,  * 
sudden  impression  of  light  causes  the  pupil  of  the  t-^'- ' 
contract ;  the  presence  of  a  particle  of  food  in  the  jr!-  ^'.^ 
causes  intense  involuntary  coughing.    (See  Reflex  Aiti-a  • 
Excito-motor  action  is  peculiarly  active  in  very  younc  « i    - 
dren  and  in  many  of  tne  lower  animals.    In  some  di^^.^  - 
(tetanus,  hydrophobia,  strychnia  poisoning)  it  is  iinin*-!.-   ' 
increased.     Chloral,  belladonna,  curari  poison,  and  esj»et*:. .  ; 
the  alkaloid  curaria— all  appear  powerfully  to  reduce  aiti  • 
of  this  kind. 

ExeluBion  Bill :  in  English  history,  a  bill  whit  h  « '.< 
designed  to  exclude  the  Duke  of  York  (King  Jamt^  L 
from  the  throne,  because  he  was  a  Roman  Catholic.     It  »  i- 
adopted  by  the  House  of  Commons  in  1679,  but  was  n  '»t :«  . 
by  the  House  of  Lords.    See  Charles  II.  and  Jamks  IL 

ExcommnnlcAtioii  [from  deny,  of  Eccles.  Lat.  ejr  *• 
munica'rey  put  under  ban ;  ex,  out  of  +  eommunica  re,  r.  - 
municate;  commu'mA,  common,  shared]:  the  formal  t>x; 
sion  of  a  person  from  privileges  religious  or  social,  infl     - 
by  church  authority  upon  persons  accused  of  miscondn«  • 
heresy.    The  ancient  Israelites  excommunicated    offii.l  -« 
by  exclusion  from  the  camp,  by  "cutting  off   fn>m   ' 
people."  and  in  later  times  by  "  putting  out  of  the  >y.  ^ 
gogue."    This  punishment,  in  extreme  cases  at  leasts  w'a-^  . 
social  interdict  of  the  severest  kind.    Excoramonication  • 
the  Christian  Church  was  established  by  Christ's  teai  hu  .-- 
and  by  the  precept  and  example  of  the  apostles,  and  «.^ 


244 


EXEGESIS 


(2)  Biblical  Arckaology  or  Antiquities — i.  e.  a  systematic 
description  of  the  external  and  internal  condition  of  the 
nations  among  which,  and  the  countries  in  which,  the  Bible 
was  compos<^.  This  includes,  again,  the  geography  and 
natural  history  of  Palestine  and  adjacent  countries,  the 
topograph.y  of  Jerusalem,  an  account  of  the  domestic  habits, 
social  institutions,  agriculture,  arts  and  science,  religious 
rites,  and  ceremonies  of  the  Hebrews.  The  material  of 
Jewish  antiquities  is  derived  mostly  from  the  Bible  itself, 
but  also  from  Philo  and  Josephus,  the  Talmud,  the  monu- 
mental remains  from  Egypt,  Assyria,  Babylon,  and  the  ac- 
counts of  modern  explorers  down  to  the  labors  of  the  Pales- 
tine Exploration  Societies  of  England,  Germany,  and  the  U.  S. 

(3)  Biblical  Criticism  is  twofold — ^textuid  (also  called 
lower)  and  literary  (also  called  higher).  Textual  criticism 
deals  with  the  form  or  letter  of  the  Bible,  and  aims  at  the 
approximate  restoration  of  the  original  text  as  it  came  from 
the  hands  of  the  authors.  The  autographs  being  lost,  re- 
course must  be  had  to  the  oldest  unciaJ  manuscripts,  which 
date  from  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  Besides,  we  have 
partial  and  secondary  sources  of  the  Greek  text  in  the  very 
numerous  Scripture  quotations  of  the  Christian  Fathers 
(Origen,  Irenieus,  Eusebius,  Chrysostom,  Ambrose,  Jerome, 
etc.),  and  the  old  translations  (especially  the  Syriac  Peshitta, 
the  Latin  Itala,  and  the  improved  Vulgate  of  Jerome). 
Textual  criticism  includes  a  discussion  of  the  merits  of  the 
received  text  {textus  receptus,  derived  from  Erasmus,  Ste- 
phens, Beza,  and  Elzevir),  the  principles  for  ascertaining  the 
oldest  and  purest  text,  the  classification  of  manuscripts  and 
different  readings,  and  a  history  of  the  printed  text  from 
Erasmus  and  the  Complutensian  Polyglot  down  to  Lach- 
mann,  Tischendorf,  Tregelles,  Westcott  and  Hort.  There 
is  a  gradual  approach  to  an  agreement  among  the  best  crit- 
ics, and  the  conviction  of  the  essential  integrity  of  the  primi- 
tive text  has  been  greatly  strengthened  by  the  latest  dis- 
coveries (e.  g.  the  Codex  Sirhaiticus),  the  full  publication 
of  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  (St.  Petersburg,  1863),  ana  the  Codex 
Vaticanua  (in  fac-simile,  1889),  and  the  invest iffations  of 
the  leading  critical  editors.  Literary  or  historical  criticism 
deals  with  the  contents  of  the  Bible  and  investigates  the 
questions  of  authorship,  and  all  the  historical  surroundings 
of  the  several  books  as  also  their  collection  into  a  collective 
body  or  canon. 

(4)  Historico-critical  Introduction  to  the  Books  of  the 
Old  (Md  New  Testaments  is  a  literary  history  of  the  Bible, 
and  includes  all  the  introductory  information  necessary  for 
the  proper  understanding  of  its  contents,  as  the  question  of 
the  genuineness  and  integrity  of  the  book,  the  persons  ad- 
dressed, the  place  and  time  of  composition,  the  object  and 
aim  of  the  writer.  It  gives  also  a  history  of  the  canon  or 
collection  of  the  several  books  of  tlie  Bible  into  one  authori- 
tative code,  distinct  from  all  other  books,  and  recognized  as  a 
rule  (ican6r)  of  faith  and  morals  by  those  who  receive  them. 
The  principal  works  on  introduction  are  by  De  Wette,  Hug, 
Bleek,  Reuss,  Weiss,  Holtzmann,  Gt)det,  Home,  Davidson, 
Havemick,  Keil,  Ewald,  Wellhausen,  Driver,  Comill.  Com- 
pare also  the  Bible  Dictionaries  of  Kitto  (3d  ed.  by  William 
L.  Alexander,  3  vols,),  William  Smith  (ed.  with  improve- 
ments by  Hackett  and  Abbot,  in  4  vols.;  revised  English 
ed.,  1893,  H^q,),  Pairbaim,  Winer,  Schenkel,  Riehm,  Schaff. 

(5)  Biblical  Ilermeneutics — i.  e.  the  science  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  interpretation,  and  the  necessary  qualifications  for 
an  expounder  of  the  Scriptures.  These  qualifications  are 
partly  intellectual  (familiarity  with  the  general  laws  of 
thought  and  speech,  knowledge  of  the  particular  languages 
of  the  Bible,  sound  judgment)  and  partly  moral  (freedom 
from  prejudice,  readiness  to  do  justice  to  the  author,  sym- 
pathy with  his  spirit  and  ideas).  Works  by  Fairbaim,  Im- 
mer,  Terry,  Diestel,  Farrar. 

(6)  Biblical  Theology  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  is  a 
summing  up  of  the  results  of  exegesis  in  systematic  order, 
and  presents  a  full  view  of  the  teaching  of  the  Scriptures, 
irrespective  of  the  subsequent  systems  of  denominational 
dogmatics  and  ethics  denved  from  them.  This  branch  of 
exegetical  theology  is  of  recent  growth,  and  has  thus  far 
been  mostly  cultivated  by  continental  scholars.  There  are 
also  special  treatises  on  the  theology  of  Christ,  the  theology 
of  Paul,  John,  and  Peter.  Each  of  the  apostles,  as  he  has 
his  own  peculiar  style,  represents  also  a  special  aspect  of 
the  Christian  system;  yet  all  harmonize  and  exhibit  to- 
gether the  fullness  of  the  Gospel.  Compare  the  works  of 
Schmid,  Baur,  Weiss,  and  Van  Oosterzee  on  New  Testament 
Theology;  Ewald,  S<ihultz,  and  Oehler  on  Old  Testament 
Theology;  and  Wendt  on  the  teaching  of  Jesus  (1892). 


III.  History  of  Exegesis  and  PrtnciocU  Commentar(e«.~ 
(1)  Jewish  exegesis,  confined  to  the  Ola  Testament.  It  be- 
gan soon  after  the  close  of  the  canon.  It  was  especially  dt- 
voted  to  the  Law  (the  Thorah),  i.  e.  the  Pentateuch,  and 
derived  from  it  minute  rules  for  the  individual,  social  and 
ecclesiastical  relations.  The  body  of  these  interpretation^ 
is  called  Midrash,  The  prevailing  method  of  exegesis  was 
the  rabbinical  or  literal ;  it  excluded  all  foreign  ideas,  and 
was  subservient  to  the  strict  legalism  of  the  Pharisees.  But 
among  the  Hellenist  (Greek-speaking)  Jews,  especially  in 
Alexandria,  the  allegorizing  method  obtained  favor,  esfie- 
cially  through  Philo  (d.  about  40  a.  d.),  who  endeayored  to 
combine  the  Mosaic  religion  with  Platonic  philosophy,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  the  allegorizing  exegesis  of  Clement 
ana  Origen  of  Alexandria.  The  Jewish  rabbins  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  cultivated  grammatical  exegesis  at  a  time  when  thr 
knowledge  of  Hebrew  had  died  out  in  the  Christian  Cliur<h. 
The  most  distinguished  among  them  are  Ibn  Ezra  (d.  1167). 
R.  Sal.  Isaak  or  Rasclii  (d.  1105),  David  Kimchi  (d-  1190). 
Moses  Malmonides  (d.  1204).  Their  commentaries  are  nriut- 
ed  separately,  and  also  in  the  so-called  Rabbinical  febles 
e.  g.  of  Buxtorf  (3  vols.,  Basel,  1618). 

(2)  Patristic  Exegesis. — The  first  use  made  of  the  Bible 
in  the  Church  was  practical  and  homiletical.    It  was  to  thf 
early  Christians  what  it  still  is  to  the  great  mass  of  belier- 
ers,  and  will  be  to  the  end  of  time — a  Sook  of  life,  of  spirit- 
ual instruction  and  edification,  of  hope  and  comfort    .Sci- 
entific or  learned  exegesis  began  when  the  Bible  was  imt- 
verted  by  heretics  and  made  to  serve  all  sorts  of  errors.    iW 
Greek  Cnurch  took  the  lead.     Origen  (180-254),  the  greatt*^' 
scholar  of  his  age,  a  man  of  genius  and  iron  industry,  is  thi 
father  of  critical  exegesis.    He  is  full  of  suggestive  u\eA\ 
but  far  from  being  sound.     His  theory  of  hermeneuti<-^  i* 
untenable,  and  opens  the  wa^  for  the  most  fanciful  and  ar- 
bitrary expositions  or  impositions.     He  distingruishes  thn^ 
senses  in  tiie  Bible,  corresponding  to  the  three  parts  of  man : 
(a)  a  literal  or  bodily  sense ;  (b)  a  moral  or  r^vchic  sen**' ; 
(c)  an  allegorical  or  mystic,  spiritual  sense.    Where  thf  lit- 
eral sense  is  oflEensive,  he  escaped  the  difficulty  by  adopt  ir.c 
a  purely  spiritual  sense.    The  greatest  commentators  of  t&e 
Greek  Church  are  Chrysostom  (d.  407),  who  in  his  Homil*** 
explained  the  principal  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tt-i.i- 
ments,  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (d.  429),  Theodoret  of  ('>r  -"^ 
(d.  457).    Among  the  Latin  Fathers,  Augustine  (d.  AH/o^  v- 
the  profoundest  and  most  spiritual,  Jerome  (d.419)  the  ni<-t 
learned  and  critical,  expounder.    The  latter  achieved  tb( 
highest  merit  by  his  improved  Latin  version  of  the  BibU 
(the  Vulgate),  which  remains  to  this  day  the  standard  rr-r- 
sion  of  the  Roman  Church.    The  Council  of  Trent  forhaii  • 
the  interpretation  of  Scriptures  except  according  to  *•  1 1- 
unanimous  consent  of  the  Fathers."    But  this  rule,  strict'.^ 
carried  out,  would  prevent  all  progress  in  theology ;  and  t«^- 
sides,  such  a  "unanimous  consent    does  not  exist  excepi  ir 
the  most  fundamental  doctrines. 

(8)  MedicevcU  exegesis  was  purely  traditional,  and  cti- 
sisted  of  brief  glosses  {glossaria)  or  of  extracts  from  th 
Fathers  (called  caience  Patrum).    The  original  langiiatr*-^    ' 
the  Bible  were  almost  unknown  in  the  West,  and  even  t  t  ■ 
first  among  the  scholastics  depended  upon  Jerome's  vt-r>i-  r . 
for  their  knowledge  of  God*s  word.    The  prevailing  mctK'«i 
distinguished  four  senses  of  the  Scriptures:  (a)  the  lit»r4. 
or  historical ;  (b)  the  spiritual  or  mystic,  correspontlin^  t. 
faith,  teaching  what  to  believe  (creaenda);  (r)  the  moral  •* 
tropological,  which    corresponds  to  love  or  chant  v.  ai  i 
teaches  what  to  do  (agendi) ;  (rf)  the  anagogical,  whii-h  in- 
fers to  hope  {speranda).    The  principal  patristic  i*<mip  lec- 
tions are  (a)  in  the  Greek  Church,  those  of  Q'A'unif'n  i* 
(d.  990),   Theophylactus    (d.  1007),   Enthymius    ZipiU:i.> 
(d.  1118).  and  Nicephorus  (fourteenth  centur>-) ;  {/*)  in  V 
Latin  Church,  Wallafried  Strnbo  (d.  849),   'fhoma?.  A 
nas  (d.  1274).     The  Catena  aurea  in  Ei^anaelia  of  Th«r ,  ^ 
A(^uinas  has  been  reproduced  in  a  scholarly  English  tm'i- 
lation  by  Pusey,  Keble,  and  Newman.    Among  th«  uxor*- 
indepenaent  biblical  scholars  of  the  Middle  Ages  who  pT>f^ 
pared  the  way  for   the  Reformation  must  be  mentii»r.»  : 
Nicolaus  k  Lyra  (d.  1340 :  **  Si  Lyra  noti  lyrasset,  lyHfhrr\ 
non  saltassei'\  and  Lauren  tins  valla  (d.  1465),  the  pi«  uirrr 
of  biblical  and  historical  criticism. 

(4)  The  exegesis  of  the  Protestant  Reformers  of  the  «x 
teenth  century  marks  a  new  epoch.    It  is  full  of  enthuMA- 
for  the  word  of  God  in  the  Bible  as  the  only  rule  of  1 '[.•"• 
tian  faith  and  practice,  and  free  from  the  slavery  of  ot  ^  >• 
siastical  tradition.    It  went  directly  to  the  original  Gpi*. 
and  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  furnished  the  liest  translat*-  r- 


246 


KXKMPhART   DAMAGES 


RXRTEB 


portant  of  which  are  thr  Ptompfuarium  Exemptorum  of 
Antlmui  llc>n<lt»rff  (tl.  lft?2),  and  tho  FimrA  dtA  hjrempUs 
tm  Cat^hittm^  historical  of  Antoiric  trAvoronlt,  a  Jesuit 
who  diod  in  1614  It  i^  intrrr^tin^  to  not«»  that  tho  uw  of 
irtoriert  ID  sermons  ifl  <\\\  fnN|ui'n!  fnou^h  ttxMill  for  mmlem 
iH»lUH*tioni(,aad  that  a  niindier  of  ttic  h.  one  )H*arint;  the  time- 
bonoiv<l  name  of  /V»/mp/»*ary.  hnve  been  puhli>hed. 

The  mHMmd  cIam  of  exmipla-tiookii  mentione^l  alMtvc  e<»n- 
tainA  8t4>riefl  to  whit-h  have  U'en  ap)K<nde(l  a  moral  iimelu- 
sion  or  an  explanation  of  the  hidden  or  allep>ncal  meaninfc 
i>f  the  !«torv.  For  tliii*  ela««  fahU*^  and  jiaraiiUw  were  exten- 
di vely  u*«e<l,  as*  Well  a!«  the  iivmlxilica]  interpretation  of  nat- 
ural hi«*tory.  To  ihi**  ela^H  Udon^  such  works  as  the  failles 
of  Odo  of  t'heriton.  the  Mnrtiii:ntion^M  of  k<dH'rt  Holkot, 
an  Kn^linh  L)omini«'an.  the  (ie^ta  Htffnanorum,  and  the 
Srain  t^fii  of  Joliannt*:^  Junior  (his  surname  was  (folui.  and 
he  was  fnmi  Alain,  in  the  south  of  France).  Of  the  collec- 
ti«»n*  devoted  r^iM'iMallv  Ut  moraIixe«l  natural  hiMorv  mav 
tie  mentionc<l  the  noftnm  uni^'^rtuth  df  apthuMot  Thomas  of 
(*anttmpn*.  a  B^Mcian  l>omini<>an.  written  twtween  1245  and 
r^l,  in  which  the  fHx-uharitie*  of  Wes  atv  explaine*!  in  an 
alN'^trioal  manner;  and  the  Formicariun  of  John  Nvder  (d. 
14<V4).  a  iKuninican  of  Swal>ia,  in  which  the  ant  plavs  the 
part  of  the  U*^  in  the  work  junt  mentioneti  al>o%*e.  Similar 
wtirk^  hf  Ne4'kam,  John  of  San^emiiuano  and  Bartholomew, 
in«M>mx*tly  calU*4|  <r)anville  (a  Kranci«^'an.  Jwirn  pn>l»ably  in 
EnicUnd.  who  liv<H|  in  France  and  flouri^^he*!  iK'twwn  1226 
and  ld4^K  enjoyed  fn^at  popularity  and  are  often  eitetl  in 
•ermonii. 

B«»<iide«  the  aU>ve  col li»*'t ions  of  es^mpta,  with  or  without 
inoralixationji,  there  are  cvrtain  wyMematic  tn»atis*»«  for  the 
u^  of  preaohem  which  ctmtain  lar^«  numtK'p*  of  rsemp/a. 
The  earliest  and  m(»Ht  intert><Htin^  is  the  work  of  6tienne  de 
Bourbim.  a  l>oniinican  of  the  thirlwnth  century,  whose 
work,  usually  known  a»  the  Lif^r  df  »eptem  donij^'Smritus 
Sanrti,  has  U*en  iwrtiallv  «Mlit<'*i  hv  A.  Ij»h'«»v  de  la  Marche 
for  the  SiK'iele  de  rhiM4»ire  <le  France.  Otiu-r  wtirks  of  thi» 
claM  are  the  Liber  de  abundant t a  est-mplontm.  attrihute<l 
wittmut  rvanon  t4i  AUiert  the  (tn*at ;  the  Summa  virtutum 
or  v^ttorum,  by  William  Perrault,  who  diwi  al»oul  1475; 
ilolkotV  tnyitiM*  4>n  the  wi«Mlom  of  S)lomon  {Opus  miner 
Saptrntiam  iSri/ofn««Mi ;  and  the  m'»^  extensive  and   im- 

JHtrtant  work  of  this  cl»i*s  the  SumifM  Pnrdirantium  of 
lohn  Bromyartl,  an  Kni;h<>h  Dominican  who  diisl  in  141H. 

The  influen(YM>f  the  at^ive- mentioned  coIUn'tiims  of  l^tin 
esempia  had  a  pnifound  influence  u|Hin  the  vernacular  lit- 
er»iurr«:  A4»me  of  the  l^tin  col Uvt ion*  were  translattnl  in 
their  entirety,  aa  was  the  ca«e  with  fttienne  de  BouriN>n,  al- 
reatly  cit4Ht  ^>ut  ffenerally  the  mm ilar  works  in  tho  m«Miern 
lauKuaf^i^  ivf  Kun>|»e  are  imitations  and  not  translations. 
The  m««t  ext4'h«Mve  of  th<*se  are  the  Sftanish  Libra  dr  Iom 
Knj-emt>l^*M  (U'lonnini;  of  the  flfU'enth  century),  publUhiMl 
in  the  htbttotera  de  Automt  Kipft^oi^tt,  an  alphalM'tical  col- 
ItvtJun,  t>rut«al>]^  a  translation,  alt  It-mch  the  orit;inal  has 
not  yet  liceu  di'«M)vereil,  and  the  (ntalan  ctdlwlion  men- 
tionnil  a)N>vt».  There  are  brief  colle<'iion*  in  Portuifui»se, 
Italian.  French,  and  Kntclish,  which  can  not  be  mentioned 
in  tletail  here. 

The  enlUH*!i<in«  alMire  devriJ)e<l  ctmtain  an  immense 
arnniiut  **(  mat**rial  of  all  kinds,  hiHt4»rical  antHil^ten.  fables, 
a(ioi«>i:ue«.  lri^'nd%  j"*nt«,  |iopular  tales,  etc.  Their  value 
iHjn^i^ts  n«rtU  m  the  li^ht  they  throw  u|Min  the  history  of 
mf^lUTTal  culture,  l>ul  more  e^jM^'ially  in  tin-  im^virtant  jtart 
they  plare-J  in  the  diffusion  of  jx»iiular  taU^s  (fttt)le*>,  jc'»ts, 
«t< .).  TUv  Onrntal  elements  brouifht  from  Syria  by  Jac(|utN« 
de  Vitry  and  oilirrs  were  sprra<l  thnuich'Mit  Kun)|H*  by  the 
h»»*l  of  pr»'a<-h«T*  who  incoqHtrate*!  th«*m  into  their  senMon». 

A  fulJ  ai'i-Miuil  «if  the  u***  of  rremp/a  in  s#'rm«»n»  afid  <»f 
thp  O'll'-^'tifi*!*  fur  ihr  u^'  of  pn»*h»'r».  a»  well  as  tlie  imita- 
ti 'H*  in  thi>  larh'U^  rn<>  b  ni  li%fu'u;ii:«-*  at  Kiin>pe,  may  N» 
f«'i»i'I  in  th«'  liitr^pliK  tl'«n  to  yVi**  Ki*mplfi  or  IHu^trttttt'r 
Si'trtrm  fntm  thr  Srrrnonejt  t*nl<^tir^M  of  Jnrtfuejt  df  \  %try 
(l^'fidon,  1*^),  F"U-l<trv  Nxiet^t,  br  the  writ4r  of  this  ar- 
ti-  If.  T.  F.  I'tAM:. 

ExenpUrj  Danac^:  S-r  IU1l4u»^  Mlihi  kk  or. 

Ex«^a«'Ur :  S-e  t<.>Hi  u 

Ex^rrise  (m*  Fr.  fn-m  |j»t.  exem  /Mill,  fntin  fnrrere. 
ri-rr  rt /urn.  til  dm r  a)"tii;.  t«>  bu-** ) :  a^tiMi)  of  anv  futrt  of 
the  UhIy  hatinif  f'*r  it^  i^^'titijiJ  ob;<rt  tlit  at^airunettt  or 
maintftiiinc*'  **i  m  tM-alth*  »i»  k'r»«'  ««f  n^  u\  il*  of  ihr  t  itnl  proc- 
e*^**  S«i  inif«»*^'»nt  i«  it  t»»  th»*  i|f\i  I..|.tnt  tji,  j;rit»!h,  atid 
•u»t*-naiuT  t»f  U-li!«  an*!  rii«-n!.ii  >  u*"r  tliat  it  i*  ai-^iim  ti\e- 
U  «HiKht«  aii«i  tr*tni  titiir  ittiUi«-ni«irial  various  );aiij«'^,  «|Hirt«, 


and  similar  measures,  toirether  with  a  Tact  numl«rr  <f  r. 
chanical  devices,  have  Uvn  devis*^  to  pn«vuti*  it.     It  . 
curious    circumstance    that    there   arv  c*i»mpmni!i**'»    * 
pleasures  whi<>h  do  not  m^cessarily  involve  aA-tnit;  «.:.-• 
Doily  or  of  mi  mi. 

Exercise  may  be  active  or  passive:  a<'tive,  wh*n  d 
due  t4)  V(»litional  effort;  pa«*ive,  when  neither  mui-i  n  '  • 
takes  m'tive  fuirt,  as  when  obtaine«l  bv  mn-^Nii;:!*.  •)»,*- 
or  similar  means  practiced   by  anotlter  intimi  *%i     • 
purtdy  mechanical  devic^^.    The  various  fonu«  arf  •!  "• 
ently  dinftinl :   some  to  the  mind,  as  stmly,  «t  n,j«- 
chess,  etc.;  others  t*)  the  Isxly.  as  duml>-Uiiv  ln«:.fj  • 
rowing?,  walking,  etc.;  an<l  others  lioth  to  nniMl  an*!  t»-. 
in  pimes  such  as  lawn  tennis,  cricket,  etc..  w tin  h  •!•     . 
mental  and  physical  decision  and  skill.     It«»  m.j"  f*i     ■ 
the  healthy  development  and  maintenance  of  U't:.  r..        m 
bo«ly  is  becominf;  more  an«l  more  appreciatetl.  r*j-«  a   i 
n»spe<*t  to  systenmtic  phvMcal  exeniM*  by  tlK»M*  «n..^  • 
is  tartly  spent  in  mental  laUtr;  and  in-^tmtii'n  •' 
character  is  fast  asvsuming  a  nei'esAary  |Mirt  of  in,  <     — 
of  the  leading?  schools,  colleges,  and  uiii%«'r«.in«-«.     7* 
idea  that  a  man  can  not  be  an  athlete  both  in  n-i-  .a 
b<Kiy  can  no  lonj^er  Iw  atn-eftted,  while,  on  the  othi-r  t  a. 
can  not  l)e  denied  that  the  vipir  of  the  min«l  i«  in«  r«  .^^ 
ffH'ater  viif<»r  of  the  ImmW.     Kxen-lse  to  alTon)  tht*  n..»t  t« 
nt  should  be  conductecl  systematicnllv ;  it  ^b- u  .1   .«.-• 
short  (teriods  at  first,  and  then  frrailuully  In*  im  nmm- 
day  to  day;  it  should  be  directe<l  Ut  tiuw^  fiarts  cf  * 
ganinin  that  most  nee<]  it,  and  it  sh<>ul<l  Dot  U*  («r»  ^^ 
lieyoiiii  a  stajre  of  slif^ht  fatij^ie.     It  is  perhaf**  trf*"-     — 
state  that  the  brain  worker  netnls  physical  e\t  n  •-*  a* 
Uwlily  worker  mental  exenise,  but  it  must  n*»t  \w  f-  *.  ' 
that  the  fonner  rarely  uses  all  of  his  facultu-n  m  h  -  la 
and  that  in  the  work  of  the  latter  only  a  tern  p«rt* 
Unly  may  be  involye<i.    The  cardinal  pnnciple*  m  •--  * 
tion  of  anv  form  of  exercise  are  to  »el«H't  th««r  w 
specially  direct e«l  to  such  parts  as  are,  t»ecau«w   of  |w* 
vocations,  but  little  or  rarely  ii^e<l,  or  to  |».rti  -r.*  -  ' 
system  which  for  some  reason  are  illy  devri-  $if»l,  .■  . 
cn<M*e  those  which,  otiier  thintr*  l»einjr  eiiual,  arr  ni*  -"  a^- 
al)le  to  us,  and  which  by  exjierieiice  yiel<l  the  m.-4  ic  •■. 

Where  certain  fn>>u[Mi  oi  mus<des  or  indnidaa«   n.  .■ 
are  weak  the  Swedish  system  of  ^mnastu^vi.     Iw  • 
es(HviaIly  available.     By  this  raeth/ni  the  muM  \r-  ms»  - 
cis«s]  systematically  by  comitellinjc  them  to  «tirk    ^^ 
pn>(>er  fonns  of  res'iNtance.     Massa^  and  eleetrM  :*«  mr» 
of  ^n^at  l»eneflt  in  these  cast-s.  panicularli   tr^*   f.  —    - 
which  the  muscles  are  pr^'sc^l.  j»ounde»l,  kn*-*-***!.  r 
or  stroke<L     Such  exercise  favors  the  supply  of  \    •■•  • 
(tarts,  stimulating   them  to  healthy  activity   a:m   «  a** 
away  effete  and  detrimental  wa*te  prtslucL*  iluu  !»r.      t 
cumulate  when  the  tiviues  an'  slncirwh. 

Nearly  all  forms  of  exen  i-^^  ar»*  inopp  ^■rmft'l%*     ♦ 
cunsl  in  the  oiien  air,  ami  e^|i«'«MalU  wht*n  tJ^  *««ii     • 
from    unnatural   restraint   by   clothing.      In   a  1    f   -* 
physical   exenise  women  shouM  avoid  wrmrritf  «*•  r^^ 
other  articles  of  apparel  that  restrain  frre  m«»t«  n*  t.  • 
iMMly  or  hinder  in  any  way  alMilute  frrr<lt)ro  <>f  ih«      * 
tion. 

Parts  of  the  Ixwly  long  subjecte*!  to  4li«uar  >ww»^- 
fivbhsl.  degenerat4Ml.  and  final tv  functi«>nt«4fv     Fi**    i 
cavi*s  from  which  light  is  excluibsl  «iH»n  !<'«■'  th<if  |« 
vLMon,  siH^tt'^sive  generations  are  U»m  b..niL  mtmx    ^T 
time  the  off«*pring  are  bom  with  very  im(wrf»rt    ■  r    i 
rudimentani*  ejes. 

S*«e    Fhysh  AL    Kihtatio!!,  Swmits,  Rovt^n,   lLa.«a» 
Football.  I^awn  Tcvkis.  etc,  Euwaep  T.  Uij>  v«a 


i 


1 


1 


Exeter  (in  I*at.  /w/i  or  Exomia):  city  and 
tal  of  I><'Von«*hire.  Knglantl ;  on  the  n*er  Kx**.  »£ 
milcH  from  the  ■^■a.  and  171)  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  I^  :  t 
nhich  it  is  conniH'ltsI  by  railway  <«w^  map  « if  K^<.ak- 
14-K).  It  is  plia.*(antly  situated  on  the  ••■ir*  «  •!  •  .  - 
an  airlivity,  and  is  well  built,  well  (lavtHi,  ac<l  ii^wr& 

()lit<il   with   water.     It   was  the  Ita   Ihtmm,*n*m0^wm 
{oniaiis,  and  the  c«tins,  iiottenr.  •epul*  hrml  ara*^  •<  -  . 
ha>e  Un'Ii  found  thm*  sn{>w  tfiat  it  «&«  a  p'siv   if  «» 
{Mtrtaitcf*.     At   the  tune  of  the  Saiwi  c«<ciij'df-^   it    ^ 
d»-<'rttMl  by  the  Bnti^h.     When  AtheWSan  amml  •• 
\r>t],  he  fouint  It  tMM'upiisI  by  Bnt>>n«and  >*x«  n*  tn  «•   < 
Willmtn  the  CoiHiueror  ap|)e«nrsl  brforr  iKe  <  ttv  •■    !• 
I  fotitidi^l   the  ca*>tle   of   Hiiup'mont.     Kxrter   f  tk» 
I  bi««hop.  an«l  ha<»  a  rnagnifiivnt  rathrdrai,  wb«-|i   wa 
uiencf^i   in   12>4);  it   m  44M  feet  long,  antl  ha*  tw»t    ? 


i 
■-1 


-  i 


248 


EXODUS,  THE  BOOK  OP 


were  abundant,  have  constantly  made  a  rapid  progress  in 
population.  Egypt,  it  is  well  known,  was  famous  among 
the  nations  of  antiquity  not  only  for  its  animal  fecundity, 
but  also  for  the  fertility  of  its  human  occupants.  And  yet 
the  rapid  increase  of  the  Israelites  in  Eeypt  is  emphasized 
in  the  history,  and  referred  to  afterward  (rs.  cv.  23,  24),  as 
something  extraordinary.  On  the  whole,  it  .seems  to  be 
well  established  that  the  period  of  480  years  dates  from  the 
migration,  though  this  is  doubtless  contrary  to  the  opinions 
now  most  prevalent. 

As  to  the  points  of  contact  between  Egyptian  and  Hebrew 
history,  the  time  has  not  yet  come  for  final  conclusions. 
Egyptian  history  itself  is  "undergoing  reconstruction.  It 
may  be  regarded  as  settled  that  the  Pharaohs  of  the  ex- 
odus were  those  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  and  that  the 
Pharaoh  of  Abraham  was  one  of  the  snepherd  kings.  It  is 
now  generally  assumed  that  the  Pharaoh  of  Joseph  was 
Apophis,  the  la^st  of  the  shepherd  kings,  but  this  is  certainly 
at  variance  with  Gen.  xlvi.  34,  xlvii.  22,  xli.  45,  etc.  Proba- 
bly the  shepherd  kings  had  lost  their  supremacy  as  early  as 
Isaac*s  time  (Gen.  xxvi.  2).  Jacob's  Pharaoh  may  have  been 
Thothmes  III.  or  some  other  king  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty. 

The  Israelites  dwelt  principally  in  the  Delta.  Several 
biblical  sites  have  been  identified  there  by  recent  explorers. 
Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  they  crossed  the  Red  Sea  near 
the  present  site  of  Suez,  or  further  north,  near  the  Bitter 
Lakes.  From  Suez  to  Sinai  the  distance  is  about  150  miles. 
Their  route  to  Sinai  was  probably  through  the  Watli  Feiran. 
Kadesh  Bamea,  the  point  at  which  they  first  touched  the 
borders  of  Palestine,  and  to  which,  after  thirty-eight  years 
of  penal  wandering,  they  returned,  has  been  identified  on 
the  west  side  of  the  desert.  If  the  Israelites  were  to  be 
civilized  by  contact  with  another  people,  no  better  place 
coidd  have  been  found,  and  on  the  whole  no  safer,  than 
Egypt.  The  miracles  by  which  they  were  delivered,  and 
whicn  attended  them  all  the  way  through  the  desert  until 
they  were  finally  planted  in  their  former  home,  made  a 
profound  impression  upon  the  national  character. 

The  date  of  the  exocius,  in  years  of  the  Christian  era,  is  a 
matter  of  conjecture.  Usher  places  it  about  1490  b.  c.  A 
more  correct  computation  from  the  Bible  numerals  might 
make  it  some  decades  earlier.  The  date  now  most  com- 
monly received  is  about  1320  b.  c,  but  this  is  in  conflict  with 
the  Bible  statements,  and  is  based  on  really  very  slight  evi- 
dence. WiLUS  J.  Beecheb. 

Exodus,  The  Book  of:  the  second  book  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament; so  named  by  the  Alexandrian  translators  of  the 
Old  Testament.  The  Hebrews  of  Palestine  designated  it  by 
its  opening  words,  Elleh  Shemoth,  **  These  are  the  words.^' 
It  consists  of  two  distinct  portions ;  the  former  (chaps,  i.- 
xviii.)  describing  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt ;  the  latter  (chaps.  xix.-xl.)  describing  the  giving  of 
the  law.  Its  Mosaic  authorship  is  affirmed  by  tradition  and 
attested  by  evidence,  but  denied  by  many  eminent  scholars. 
See  Pentateuch.  Revised  by  Willis  J.  Beecheb. 

Exogamy :  See  Ethxolooy. 

Exogenous  (eks-oj'ee-ntis)  Plants,  or  Ex'ogens  [from 
Gr.  f(«,  without  +  root  7€k-,  liecome,  grow] :  plants  in  which 
the  growth  of  the  stem  is  in  concentric  layers  between  the 
pith  and  the  bark.    See  Dicotyledons. 

Exophthalmic  Goitre :  See  Basedow's  Disease. 

Ex'orcism  [from  Gr.  i$opKurft6s,  deriv.  of  4^iCw,  to  ad- 
minister an  oath,  (in  Eccles.  Gr.)  to  drive  out  by  adiuration ; 
rf(,  out,  -»-  6pKos,  oath] :  a  ceremony  designed  to  expel  demons 
or  evil  spirits  from  persons,  places,  or  things.  Exorcisms  of 
various  kinds  have  been  practiced  from  remote  antiquity  in 
nearly  all  nations  and  races.  The  ancient  Jews,  according 
to  Josephus,  the  Talmud,  and  the  New  Testament,  had  a 
class  of  persons  professing  to  be  skilled  in  casting  out  devils. 
In  the  early  ages  of  the  Church  a  separate  class  of  exorcists 
arose  who  claimed  special  powers  of  controlling  evil  spirits. 
Many  ceremonies  were  institute<l  by  them,  and  their  powers 
were  exerted  not  only  over  those  possessed  by  the  devil,  but 
over  all  candidates  for  baptism,  over  the  baptismal  water, 
and  other  sacred  things  and  places.  In  the  Church  of 
Home  there  is  a  special  order  of  exorcists — one  of  the  four 
orders  of  the  minor  clergy.  All  persons  in  superior  onlers 
must  pass  through  this  degree.  In  the  Greek  Church  a 
similar  order  exists.  Exorcism  is  obsolete  in  all  Protestant 
denominations,  though  formerly  recognized  in  several. 

Exosmose :  See  Liquid  Diffusion. 

Exoteric :  See  Esoteric. 


EXPATRIATION 

Exosto'sis  [Gr.  4^6trTmru,  a  diseased  excrescence  on  the 
bone ;  ^(,  out  +  6<rr4o¥,  bone] :  an  abnormal  outgrowth  fr»ri. 
one  of  the  bones  of  the  skeleton.  In  man  the  disease  e^f«- 
cially  seats  itself  up(m  the  fenmr  or  on  some  of  the  l>onps..f 
the  skull.  In  the  latter  case  it  sometimes  assumes  a  (>e<'uh,ir 
ivory-like  character  (eburnized  exostosis),  from  the  pit^jn . 
of  an  excess  of  calcium  phosphate.  It  is  usually  (levflnjKii 
from  an  inflammatory  exudate,  and  is  ordinarily  foni]i<! 
with  the  exact  structure  of  true  bone.  The  disease  is  (npj- 
monly  pamless.  Some  classes  arise  from  a  syphilitic  tumt. 
others  from  a  rheumatic  or  gouty  diathesis,  otners  from  ta- 
rious  forms  of  irritation. 

Some  writers  include  bony  outgrowths  among  the  tumoN 
but  it  is  best  to  reerard  as  tumors  only  the  apparently  chum^ 
less  bony  masses  tnat  occur  about  bones  or  elsewhere,  or- 
dinarily'the  only  cure  is  in  ablation. 

Revised  by  Wiluam  Pepper. 

Expansion  [from  L&U  expan'dere,  expan'eum,  >{)rvA'l 
out] :  a  spreading  out ;  an  increase  of  bulk  or  extent.  v<\>^ 
cialiy  under  the  action  of  internal  forces.  In  physic^  iii*< 
term  is  sometimes  applied  to  mere  increase  in  length  (^:<•^' 
properly,  elongation  or  dilatation),  sometimes  to  8U()erfi<iHl 
expansion,  but  most  frequently  to  increase  of  volume.  An 
important  cause  of  expansion  is  rise  of  temperature,  al- 
though there  are  important  exceptions  to  the  law,  as  in  the 
case  of  vulcanized  rubber,  of  ioaide  of  silver,  of  water  lie- 
tween  O""  and  4*"  C,  of  the  oxide  of  copper  and  the  diainornl 
at  low  temperatures,  and  of  iron  above  a  red-heat.  KK>n- 
gation  per  unit  of  lenp^h,  when  a  body  is  heated  one  dcpi^ 
centigrade,  is  its  coefficient  of  linear  expansion;  inerea>t  ••( 
bulk  per  unit  of  volume,  when  a  body  is  ncated  one  degTif,^ 
the  coefficient  of  cubical  expansion.  The  observed  ex[ian- 
sion  of  a  liquid  or  gas  within  a  containing  vessel,  on  Ltht- 
ing  or  cooling,  is  termed  its  apparent  expansion.  The  frttt 
expansion  of  the  fluid  is  obtained  by  correcting  for  the 
changed  expansion  of  the  vessel. 

In  the  case  of  homogeneous  bodies,  heated  uniformly,  f i- 
pansion  takes  place  in  all  directions  equally.  The  result  b 
change  of  volume  without  change  of  form.  In  crv^iAl> 
other  than  of  the  '* regular"  system,  and  in  all  bodiW  ^r 
systems  not  homogeneous,  exp)ansion  will  not  be  the  >Mii>t- 
in  all  directions,  and  change  of  form  will  accompany  even 
change  of  temperature.  The  expansion  of  wood,  for  e^an 
pie,  is  greater  across  the  grain  than  with  it.  In  extni't 
cases  (where  two  materials  of  very  different  coefficients  h'v 
rigidly  combine<l)  the  deformation  on  heating  and  e<^l:'.: 
or  under  change  of  pressure  may  be  so  marked  as  to  a(T<  ri 
a  means  of  measuring  temperature  or  pressure.  See  Tiuk- 
MOMETER ;  also  Barometer  (aneroid).  E.  L.  Nu  bol>. 

Expatriation  [from  Lat.  ex,  out  of +pa/rta,  native  ovut.- 
try]:  the  voluntary  abandonment  of  one*s  native  ooun*n 
with  the  intention  of  becoming  a  citizen  of  another  M.it4>. 
The  right  of  a  person  to  throw  off  the  obligation  of  a..^- 
giance  has  been  denied  by  eminent  writers  and  some  govt  m- 
ments.    The  true  view  would  seem  to  be  that  the  power  to 
determine  when  the  allegiance  of  the  citizen  may  cease  I  — 
longs  to  the  state  of  which  he  is  a  member,  rather  than  t>> 
himself.    At  the  same  time  the  freedom  of  intercourse  U- 
tween  nations  in  modem  times  and  the  interests  of  ci  vibra- 
tion require  that  the  various  nations  should  provide  lilierai 
rules  by  which  at  proper  times  the  relation  of  the  citizen  t.. 
the  state  may  cease,  and  the  individual,  freed  from  the  Tt"> 
of  burdensome  allegiance,  may  assume  another  citizen>h:|- 
if  he  so  desire.    In  this  spirit  may  now  be  found  statuii  r^ 
declarations  by  leading  states  on  this  subject,   as  wi-li  .&> 
treaty  stipulations.     In  the  act  of  the  U.  S.  Congrese*  « f 
July  27, 1868.  §  1,  it  is  recited  that  the  act  of  expat riat  it  1. 1^ 
a  natural  and  inherent  right  of  all  people,  and  it  is  ennc'c: 
that  any  declaration  or  instruction  or  decision  of  any  ofl'.ctr 
of  the  government  which  denies,  restricts,  or  questions  (>• 
right  of  expatriation  is  inconsistent  with  the  lundamen* .. 
principle  of  the  government.    In  the  United  Kingilom.  l-^ 
3d  Vict.  ch.  14,  g  6,  subjects  in  general  cease  to  Ite  sn-  > 
upon  becoming  naturalized  in  a  foreign  state.    The  law5  - ' 
the  various  nations  upon  this  subject  are  collected  under  !  i « 
direction  of  the  U.  S.  Government  in  a  publication  entiTl-.. 
Opinions  of  the  Principal  Officers  of  the  £xectUive  iJf^po'^f- 
ments,  and  other  Papers,  relating  to  Expatriation^  A'aiwnj.- 
ization,  atid  Change  of  Allegiance  (Washington,  187^). 

If  the  right  of  expatriation  be  admitted  except  in  ciTt*:* 
cases,  such  as  where  the  person  holds  a  public  trusts  or  > 
liable  to  do  military  service,  or  is  charged  with   crime,  » 
question  of  practical  difflciilty  remains  as  to  the  tnotle  ir 


250 


EXPLOSIVES 


ordnance  are  due.  Gen.  Rodman,  of  the  U.  S.  army,  inau- 
gurated a  series  of  experiments  directed  to  this  end  in  1856, 
and  from  the  results  of  his  labors  the  U.  S.  was  provided  in 
advance  of  European  nations  with  an  explosive  suited  to 
modern  cannon.  His  mammoth  and  perforated-cake  pow- 
ders— the  former  consisting  (if  large  irregular  grains,  tested 
by  two  standard  sieves  of  six-tenths  and  nine-tenths  of  an 
inch  respectively,  and  the  latter  of  hexagonal  or  cylindrical 
cakes  perforated  by  holes — have  been  copied  in  the  English 
pebble  and  pellet,  and  the  Russian  prismatic  {)owders,  by 
the  aid  of  which  some  important  improvements  in  artillery 
have  been  rendered  possible.  Pebble  powder  is  simply 
pressed  cake,  broken  into  large  irregular  pieces  and  glazed. 
Pellet  powder  consists  of  mealed  powder  compressed  into 
small  blocks,  of  regular  and  sometimes  indented  forms,  and 
of  dimensions  varying  for  different  calibers.  Prismatic 
powder  consists  of  inched  powder  compressed  into  flat,  per- 
forated cakes  of  hexagonal  form,  about  an  inch  thick  and 
an  inch  and  a  half  on  the  longest  diagonal.  This  subject  is 
still  undergoing  investigation;  the  facts  having  been  de- 
veloped that  the  time  of  burning,  and  hence  the  strain  upon 
the  ^n  for  a  given  initial  velocity  in  the  projectile,  may  be 
modified  by  varying  the  size  and  form  of  the  grains,  their 
density  and  hardness,  and  the  mechanical  condition  of  the 
exterior. 

The  next  advance  in  the  development  of  gunpowder  was 
made  by  modifying  the  carbon  ingredient.  By  replacing 
one-third  of  it  oy  uncarbonized  peat.  Gen.  Oliver,  in  1874, 
was  manufacturing  in  the  U.  S.  a  variety  which  when  well 
rammed  gave  a  higher  initial  velocity,  with  less  recoil  and 
less  smoke,  than  the  older  grades,  by  reason  of  its  slower 
rate  of  burning.  Its  color  was  a  clear  brown.  Following 
the  same  line  of  research,  brown  prismatic  or  cocoa  powder 
was  introduced  in  Germany  in  1882,  and  it  soon  attracted 
widespread  attention.  The  carbon  consisted  of  slightly 
carbonized  straw ;  the  rate  of  burning  was  much  less  than 
with  black  powder,  giving  a  lower  initial  but  a  longer  sus- 
tained pressure.  Cocoa  powder  is  manufactured  in  the 
U.  S.,  the  carbon  consisting  of  about  two  parts  of  baked 
wood,  retaining  its  fibrous  structure,  and  one  part  of  a  car- 
bohydrate, as  sugar.  The  proportions  are  varied  according 
to  the  grade  desired.  The  rate  of  combustion  at  first  is 
slow,  but  it  increases  as  the  grains  break  up,  thus  tending 
to  equalize  pressure  throughout  the  bore  of  the  gun.  For 
further  information  on  this  subject  see  Gunpowder. 

The  maximum  pressure  of  exploded  gunpowder,  unre- 
lieved by  expansion,  has  been  investigated  by  various 
parties,  whose  results  range  from  7  tons  to  663  tons  to 
the  square  inch,  the  latest  authorities  indicating  about  40 
tons. 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  saltpeter  in  large  quantities, 
and  hence  its  cost,  has  induced  many  attempts  to  i*eplace  it 
by  other  nitrates,  such  as  those  of  sodium,  lead,  and  barium ; 
but  although  good  blasting  powders  have  been  thus  pre- 
pared, none  suited  to  propelling  purposes  have  been  ob- 
tained. Mixtures  containing  ammonium  nitrate,  however, 
have  attracted  attention ;  in  part  because,  although  objec- 
tionable from  its  deliquescent  tendency,  this  salt  yields  only 
gaseous  products,  and  hence  may  form  the  basis  of  a  class 
of  "  smokeless "  powders  of  which  Chilworth  special  is  the 
best-known  type.  In  combination  with  di-  or  trinitroben- 
zole  and  other  ingredients,  it  also  forms  bellite,  roburite,  and 
securite,  which  have  been  used  in  shells  and  commerciallv. 
They  are  claimed  to  be  "flameless,"  and  hence  specially 
suited  for  use  in  mines  dangerous  from  fire-damp. 

Ouiicotton, — In  1832  Braconnet  discovered  that  by  dis- 
solving starch  in  nitric  acid,  and  adding  water,  a  white  ex- 
Slosive  substance  was  precipitated,  to  which  the  name  xyloi- 
in  was  given.  Shortly  after,  Pelouse  obtained  a  similar 
compound  by  treating  paper,  or  cotton  or  linen  fabrics,  with 
nitric  acid,  and  named  it  pyroxilin.  These  were  the  pre- 
cursors of  guncotton,  which  was  discovered  by  Sch5nbein  in 
1846,  and  at  once  excited  much  attention  as  a  possible  sub- 
stitute for  gunpowder.  Adverse  official  reports,  however, 
were  soon  made  in  France,  the  U.  S.,  Germany,  England, 
and  Austria,  and  the  explosive  fell  into  general  disfavor  on 
account  of  its  liability  to  spontaneous  explosion,  its  corrod- 
ing residua,  and  its  excessively  violent  and  irregular  char- 
acter, all  of  which  unfitted  it  for  most  military  uses.  Baron 
von  Lenk,  a  member  of  the  Austrian  commission,  was  not 
so  readily  discouraged.  He  continued  a  series  of  experi- 
ments for  several  years,  which  ultimately  led  to  so  great 
improvements  in  manufacture  that  in  1853  he  was  able  to 
construct  a  successful  twelve-pounder  battery  employing 


guncotton.  This  led  to  its  temporary  introduction  into  the 
Austrian  military  service,  and  again  attracted  the  attention 
of  foreign  nations  to  the  new  explosive. 

Baron  von  Lenk's  system  consisted  in  cleansing:  the  lon;:- 
staple  variety  of  raw  cotton  in  an  alkaline  wash,  foll(*Hri 
by  one  in  pure  water;  thoroughly  drying  it;  steepin;;  it  f-r 
forty-eight  hours  in  a  cold  mixture  of  strong  nitric  and  >'ii- 
phuric  acids— one  part  of  the  former  to  three  parts  of  ilie 
latter  by  weight;  freeing  the  resulting  trimtrocellul.^ 
from  the  acids  by  a  centrifugal  machine,  by  thorough  ring- 
ing, and  finally  by  the  action  of  running  water  for  a  pen.*'] 
of  six  or  eight  weeks,  alternated  with  a  boiling  potasri  )>oili 
and  hand- washing ;  air-drying  it;  rinsing  it  in  a  hot  n>1ij- 
tion  of  potassium  silicate  to  retard  the  rapidity  of  coinbus- 
tion ;  and,  lastly,  again  washing  and  thoroughly  dryint:  iL 
He  partially  regulated  the  suddenness  of  explosion  by  t«i>t- 
ing  the  guncotton  into  ropes  or  weaving  it  into  ciotli  to 
secure  a  more  uniform  density.  Musket  cartridges  wire 
formed  by  wrapping  the  thread  around  womlen  plugb.  to 
prevent  unequal  ramming.  An  admixture  of  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  ordinary  cotton  was  also  employed  to  reduce  the 
violence  of  action. 

In  1863  Mr.  Abel,  as  a  member  of  a  committee  appoiiite<l 
by  the  British  War  Office,  undertook  an  experimental  inv^^ 
tigation  into  the  merits  of  this  system,  and  succeed r^i  in 
materially  improving  it.  Instead  of  the  costly  long-jsthil*- 
cotton,  he  employs  ordinary  cotton  waste,  which  is  trpat*  i 
with  the  mixed  acids,  one  part  of  nitric  to  three  of  sulphur.** 
by  weight,  without  any  preliminary  process  excej)t  can-f  il 
drying.  It  is  then  rinsed  in  a  large  volume  of  water,  and 
dried  by  a  centrifugal  apparatus  three  or  four  times.  N^xt 
it  is  placed  in  a  pulping  engine,  like  those  commonly  n^-'i 
in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  reduced  to  a  state  of  fine 
subdivision.  It  is  then  transferred,  in  quantities  of  at  lfa>t 
10  cwt.,  to  a  poaching-englne,  where  it  is  beaten  for  at>-  ut 
forty-eight  hours  until  it  remains  uniformly  suspends!  in 
a  large  volume  of  warm  water,  continually  renewed,  ami 
finally  rendered  slightly  alkalina.  It  is  then  dried  in  a  o  n* 
trifugal  machine,  and  molded  into  disks  of  the  desired  frm 
and  dimensions,  which  receive  a  pressure  ranging  from  4 
to  6  tons  per  sq.  inch.  Up  to  this  point  the  guncotton  \\a» 
been  in  a  damp,  and  consequently  entirely  safe,  stat^*.  an  i 
if  desired  it  may  be  so  stored  for  an  indefinite  {leriiKl  K*i 
time  without  losing  its  peculiar  properties.  To  prepari'  i: 
for  use  it  is  dried  upon  hot  plates,  freely  open  on  every  ^i-ie 
to  the  air.  This  system  of  manufacture  is  the  best  kiion  n, 
and  yields  a  product  both  uniform  and  safe. 

In  appearance,  Abel  guncotton  consists  of  regular  cylin- 
ders, of  dimensions  varying  with  the  use  prop<ised-  It  l< 
white  in  color,  hard  to  the  touch,  and  sinks  reaaily  in  watt* r. 
Ignited,  unconfined,  by  a  flame,  it  bums  with  a  strong  bluze. 
Fired  by  a  detonating  fuse,  or  raised  to  a  temperatun-  of 
about  340"  F.  in  a  strong  case,  it  explodes  with  great  Vio- 
lence, a  single  ounce  being  sufficient  to  indent  a  |)Ute  t'f 
iron  or  disrupt  a  thin  slab  of  stone  upon  which  it  is  hi-.- -.y 
laid.  The  character  of  the  detonation  varies  with  tlie  fuliui- 
nate  emploved,  being  most  sudden  with  fulminating  mercun. 
Even  in  a  clamp  state,  containing  20  per  cent,  of  moisture — 
it  may  be  exploded  without  much  loss  of  power  by  a  «ii^K 
of  dry  guncotton  in  contact.  It  is  believed,  u|K>n  p>'i 
grounds,  to  be  free  from  danger  of  spontaneous  ex{)l^»^.  i. 
Several  governments  have  adopted  it  as  the  explosive  Ik>: 
suited  to  submarine  warfare,  and  have  accumulated  lan^ 
quantities  in  store. 

Guncotton  produces  little  smoke,  and  leaves  a  very  sniuL 
residuum  of  solid  matter,  the  chief  products  of  comfcu>ti«n 
being  carbonic  oxide,  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  nitnvec 
It  is  unalterable  in  water,  no  matter  how  long  submerpnL 
It  contains  about  2  per  cent,  of  moisture  in  its  normal  e« au- 
dition, and  even  when  exposed  to  ordinary  damp  air  it  &t>- 
sorbs  but  little  more — a  property  which  gives  it  a  great  b-i- 
vantage  over  gunpowder.  Chemically,  the  purest  guncot*on 
may  be  regarded  as  cellulose,  in  which  three  atoms  of  hy- 
drogen are  replaced  by  three  molecules  of  peroxide  of  uiin> 
gen.  Thus  constituted,  it  is  insoluble  in  mixtures  of  eiLt-r 
and  alcohol.  If,  however,  great  care  has  not  been  obsen  e*: 
in  the  manufacture,  less  simple  compounds  are  fonr.»-'i. 
which  may  readily  be  dissolvea  in  these  mixtures,  formic^c 
collodion,  much  used  in  photography  and  the  arts. 

Guncotton  does  not  contain  sumcient  oxygen  to  con«un>€ 
its  carbon  completely,  hence  some  nitrate  is  often  adde«i  tr 
supply  the  deficiency.  In  mining  this  is  beneficial,  for  ih^ 
further  reason  that  it  tends  to  lessen  the  formation  of  a  poi- 
sonous gas,  carbonic  oxide. 


252 


EXPLOSIVES 


to  the  grmnolen  being  (mwKmI  with  an  iiii()cmieable  roat4?riiil 
whuh  MNiuixHl  thi*  t4>iHU>ncv  t4>  pnNiuto  heA<la(.-he>,  but  it 
WAK  n^'tpr  Urjfi'ly  intiXNlurtMl  into  praftUHl  uw, 

Lithttfr€trtrur  wa»  cifviMnl  ttU>ut  Ihr  *«ine  time  by  Pn*f. 
Eiitfcls  <»f  ('ol»»^nie,  It5  pret'iM?  it*!!!!***?*!!!**!!  was  not  made 
piiblio.  furthfT  than  that  it  (N>iiM*«tjt  of  525  [mrt5  of  nitn>- 
jflytt'rin,  22-5  (Mirt.n  of  Miu*a.  and  2**M>  f>art»  of  mineral  iKMlies; 
and  anal)  v^  of  ilitTerent  vunplt-^  ha\e  exhii»iie<l  varying  re- 
"lulti*.  One  authority  (Trau/l)  report*  52  jwrt*  of  nitn>^flyc- 
crin,  30  p»rtj»  of  kieM-l^nihr,  12  |virt«  of  ei»«l.  4  f»artj*  of 
MMltum  nitrate,  and  2  {mrtii  of  Milt>hur.  Othrre  pla<M*  the 
pn>tM)rtioD  uf  (mmIiuui  nitrate  i%»  hi>ch  a.<^  25  (mt  e^Mit. :  others 
adti  gunt^ttton.  i^ithofriKteur  i>  a  piL^ty  >u)Kaane<>  of  dark 
ooh»r.  Like  the  t»ther  rt»m|HnimlH  of  nitro^'iytvrin,  it  bums 
quietly  when  ignitinl  by  a  flaue.  and  expl««ie.H  vi4»tentlv 
when  firvd  by  a  detonating  fuj*e.  Water  dix>olvps  the  shkIi- 
um  nitrate,  and  tlm»  wt«»  fn**'  a  eertain  jmrt  of  the  niln>- 
glyt-erin — of  ooume  a  deeid»»*|  tlivMUantace.  The  et»m- 
pound  exhibits  expb»Nive  pro|K'rties  Miinlar  to  dyimmite, 
atxl  oUep*  e«jual  w^'unty  ntrninNt  tNHU'u«wi«»n.  Its  u«*e  here- 
tofore has  b«en  n*^tricle<l  ehiefly  t«»  (termany  an<l  Bt'lcium, 
although  It  has  be(*n  ex{M>rimentaliy  trit**!  in  Kngland,  and 
was  empjove*!  by  the  (ierman^  in  tlie  *ar  with  France  in 
lH7ti-7l.  In  the  L'.  S.  the  ty|»e  is  rpi»n*sente<l  by  JudsoD 
powder,  which  is  very  largely  u«mh1.  The  U»we«t  graile  eon- 
tains  only  5  \n*T  eent.  of  nitn>iclytH*nn,  and  it-*  function 
wHMns  to  i>e  HiMiply  a  tlftonator  t>f  the  H|Ktial  variety  of  gun- 
(K>wder  whirh  f«>rin*t  its  l>a>e.  ltd  inteUMty  may  exc^e^nl  40 
percent,  of  dynamite  No.  1. 

Ihmhn  wah  inventcNl  bv  Dittinar  shortly  after  dynamite, 
and  it»  use  has  U»en  ohieJly  r»»Ht ri<'tetl  to  Germany  and  the 
L*.  S.  The  |Mitent  dc»M*riU"»  it  a»  consisting  of  "celluh>se, 
nitrocelluloM*,  nitn»«tarch,  nitnunannite,  and  nitroglyc- 
erin, mixed  in  ditTen'iit  combinations,  de|HMiding  on  the 
degree  of  stn^nirth  which  it  is  ticsinnl  the  |H)wdfr  should 
IMHviesH  in  a/laiiting  il*  use  to  varit>us  purt>OM»a."  A  sample 
suppluM  by  the  intentor  for  trial  at  the  Hoosac  Tunnel  was 
found  bv  analvHis  to  consist  of  60  iH'r  cent,  of  nitn»glvc- 
enn  and  40  iM*r  c«*nt,  of  waslu^  sawdust,  not  treat*'^!  with 
nitric  and  *ailf)huh<*  mids.  Trauzl  reports  it  a«  consLsting 
of  50  fMirts  of  nitn^giyivrin,  80  iiarts  of  fine  sawdust,  and 
lit)  jiart*  tjf  iMitAv«ium  nitrate.  The  best  variety  ever  manu- 
facturn<l  i<  tu'lievi**!  (<»  be  cellulose  derived  fnjin  poplar  pulp, 
trratetl  with  nitnr  and  sulphunc  a^ids,  and  8aturate<I  with 
nitn>gly»%»rin. 

Ha\(ng  a  lew  s|Mx*iflc  gratity  than  d>niamitc,  dualin  is 
•liiihtly  infi-nor  to  it.  bulk  ft»r  bulk,  in  e\pli»*ive  encrjrv. 
\fc  hen  thon»ughly  ^Miki-*!  in  water,  it  can  In*  expUMln!  only 
by  a  very  violent  drtonation,  much  excet^ling  that  of  the 
oniinary  fuse,  and  e\en  then  it  lones  mon*  than  half  it^ 
power.  It  i-«ini:^'iU4  at  al»out  45  K.,  and  in  tlii**  Mate  rea<lily 
expi'«*lr^  U**N»imng  %o  in'ii-^itive  to  fri<*li<m  as  to  make  it 
daii^^'nuts  to  larui*  in  cold  weather.  In  other  rt**>|>e<.U  its 
pnti^'fiu"^  r»**«-mbli«  tho^»  uf  dviiamite. 

yttrft^fhit\n.  —  \\\  |S76  NolVl  (wtentt'd  a  new  antl  im- 
portant nitn<gly(H*rin  com{M>uii<I,  \ariou*»l\  known  an  nitn>- 
p'latui,  bia.<iMg  i;t'latiii  or  expl«"-»ive  irt'Intin.  It  consiMs 
e^M'ntiailv  of  nitrtt^lv(vrin  Mtlidilietl  to  a  MitT  icllv  bv  the 
a<Miiion  of  fr«»ra  5  l4t  H  jn'r  <Nnt,  i»f  carefully  pn'fMirtNl  nitn»- 
iM'llulo-ie  usually  of  the  «w>luble  fonn.  A  t4*m|»«Tatun»  of 
alio'it  KW  K.,  or  the  aihlititm  of  a  vi»lntilr  s«>lvent,  is  re- 
quirtNi  in  the  nuuiufacture.  As  nitrogluvnn  contain'^  an 
ext*e**,  »nd  i»ilnK'otl«»n  a  ibflcinu  y.  of  the<»x>grn  nt'e"!»tl 
fttr  4'oiiipitte  coinbuMion.  the  n^uiting  expU»Hi\e  ^hotiltt  \ye 
mori«  (M««erful  than  either  ingreiiieiit.antl  exfifhnient  prove** 
thf*  to  \w  tlir  I'li-M-  to  a  marki^i  d»*cri'«\  In  «p|H*nran«»*  nitn>- 
gt  Utin  i«>  an  el.i<>iic  tn»ii<ilui  enl  j«-itv  of  a  (»al<'-yell(>w  (vtlor, 
na%in»:  a  •»!«**  ili'-  i:r»vity«if  16.  X|<h)«  rate  c«>i»linem«*nt  i* 
n«'4-t'^sar^  u>  d«*ri«»p  lit  |Hi«fr  «)f  Irnii-^inittinir  a  wave  of 
dMoiLAtiniu  I  riiike  d\r)ninite.  Uh  mMi^'itl^t'TiesK  h  increa^tl 
by  ""Id.  •«>  that  m  h«*n  fr"/»*u  -jw^  ml  <*are  m  handiing  i*  dc*- 
ma!i'l«v|.  It  I*  iih..|lr  iiLalTn  t«d  by  water,  and  it  may  l»e 
handed  wi'hiMit  pn>*lu<  iiig  h«»'liM'hi\  In  the  riianufmtun* 
exirrri>r  I  arv  i*  nt-^dnt  iti  purifMnc  the  inim-^lieut"*  to  avoid 
a  lrn<ien<  v  U*  <li «''Mn| «*■*.! i«  n  or  iiMii«*f»<'tion,  but  tin*  result 
ha*  U'rii  allAitMii  lit  pm«'t|f-r,  afnl  lh«'  e\j»l*>*ite  \*  r»*<-<tg- 
ni/*'d  *•  U'*h  •*a*<lr  arid  v»fe.  'I  In*  ad<lin«>Ji  «if  fn-ttj  H  to  5 
(i»  r  '  *  fit.  t'f  «  .tii);»hitr  f'^nit*  tjfhiUn*  t  i  ttit^hxt'^  de  tfu*  rrr,  i%Ju\ 
u\.%'t  f  lailr  r»'ltii  t-«  •••ri^i'i  when?*  lo  hi^ii  l**!!!!*  rai  «»r»-*.  or  to 
*n  *  fc»  iMrn  a*  ^^err  a^  ihr  iiTi|'A«'t  of  a  mu^ki'l  iMiji,  which 
in  thr>  uii<  aniph'iratril  fi»rm  ti«UAllv  ih  tiTiiiitit'-%  itrntti«>n.  if 
nt*!  •  ii'l"*t<»n.  **ir*  fi»;  ilttonator*  arr  hipun-'l  to  di'vthtp 
f'lil  jw  «**r  Ki"t»  w.th'Ut  camphor  th**  ran*:**  of  •wiijm- 
tlietu    eipI<M|i.ii    uinlt^r  viatrr  i>  \vr}  niu*  h   U-*m  than  «ith 


'  dvnamite.     The    Austrian    explnwre,   ecraitite,  wh  •  \ 
claimed  to  have  given  remarkable  rv;«ult«  a^  a  rhar^**  'i 
?helK  i«  bidieve*!  to  l>e  a  nuxlifievi  IdaMini:  i>*ihIm»      li     i 

,  atldition  of  nitrates,  mith  or  without  cart«»n.  »:^  lA'tr  !  -i 
inites  of  varioiL**  gnwbt*  are  formed  ft>r  use  when  rv-u  «.  i 
tensity  of  action  will  sufllce. 

When  the  prof>ortion  of  nitrocelluhne  u  iner***-  t 
about  50  \Msr  cent,,  and  of  camphor  to  aUtut  t(l  imt  < 
horn-like  sulwttamx*  is  prrNluced,  known  aa  N«»t*  1  *  r.  l-*  i 
luUli^^tite.  HidltHl  into  ^hei*ts  and  suitable  mil»tii.>.^  j 
is  claimisl  to  In.'  one  of  the  be«t  •*Bmt»kel«-?«»"  fw«  i-r*  < 
known,  giving  gotMl  results  lN>th  in  small  ann«  a*i<i  t.  ai 
non.  It  has  U'cn  olTlcittlly  adopted  bv  Itah.  and  i.*  &*.  ] 
exiH'riinente^l  with  in  Germany  and  elM-wh.-np.  !■'  i 
which  also  has  a  high  n*putatio'n  as  a  **«mokfl(-^"  j-  •  i 
l)elongs  to  this  claas;  as  does  also  lef>nan!  fMiwd^r.  «*  i 
has  recently  done  excellent  work  at  Sandy  U*mk  f-  «  i 
groumi. 

FomU. — This  is  the  American  repn-Jientative  of  f  •  •  j 
of  gelatinized  nitrocompounds  to  which  nitn>i:*  i*  *  \ 
l<mg^  It  is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  in  New  J'-i^ 
and  has  been  considerably  used.  Several  grade*  ar*  •  I 
market.  The  strongest  contains  95  partj^  by  wtijhi  •(  ^ 
glyi^rin  and  5  nartji  of  a  pre|»ared  celliil(«r  of  a  •;••) 
kind.  It  resembles  blasting  gelatin  so  much  m  af  \m*  \  \ 
and  pn»[)ertie«  that  no  further  description  i*  n«>-*si''\  i 
By  t lie  addition  of  nitrates  invar\ing  prti|»*rt.P>ri»  f  i 
dvnamites  are  forme<I.  They  contain  from  75  |w*  f*  - 
ij6 per  ci»nt,  of  nitroglycerin. 

Terrorite  or  Feruniie. — This  nitrocompound,  th^  ir..^ 
tion  of  Pr«>f.  Mendeleff,  is  one  of  the  lat«*^  of  it*  '.aip* 
conH'*ts  of  (JO  iiarts  by  volume  of  nitmglycenn.  10  j  i'-% 
nitroethvl.  ana  10  parts  of  nitroroeth>L  and  i^  a  t*  '4 
Volatile  li(|uid,  having  a  sfiecitlc  grmvuy  of  a(*iut  11  I 
di^H4)|ving  in  it  from  H  jht  t*ent.  to  24  i»er  cent,  of  p\f  \\ 
it  lHH'om<»s  a  semi-fluid  jtaste  of  pn»ere^Mr.v  it  •^•-i 
thickne^,  but  never  attaining  the  c«tnsi*trney  i»f  «  « | 
jelly.  OtIU'ial  trials  have  shown  its  strength  to  l»  rJ 
nomenal,  excwMling  that  of  nitn>gt*latin  it^lf  bi  •:•  •• 
of  one-third  as  roughly  measured.  Its  fluidity  azMl  « 
ingre^lients  an»  serious  obji^tions. 

Thf  Chlorate*, — The  violent  action  of  fw»tafKiiim     ' 
u|M»n  reatlily  oxidizable  sut»tantvs  has  gum  n-"*-  •' 
attt^mpts  to  empl<»y  it  in  the  pre(»aration  ttf  •ul^!**   •  * 
gun|M)wder.     Under  the    nanu*^   <»f  whitr    gTiM^wj. ' 
tierman  gunfM)wder  a  mixture  of  thi«  salt  with  1*^  *a>> 
femn  and  fem-<\vanide  and  sugar  ha*  lomr  tm^t*   i* 
Mixetl  with  nut-gal K,  re**in*,  and  other  veirrt»i  \r  •J«*i 
it  has  twn  rei>eat«Hlly  introduce«l  to  tem{«orari  u«r  a*  .i 
ley's  (Miwder,  Khrhanlt*s  j>owder,  etc.   The  fonn  tif-»*  i 
in  the  V.  S.  t*on'»i'*t»»  of  iMitav«ium  chloral t-.  |K4a.%*>.t.Tr 
and  crude  gamUtge,  wnich,  under  the  name  •>f  i  tn*  r   m 
der.  t»r  safety  c<imp<»und  of  the  Oriental   Piiw»jtr  *     • 

I  was  at   oiH»  lime  considerably  emplo%r<|  m  th#*  .-t.-w, 

I  Peiiii«*\lvania  an*l  for  <»ther  blA«»ting  puq*"r«.     It*     ■ 

I  ous  s«M)sibility  to  friction,  and  tiie  oin<«>I.Uat:r.|»  #*> 
heat  ufMin  the  gtim.  have  preventr*!  it*  g«nrra;  u«r 
Nome  of  thcM*  chlorate  comiMiund^  sulphur  «i.t«  r«  a*  i 
gnH  I  lent,  which  inteiiMitl***  l  lie  chief  obji^tmri  apra.t**  ' 
their  liabilit)  to  exph-h*  from  *light  fn<  t,.»ti  't  ^mr 
.\s  a  cluv*,  the)  have  many  times  the  exp;"'*nf  i*  * 
trun)»owder,  but  are  al*M)  more  dangemu*  U*  (•*!>. 
H|N<<M&1  pur]*'**^''*  they  are  extremrU  um-(u1 — for  ix^^afsi 
mixture  <»ff»otA-sMiim  chlorate  and  sulphur,  f*  ms*-'  •  i 
t>A*>te,  and  nnexl  in  f\x  «mall  cartnflge-caj<»-«  df  >*|  ^  a*  ^^ 
found  to  l»e  terribly  efftN-tive  a^  a  char*:*'  for  rit  •  ■  1 
let*!.  They  may  l>e  flreil  withvafeti  fri.m  a  n.'.»k»'  •.  I 
piffle  with  cn-at  vinh-ntv.  evrn  in  iwneirai.n,:  fi  -t 

It   is  in  chlorate  mixtun*^  that  the  n»<«»t    'ij-r**-*     i 
tical  applnation  of  the  n-^^'art'ht"*  c»f  I)t.  Hemi*ii  •* 
han  Uhm)  made.     In  1^73  he  i»uhli«hr«l  •  n*  trw   r- 
indiefttiui:  a  new  cla«  of  exph»*Mi«*,  fcirmr*!  *  t  r.    t 
lieftin*  u«^'  an  oxidizing  an«l  a  <'<»mbu*tjK^  iv^rr** 
i»f  whieh  b)  itM'lf  i*  non-exph»*ne.     Ttw  pn  (-t* 
adjii*«t*N)  to  caii><4'  **  their  mutual  <iXklati<  n  at   *.    1  ■•  i      .  | 
!«•  In*  t  horotiijiilv  ciUDplrle."      SMid«  and    i  <    1  ••«  •••■     ^ 

'  iIi'm-un'mnI,  llfllhortite  (iiitnc  a<*id  and  mrt*  :  ♦  •?**■  »( 
!•»  tine  \ariely  of  the  Sprt  ngtd  tU«;  (Jru*  ti  .**r«  J 
it   ft»r  u^e  in  shelU,     Turinn  bhmght  thr«r  n;     -•-«1 

'  ward   in    Fnuu^.  under  the  name  of  paficia«(.*««      K-. 
V .  S.   Ihxiiie  |»at«*iit«Hi  rat  kanick   (fM4a^ium  **      "mUm  i 
nilr-ilM'nriihM.  whuh  «Nin*Htiiteii  the  bulk  of  th*      "••■.H 
the  di-^tniciiMU  of   FUmmI   ItiM^k,  New  York  hart»«'     •    I 
1 107  t<iu»  to   Itf  tons  of  dynamite^    Thi*  rx|0*«..««     -I 


M 
^1 


.«i 

■ 

i 


I 


i 

M 


854 


EXPOSITIONS 


by  wjflf  ninj:  th^  horroni  of  war,  and  by  other  means  analo- 
(ftmji  U>  Ihi-M?;  all  i»f  whu  h  harp  U»t»n  kfj*!  inorv  t»r  le?*  in 
new  in  the  later.  The  early  int«TiiAti<>iml  I'tjMwitiims.  iin»tv- 
o*er,  i>mitit'<t  to  prt»vnli»,  oral  leiii»t  univuitnl  only  on  a  lim- 
it4nl  «('ale,  for  the  thftplay  of  nniindU  UM'ful  to  man,  or  of 
lirinf(  and  jfn>win>r  vfj^i'l^iliUn*,  pUntH,  and  flowtTs,  or  for 
illuntratinj;  the  oiMTationii  of  the  ^c^nlen,  the  field,  the  farm, 
and  the  dajry.  The  later  have  gi%en  to  theiie  objectj»  a  very 
lari^  |n>rti'»n  «»f  their  sjiaee. 

Public  eihibiiums  *»f  the  prtxluclAof  industry  were  in  the 
flnrt  inMam^e  hel<l  as  marts  or  fairs.  (See  Fair.)  The  ear- 
lieM  held  not  f»»r  commert'inl  purrKts*-?!,  but  strictly  for  the 
promotion  f»f  ituprovenient.'*  in  tiie  u>ieful  art,s  were  insti- 
lutwl  by  the  SHh'ty«»f  Arts  of  Lonthm.  This  wx'iety  lias 
held  *ut'h  exhibit  u»n«»  annually  HincH?  ITttO.  The  first  prop- 
erly natitmal  exhiliition  of  this  kind,  the  first,  that  Ls  t4>»ay, 
orjfanijUHl  under  jfiivemnu-nt  dire<*tion,  took  plaet*  in  Franc*© 
in  IT^W.  Sinre  I  hat  lime  the  French  Government  has  jfiven 
a  similar  exhibition  every  (our  *»r  fi\e  years.  The  effect  has 
be«>n  greatly  to  impn>ve  the  quality  and  to  enlarice  the  quan- 
tity of  pnnluctum  in  all  the  de|)artments  of  industry  through- 
out Fran<"e. 

In  the  r.  S.  exhibitions  for  the  encouragement  of  agri- 
cultural or  mci'hanical  indu>try  have  long  U»en  annually 
belt!  under  State  and  (*<iiinty  organ i/^tion*^,  with  t>artial  aid 
from  the  ?>late  government-*,  in  *« •rne  States «>f  the  Union,  and 
more  n^oently  m  many.  The  Franklin  Institute,  found<Ml 
in  1^24,  in  Philwlelphia,  the  American  Institute  establi«*he4l 
four  years  later  in  New  Yt>rk,  and  many  less  conspicu<uis 
though  j>erhai»s  not  less  us«'ful  avtixiathins  organ ize<i  for 
pronioiing  industrial  impni^einent.  liave  reluni  on  public 
exhibitioUH  as  among  the  most  effectual  means  of  acoom- 
pli5hing  their  objtits. 

Of  intematiimal  expositions,  the  first  in  the  series,  that  of 
IK51  in  Ijoitdim.  wa^  undertaken  at  the  suggt^tion,  and  sue- 
oi'ftiifully  carriitl  i»ut  thrnmjh  the  infiueiu'e,  of  Prince  AUwrt, 
who  was  at  that  time  the  pn'^iidcnt  of  the  I»ndon  Sttciety 
of  Ana.  A  building  was  erect «<<d  in  Hyde  Park  for  the  ao- 
c>ntin(tdation  of  the  objivt*  enterexl  for  exhibition,  U|K>n  a 
d«»?^ign  of  an  entin*ly  iiovi-l  and  original  chanu'ter  j>ro{H»*'<l 
by  JiKH'ph  (afterward  Sir  Ji»si'ph)  Paxttm,  a  land^-ape  gar- 
dener, at  that  tune  in  cliarge  of  the  ganlens  of  the  Duke  of 
Devonnhire  at  ChatHworth.  The  niuterial;!  employwl  were 
almtt^t  exclusively  in»n  and  gla«s.  whence  the  »tru<ture  re- 
oeirctl  the  name  of  -the  Crystal  Palaiv,"  a  name  which  has 
been  ai>ftlitHl  to  other  simiUkr  tH»n«*t ructions  8inc4\  The  plan 
a  l»»ni 


ig  re<*tangle  with  a  tranM^pt  cn>w»ing  the  center,  the 
whole  etivcnng  an  an*a  of  more  than  *Jt)  acre?«  of  ground. 
Id  the  i^mtra*  I  fi»r  the  erection  of  the  buildint;  it  was  stipu- 
latftl  that  at  the  cI'xm*  of  the  exhibition  it  shtiuld  remain 
the  pn»(M'rtv  of  the  c^mtractors,  which  ^stipulation  re«luce»l 
the  c»nt  to  the  ounmisj.iiiners  by  i'10(),(KlO,  or  half  a  million 
of  tlnllars.  The  total  at^l  for  building,  maintenance,  ^u|ter- 
Intendence,  n'<'«»mjM'nMTi  to  exhibitors  Ic^al  ex|»en!H's,  etc.. 
was  aUiut  C21*.l,tllM>,  The  total  nnciptft  fr»»m  all  sourrM'S  were 
£.VlO.U(JU.  f»ht>wing  thnt  the  exhibition,  ajiart  fntm  the  large 
and  j>erraancnt  iinlirect  U'nt'llls  a^-truing  from  it,  was  a 
diH'^'t  flnam  wl  •«u»*c»'h%  This  can  n«»t  l*e  said  of  any  of  thosi' 
whi«'h  have  »uccee*lc*l  it. 

The  unnepNal  ailmiralion  altnM-tM  bv  the  exiMr^ition  of 
1K5I  and  its  bnlliant  rt*^ults  stimulated  a  Miniiar  un4ier- 
taking,  tao  yt'ar*  later,  in  New  York.  The  •'horl  interven- 
ing l:ifie  ail"ae<l  for  pn-paration,  an<l  the  di«*tancc  i»f  the 
pljue  of  eihit'itiiin  fnun  the  (Niunirw^  most  a<Uanceil  in 
manufA4*liir»"»  and  other  prMlucti^e  arts.  Hijij;:i*Me«l  a  largi» 
re«luction  in  the  ^-aie  t)f  the  di-play.  The  l«K'atM>n  !«ele<-t<M| 
was  A  puthic  •<|uar«',  tmly  445  fe*'i  tiy  4.Vi  fe<»t  in  tbrnenMiinH. 
or  ab  ijt  4f  a^n-*.  rj*-»n  tin-*  a  "cryMal  jmlace**  wji.-« 
ent'te.!  tM  t.i;:<>n.il  in  gn-uiul  plan,  btit  having  aU>ve  tw<i 
na«e-4  iril«'r^-«  tiTig  i^  nnneiru'iillv  at  ru'ht  an;:leH,  each  JtA"* 
fU  5  in.  bv  14M  ft.  5  in.  The  interaction  wa.s  4'n»wn«Hl 
br  a  hemi'i'hern-ai  tionH*,  1<K)  f«*fl  in  duiiieter.  the  hejL'ht 
of  the  *[irui,rii»g  line  l»<iti;;  Til  f*et,  an»i  the  total  height 
to  th«*  «uninnt  aU»e  the  i  rown  \'2A  f»et.  In  onier  to  in- 
en-a*«*  the  extent  i*f  fl"<»r  *urfa*"e  for  the  piirjNi'**'^  of  the 
exhihi'i  'ii.  'jsfci  \-tn%  t'**-**rie^  wer>'  con*tlru*  teil  in  the  ariiii* 
of  the  biiiiilin.:.  the  tiifai  ^iirfai'e  iKu*  v^Mired  arn'Mintinj-  l#i 
^^n,f»ni  wj.  f,>cf.  or  A<  a*  H'*.  Ttie  c^^t  of  the  buil.hng 
wa^  af"  at  f'JiilJBllI,  to  defray  ah.<  h  and  to  mmntain  thi* 
exl''**<»'  'H  nion*  y  wit«  n*i-ii  br  an  i«*-»j-  <'f  iti«  k,  iit  tir»t 
Ut  $.*»»iMiil),  af'/rw»rd  un  r.  a*--*!  to  ^*t4H».((iM».  m  ^rjan-s  of 
$liN>«ach.  The^«»  ■ban^  <»i-iii  r»--*»  in  *attie.  and  lln-^  were 
at  on*»  time  at  a  prr't.ium  «•(  7*1  j*t  o-nt.  The  rnteri'nsp 
Derrrthele^  rrsullid  in  ki^  tike  destruction  of  the  building 


by  fire  a  few  years  later  baring  finally  dafltn>yfsl  m^  ',"* 
pevt  of  re<leeming  its  fortunes. 

During  the  same  vear,  1853,  a  similar  intrrr^tt'  'a.  ^t 
hibition  was  held  in  Dublin,  in  a  buililing  fornin.^*  k»*^ 
of  parallel  halhs.    The  co«t  was  ItfO.UUO;  the  mt.p.,  14^ 

uoa 

The  Paris  International  Elxpo^ition  of  ISW  »*i  ir  ''  i 
a  private  enteri)rise,  but  it  was  ctmducted  by  •  i»  r  •  -  i 
ap(M>inted  by  tne  Government,  which  al*^*  utniert*-  % 
cure  it  against  h)s8.  The  princit»al  buildiru;  i  b  t*..« 
sion  was  erectinl  of  masonry  in  the  ('ham^**  Ku^"*  i 
grrat  hall  devote*!  to  the  exposition  was  birht^l  fr  -  'i 
rK)f.  This  building  pn)riiUHi  an  extent  of  l.TT^i  ••  4 
fet»t  of  fl<K)r  surface  to  the  industrial  de|«arimeijt*  i.  '  ^i 

f>h>ying  ma^'hinery  in  motion.  The  nia4-hinrrv  w^  *•  .] 
i^hlHl  in  an  ^ annex'*  on  the  bank  of  the  >»ii.«  4« 
feet  long.  The  fine  arts  were  pr«>vid«Ml  for  in  •-  '  < 
buihiing;  and  the  tai»e>tri(^  and  carfM*t*i  of  tl  *  :r'  •-< 
establishments,  as  well  as  the  crown  jewel*,  in  •^;  .  &.  1 
This  ex|Kisition  wist  U;264,520  franco  =  $2.^'>.l.iai*  r  1 
eluding  the  cost  of  the  main  building,  whirh  wa<*  (r  <»•■  i 
as  the  pr»»|»erty  of  the  Government,  under  the  nar  -  ♦  \\ 
**  Palais  de  ^Indu^trie,*'  to  1k»  use<l  for  annual  exi.  i 
of  >'arious  kinds  an<i  for  niiblic  cen»mi>niaK 

The  S4H*ond  I^)!itlon  I  niversal  Kx^Mi^ition  wn*  '  . 
1H02.  For  this,  the  location  choM'U  aat^  a(«  n  c  -si 
which  had  been  purchased  at  S»uth  Krnsinct* '.  t*  *1 
c«»mmissioners  of  the  ex|)«4«iti<m  of  IKM.  with  *t.'  • .-  1 
pnKMHsls  of  that  ex^Minition  and  some  aid  frt^n  •'•  '-i 
ernment.  The  princi(»al  building  was  nearly  rv^t*'.  i 
and  t*overed  al>out  7  acres.  The  a  hole  an-a  c«  »'-  .  I 
ro<»f8  was  aUmt  23  acres.  The  buildings  werv  •tA^'.-'-i 
rem<»ve<l,  the  spare  cKruim»d  by  them  being  r* *)•..-'  •  { 
(Jovemment  purj»oses,  and  the  principal  one  w*i  irai.'*  1 
to  the  north  of  I^mdon,  where,  untler  the  name  . '  i 
Alexandra  Palace,  it  was  totally  destrt>yed  bv  tir^  il  J.J 
1H73. 

The  international  exposition  of  1H67  at  Part*  wan  i 
most  comprehensive  in  its  plan,  the  m«"st  eUt*  r»*.  ■.  I 
preimrations,  and  the  most  coloew^U  in  it*  dm  * '  > 
all  which  had  l>et»n  held  up  to  that  time.  The  Ot  «■  *  i 
announciHl  its  intent  i-jn  /our  year*  in  ad  van*  y.  Ir 
IH65,  an  imperial  decree  create<l  a  ct>mmi'*»<*n  t*-  d.-«- 
work,  under  the  presidency  of  PrintH»  Nai*ol*^'n,  wt,.  •■ 
after  resigned,  and  was '  replacetl,  m  FeK^  1*<R.  ^ 
Princ»e  Im(>erial.  The  place  fixe<l  ujxrn  for  the  f  r  ■  | 
exhibition  was  the  (*hamp  de  Mars  the  laric^  }mrm\ 
ground  in  front  of  the  ^^'ole  Militaire,  oi'ntaiii.':^  a'-j 
111  m'res.  For  the  exhibition  of  farm  ar»fl  •!*  -»  -1 
t ions,  animals,  and  st^M-k,  the  island  of  billan<<o{.-t  -i 
S<'ine,  2^  miles  fn>m  the  Champ  de  Mar^  w«»  .  -H 
hu\ing  an  area  of  74  acres.  F<»r  the  <Hinij»«t.f.i^  "  1  ^ 
mowers  and  reain-rs  and  for  c»ther  fiehl  o|H*ra!t  n*.  j-  ••  I 
of  the  ein|>emrs  farms  at  F*»uilleu»e,  near  >i.-«  .  4 
of  those  at  Vincenn«*s,  were  gi\en  up  a*  (K*«*a^}<  r  »*  i 
The  margin  of  the  Smiic  in  front  of  thet'hampd*  Ma*s  "^ 
which  it  is  M'paratei]  by  the  (^iiai  d'<^r*«y«,  *ff»-  » 
an-a  of  alH)Ut  3  acres,  was  devi>te<l  to  »b;<st»  t-  ■.  ■  ( 
aith  navigation,  to  diving  apfiaratus,  and  to  tn*  t.  -•'-  | 
raising  water.  Here  ali«o  was  ftmnd  a  onvrr:*"  .4 
for  a  chemical  l«l»oratoni  in  which  expenm*n'aJ  .-'^ 
were  delivertl  during  the  eXfK»ition.  The  i^rwr  .;*  -ti 
sition  building  was  constnicte<l  mainly  of  ir  «.  a:  :  •m 
enormous  dimensions.  The  entire  'iiacr  iiu  .«"^«i  w** 
extenor  wall*  was  36  acn»s.  but  there  na*  an  •  f»-.  •  1 
court  of  alN»ut  an  acre  in  the  c^rnter.  Tt..*  ►»•..  ■  ;  ti 
pi*><l  the  center  i»f  the  Champ  de  Mar*.  T^•■  «  *"■  | 
an'a  was  calhtl  the  f«ark,  and  waj»  allottr«|  t.  !••  ,  * 
«NMintn«!S  repn-sentinl  in  the  exj>o*»ition,  for  tb*  . .  #  ••-. 
of  buildingH  tf>  m-coinmiMlate  objet^t*  or  to  fai  .  *«*< 
tions  which  could  not  be  alloatnl  in  the  ir.a.n  t  ■- 
to  ill u-^t rate  the  chara<'tenstic  domestic  «»r  ••  J  ■  a- 
Inre  of  tliffen^nt  j>*H»ples;  or  for  monr  iiri**:- ^  •"•  ^ 
r«'f)n's«»nting  the  temples  and  palacta  *•!  |»r»t  .••  "  I 
thmity. 

The  principal  building,  or  »o-<*aJbsi  palar^.  mw  ^ 
•<tnicte<i  without  any  attemf>t  at  an^hitrt  tural  #*.  •  | 
with  the  design  to  make  aa  r<*n*pieii..€i«  aa  t»«»  -  | 
meih'xl  c»f  arranirernent  with  rrferer*'**  t«»t*'»  f  aa  '  ^ 
fltatii»n  by  tN»mlaIe*l  grou^M  of  4ibte<it«,  aital  Sv  »'*  -s'H 
and  so  X*t  ennble  the  vi'^itor  to  •tiKiy  the  ei^  K*  •  M 
and  t<i  etinble  him  r«*nililv  to 
Aoucht.  It  ha^i  the  form 
or  iiu»re  pro(s*rly  of  a  parallelo|;ram 


ilv  to    firiti  an«    |«rti    ,^r        I 

ttf  an  ellifwr  «i*K   Hm"^'  •«:  aJ 

ralleloirram  with  itrr^iXmr  caJa! 


256 


EXTRACT 


EXTRADITION 


the  army  will  be  governed  by  its  own  officers,  and  its  own 
military  law  will  be  in  force.  Otherwise  it  could  have  no 
cohesion,  and  control  over  it  would  be  gone.  But  it  is  to  be 
remarked  that  such  transit  is  most  unusual,  and  if  granted 
in  time  of  war,  or  in  preparation  for  war,  would  inevitably 
amount  to  a  breach  of  neutrality. 

(4)  Diplomatic  Agents  and  CohsuU  in  Certain  Countries, — 
For  an  explanation  of  their  exterritorial  privileges,  see  Dip- 
lomatic Agents  and  Consul. 

(5)  Foreigners  Resident  in  Certain  Oriental  States. — 
Where  the  laws,  the  usages,  the  judicial  system,  and  the 
state  of  civilization  in  a  country  are  so  different  from  the 
European  standard,  and  so  barbarous  as  to  fail  in  guaran- 
teeing the  protection  to  person  and  property  of  resident 
foreigners,  the  latter  may  be  allowed,  in  accordance  with 
treaty,  to  remain  under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  own  laws, 
though  frequently  subject  to  conditions  as  to  behavior  or 
residence.  The  tJ.  S.  have  treaties  securing  to  their  citizens 
such  privileges  with  Borneo,  China,  Korea,  Jaj)an,  Madagas- 
car, rersia,  Turkey,  Samoa,  Siam,  Tonga,  and  Zanzibar,  and 
to  a  less  degree  with  certain  of  the  Barbarv  states. 

T.  S.  WOOLSEY. 

Extract  [from  Lat.  extrac'tus^  drawn  out,  past  partic.  of 
extra  here ;  ex,  out  -»-  tra'here^  draw] :  in  pharmacy,  any 
solid  substance  (called  simply  an  extract)  or  liquid  sub- 
stance (fluid  extract)  made  by  evaporating  solutions  con- 
taining medicinal  principles,  chiefly  of  vegetable  origin. 
These  solutions  are  made  (1)  by  expressing  the  juices  of 
fresh  plants,  or  of  dried  ones  after  maceration,  by  means  of 
hydraulic  or  other  presses  ;  (2)  by  means  of  liquid  solvents, 
as  water,  alcohol,  or  ether,  from  which  result  **  aqueous," 
"  alcoholic,"  and  "  ethereal "  extracts.  These  various  meth- 
ods are  employed,  some  extracts  being  better  prepared  by 
one  and  some  by  another  process.  Sometimes  tne  men- 
struum is  allowed  slowly  to  percolate  and  re[H^rcolate 
through  the  powdered  drug,  the  solvent  being  at  last  re- 
moved by  evaporation  or  distillation.  Evaporation  is  fre- 
quently carried  on  in  vacuo  with  great  advantage,  for  a 
high  degree  of  heat  is  injurious  to  many  vegetable  princi- 
ples. 

Extract  of  Meat  (Lat.  extraetum  camis) :  a  prep^aration 
of  beef,  and  sometimes  of  mutton,  or  of  both  combined,  in 
which  the  muscular  fiber,  fat,  and  gelatin  are  removed,  and 
the  highly  nitrogenous  elements  preserved  and  condensed 
into  a  semi-solid  mass  of  about  the  consistence  nf  ordinary 
butter.  Commercial  extract  of  beef  is  prepare^!  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  in  Texas,  and  iu  other  coun- 
tries. Most  of  what  is  sold  in  Europe  and  the  U.  S.  comes 
from  Buenos  Ayres,  where  its  manufacture  was  first  estab- 
lished under  the  supervision  of  the  chemist  Liebig.  One 
establishment  at  Fray  Bentos  slaughters  400  oxen  daily.  In 
general  the  finely  cut  beef  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few 
hours  in  cold  water :  the  liquid  is  then  boiled  for  a  time, 
and  afterward  evaporated  in  a  vacuum-pan.  In  some  places 
the  mincemeat  is  steamed,  and  the  resulting  liquids  eva[)o- 
rated  on  rapidly  revolving  steel  plates.  In  other  establish- 
ments superheated  steam  is  employed  under  pressure ;  the 
material  is  then  submitted  to  powerful  hydraulic  compres- 
sion, and  the  expressed  liquid  partially  dried  in  vacuo. 

£2xtract  of  meat  is  of  variaole  quality  and  composition, 
and  at  the  best  but  imperfectly  represents  the  beef  it  was 
made  from  ;  some  forms  of  it  are  stimulants  merely.  Nev- 
ertheless, it  is  useful  in  preparing  soups,  and  especially  in 
nourishing  those  who  are  sick  of  low  fevers,  pyaemia,  and 
other  like  diseases. 

Extradition  [from  Lat.  ex,  out +  traditio,  act  of  deliver- 
ing over,  surrender ;  trans,  across  +  dare,  give] :  the  sur- 
render by  one  state  or  nation  to  another  of  fugitives  from 
justice.  The  subject  will  be  considered  under  two  general 
divisions:  1,  the  surrender  of  fugitives  from  justice  from 
one  State  of  the  U.  S.  to  another ;  2,  the  like  surrender  as 
between  one  nation  and  another. 

1.  The  U.  S.  Constitution  provides  that  **  a  person  charged 
in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime  who  shall 
flee  from  justice  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on  de- 
mand of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he 
fled,  be  delivered  up  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having 
jurisdiction  of  the  crime."  A  like  clause  is  found  in  the 
Articles  of  Confederation.  The  propriety  and  necessity  of 
such  a  pmvisicm  in  the  case  of  States  bound  so  closely  to- 
gether as  are  those  of  the  U.  S..  and  yet  exercising  inde- 
pendent criminal  jurisdiction,  will  not  be  questioned.  It 
tends  to  promote  harmony  between  the  States  and  to  repress 


crime,  while  it  aids  in  the  discharge  of  a  high  moral  obliga- 
tion. An  act  of  Congress  of  Feb.  12,  1793,  ch.  7,  §  l.t-ar- 
ries  the  constitutional  provision  into  practical  effect  by  de- 
claring that  the  demand  shall  be  accompanied  by  a  copy  of 
an  indictment  found  against  the  alleg^  fugitive,  or  by  an 
affidavit  made  before  a  magistrate  of  a  State,  etc.,  charpn^ 
the  fugitive  with  having  committed  a  crime.  These  d^K-u- 
ments  are  to  be  certified  as  authentic  by  the  Governor  or  chif*f 
magistrate  of  the  State  whence  the  demand  oome&  It  i^ 
thereupon  made  the  dutv  of  the  Governor  on  whom  the  de- 
mand IS  made  to  issue  his  warrant  and  to  cause  the  fugitive 
to  be  arrested  and  delivered  over  to  the  agent  of  the  de- 
manding State.  The  essential  ingredients  of  the  case  aiv 
that  there  must  be  a  charge  that  an  act  has  been  coromittni 
which  is  a  crime  under  the  laws  of  the  State  where  it  t^k 
place,  and  that  the  person  so  charged  has  fled  from  ju>tue. 
The  Governor  of  the  State  where  the  fugitive  is  found  i> 
bound  to  comply  with  the  demand  when  properly  made  ani] 
authenticated.  Still,  should  he  fail  to  do  his  duty,  then^  are 
no  legal  means  whereby  he  can  be  compelled  to  perform  it 
{Kentucky  vs.  Governor  Dennison  of  Ohio,  24  Howard's  Re- 
ports, 06.)  If  the  fugitive  is  supposed  to  be  arrest<^  on 
insufficient  papers,  the  regular  course  to  test  their  validity 
in  his  behalf  is  to  apply  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  If  they 
turn  out  to  be  defective,  he  will  be  discharged.  When  \\m 
proceeflings  are  sustained,  their  effect  is  to  return  the  fuui- 
tive  to  the  State  whence  he  came,  where  he  will  be  entitle*] 
to  his  trial  under  the  ordinary  course  of  judicial  proceed- 
ings. 

2.  Extradition  as  between  separate  nations  is  a  topic 
belonging  to  international  law.  It  is  a  limitation  of  tlie 
right  of  asvlum.  It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  it  «&.< 
the  duty  of  a  state  under  the  law  of  nations  to  surreinJt  r 
up  a  fugitive  from  justice  upon  demand  after  the  civU  nia^*- 
istrate  had  ascertained  the  existence  of  reasonable  grouL<i« 
for  subjecting  the  accused  to  a  criminal  trial.  Thi«r 
who  maintained  this  doctrine  found  much  difficulty  m 
drawing  the  line  between  the  graver  crimes  to  which  it 
was  claimed  that  this  rule  was  applicable  and  those  of  « 
minor  character  to  which  it  could  scarcely  be  consideml 
that  it  would  extend.  (1  Kent's  Commentaries^  37.)  The 
better  opinion  now  is  that  whatever  obligation  may  exi«it  in 
such  a  case  is  an  imperfect  one,  and  can  not  be  insist »h1 
upon  b^'  the  demanding  nation  unless  there  be  a  treat t 
stipulation.  Nevertheless,  in  certain  cases,  extradition  with- 
out treaty  has  been  allowed  by  and  to  the  U.  S.  In  l^^w' 
Secretary  of  State  Seward  surrendered  Arguelles  to  Sjwi  n 
"  under  the  law  of  nations  and  the  Constitution  of  the  I'.  >. ' 
on  account  of  his  high  criminality.  And  the  notorious  Twt^ni 
was  given  up  by  Spain  in  1876,  an  exact  return  for  the 
former  courtesy.  Alanv  similar  demands  upon  the  U.  S. 
have  been  refused,  and  l)oth  law  and  usage  are  again>t  th« 

Sractice.  The  U.  S.  have  treaties  upon  the  subject  of  extra- 
ition  with  a  large  number  of  foreign  nations.  The  follow- 
ing is  believed  to  be  a  complete  list  of  such  treaties  in  f on  r 
in  1893 : 


Great  BriUin 1842,1890 

France lg«,  1845,  1868,  18M 

Hawaiian  islands 1849 

Swiss  Confederation 1850 

Prussian  and  other  states  of 

the  Germanic  Ck>nfed 1882 

Bavaria 1853 

Austria 1856 

Baden 1857 

Sweden  and  Norway  . . .  1860,  1893 

Mexico 1861 

Haiti 1864 

Dominican  Republic 1867 

Italy 1868,1809,  1884 


Wttrtemberg l*^ 

San  Salvador i»C* 

Nicara^VA iKi' 

Orange  Free  State l^Tl 

Ecuador J»CJ 

Ottoman  Empire I**?! 

Spain 1877,  l*^ 

Belgrium i»*^' 

Luxemburg 1n< 

Japan is** 

The  Netherlands l*' 

Colombia i**^** 

Russia \i^'. 


The  treaties  are  not  precisely  identical,  though  of  th* 
same  general  scope  and  character.    They  all  include  th* 
more  heinous  crimes,  such  as  murder  and   piracy,  wIij- 
some  of  them  embrace  robbery,  burglary,  arson,  n»jM».  ♦Ji.- 
bezzlement,  and  the  fabrication"  and  circulation  of  c*«»unt<r- 
feit  coin  or  paper.    The  wonls  here  emploved  wouUl  n  U  r 
to  the  offenses  named  as  understood  in  tfie  general  ji:n«- 
prudence  of  the  two  nations,  and  accordingly  would  noi  .v- 
tend  to  a  new  statutory  crime  establishwl ' by  one  <»(   »r« 
United  States,  and  called  by  a  name  used  in  the  treaty,  ^u  \ 
as  forgery.    This  conclusion  was  reached  in  Great  Britain  ;l 
the  case  of  Winsor,  6  Best  &  Smith's  Reports,  522.     On  tK» 
other  hand,  it  has  been  considered  that  the  word  **  pinuy." 
as  used  in  the  treaty  with  Great  Britain,  does  not  n»ft'r  t.- 
that  offense  as  recognized  in  the  law  of  nations,  as   th-^ 
offender  can  be  tried  in  the  state  where  he  i&    Its  refer^^ncv 


EtLAU 


ment-celU ;  ft  mxddh  layer,  of  fine  capillary  reasels  (BayBch* 
layer) ;  and  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  last  tunic  a  utintly 
fibrous  membrane — the  lamina  vitrea — which  separates  it 
from  the  pigiuent  layer  of  the  retina.    The  ciliary 


are  folds  or  plaits  runniiia;  forward  from  the  choroid  to  the 
BUS  pen  sory  ligament  of  tTio  crystalline  lens.  They  number 
about  seventy.  The  iris  (rainbow)  takps  its  name  from  its 
various  colors  in  diCCerent  persons.     It  is  a  colored  curtain 

Krforated  liv  a  circular  aperture,  the  fpil,  su»i>eiidod  in 
a  aqueous  humor.  It  is  placed  vertically  in  advance  of 
the  choroid  and  ciliary  Iwuy,  with  which  it  is  continuous. 
It  is  also  coniiecie<l  with  the  adjacent  twrder  of  the  sclerotic 
and  cornea  by  the  ciliary  muscle  and  a  ligament  called  the 
pfcliitnte  ligament.  It  contains  both  circular  and  radiating; 
involuntary  muscle-fibers  and  a  strama  of  fibers  and  cells 
and  oigmeht-eells.  The  circular  sinus  iaa  canal  (Schlemm's) 
which  runs  around  the  eye  outside  the  ciliary  body.     The 


sclerotic  to  the  choroid.  It  is  tbroiigh  the  action  of  this 
muscle  on  the  crystalline  lens  that  the  eye  is  accommodated 
or  adapted  to  distinet  vision  at  different  distances. 

The  retina  is  a  delicate  nervous  membrane  which  receives 
the  images  of  external  objects.  Behind,  it  is  continuous 
with  the  optic  nerve ;  in  front  it  extends  nearly  as  far  for- 
ward as  tne  ciliary  ligament,  where  it  is  termed  the  ora 
urrata.  In  the  center  of  its  posterior  part,  at  a  point  cor- 
responding to  the  aiis  of  the  eye,  there  is  a  yellowish  spot 
called  the  mneula  bitta,  having  it  in  a  central  deprt^ssion, 
the  fovea  centralis.    At  (his  point  the  sense  of  vision  is  most 

Crfect.  The  retina  is  very  complex  and  is  composed  of  ten 
yers,  named  from  within  outward  as  follows :  The  tJitenuU 
li'miling  mrmbrane,  Ike  nerve-fiber  layer,  Ike  nerve-eell 
lagfr,  Ike  inner  and  outer  granular  and  nuelear  layers,  Ike 
external  timilittg  membrane,  Ike  layer  of  the  rods  and  conrs, 
and  the  pigmentary  layer.  The  internal  limiting  layer  is  in 
contact  with  the  hyaloid  membrane  of  the  vitreous  humor. 
The  nerve-fiber  laycT  is  conliiiuous  with  the  optic  nerve. 
The  layer  of  the  rixls  and  cones  is  often  called  Jac()b'B  mem- 
brane, or  the  bacillary  layer.  The  rods  are  solid,  of  nearly 
nnifonu  size,  and  arranjjcd  perpendicularly  to  the  surface. 
The  cones  are  lluKk-sha|wd,  their  broad  ends  resting  u)>on 
the  external  limiting  inembrane.  In  the  region  of  aci^u- 
rate  sight  in  Jui-ol/s  membrane,  there  are  no  hkIs,  but  only 
cones.  The  n-liiiH  is  supjilicd  wilh  LIikmI  by  the  central 
artery  of  the  ri'tina,  which  pierciai  the  optic  nerve  and 
enlera  the  glol>e  of  the  eye  Ihrouiih  the  center  iif  the  nerve, 
orpnruii  opfleitn.  The  n-linal  vein  accfMnpiuiie.''  the  artery. 
The  ciinteiitH  of  the  eve  are  the  luju^ius  humor,  the  crys- 
ttUline  lens,  and  the  vitreotis  humor.  The  atpKHiiis  huiiior 
consists  of  about  4  or  G  grains  of  water,  witti  a  very  small 

ErojHirtion  of  coinmun  Hdl  and  other  maltcn:  in  solution. 
t  o('i'upii<s  the  fyaun:  between  the  comt'u  in  front  and  \ha 
crystalline  lens  Udiind.    This  B[iaco  is  diviiled  into  the  an- 


terior and  the  poitorior  chambers,  which  the  iris  seporaio 
from  each  other.  Behind  the  ju]ueous  humor  comes  Itji 
urystalline  lens,  suspended  in  the  capsule,  an  elastic,  tnii>- 
parent  membrane  which  is  retained  in  its  place  by  the  i<»s- 
pensory  ligament.  Between  this  ligament  and  the  hyal'^iii 
membrane  is  the  space  called  the  canal  of  Petit.  The  Ini- 
iL^clf — a  doul>le  convex  l>ody.  one-third  of  an  inch  in  Inui-^ 
verse,  and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  an tero- posterior,  dittm- 
eter — consists,  as  is  seen  when  it  has  been  boiled  or  hardi'iiil 
in  alcohol,  of  layers  of  transparent  matter  arrangMl  in  .'^t:- 
menta.  The  vitreous  humor  occupies  four-fifths  of  the  cav- 
ity of  the  eyebalL     Like  all  the  contents  proper  of  the  e)^ 


like  1. 
lost,  it  is 


Fio.  a— Vertical  ncttoo  of  Qte  eye. 

transparent.     It  consists  of  a  thin,  jelly-like,  albomi- 
fluid.     When  the  aqueous  humor  has  been  evacuii!!-! 
accident  or  operative  interference,  it  is  speedily  reslnr^^t 
lis  fiuids ;  but  it  the  vitreous  humor  is  em  ir<  > 
'  renewed.    See  Light,  Vision,  and  Ophtiul 
Revised  by  G.  K  dk  Schweimil 
Eye,  Diseases  ot:  See  Gbanulas  Lids,  BLiNDNtss.  C.u 
AKACT,  Myopia,  Squintinq,  OfiiTnALMiA,  and  Visio.s,  lij- 

FECtB  OF. 

Eye-bolt:  on  ships,  a  metal  bolt  screwed  into  the  tin"     | 
bers  or  set  up  with  washer  and  nut,  with  an  eye  in  the  ou'.i  r 
end  in  which  a  block  may  lie  hooked. 

Eyebrifht:  See  Euphbast. 

Eyepiece:   the  lens  or  combination  of  lenses  u.-u-d  I'l 
microscopes  and  telescopes   to  examine   the  aSriaJ    \n-.vj-- 
formed  at  the  focus  of  the  objpct-(^ass.    The  onlinary  .  ;■- 
piece  is  a  combination,  and  may  be  either  positive  or  ii<'.'  •■ 
tive.    The  former  consists  of  two  plano-convei  lenst-s,  "i:  i    , 
their  convex  sides  toward  each  other,  and  is  useti  tnr  n,'-    | 
cromelera.     The  negative  consists  of  similar  lenses  with  i'. 
convex  sides  turned  away  from   the  eye.     Besides   tl.^- 
there  are  in  use  for  oliservationE  of  the  sun  a  diagonal  •>'  - 
piece,  in  which  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  sun's  l:j  .; 
and  heat  b  reflectud  from  the  first  surface  of  a  prism,  ii .     i 
rest  being  transmitted ;  and  Dawes's  solar  eyepiece,  in  win 
the  light  is  reduced  by  observing  only  a  very  minute  part"! 
the  solar  surface. 

Lat.  oculi  eanerorum):  the  name  piveyi  t.. 
calcareous  concretions  which  are  fouinl  :r 
European  crawfish,  in  August,  shortly  Nf..-.- 
the  molting  season,  in  the  space  tjetween  the  inner  «r  i 
outer  coats  of  the  stomach.  They  consist  of  carbonaii'  ji  i 
phosphate  of  lime  and  animal  ^latin,  and  were  f,)nn- -  r 
used  in  a  powdered  stale  in  medicine  as  an  antaci<l.  Tl..  • 
arc  somelnnes  used  to  remove  small  particles  of  ilirt  (r  : 
the  eves,  a  method  which  is  entirely  to  be  condemnwl,  Tl.  > 
an;  collected  in  brooks  in  Dauphmy,  near  Astrakhan,  ar  : 
in  other  places  in  Europe,  and  have  also  been  found  in  t: " 
Mohawk  river,  near  Rome,  N.  T. 

Eyian,  or  EiUii,  often  called  PrnsaUn  EjUn :  a  i-r  ■■■ 
town  of  Prussia:  on  the  Pasmar;  22  miles  S.  of  Kfini;^:'  --■ 
(SCO  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  1-J).  A  great  \kh\k  »  -• 
fought  here  Feb.  8,  1807,  between  Napoleon,  who  hn<l  «•  ::  . 
(»,0(K1  men,  and  the  allied  armies  of  Russia  and  I'm- .* 
commanded  by  Gen.  Bennigsen,  who  had  fewer  ni.it.  •  . 
more  KUiis-  The  battle  was  openeil  early  in  the  iii'  ^r:  .■  .:,  I 
immetliately  after  daybreak,  by  a  furious  attack  nut-l.  ; 
the  French  left  on  the  Prussian  right  and  cenler.  Itiii  ■■.*! 
attack  proved  utterly  unsuccessful,  and  tlie  attaekiiii;  i-,  ■:* 
was  all  but  completely  destroyed.  The  murderous  ,-iru,.» 
was  rejieatedly  renewed,  and  victory  seemed  to  incliiiv  i..  w 


Gyestones  (i 


F 


the  sixth  letter  of  the  English  alphabet ; 
a  labio-denUl  Toiceless  spirant.  As  is 
shown  by  old  Latin  writers,  it  differed  in 
power  from  the  Qreek  ^,  and  in  ancient 
times  was  doubtless  a  voiceless  spirant, 
like  the  Greek  digamma,  f,  from  which  it 
took  its  form,  if  not  its  power.  The  Eng- 
lish /  corresponds  etymologically  most 
commonly  to  Greek  »,  Latin  p ;  cf.  Eng.  father^  Gr.  vcrHip, 
Lat.  pater ;  Eng.  foai^  Gr.  irwAot,  Lat.  puaua.  It  may  also 
represent  an  Indo-Europ.  q(>  Gr.  «,  »,  t,  Lat.  gu^  c) ;  cf. 
Eng.  five ;  Gr.  Wyre ;  Lat.  quinque ;  Eng.  wolf^  Gr.  \^k^. 

W  in  chemistry  is  the  symool  of  fluorine.  F  in  music  is 
the  fourth  degree  in  the  ascending  scale  of  C,  major  or  minor, 
being  the  subdominant  in  that  scale.  The  bass  or  F  clef  is 
placed  on  the  fourth  line  of  the  staff,  hence  as  a  note  on 
that  line  is  called  F,  the  other  notes,  above  and  below,  take 
their  names  accordingly.  The  letter  P,  or  /,  is  also  used  for 
fortey  loud;  and  FP,  orjf,  for  fortissimo,  very  loud. 

Fa'aiu :  an  orchidaceous  plant  growing  in  the  Mauritius, 
in  Reunion,  and  in  India — tne  AngroBcum  fragrans,  highly 

grized  for  its  fragrance,  and  long  used  in  the  same  way  as 
hinese  tea  is  used.  Many  residents  in  the  East  greatly 
prefer  it  to  tea.  It  is  aromatic,  stimulant,  and  of  very 
agreeable  taste.  It  is  used  to  some  extent  in  France,  an^ 
has  reputation  as  an  antispasmodic  and  an  expectorant. 

Fa'ba  [Lat.,  bean]:  an  old  genus  of  leguminous  plants 
now  referred  to  Yicxa,  It  included  the  common  bean  of 
Europe  under  the  name  F,  vulgaris^  now  known  as  Vieia 
fabck, 

Faber,  CXcilia  BOhl,  von :  See  Caballbbo. 

Fa'ber,  Frederick  William,  D.  D.  :  theologian  and  poet ; 
a  nephew  of  George  Stanley  Faber ;  b.  at  Calverley,  York- 
shire, England,  June  28, 1814 ;  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1836 ; 
became  fellow  of  University  College  in  1837 ;  vicar  of  Elton 
in  1843 ;  went  over  to  the  Koman  Catholic  Church  in  1846  ; 
founded  the  Oratory  of  the  brotherhood  of  St.  Philip  Neri 
in  London  in  1849 ;  and  in  1854  removed  with  it  to  6romp- 
ton,  London,  where  he  died  Sept.  26,  1863.  He  wrote  a 
considerable  number  of  books,  both  controversial  and  devo- 
tional, in  support  of  the  Church  of  his  adoption,  but  will  be 
longest  remembered  as  the  author  of  some  exquisitely  beau- 
tifiu  hymns,  equally  admired  by  all  communions.  The  first 
edition  of  his  hymns,  few  in  number,  appeared  in  London  in 
1848,  and  the  5th  ed.,  containing  150  nymns,  in  1862.  See 
his  Life  and  Letters,  ed.  by  J.  E.  Bowden  (London,  1869 ; 
2d  ed.  1888). 

Faber,  George  Stanley,  D.  D.  :  English  theologian ;  b. 
at  Calverley,  near  Bradford,  Yorkshire,  Oct.  25,  177§;  grad- 
uated at  University  College,  Oxford,  in  1793,  and  was  preb- 
endary of  the  cathedral  of  Salisbury  in  1831,  and  master 
of  Sherburn  Hospital,  near  Durham,  1832;  d.  there  Jan.  27, 
1854.  Author  oi  Horce  Mosaicce,  or  a  View  of  the  Mosaical 
Records  with  Resjteci  to  their  Coincidence  with  Profane 
Antiquity  and  their  Connection  with  Christianity  (Bamp- 
ton  Lectures,  2  vols.,  Oxford,  1801 ;  2d  ed.  1818) ;  Prophe- 
cies that  have  been  Fulfilled  (1807 ;  6th  ed.  3  vols.,  1814-18) ; 
Difficulties  of  Infidelity  (London,  1824) ;  Dij^ulties  of  Ro- 
manism (1826 ;  3d  ed.  1853) ;  Origin  of  Expiatory  Sacrifice 
(1827) ;  The  Vallenses  and  Albigenses  (1838),  etc.  See  mem- 
oir by  P.  A.  Faber,  in  G.  S.  Faber*s  Many  Mansions  (1854). 

Faber,  Jacob  Jacobus  Stapulensis,  or  Jacques  le  F^vre 
d'Estaples  :  the  greatest  of  the  "  Reformers  before  the 
Reformation"  in  France;  b.  at  EstAples,  near  Amiens, 
about  the  year  1450,  and  died  at  the  court  of  Margaret  of 
Navarra,  1536  or  1537.  His  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment appeared  in  1523,  and  of  the  Old  Testament  in  1528. 
He  published  also  several  commentaries.  See  ZAfe  by  C.  H. 
Graf  (Strassburg,  1842). 

Faber.  John:  a  Dutch  mezzotint  engraver  and  one  of 
the  earliest  workers  in  mezzotint,  who  died  at  Bristol,  Eng- 
land, in  May,  1721 ;  the  father  of  another  John  Faber,  an 
excellent  mezzotint  engraver,  b.  in  1684,  who  produced  por- 


traits of  the  Kit  Cat  Club  and  the  Hampton  Court  beauties. 
D.  in  1756,  probably  in  London. 

Faber,  Tanaqutl  :  See  Le  Fevrb. 

Fabi'ola:  a  Roman  matron  of  the  Fabian  gens,  w}u) 
founded  the  first  Christian  hospital  in  Rome.  After  bein? 
divorced  from  her  worthless  husband  she  married  another; 
but  after  his  death  she  came  to  consider  her  course  sinful 
and  after  public  penance  devoted  her  wealth  and  her  time 
to  the  care  of  the  sick.  She  died  in  Rome,  399  a.  d.  The 
procession  at  her  funeral  was  compared  by  Jerome  to  the 
triumphs  of  Scipio  and  Pompey.  See  Eng.  trans.  Jerome 
(New  York,  1893),  Ep.  Ixxvu.  (pp.  157-168),  which  is  reallja 
eulogistic  memoir. 

Fa'bias  Max'imus  Yerraco'sas,  Quintus,  sumamed 
CuNCTATOR  (delayer):  Roman  consul;  attained  the  coui>u- 
late  for  the  first  time  233  b.  c.  ;  became  dictator  in  217. 
Contending  aeainst  Hannibal  the  Carthaginian,  he  wlhen-U 
so  closely  to  the  policy  of  defensive  warfare  that  his  opf^K 
nent  could  gain  no  advantage,  and  his  successes  of  this  H^rt, 
long  continued,  secured  for  him  his  surname.  His  is  oue  L>f 
the  most  illustrious  names  in  Roman  history. 

Pa'bius  Pic'tor, Quintus :  the  earliest  Roman  historian; 
a  member  of  the  patrician  family  of  the  Fabii.     He  \i\^ 
at  the  time  of  the  Second  Punic  war  (which  began  b.  c.  21hv 
though  the  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown.    The 
last  aistinct  notice  of  him  is  that  of  his  being  sent  a«  an 
ambassador  to  Delphi  after  the  battle  of  Cannae,  b.  c.  216. 
He  wrote  a  history  or  annals  of  Rome  (the  name  is  not  giveio 
from  the  early  settlement  of  the  city  to  his  own  time^.  ar.d 
his  work  is  often  quoted  by  Livy,  Dionysius,  and  Polyhius, 
and  once  by  Diodorus.    Ho  has  been  charged  with  gnat 
carelessness  and  perversion  of  the  truth,  especially  in  the 
earlier  portions  oi  his  work.    But  both  Livy  and  I>ion>jij> 
draw  freely  from  him,  and  frequently  commend  his  ficlelitT ; 
and  Polybms,  who  is  his  severest  censor,  uses  his  mateniii« 
in  his  own  account  of  the  Second  Punic  war  (in  which  Fa- 
bins  was  an  actor),  though  charging  him  with  careles^nex^ 
and  partiality  for  the  Homans.    His  work  was  written  in 
Greek,  but  it  is  supposed  there  existed  also  a  Latin  traiLs- 
lation  of  it.    Among  modem  writers  Fabius  has  found  & 
defender  in  the  historian  Kiebuhr  in  his  lectures  on  tiie 
history  of  Rome.    The  fragments  of  Fabius  Pictor  are  t-rl- 
lected,  and  the  events  of  his  life  given,  by  Krause,  JiifL 
Rom,  Fragmenta  (Berlin,  1833);  by  MQller,  Bi^t.   Onr^, 
Fragm.  (vol.  iii.,  pp.  80-92J ;  and  H.  ?eter.  Hist,  Roni.  Froj- 
menta  (Leipzig,  1883),  pp.  6-81.    See  also  Oerlach,  Oe^ch  icht- 
schreiher  der  Rdmer  (Stuttgart,  1855). 

Revised  by  M.  Warrex. 

Fabius  River:  a  river  of  Missouri;  rises  by  serrr&l 
forks,  and  flows  into  the  Mississippi  nearly  opposite  (^uin<.  v. 
IlL  The  course  of  the  main  stream  is  short.  The  North 
Fabius,  the  longest  fork,  rises  in  Iowa. 

Fables  [via  Fr.  from  htkt.  fa'bula,  deriv.  of  fan\  s(xak> 
originally,  stories  of  any  kind;  thus  Dry  den's  I'ables  (IT^"- 
consist  merely  of  tales  from  Homer,  (5vid,  Boccacvio,  ai.  1 
Chaucer;  later  it  came  to  mean  Beast-fables  {g.  v.),  bui 
sometimes  short  moral  tales  similar  in  style  to  btvL>t- 
fables. 

Fabliaax,  f&'bli-o',  or,  better,  Fableanx  [Pr.  plur.  cf 
fabliau,  fableau,  which  is  a  singular  formed  from  fablia'<. 
fableaus,  the  latter  being  the  forms  of  the  obj.  plur.  <»1  <>.  i 
Fr.  fablel,  dimin.  of  fable.  See  Fable]:  certain  si..  - 
stories  in  verse  composed  by  French  trout^es  in  the  twt'l*t.'i. 
thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The  fableaujc  ywr- 
port  to  be  stories  from  real  life,  and  are  to  be  carefully  li.^ 
tinguished  from  legends,  romances,  and  didactic  ihkt.iv 
Their  sole  aim  was  to  amuse,  and  they  are  consotjiicjii  v 
usually  comic  and  often  gross.  Many  of  them,  howc^rr. 
are  masterpieces  of  narrative.  The  great  collection  nf  ♦  r- 
bleanx  is  tnat  of  A.  de  Mont^iglon  and  Gt,  RaynaiuL  Iftru:.' 
general  et  coniplet  des  Fabliaux  des  XIII*  e't  XI  !'•  iSj  ;<■..% 
(6  vols.,  Paris,  1872-90).    See  also  Feemch  Literatuile. 

G.  L,  KnTRKiHit 

(MO) 


262 


FACCIOLATI 


PACE 


Facoiolati,  fi&t-chd-laa'te&,  or  Faooiolato,  Giaoomo: 
philologist;  b.  at  Torreglia,  near  Padua,  Italy,  Jan.  4. 1682 ; 
was  Professor  of  Logic  in  the  University  of  Padua,  1722; 
published  an  edition  of  the  Lexicon  Septem  Linguarum  of 
Ambrogio  Calepino,  an  Augustine  friar  of  Calepio  (2  vols., 
Padua,  1731),  of  the  Greek  lexicon  of  Schrevelius  (Padua, 
1715-19),  and  of  the  Lexicon  Ciceronianum  of  Nizolius 
(Padua,  1734).  He  began  a  Latin  lexicon,  finished  by  Forcel- 
lini.    D.  at  Padua,  Aug.  27, 1760.    See  Fokcellinl 

Face  [Fr.,  from  Lat.  fa'eiea] :  the  front  part  of  the  human 
head,  extending  from  the  line  of  the  hair  on  the  forehead 
to  the  chin,  and  including  the  forehead,  eyes,  nose,  cheeks, 
mouth,  and  chin,  as  distinguished  from  the  posterior  part  of 
the  head  constituting  the  brain-case*  or  cranium.  The  face 
is  composed  of  a  smid  bony  foundation  or  skeleton,  upon 
which  lie  numerous  muscles,  blood-vessels,  nerves,  and  other 
structures,  interspersed  with  a  varying  amount  of  fat,  all  of 
which  are  coverea  by  the  integument.  The  bones  of  the  face, 
as  grouped  by  anatomists,  are  fourteen  in  number,  of  which 
twelve  (constituting  the  nasal,  superior  maxillary  or  upper 
jaw,  lachrymal,  malar  or  cheek,  palate,  and  inferior  turbinate 
bones)  are  in  pairs,  while  two  (tne  vomer  and  inferior  maxil- 
lary or  lower  jaw  bones)  are  single  bones.  Of  the  fourteen 
different  bones  entering  into  the  structures  technically  re- 
garded as  included  within  the  face,  but  seven  (the  nasal,  su- 
perior maxillary  and  malar  bones,  and  the  inferior  maxil- 
lary bone)  take  part  in  forming  the  facial  surface ;  in  addi- 
tion to  these,  tne  frontal  bone,  although  classed  with  the 
cranial  group,  contributes  the  important  part  of  the  osseous 
basis  of  the  face  supporting  the  forehead.  Of  all  these 
bones  but  one,  the  inferior  maxillary  or  lower  jaw,  is  mov- 
able, this  being  attached  by  ligamentous  structures  in  ar- 
ticulation with  the  temporal  bones,  at  each  side  of  the  cra- 
nium. The  four  large  openings  which  appear  in  the  skeleton 
of  the  face  (the  orbits,  nasal  orifice,  ana  interdental  cleft) 
are  partially  or  wholly  closed  by  the  soft  parts  occupying  or 
surrounding  them,  which  are  respectively  the  eyes  and  their 
appendages,  the  nasal  cartilages,  and  the  lips. 

The  general  character  of  the  face,  as  expressive  of  the 
higher  or  lower  grades  of  intelligence,  is  very^  largely  infiu- 
eneed  bv  the  relative  prominence  of  certain  of  its  bony 
parts,  l^hus  the  large  ample  forehead,  with  well-developed 
Dossi'S,  usually  accepted  as  indicating  int-ellectuality,  is  di- 
rec'tlv  dependent  upon  the  development  and  expansion  of 
the  frontal  bone;  deep-set  or  sunken  eyes  are  principally 
caused  by  the  projection  of  the  superciliary  arches  support- 
ing the  eyebrows,  although  depression  of  the  root  of  the 
nose,  and  the  narrowness  of  the  aperture  between  the  eye- 
lids contribute  to  this  appearance;  the  effect  of  unaue 
prominence  of  the  malar  or  cheek  bones  is  familiar  in  the 
characteristic  facial  type  of  the  races  of  Eastern  Asia,  and 
also,  to  an  exaggerated  degree,  in  the  Eskimos ;  protrusion 
of  the  upper  ana  lower  jaws  is  also  an  important  factor  in 
modifying  the  general  character  of  the  face. 

In  order  to  facilitate  comparison,  certain  lines  have  been 
agreed  upon,  whose  measurements  and  mutual  relations 
shall  express  definite  types  of  face,  in  the  same  way  that 
cranial  measurements  supply  data  for  the  comparison  of 
skulls.  Camper  long  ago  suggested  the  use  of  certain  planes 
in  the  study  of  the  bony  parts.  For  the  purposes  of  cranio- 
metric  investigations  his  methods  have  been  supplanted  by 
the  more  accurate  and  elaborate  measurements  carried  out 
by  Broca,  Turner,  and  many  other  anatomists ;  but  Camper's 
lines  afford  a  useful  and  readily  applied  means  of  obtaining 
suggestive  data  in  the  comparison  of  faces.  Many  accurate 
measurements  which  may  be  made  on  the  skuU  evidently  can 
not  be  taken  on  the  living  subject ;  two  useful  lines,  how- 
ever, can  be  readily  established :  (a)  the  horizontal  line  of 
Camper^  ptissiug  across  the  external  canal  (>f  the  ear  and 
the  base  of  the  nostril ;  and  (6)  the  facial  line  of  Camper, 
extending  obliouely  from  the  most  prominent  central  point 
of  t!ie  forehead  (glabella)  to  the  anterior  surface  of  the  in- 
cisor teeth,  intersecting  the  horizontal  line  at  a  point  coin- 
ciding, in  whites,  with  the  nasal  spine.  The  angle  included 
between  these  lines  is  the  facial  angle  of  Camper,  which  in 
the  intellectual  races  exceeds  80°,  while  in  those  of  low  in- 
telligence it  is  much  lower;  in  Negro,  eO^-OS";  gorilla,  31*". 

W  ith  regard  to  the  general  form,  when  observed  in  profile, 
faces  may  be  divided  into  two  groups :  the  one,  proanathouSy 
in  whieh  the  facial  line  is  very  oblique,  the  lips  large  and 
evert e<i,  and  the  jaws  very  projecting ;  this  is  the  Negro  type, 
and  is  usually  associated  with  a  low  degree  of  intelligence. 
The  other,  orthognathoua,  in  which  the  facial  line   ap- 


proaches the  Tertical,  the  lips  are  thin  and  small,  and  the 
jaws  and  line  of  the  chin  unprojecting ;  this  is  the  Euro^icin 
type,  and  is  regarded  as  indicative  of  high  intellects  (  outi- 
tenances  may  also  be  arranged  in  two  other  classes,  aceonj- 
ing  to  the  prominence  of  the  central  or  lateral  parts  (if  tt.*> 
face.  In  the  European  type  the  middle  of  the  face  pro- 
jects, while  its  narrow  sides  recede;  in  the  Mongolian  t\|x>. 
on  the  contrary,  the  central  parts  are  flat,  while  the  M<i  ^ 
are  wide  and  protruding,  with  prominent  cheek-bones.  I  .i  ki - 
wise,  faces  differ  as  to  their  vertical  length,  producing'  tii> 
long-faced  and  short-faced  types,  of  which  the  Eskimos  uni 
N^ritos  respectively  are  examples. 

The  relation  between  the  greatest  width  of  the  face.  &s 
measured  on  the  skull  just  behind  the  cheek-lionet— the 
bizygomatie  diameter — and  its  len^h,  as  taken  from  a  im- 
dian  point  a  little  above  the  orbits  (corresponding  to  the 
middle  of  the  transverse  line  connecting  the  narrowi'.st  jinrts 
of  the  forehead)  to  the  sockets  of  the  upper  middle  inc-isir 
teeth — the  aupra^ciliary-alveolar  length — has  been  mca- 
rately  expressed  by  Broca's  facial  index,  obtained  by  tiit> 

-         ,        Supraciliary-alveolar  length  x  100        .... 

formula,    — ^ — r^; — ^ -. — -j-. — ^^ =  facial  m- 

bizygomatic  diameter 

dez.    Broca  found  that  65'9  represents  the  average  faeial 

index  for  the  European  skull. 

The  character  of  the  nose  is  also  an  important  element  in 
determining  the  race  peculiarities  of  countenance.  A!n<»ni; 
the  points  of  comparison  are  the  depth  of  the  hollow  at  the 
root;  the  arching  of  the  nose,  as  seen  in  the  aquiline  tvfe 
so  characteristic  of  certain  races ;  the  flattening  of  the  nu^*, 
whether  due  to  the  participation  of  its  entire  skeleton  <'r 
only. of  its  cartilages ;  the  form  of  nostril;  the  direction  <>f 
the  plane  of  the  entire  base.  The  peculiarities  of  the  {M«>i- 
tion  and  length  of  the  eyelids  largely  account  for  t  he  af>- 
parent  obliquity  of  the  eyes  in  the  Mongols  and  otiier 
races. 

In  addition  to  the  fixed  anatomical  causes  prod uc in:; 
variation  of  countenance  when  in  repose,  among  which  ni<  ^t 
potent  are  the  conf onnation  of  the  forehead,  shape  of  t  le 
eyelids,  prominence  of  the  eyeballs,  the  nostrils,  the  \\y^ 
and  the  chin,  the  movements  o^  the  facial  surface  cont  inr.a  > 
wrought  by  the  constant  play  of  the  muscles  induci-  th»' 
changes  collectively  known  as  "expression,"  which  pla>  -> 
important  a  role  in  reflecting  and  revealing  psychical  pr-*  - 
esses.  The  muscles  of  the  face  constitute  the  imnittlKiie 
agents  in  producing  such  facial  changes,  whether  the  c«'n- 
tractions  result  entirely  from  the  exercise  of  the  will  it 
whether  they  occur  unconsciously  in  association  with  certjtm 
mental  conditions.  The  facial  muscles  are  divided  int<»  t^» 
groups:  those  concerned  in  moving  the  jaw,  hence  1^1^.1 
muscles  of  mastication,  and  those  oi  expression.  The  latt<  r 
differ  from  the  majority  of  other  muscles  of  the  IxkIt  in 
passing  from  their  bony  attachments  to  be  fixed  to  soft  parts 
principallv  the  skin,  and  in  Joeing  loose  in  structure  a:  >i 
poorly  denned,  mingled  with  fat  and  areolar  tissue.  Th-  y 
not  only  vary  in  development  in  different  persons,  but  a..-.- 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  lace  of  the  same  inmvidual. 

The  muscles  of  expression  may  be  conveniently  groupt-l 
into  (1)  those  which  surround  the  eye  ;  (2)  those  which  in«ue 
the  nostrils ;  (8)  those  which  encircle  or  are  attachetl  aU  ut 
the  mouth.    With  tlie  first  or  orbital  aroup  may  be  <•«  :.- 
veniently  included  the  important  muscle  of  the  for\>h«i>i 
(the  frontal  portion  of  the  occipito-frontal)  which  is  ch*^  .^ 
related  to  the  other  meml>ers  of  this  group.    The  frorr  :/ 
mtMcZ6  raises  or  arches  the  eyebrow  and  the  skin  over  ;♦' 
root  of  the  nose  and  throws  the  integument  of  the  fon  h<'.i*l 
into  transverse  wrinkles ;  the  expression  of  surprise  follow <" 
its  moderate  action,  while  fright  or  horror  is  depicte^l  by  i:* 
more  violent  contraction.    The  circular  muscle  of  the  ev- 
lid,  the  orbicularis  palpebrarum,  completely  encin'h'>  t » • 
cleft  of  the  lids  and  surrounds  the  margins  of  the  orbtt,  b*- 
ing  the  principal  agent  in  closing  the  eyelids;  two  pon.o.  - 
of  the  muscle  are  recognized:  the  pcUpebreU  portion,  i- : 
tained  within  the  eyelids,  whose  action  is  involuntary  t.*  . 
gently  closes  the  lids,  as  in  sleep  or  winking,  and  the  orh;   . 
Tar  part,  surrounding  the  orbit,  by  which  the  eyeliils   i'  • 
voluntarily  forcibly  closed  and  contracted.    The  or1»ni..»r 
muscle  also  acts  powerfully  in  the  expression  of  certain  1 1>   - 
tions,  in  laughing  and  crying,  gathering  up  the   skin  :: 
folds  about  the  eye,  which  is  thus  more  or  less  cIoschI.     j  .  • 
frowning  muscle,  the  corruqator  supereilii,  is  a  little  n.t  - 
cular  slip  extending  obliquely  upward  and  outward  from  ''•  • 
inner  end  of  the  ridge  of  the  eyebrow:  by  its  contract ioi.   . 
draws  the  eyebrow  dowiiward  and  inward,  producine  ver- 
cal  wrinkles  on  the  forehead  expressive  of  perplexity. 


o 


S64 


FACIAL  NKURAIXIIA 


FACTOR 


tor  branch  Mipplir*  the  mu^^les  of  in«iitio«tion — the  m 
Ur,  temporml,  mad  ptenrt^mlH. 

William  Pcppeb  aad  C.  W.  Bubb. 

FmIaI  Nearmliria:  trip^minal  neuralgia;  tic  douloureux; 
pr«no(uiIf(ia.  (Fur  cmu.^tioiL  »oi*  Nkcraujia.)  Th«  fifth 
nrrvi*  in  more  ofien  the  tn*mi  of  neural i^a  than  any  other. 
Whili'  the  ncnre  raay  be  affected  throughout  its  entire  di»- 
tn  hut  ion,  morp  fre^iuently  one  or  two  of  the  thret*  main  di- 
vi<»inn4  are  iDvolr«yl,  or  it  may  be  one  only  of  the  smaller 
hrancheti.  It  prai'tirally  never  oecun*  on  Iwth  sides  at  onw. 
When  the  ophthalmic  clirision  is  affected  the  fmin  is  felt 
alfove  the  brow.  So  oommonlv  is  this  due  to  malaria  that 
it  is  tiften  callt»d  **  brow  a^e.  The  eveball  may  be  the  seat 
of  |4iin,  sometimes  aocom|tanie4i  by  dimness  of  sight,  con- 
traction of  the  field  of  rision,  and  fia-shns  of  light  When 
the  ftUDt^rior  maxillary  division  is  affecti^i,  the  |>ain  extends 
fr«>m  tne  orbit  to  the  mouth,  over  the  check,  and  to  the  side 
of  the  no(M«,  If  the  inferior  maxillary  t>e  involved,  the  pain 
b  felt  in  the  side  of  the  head,  the  temple,  ear,  lower  jaw, and 
tongue.  SometiiuM  then*  is  a  boring  pain  limit«d  toa  point 
in  the  temple,  and  <xH*asionally  the  tongue  alone  is  affin-tod 
(gliHtftal^fia).  The  f>ain  is  intense,  at  times  making  life  al- 
most untN'arable.  and  so  increaseil  by  movement  of  the  jaw 
■0  to  render  rating  almost  imi»osAibk^  It  may  radiate  from 
one  diviMon  of  the  nerve  U»  the  next  or  even  toother  nerves. 
If  the  onj^t  \h>  sudden  and  severe,  reflex  muscular  spasm 
may  i»c«'ur  (tic  con vuUif).  Palsy  is  rare,  but  there  is  often 
flushing.  l(x*al  sweating,  increase*!  nasal  and  buccal  secre- 
tion, and  lachrymation.  In  chronic  cases  there  may  be 
thi<'kening  of  the  periosteum  and  hardening  of  the  skin,  loss 
of  hair  or  local  graynetn,  and  herpes  about  the  eye  or  lip. 
Prcwure  at  the  fMiints  of  exit  of  the  nerves  from  bony  canals 
oaunes  pain.    Treatment  de(>ends  u{M>n  causation. 

WiLLUM  Peppkb  and  C.  W.  Bubb. 

FAcial  Paralysis:  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  face. 
There  art*  two  forms — (1)  central,  in  which  the  disi'ase  is  sit- 
uat«Hl  betwe4*n  the  nuclfus  of  origin  of  the  nerve  and  the 
c<irtex  of  the  brain;  (2)  peripheral,  called  Bell's  (Nilsy,  in 
whi'h  the  lesion  is  in  the  nucleus  or  the  nerve  itself.  In 
the  fir*t  the  up|»er  face  muv'lcs  are  but  little  or  not  at  all 
affc4'tc«l.  and  those  around  the  mouth  suffer  mctst.  Volun- 
tary movements  are  much  more  imfiainMl  tlian  those  due  to 
emotion.  I4a^tly  the  affecte«i  muscles  nvfiond  normally  to 
elivtrical  f^timulun,  or  if  there  be  any  diminution  it  is  the 
•ame  for  bi>th  the  faradic  and  galvanic  current.  In  thestv- 
<Hid  form  there  b*  complete  |NiNy  of  one  side  of  the  face. 
The  on«et  is  rapid,  but  not  sufldeu.  The  oommomnit  cause 
u  inflammation  of  the  nerve  due  to  cold,  e.  g.  sitting  while 
ovrrhi'tttiMl  by  an  o(M*n,  draughty  window.  Kar  di<M.<nse,  e»- 
pe«'ially  in  children,  if  til**i  a  fre<)uent  cau^e  on  acc«iunt  of 
the  eloM>  proximity  of  the  nerve  to  the  auditory  ap(>arat us  in 
its  (>ourse  through  the  (>etri>us  |>ortitin  of  the  temporal  bone. 
Tumors  or  men iiigii  is  at  the  base  of  the  brain  may  cause 
paUr  br  pre^nurr  upon  the  nerve,  and  f nurture  of  the  tmse 
of  the  skull  may  tear  or  bruise  it.  Woumts  or  o(>eratitms 
atxMit  the  angle  of  the  jaw  may  cut  it.  A  blow,  as  in  l>ox- 
ing  the  rap».  msy  cauM*  pal«»y.  In  instrumental  delivery  the 
nene  has  Inn'U  injun^l  oy  pre^ure  of  the  blaile  of  the  f«>r- 
cr(»*.  Syplith'*  i*  an  otH'Asional  t*ause.  The  face  in  this  di*- 
eiaM*  is  char»i't«*n«tu\  The  wrinkles  are  sinfM>thi'<i  out  of 
the  forohra^i.  the  angle  of  the  mouth  dr(N)|is,  the  ch<*«*k  flaps 
in  ami  out  with  respiration,  the  fold**  at  the  «ide  of  the  tuv^ 
di^p|M*ar.  thr  {t«tiriit  can  n«>t  whittle  or  blow  out  a  candle, 
aiMl  oil  attempt  tug  to  drink  the  li<|uid  runs  out  of  the  side  of 
thf  m«<uth.  r"»«^i  toljisti*  br'twi'cn  the  teeth  and  the  ch«»k. 
The  t<»n«;tie  i«  protrudt»ii  to  one  side.  The  eve  can  nc>t  be 
rl<>«-^l.  mid  on  attempting  to  do  m»  it  is  n>lftMl  upwani  so 
that  on  I*  the  white  is  vi^il»lr.  All  mustMilar  effort  draws 
the  facr  Mmrigly  to  the  health v  side.  In  c«'rtAin  ca."M»«  taste 
I*  I<ist  in  the  aiitcrior  f»art  t»f  the  t4»ngue  on  the  (taNusl  «*ide. 
It(«nrit;  ni»r  In*  iiii(iairc«t  Rcactittn  of  de|»i«nenit ion  comes 
on  latrr.  Wa:«tint;  may  follow,  but.  f>n  acc«>unt  of  the  Mnall 
»!**•  I  if  the  fiiu^N*s  iitvft|«t*4).  I*  rievor  vert  marktMl.  StMisa- 
tiofi  I*  titiAfft'*  t4o«l.  The  iniiiiMldlity  tif  the  eyditl  may  |»er- 
mit  fi.rtt^'u  U-1.*'^  ti»  •t-ttlt'  in  the  e>e,  Iml  the  iiicreaMsl 
cpiaiititv  t»f  t«  MP*  u«u«iiy  fl^^ts  thrrn  4»ff.  and  ni>lhing  more 
•crifKi*  th«ii  m  •iijtit  (^)iijunctiv ttis  is  apt  to  follow.  Aftrr 
»tiine  ntur  t  ttutrmd  tb«n«  ni»%  set  in.  aiitl,  owing  to  the  pull  «if 
the  •<«tniract('«l  niu*«le*.  tbr  folds  and  wnnkics  may  ap|M<ar 
afTiin.  and  at  flr^t  «u'M  it  ni.*y  ^^  in  that  tiic  nonnal  Is  the 
fmloi'd  *i'l«v  The  fir*l  itidnation  in  treatment  I*  to  remove 
the  cau«r>.  II (4  foturntalioun  to  thr  ear  artd  bti<44'rs  am 
fiMMl  at  (he  brgi lining.    PtHa«*ium  iiMlide  antl  mercury  haie 


their  proper  place.     In  ohronio  cases  eleoiiioal 
is  often  very  ueneficiaL 

WiLUAH  pKPPKa  and  C.  W.  Hiu. 

Fa'eles  [LaU,  the  face]:  a  term  which  has  rv>n>f  t.  l»  •> 
plie<l  to  the  exnreswion,  especially  as  indicatini:  ran  <.*  •  *-  ^ 
of  dUease,  ratner  than  t«>  the  faiV  itwlf.  TIh'  olij-t  r .  -  . 
sician,  having  fewer  accurate  methofis  of  ime-'u-.'  ^ 
hand,  relied  largely  on  the  exprej^^ion  to  di^nn.r  i-.  v 
tween  different  diseases,  but  it  still  rtpmains  of  c.4i*i;  -»  ^ 
value  as  a  diagnostic  means  to  the  phrsieian.  Hif  i***^!  -^ 
first  described  the  peculiar  facies  of  appn«chtt«*  .,  »*, 
called  by  his  name.  Fades  Ilippocraticn,  Thr  «uT.ki'  ^ ..^ 
and  temides,  the  sharp  nose,  contract 4h)  ear*.  di«t#^tM''ii '  -^ 
head  ana  dark-hued  or  leaden  skin  are  t^rt«inlvi  harvt  t«"*'  t 
of  approaching  death,  but  acute  colla^Kie  may  W  at!*--  ,.*. ») 
these  features  and  yet  lead  to  no  such  emi  li«-nidr«  il.i*.  •  i 
are  recognize*!  in  many  disi^ases  feat  urn  mon*  tir  it->m  .t  *  * 
tive  of  the  disease,  and  the  ex|ierience<l  phvMciao  fr.^  j 
finds  little  difl3cultv  in  diagnosticating  casr»  at  firn  ^^i 


The  peculiar  dull,  lethargic,  expressitmleMt  fa<t»  of  t>i. 
fever,  the  flushed,  active  appearance  of  that  4if  pt^«ar<.4 
are  rarely  to  be  mistaken.  So.  too,  the  hjunl  line*  at..  *.  t^ 
mouth  and  nose  in  severe  gastric  and  intestinal  dt«tun«.-«  H 
the  pinched  features,  with  livid  eyes  and  mud<ly  t^'n.;  -i  « 
of  a  victim  of  cholera,  and  the  sallow.  ema< -tat e<l  .•■,:*i 
nance  of  one  afllictetl  with  cancer,  are  sufficiently  mar^Mj 
allow  of  a  dia^osis  being  made  by  this  alotir. 

WtLLtaa  Prma 

Factor  [from  Pr.  farteur<  Lat.  far  tor,  maker,  d  •?  I 
riv.  of  fac^e,  make,  do]:  in  mathematu^  on*  .if  ir-  w^ 
oral  measures  or  divisors  of  a  numlier  or  (piantn  T^ 
name  is  given  to  each  of  thoe«e  quant  it  ieii  whit  h,  nt:  *  j 
are  multiplied  together,  will  pntduce  the  prxtdurt. 

Factor:  a  general  agent  employe<l  in  the  pun-hasr  <  *  i« 
of  merchandiHe,  with  power  to  retain  posMaMoQ  of  tr*  ;-| 
crty  in  regard  t«>  which  his  authority  is  exrn  :<•«■*'.  a 
control,  to  a  larce  extent,  its  management  atHi  (ii«(»^  | 
proceetlings  in  his  own  name.  By  the  iMVN^>«^Aa*4i  ••' 
peculiar  p>wers  a  factor  is  distinguished  from  a  k4>  a-: 
only  tx)naucts  negotiations  and  bargains  Citncrmin^c  |r- 
of  nis  principal,  without  having  it  in  his  cltaricr.  a 
pn>)>erly  acts  in  a  re[>n*sentative  character  bi  the  u«  '  { 
principalis  name.  Tne  tenn  ''fai^tor.**  though  th«>  •  xm  4 
ally  employed  in  law,  is  not  so  »>mm<»n  in  popttUr  1  ^a^*! 
"commission  merchant"  or  "consignee."  C%>n|«''«'{ 
by  the  princi|>al  is  generally  a  certain  (irrrrni««^-^  •<.  \ 
amount  of  purchases  or  sales,  c«lle«l  fact4irage  or  «•  'fuf:..-  | 
A  dumeniic  factor  is  one  who  reeUdes  in  the  i^jtm  «  .^ 
with  his  princifMil;  a  foreit/n  factor,  one  wbi»  r^^  li«  .\ 
diffen*nt  country.  A  fori'ign  fa4*t(»r,  in  hi*  r«-Lat  «  « 
third  r>ersons,  is  n*gardo<l,  t4>  a  large  extent,  m»  if  t-  ^ 
liiinsidf  princi|»al,  and  he  is  therefore  under  a  gnrgki*  r  r«^ 
sibility  than  one  merely  domi-«tic.  In  thr  a|»|'i  »' •  -^ 
this  distinction  the  States  in  the  U.S.  are  m^,  jm«<i  r;  i 
the  gt^neral  <x>ur>ie  of  d(H>isions,  reganled  Mk  fvr«  i^ti  ;  1 
another.  The  fundamental  duty  of  a  factitr  &«  t-'^ir^ 
reaMtnalde  care  in  the  performance  of  the  dutir«  wi  w^ 
he  is  intrust*"*!,  and  to  exhibit  such  ftkdl  and  pru^u  '.  *  i 
requiretl  by  the  nature  of  the  businem  and  a  prt  (wr  1  s^ 
eration  f<ir  the  welfare  of  his  employer.  iHlM-r«i«  w 
no  \alid  claim  for  his  commissions,  and  for  injur»  .«  -.^ 
gence  and  default  may  even  be  suldrt^ted  t4>  an  *r t.-  «  *  ^ 
princifial.  In  the  management  of  the  pr\>f«ny  c*^-^j 
to  him  he  has  i*ommonly  extensive  discrvtittoarii  |«  ««• 
may  buy  and  ndl,  sue  and  be  sutsl.  colirs^  m«<fi«  «.  ^  «^ 
ceipts,  etc..  in  the  same  manner  as  if  tie  wrrr  hii«  ^  .'  ^ 
of  the  goods,  unless  s|)ecially  rrMncted  by  the  |tnh  :^j 
any  siMs>ial  instni<>tiotu  are  given  to  guitie  ht«  *»  ' 
Umnd,  as  betw«^>n  him  and  his  pnn<i(«i,t«»  f.u. 
strictly,  excvpt  in  some  few  caM*«  where  the  ikr«' 
tection  of  his  own  interrsts  rrs)uimk  that  tu*  K  •ttn^'t.  \ 
violattnL  An  instatice  of  the  Utter  kind  ok'v^uw  w^**^ 
factor  has  maile  wivant^es  for  his  pnncitial.  an«i  fts.-U  . 
e«c«ary  to  sell  the  gitotU  upon  the  credit  <if  «K..  »•  tj^ 
vances  wem  maile,  in  order  to  rt*imbiinir  him**  Zf.  14a « 
urr  or  refu^  of  the  princifial  to  make  r^i^v^M*  1  | 
pn>(ier  notice  and  demand.  In  such  a  raw  tSr  |t«^ 
cutablinhisl  nilti  in  the  I'.S.  b  that  the  fwt*^  b^  a  -^J 
neil  t4)  the  extent  of  his  advances,  evpQ  m  (*f>|««iitt«  .  ^ 
wiHh(*s  of  his  ttrinci|^l.  The  rule  in  (3rrat  Bnt^n.  1^  J 
IS  «lifTereiiL  nven  where  the  facti>r  vtttUt<^  "^^v***;  .^ 
ti4»ns.  he  may.  in  cxrlain  caikm,  confer  a  tit.^  uf*«  4 
chasrr  acting  in  g«Mid  faith.    In  the  ataw^ncp  wt  iiMriTrta-^ 


266 


FACTORIES  AND  FACTORY  SYSTEM 


workshop  also,  and  the  wheels  or  looms  disputed  with  the 
inmates  for  the  room  and  the  conveniences  for  housework. 
Small,  close,  crowded,  with  bad  air  and  bad  surroundings, 
the  hut  of  the  domestic  worker  was  occupied  day  and  night 
by  a  class  which  has  not  found  and  can  not  find  its  like  un- 
der the  factory  system ;  for,  as  a  rule,  the  operative  of  to- 
day occupies  a  home,  even  in  the  factory  tenement  or  board- 
ing-house, superior  in  every  sense  to  the  home  of  the  do- 
mestic worker. 

Under  the  domestic  system  of  industry  grew  up  that 
great  pauper  class  in  Great  Britain  which  was  a  disgrace  to 
civilization.  It  was  fed  by  the  agricultural  districts  more 
than  by  those  devoted  to  manufactures.  It  continued  to 
grow  until  one-fourth  of  the  annual  budget  was  for  the  sup- 
port of  paupers.  The  evil  became  fixed  upon  the  social  liie 
as  one  of  its  permanent  phases.  Legislation,  philanthropy, 
charity,  were  utterly  powerless  in  checking  it,  and  it  was 
not  checked  until  the  inventions  in  cotton-manufactures 
came,  since  which  time  it  has  been  on  the  decline.  The 
factory  absorbed  many  who  had  depended  upon  public  sup- 
port; on  the  other  hand,  it  drew  from  the  peasantry,  by 
the  allurements  of  better  wages  and  without  any  guarantees 
as  to  permanence  or  care  as  to  moral  responsibility ;  yet  on 
the  wnole  the  state  was  benefited  more  than  any  class  was 
injured. 

The  domestic  laborer*s  home  was  far  from  having  the 
character  poetry  has  given  it  Huddled  together  in  what 
poetry  calls  a  cottage  and  history  a  hut,  the  weaver's  family 
lived  and  worked,  without  comfort,  conveniences,  good 
food,  good  air,  and  without  much  intelligence.  DrunKen- 
ness  and  theft  of  materials  made  many  a  house  the  scene 
of  crime  and  want  and  disorder.  Superstition  ruled  and 
envy  swayed  the  workers.  Ignorance  under  the  old  system 
added  to  the  squalor  of  the  homes  of  the  workers  under  it, 
even  making  the  hut  an  actual  den,  shared  in  too  many 
instances  by  the  swine  of  the  family.  The  home  of  the 
agricultural  laborer  was  not  much  better ;  in  fact,  in  Great 
Britain  and  France  he  has  to  a  great  degree  continued  in 
his  ignorance  and  in  his  degraded  condition. 

From  the  documents  published  by  the  poor-law  commis- 
sioners of  England,  it  appears  that  but  for  the  renovating  in- 
fluence of  her  manufactures  Great  Britain  would  have  been 
^  overrun  with  the  most  i^orant  and  depraved  men  to  be 
*  met  with  where  civilization  has  made  much  progress.  It 
has  been  in  the  factory  districts  alone  that  the  demoralizing 
agency  of  pauperism  has  been  most  effectually  resisted,  and 
a  noble  spirit  of  industry,  enterprise,  and  intelligence  called 
forth.  Agriculturists  gave  children  and  youths  no  more 
than  half  the  wages  paid  them  in  factories,  while  they  filled 
the  workhouses  with  the  unemployed.  Under  the  operation 
of  the  miserable  poor-laws  which  the  domestic  system 
fathered  the  peasantry  were  penned  up  in  close  parishes, 
where  they  increased  beyond  the  demand  for  their  labor, 
and  where  the  children  were  allowed  to  grow  up  in  laziness 
and  i||;norancc,  which  unfitted  them  for  ever  becoming  in- 
dustrious men  and  women.  But  in  the  chief  manufacturing 
districts,  while  the  condition  of  the  factory  children  be- 
came the  subject  of  legislation  for  their  protection,  their 
condition  was  one  to  be  envied  when  compared  with  that  of 
the  children  in  mining  and  agricultural  districts. 

The  spasmodic  nature  of  the  work  under  the  domestic 
system  caused  much  disturbance,  for  hand-working  is  al- 
ways more  or  less  discontinuous  from  the  caprice  of  the 
operative,  while  much  time  must  be  lost  in  gathering  and 
returning  materials.  For  these  and  other  obvious  reasons 
a  hand- weaver  could  very  seldom  turn  off  in  a  week  much 
more  than  one-half  what  his  loom  could  produce  if  kept 
continuously  in  action  during  the  working  hours  of  the  day, 
at  the  rate  at  which  the  weaver  in  his  working  paroxysms 
impelled  it.  The  regular  order  maintained  in  tne  factory 
cures  this  evil  of  the  old  system,  and  enables  the  operative 
to  know  with  reasonable  certainty  the  wages  he  is  to  receive 
at  the  next  pay-day.  His  life  and  habits  become  more 
orderly,  and  when  he  has  left  the  closeness  of  his  home-shop 
for  the  usually  clean  and  well-lighted  factory,  he  expe- 
riences an  agreciible  and  healthful  change.  It  is  commonly 
supposed  that  cotton-factories  are  crowded  with  operatives. 
From  the  nature  of  things  the  spinning  and  weaving  rooms 
can  not  be  crowded.  The  spinning-mules,  in  their  advanc- 
ing and  retreating  locomotion,  must  have  five  or  six  times 
the  space  for  working  that  the  actual  bulk  of  the  mech- 
anism re(]uires,  so  that  in  the  spinning-rooms  there  can  be 
no  crowding  of  persons.  During  the  agitation  for  factory 
legislation  m  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  it 


was  remarked  before  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
"  that  no  part  of  a  cotton-mill  is  one-tenth  part  as  crowd«nl, 
or  the  air  in  it  one-tenth  part  as  impure,  as  the  House  vt 
Commons  with  a  moderate  attendance  of  members.**  This 
is  true  to-day ;  the  poorest  factory  in  the  U.  S.  is  as  grKwi 
a  place  to  breathe  in  as  Representatives'  Hall,  in  th«^  na- 
tional Capitol,  during  sessions,  or  as  the  ordinary  8<h<x>l- 
room.  In  this  respect  the  new  system  of  labor  far  surfM.'^Ne- 
the  old. 

It  is  true  that  many  disadvantages  appear  to  accompany 
the  factory  system,  and  these,  upon  superficial  study,  art 
denominated  evils ;  but  a  careful  study  snows  that  thos^*  a{>- 
parent  evils  or  disadvantages  do  not  of  necessity  beloi:^ 
to  the  system,  nor  can  they  be  attributed  to  it.  Such  stu«Jy 
does  show  that  existing  factory  evils,  so  called,  may  be  cr>n- 
gregated  by  it,  but  are  not  called  into  existence  by  it.  For 
the  categorical  consideration  of  such  alleged  evils  they  mar 
be  classified  as  follows : 

A. — Does  the  factory  system  necessitate  the  employment 
of  women  and  children  to  an  injurious  extent,  and  is  its 
tendency  to  destroy  family  ties  and  domestic  habits,  and 
ultimately  the  home  f 

B. — Are  factory  employments  injurious  to  health  f 

C. — Is  the  factory  system  pix)ductive  of  intemperance,  un- 
thrift,  and  poverty  f 

D. — Does  it  foster  prostitution  and  swell  the  criminiU 
lists  f 

E. — Does  it  tend  to  intellectual  degeneracy  f 

These  questions  indicate  the  apparent  disaa vantages  whirh 
many  honestly  believe  belong  naturally  to  and  are  ins<>piir- 
able  from  the  system,  and  which  will  be  associated  with  thn 
system  as  long  as  it  exists.  For  the  sake  of  directness  th(^' 
will  be  examined  in  order. 

A. — In  one  sense  it  is  true  that  the  factory  system  is  in- 
imical to  the  home  through  the  employment  of  women  and 
children  to  an  injurious  extent ;  in  another  sense  it  is  not 
true.  The  question  as  to  differences  in  the  capacity  of  in- 
dividuals, and  why  this  one  is  bom  to  good  conditions  nmI 
that  one  to  bad,  can  not  be  discussed,  but  the  facts  niu<t  U 
taken  as  they  are.  The  majority  of  human  beings  are  l>i>ni 
to  the  lot  of  toiling  with  their  hands  for  their  daily  bna't. 
This  decree  necessitates  employment,  and  until  all  chis^'^ 
can  be  employed  at  fairly  remunerative  rates  poverty.  €>•  n 
to  pauperism,  must  be  a  large  factor  in  society.  T^is  «»>< 
the  case  at  the  birth  of  the  factonr  system.  In  fact.  \Ue 
great  evils  which  became  apparent  during  the  early  da>^  >'f 
the  system  were  simply,  as  has  been  said,  the  results  of 
bringing  together  the  labor  which  had  become  pau|it'ri?«ti 
under  the  domestic  system  and  in  agricultural  distru^v 
The  factory  brought  these  evils  to  light,  and  the  em  plot- 
ment  of  women  and  children  became  an  offense  in  the  (*>**^ 
of  the  public,  not  because  it  wsis  severer  than  under  the  <>I<i 
system,  but  because  under  the  new  the  evils  of  such  employ- 
ment could  be  seen. 

It  is  true  that  the  success  of  the  system,  so  far  as  text il^^ 
are  concerned,  has  depended  in  a  laige  degree  u[)on  s(i<  h 
employment,  and  it  is  also  true  that  such  employment  h.a- 
enabl^  women  and  children  to  step  from  the  ranks  of  de- 
grading dependence  and  pauperism  to  the  ranks  of  compar- 
ative comfort  and  the  dignity  which  comes  from  self-sni^ 
port.  In  the  early  days  oi  the  factory  the  children  were  \>y 
their  employment  really  placed  in  a  much  better  positj-  •> 
than  they  occupied  before.  The  employment  of  marrif } 
women  is  perhaps  the  very  worst  feature  of  factory  enip!it>- 
ment,  but  the  facts  relating  to  it  are  meager.  In  drvk 
Britain  the  proportion  of  married  women  to  the  whole  nun,- 
ber  of  women  employed  in  textile  works  is  unknown,  but  for 
those  factories  concerning  which  the  writer  has  been  »n- 
abled  to  make  inquiries  10  per  cent,  is  the  avera^re.  In 
Germany  it  was  found  that  from  20  to  50  per  cent,  of  tb»* 
textile-factory  women  were  married.  Dr.  Engel  gives  1 1,« 
percentage  in  various  industries  as  24  Proprietors  in  U  t  u 
countries  discourage  the  employment  of  married  wonii  n. 
The  statistics  of  Massachusetts  show  that  the  marries  1  fe- 
male operatives  constitute  less  than  8  per  cent  of  the  wh>  • 
number  of  women  employed  in  all  textile  factories.  Takii'. 
all  textile  factories  into  consideration,  the  percentage  pr«  ti- 
ably  would  not  exceed  10.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  n. 
Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  infant  mortality  is  not,  on  thf 
whole,  affected  to  any  great  degree  by  the  employrneni  «  i 
married  women ;  but  it  is  affected  seriously  so  far  as:  t  r.. 
children  of  those  employed  are  concerned.  It  must  not  U> 
presumed  that  the  employment  of  married  women  is  tVc 
sole  cause  of  the  very  high  percentage  of  deaths   undor 


268 


FACTORIES  AND  FACTORY  SYSTEM 


view,  not  the  sentimental  one.  There  was  a  time  when  the 
drunkenness  of  factory  operatives  constituted  a  serious  ob- 
stacle to  the  successful  operation  of  factories  in  Great 
Britain  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Sunday  was  a  day 
of  debauch,  and  many,  spinners  especially,  did  not  get  into 
condition  for  work  before  Tuesday  or  Wednesday.  It  is  the 
unanimous  testimony  of  manufacturers  in  the  leading  fac- 
tory towns  of  Great  Britain  that  drunkenness  is  not  now  a 
senous  obstacle  to  the  running  of  their  works,  and  in  many 
places  on  the  Continent  the  same  testimony  is  given. 

The  U.  S.  affords  the  verv  best  proof  possible  of  the  thrifti- 
ness  of  factory  people,  in  this,  that  witnin  a  generation  and 
a  half  the  nationahty  of  the  cotton-factory  operatives  has 
changed  from  native-born  and  English  to  Efn^lish  and  Irish, 
largely  the  latter,  and  now  to  French  Canadian ;  with  each 
ch^ge  has  come  a  class  seeking  an  improvement  of  con- 
dition, and  as  the  improvement  has  come  the  old  have 
stopped  up  from  the  mills  to  higher  occupations,  shopkeep- 
ing,  farming,  etc.,  and  the  new  have  stepped  in;  and  as 
their  children  become  better  educated  than  their  parents, 
still  others  will  crowd  them  out  of  the  factories  and  receive 
the  advantages  which  have  advanced  their  predecessors  in 
the  way  of  progress. 

D. — ^The  charge  that  the  factory  fosters  prostitution  and 
swells  the  criminal  lists  is  absolutely  unfounded.    This  im- 

Eression  first  grew  from  the  condition  of  Manchester,  Eng- 
bud,  where  a  large  cellarage  population,  which  has  entirely 
disappeared,  was  attribute  to  the  factory.  It  has  been 
shown  by  the  returns  from  the  penitentiary  of  Manchester 
that  the  ranks  of  prostitution  were  not  filled  from  the  fac- 
tory, 8  out  of  50  coming  from  the  factory,  and  29  out  of  50 
from  domestic  service.  An  extensive  examination  of  the 
criminal  records  of  a  large  number  of  British  factory  towns 
discloses  the  fact  that  neither  the  ranks  of  prostitution  nor 
the  criminal  lists  are  increased  to  such  extent  from  the  fac- 
tory population  of  those  towns  as  from  other  classes.  This 
is  equally  true  in  the  U.  S.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  regular  employment  is  conducive  to  regular  living,  and 
that  regular  employment  does  not,  as  a  rule,  harmonize 
with  a  life  of  prostitution,  intemperance,  and  crime.  The 
virtue  of  the  factory  women  of  the  U.  S.  and  of  Europe  will 
compare  favorably  vrith  that  of  any  other  class. 

E. — In  considering  whether  the  factory  system  tends  to  an 
intellectual  degeneracy  of  the  operatives,  as  many  urge,  the 
writer  can  not  use  statistical  data,  but  is  obliged  to  rely  to 
some  extent  upon  the  opinions  of  those  whose  positions  en- 
title their  statements  to  the  fullest  confidence.  The  im- 
pression that  the  factory  system  tends  to  intellectual  degen- 
eracy is  entiraly  unfounded.  Through  the  simplification  of 
mechanical  processes  ignorant  labor  is  congregated  in  fac- 
tory centers,  but  it  is  not  created  or  induced  by  the  factory. 
The  fact  that  the  ignorant  masses  are  enabled  by  the  fac- 
tory to  engage  in  what  it  once  took  skilled  labor  to  perform 
has  given  the  widespread  impression  that  factory  labor  has 
degraded  the  skilled,  when  in  truth  it  has  lifted  the  un- 
skilled, and  this  is  the  inevitable  result  of  the  factory 
everywhere.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  after  the  factory  sys- 
tem was  established  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  poor,  ignorant 
labor  of  the  southern  agricultural  dis  ricts  was  lift^  up  to 
respectable  and  self-supporting  employment  and  to  com- 
parative self-respect,  the  factory  was  held  to  be  responsible 
for  the  ignorance  which  it  found;  ervr  w  the  laws  of  Great 
Britain,  and  in  later  years  of  the  .  too,  have  insisted 

npon  the  education  of  children  as  a  pr-  •iif^;[uisite  to  factory  em- 
ployment. This  may  explain  the  su  rior  intelligence  of  the 
children  of  factory  towns  in  the  Unite  Kingdom  as  compared 
with  those  of  agricultural  localities.  le  half-timers  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  factory  children  o.  he  U.  S.  are  laying  a 
foundation,  if  proprietors  will  only  cognize  the  power  of 
moral  forces  in  the  conduct  of  Indus,  nal  enterprises,  which 
will  ere  long  change  the  social  com pk  don  of  factory  towns. 
If  the  advantages  afforded  in  factory  towns  will  stimulate 
rural  districts  to  emulate  the  work  of  providing  for  the 
proper  amusement  and  instruction  o1  ^ildren  and  young 
people,  perhaps  the  constant  depletio:.  of  such  places  may 
t>e  checked  and  the  inhabitants  of  c  owded  towns  be  at- 
tracted to  the  soil.  The  mental  fric  ion  of  the  factory  is 
not  without  its  healthful  infiuences.  Instead  of  dwarfing 
the  minds  and  the  skill  of  the  skillfi  i,  as  is  often  alleged, 
the  factory  enlarges  the  minds  and  increases  the  power  of 
the  unskillful.  Louis  Reybaud,  wh(^  investigations  have 
already  l)een  referred  to,  testifies  that  the  abasement  of  in- 
telligence, which  is  said  to  follow  in  proportion  as  tasks  are 
subdivided,  is  a  conjecture  rather  than  a  truth  shown  by 


experience,  and  is  presumed,  not  proven.  To  prove  aba^^y 
ment  from  factory  employment  it  would  be  necessary  to 
show,  for  example,  that  the  hand-weaver,  who  throws  the 
shuttle  and  gives  motion  to  the  loom,  is  of  a  class  su^ierior 
to  the  machine- weaver,  who  superintends  such  double  move- 
ment. Employment  of  the  muscles  in  several  operations  in- 
stead of  one  has  nothing  in  it  to  elevate  the  faculties,  and 
this  is  about  all  the  opponents  of  the  factory  claim.  **  In 
their  view,"  says  Reybaud  ag^in,  "  the  most  imperfect  ma- 
chines, those  which  reouire  the  most  effort,  are  the  on«-s 
which  sharpen  the  intellectual  faculties  to  the  greatest  fio- 
gree.  We  can  easily  see  where  this  argument  would  carry 
us,  if  pushed  to  the  end.**  There  is  no  abasement ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  from  the  influences  resulting  from  the  factory 
system  that  one  can  discern  the  elevation  of  an  increH.s<^l 
proportion  of  working  people  from  the  position  of  unskilhfi 
to  that  of  skilled  laborers,  and  the  opening  of  an  adequate 
field  of  remunerative  employment  to  women,  two  of  the 
most  important  improvements  in  the  condition  of  the  work- 
ing masses  which  could  be  desired;  and  these  results  are 
stimulated  by  the  factory  systenu 

The  domestic  system  could  not  deal  with  machinery. 
While  machinery  in  one  sense  means  the  factory  system,  it 
is  really  the  type  and  representative  of  the  civilization  <>f 
this  period  so  far  as  mechanics  are  concerned,  because  it 
embodies  the  concentrated,  clearly  wrought-out  thought  of 
the  age.  There  is  something  education^  in  the  very  prc>- 
ence  of  machinery.  A  large  proportion  of  the  machines 
made  use  of  under  the  factory  system  of  industry  were  in- 
vented by  workmen  who  have  been  desirous  of  finding  r>iit 
easier  and  readier  means  of  performing  their  accustomirti 
task.  These  things  stimulate  industry,  which  in  turn 
stimulates  frugality. 

One  of  the  positive  results  of  the  factory  system  has  Ynyen 
to  enable  men  to  secure  a  livelihood  in  fewer  hours  than  of 
old;  this  means  intellectual  advancement,  for  as  the  time 
required  to  earn  a  living  grows  shorter,  civilization  pn>- 
gresses.  The  most  ignorant  factory  operative  of  to-<lay  is 
more  than  the  peer  of  the  skilled  workman  of  a  few  gen«-ra- 
tions  ago  in  all  that  goes  to  make  up  condition — environ- 
ment. The  fact  that  the  lowest  grade  of  operativt^  <^n 
now  be  employed  in  factories  does  not  signify  more  ijr»«>- 
rance,  but  a  raising  of  the  lowest  to  higher  employments. 
This  process  will  be  repeated  again  and  again,  unless  m> 
ciety  is  compelled  to  take  up  what  is  called  a  simpler  5>^- 
tem.  This  process  is  constantly  narrowing  the  limit;^  of  the 
class  which  occupies  the  lowest  step  in  the  progress  of  ^4K  i- 
ety.  This  mission  alone  stamps  the  system  as  an  active  ele- 
ment in  the  moral  elevation  of  the  race.  The  factory  system 
does  not  tend  to  intellectual  degeneracy. 

The  main  objections  which  are  usually  brought  against 
the  factory  system  have  now  been  considered  and  it  htin 
been  compared  with  the  system  it  supplanted.  Its  evils 
come  mostly  under  the  heads  enumerated,  but  they  are 
evils  which  attend  the  development  of  the  system  :'  they 
are  not  its  results.  Before  the  system  can  be  condemntxl  liS 
a  system  it  mus^^be  shown  that  it  is  worse  than  that  ^hn  h 
it  displaced.  ^  ^'hi's  can  not  be  done.  It  is  needless  to  a(M»l>>- 
gize  for  the  wbaknesses  of  the  present  system,  for  they  cmine 
mostly  from  if"'  'ranee,  not  from  the  system  itself.  'Un^itr 
enlight'Cned  i^,  u  it  becomes  everywhere  a  great  moral  powt  r. 
and  a  positivl .,  ictive,  and  potential  element  in  the  pnK-fNst'^ 
of  civilizatio'  ^  But,.a<^r  "tting  every  possible  domestic  e\  il 
which  accomp,  '  "If  ^cial  conditions — ^tho  neglect  *t 
young  children^  tM^. .  J  '"q^uent  hi^h  rates  of  infant  mor- 
tality, the  physical  a»3j[;ctieracy  which  follows  mechanical 
employments  when  engaged  in  by  married  women — none  «>f 
these  can  be  attributed  to  the  factory  system  as  the  cn^atur 
of  such  evils.  It  can  not  be  held  responsible  for  their  cre- 
ation. They  belong  to  the  ignorance  of  the  substratuni  of 
society,  which  the  factory  system  is  constantly  lifting;  to 
another  and  higher  plane,  thereby  lessening,  instead  of  in- 
creasing, the  misery  of  the  world. 

The  misery  ca^'sed  by  the  change  in  systems  has  Wen 
softened,  but  in  Sfibtle  ways.  Transition  stages  are  alwnys 
harsh  upon  the  generation  that  experiences  them ;  the  i;n-iit 
point  is  that  they  should  be  productive  of  good  result^  in 
the  end.  The  mind  recoils  at  the  contemplation  of  the  (^>n- 
ditions  which  the  vast  increase  of  population  would  haw 
imposed  without  the  factory  system. 

The  economic  advantages  of  the  factory  system  must  he 
looked  for  in  the  increase  of  wages  and  production,  and  th'* 
decrease  in  the  prices  of  goods  produced.  If  the  purcha>- 
ing  power  of  wages,  so  far  at  least  as  the  products  of  ttf 


270 


FAGOINQ 


FAIDHEKBE 


80  far  as  thertf  are  any  authentic  records,  it  would  seem  al- 
ways to  have  existed  in  the  old  schools.  Thus  it  is  clear, 
from  Christopher  Johnson's  poem  De  Collegiis  and  the  Con- 
suetudinarium  Vetxia  Schola  Eioniensis,  that  it  was  in  ac- 
tive operation  at  Winchester  and  Eton  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  custom  arose  as 
soon  as  the  schools  received  any  lar^  number  of  boys  as 
boarders.  It  is  indeed  obvious  that  wnere  large  numbers  of 
boys  of  ages  ranging  from  ten  and  eleven  up  to  nineteen  are 
thrown  together  away  from  their  own  homes,  they  must  be 
placed  either  under  the  constant  surveillance  of  masters  or 
under  some  distinct  and  recognized  form  of  self-government. 
The  latter  alternative  has  always  prevailed  in  the  English 
public  schools,  and  is  in  fact  the  only  one  which  is  in  ac- 
cord with  the  national  character.  There  is  abundant  proof, 
moreover,  that  the  custom  of  fagging  as  a  part  of  the  sys- 
tem does  not  stand  merely  on  tradition,  but  is  accepted  as 
beneficial  in  the  fact  that  it  has  been  deliberately  intro- 
duced in  the  schools  which  have  been  founded  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  number  of  the  great  public  schools 
had  remained  stationary  for  300  years,  since  Queen  Eliza- 
beth's reien,  during  which  Harrow,  Rugby,  and  other  schools 
not  so  well  known  were  founded.  A  remarkable  revival  fol- 
lowed the  accession  to  the  throne  of  Queen  Victoria,  and  a 
number  of  public  schools  have  been  founded,  of  wliich  the 
best  known  are  Marlborough,  Haileybury,  Wellington  Col- 
lege, and  Cheltenham.  Fagging  has  been  introduced  in  all 
but  Cheltenham.  At  Cheltenham,  where  the  school  is  in  a 
large  town,  and  is  chiefly  composed  of  day- scholars,  or  boys 
living  at  their  own  homes,  though  there  is  no  legal  system 
of  "  lagging  "  recognized  by  the  school  authorities,  the  prac- 
tice exists,  out  without  the  usual  safeguards  against  abuse. 
In  all  the  schools  the  power  of  fagging  carries  with  it  cer- 
tain duties.  Besides  that  of  keeping  order  generally,  the 
sixth-form  boy  is  the  recognized  adviser  and  protector  of 
those  fags  witn  whom  he  comes  in  immediate  contact.  In 
any  case  of  bullying  or  bad  conduct  the  appeal  of  the  ag- 
grieved boy  is  to  the  sixth-form  boy  of  his  room  or  passage, 
or  to  the  head  of  his  house,  and  not  to  his  tutor  or  house  or 
form  master.  And  the  sixth-form  boy  is  bound  to  accept 
the  responsibility  of  acting  himself,  and  would  completely 
lose  caste  were  he  to  refer  any  but  flagrant  cases  of  ill-con- 
duct to  the  master. 

Until  well  into  the  nineteenth  century  "fagging"  in- 
cluded a  number  of  menial  functions,  such  as  cleaning 
boots  and  candlesticks,  and  the  power  of  the  sixth  form 
was  practically  unlimited  as  to  nours.  A  boy  might  be 
fagged,  for  instance,  during  a  whole  afternoon  at  cricket^ 
day  after  day.  All  this  is  changed.  At  Eton  and  one  or 
two  other  schools  there  is  no  cricket-fagging,  and  in  those 
where  it  exists  it  is  very  light.  Thus  at  Haileybury  the 
whole  of  the  fags  are  taken  in  regular  order  for  one  nour, 
so  that  each  fag's  turn  comes  only  once  in  three  weeks,  and 
even  then  he  is  let  off  if  he  makes  a  good  catch  or  otherwise 
distinguishes  himself.  A  similar  custom  prevails  at  Marl- 
borough, where,  however,  besides  the  sixth  form,  the  eleven 
have  the  oower  of  fagging  at  cricket — ^a  solitary  example  (it 
is  believeu)  where  this  r>ower  is  not  dependent  on  proficiency 
in  study  as  evidenced  oy  position  in  the  school.  Football- 
fagging  is  also  very  light  at  all  the  schools  except  Rugby, 
only  some  half-dozen  fags  being  told  off  to  keep  the  ball 
in  bounds.  At  Rugby  every  fag  is  obliged  to  play  "lit- 
tle side,"  lasting  two  hours  at  most,  unless  he  holds  a  medi- 
cal certificate  of  inability  to  play.  He  is  also  obliged  to 
run  (in  the  paper  chases)  unless  holding  such  a  certificate. 
Apart  from  games,  general  fagging  is  practically  confined 
to  running  errands,  a  sixth-form  boy  having  power  to  call 
any  fag,  at  any  time,  for  this  purpose.  House-fagging,  in 
like  manner,  consists  of  little  beyond  small  services  of  this 
kind^arrying  up  the  trays  on  which  their  master's  break- 
fast and  tea  things  are  set,  and  perhaps  toasting  a  round  of 
bread  or  a  rasher  of  ba(>on.  "Study-fagging'  still  exists 
at  Rugby,  where  each  sixth-form  boy  has  two  fags  specially 
attached  to  him,  who  sweep  out  his  study  and  put  it  in 
order  in  alternate  weeks.  At  the  school-house  also  "  night- 
fagging"  is  still  in  force.  Every  fag  has  his  choice  lx»tween 
study-fagging  and  night-fagging.  The  rota  of  night-fa^s 
is  kept  by  tlie  head  fag,  who  tells  off  four  for  each  week  m 
the  term.  Their  duties  are  to  be  ready  in  the  ptissiiges  be- 
tween 8.30  and  9.30  to  answer  the  call  of  any  of  the  sixth 
form. 

At  Eton  the  fifth  form  have  the  power  of  fagging,  but  (as 
above  stated)  it  is  usually  confined  exclusively  to  the  sixth 
form.     The  numbers  of  the  sixth  are  not  strictly  limited, 


but  seldom  exceed  thirty-five  or  forty.  Harrow  has  the 
largest  sixth  form  of  any  school,  divided  into  the  "  upfHT," 
"  lower,"  and  "  modern  side,"  and  numbering  eighty,  all  of 
whom  have  the  power  of  fagging,  but  only  the  fiftt*en 
highest,  or  "  monitors,"  have  the  power  of  enforcini;  dis- 
cipline with  the  cane,  if  necessary.  At  Harrow  only  the 
flith-form  boys  are  exempt  from  fagging. 

The  most  (listinguished  masters  of  public  schools,  fn>m 
Dr.  Arnold  downward,  have  been  singularly  unanimous  in 
their  approval  of  the  modified  system  of  fagging  which  now 
exists.  The  public  opinion  both  of  old  public-school  nu-n 
and  of  the  boys  themselves  is  also  strongly  in  favor  of  it  as 
the  best  means  of  maintaining  the  due  subordination  <»f 
ranks,  of  keeping  down  "  cheek,"  and  preventing  buUvin-. 
There  is  every  likelihood,  therefore,  that  it  will  continue  in 
its  present  form.  See  also  Arnold's  Life  by  Stanley  (1st  eiL 
vol.  i.,  p.  105),  and  Report  of  Public  School  Commuunon*-r8 
(1864),  and  Appendix  of  Evidence  of  Bishop  of  Exeter,  iJra, 
Butler,  Balaton,  and  others ;  and  specially  section  of  Ht^jmrt 
on  Monitorial  System,  p.  42,  et  seq,         Thomas  Huuuks. 

Fagpias,  faa'gee-oos,  Paul  BCchein:  German  Protestant 
theologian ;  b.  at  Rheizabern,  in  the  Palatinate,  1504  ;  pa^t*  »r 
at  Isny  in  1537,  and  Professor  of  Hebrew  at  Strassburg  in 
1544.  Was  in  England  in  1549,  and  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  Theology  at  Cambridge  University,  but  died  Nov.  1*2, 
1549.  His  body  was  exhumed  and  burned  by  order  of 
Queen  Mary,  Feb.  6,  1557. 

Fagotto,  faa-^ot't^:  the  Italian  name  for  the  bass<>f>n. 
evidently  from  its  resemblance  to  a  faggot  or  bundle  c»f 
sticks.    In  German  the  word  is  Eagott, 

Fagrskinna,  fak^'r-skin'-nak  [Icel.,  Fair-skin] :  a  famous 
parchment  manuscnpt  containing  a  compendious  account  ot 
the  Norwegian  kin^  from  H&lfdan  Svarti  to  Sverri;  com- 
piled aV)out  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  in  Nor- 
way from  Icelanaic  sources.  The  manuscript  was  cHilt-d 
Fagrskinna  by  Torfieuson  account  of  its  handsome  hindin';. 
It  belonged  to  the  Copenhagen  University  Library,  and  u  as 
destroyed  in  the  fire  of  1728.  At  the  same  time  another 
parchment  of  the  same  compendium  perished,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  small  fragment.  Paper  copies  of  both  muiiu- 
scripts  have  been  preserved,  however,  and  from  these  iUf 
work  was  edited  by  Munch  and  Unger:  Fagrskinna.  A'**rt' 
fattet  Norsk  Konge-Saga  fra  Slutningen  af  del  XI 1.  e  Hrr 
Begyndelse  af  del  XI iL  Aarhundreae  (Christiania«  1H47X 
See  also  G.  Vigfusson,  Sturlunga  Saga,  Prolegomefta,  i»n. 
87-88  (Oxford,  1878).  G.  L,  Kl 

Fagns :  See  Beech. 

Fahlcrantz,  faal'kraants.  Christian  Erik:  poet  and 
theologian;  b.  in  Dalarna,  Sweden,  Aug.  80,  17!K);  Pnv 
fessor  of  Dogmatic  Theology  at  Upsala  1835;  Bishop  <if 
VesterAs  1849.  His  most  important  literarv  works  nrh 
Noachs  Ark  (Stockholm,  1825-26),  rated  as  the  l)o^t  l<»nc 
humorous  poem  in  Swedish,  and  an  epic  on  the  Sc^iniliit- 
avian  apostle  Ansgarius  (Ansgarius,  BilderurNordapo^trij^A 
Lif  i  fjorton  Sdnger,  Upsala,  18i35-46).  He  also  pul>]i>)i»-ii 
various  essavs,  sermons,  and  occasional  and  controvt-rsial 
writings.  Ilis  Bom  f^  och  nu  (Vester&s,  1858-61)  cau-i«'«i 
much  discussion.  D.  at  Vester&s,  Aug.  6,  1866.  His  c-^*!- 
lected  works  ((7.  E.  Fahlcrantz  Samlade  Skrifter)  were  i»iil>- 
lished  at  Orebro  in  seven  vols.  (186S-65).  O.  L.  K. 

Fahlan :  See  Falun. 

Fahrenii  *tf  faa'ren-h!t,  Gabriel  Daniel,  F.  R.  S.: 
physicist;  b.  ac  Danlzic,  Prussia,  May  14, 1686;  beoamt-  a 
constructor  of  scientific  instniments;  resided  in  Fmn*-^, 
England,  and  afterward  in  Holland,  and  was  everywLirr 
recognized  as  one  of  the  leading  physicists  of  his  time.  Ir: 
1720  he  first  intnxiuced  the  use  of  mercury  inthermomt-toTv. 
He  invented  the  Fahrenheit  scale  (see  Thermometer)  ;  hI-^j  • 
an  improved  areometer  and  other  valued  instruments.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  learned  papers,  chiefly  regard  iri: 
heat  and  specific  gravities.  D.  at  Amsterdam,  Si'pt.  Iti. 
1736. 

Faidherbe,  fa'dSrb',  Louis  lAos  C^ar  :  general ;  h.  nr 
Lille,  Franco,  June  8, 1818,  and  began  his  career  in  the  <•  i- 
onies,  principally  in  Algeria,  where  he  served  with  di^^tn.,  - 
tion.  lie  made  himself  favorably  known  while  governor  *-^ 
Senegal  by  several  valuable  scientific  papers  which  v«  t>- 
published  in  the  AnniMire  du  Senegal  (1859, 1860,  and  l*^t^l  . 
and  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Society  de  Ologranhie.  He  ni-- 
wrote  Chapitre  de  Geographic  sur  le  Nord-(hir,^i  u  • 
rAfri^ne  (St.  Louis,  1864),  and  Collection  compUte  df^  f  »: 
scriptions  Numidiques  (Paris,  1870).     He  puolisheci    fn-n* 


272 


FAIR6AIRN 


FAIRFAX 


exhibitions  of  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  New  Orleans, 
and  San  Francisoo ;  besides  numerous  other  cities  of  North 
America  and  Europe.  These  exhibitions  embrace  not  only 
agricultural  products,  but  superior  specimens  of  the  fine, 
ornamental,  and  useful  arts,  including  working  models  of 
recent  inventions,  machinery  in  motion,  improved  chemical 
and  mechanical  processes,  with  the  material  resulting  there- 
from, and  practical  illustrations  of  the  best  methods  of  gen- 
erating ana  utilizing  force.        Revised  by  A.  T.  Hadley. 

Fairbairn,  Andrew  Martin,  D.  D  :  clergyman  and  au- 
thor ;  b.  near  Edinburgh,  Nov.  4, 1838 ;  graduated  at  Edin- 
burgh University  1860;  studied  theology  at  Evangelical 
Union  Hall,  Glasgow,  1856-61.  He  was  m  Germany,  as  a 
pupil  of  Domer  (1866  and  1867).  In  1861  he  became  pastor 
of  an  Independent  church  in  Bathgate,  Scotland.    He  was 

frincipal  of  Airedale  College  in  Bradford,  England,  from 
877  until  1886,  when  he  became  the  first  principal  of  Mans- 
field College,  Oxford.  Both  these  institutions  are  Congre- 
gational schools  of  theology.  He  was  Muir  lecturer  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  1878-83.  Besides  important  con- 
tributions to  the  Contemporary  Review^  he  has  published 
Studies  in  the  Philosophy  of  Religion  and  of  History  (1876); 
Studies  in  the  Life  of  Christ  (1880) ;  The  Ctty  of  God  (1882) ; 
Religion  in  History  and  in  Life  of  To-day  (1884).  He  also 
edited  the  Hibbert  Lectures  for  1888,  by  Dr.  Hatch  (1890) ; 
and  is  author  of  7%c  Place  of  Christ  in  Theology  (New 
York,  1893).  In  1892  he  delivered  the  lectures  on  the  Ly- 
man Beecher  foundation  at  the  Yale  Divinity  School. 

George  P.  Fisher. 

Fairbairn,  Patrick,  D.  D.  :  theologian  ;  b.  at  Greenlaw, 
Berwickshire,  Scotland,  Jan.  28, 1805 ;  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  1826;  was  settled  in  1830  in  one  of  the 
Orkney  islands,  at  Bridge  ton,  a  suburb  of  Glasgow,  in  1837, 
and  at  Salton,  near  his  birthplace,  in  1840.  lie  joined  the 
Free  Church  at  the  Disruption,  1843,  and  formed  a  new  con- 
gregation at  Salton.  In  1853  he  became  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy at  the  Free  Church  College  in  Aberdeen ;  was  in  1856 
made  principal  and  Professor  of  Systematic  Theology  and 
New  T^tament  Exegesis  in  the  Free  Church  Theological 
College  at  Glasgow.  His  principal  works  are  The  Typology 
of  Scripture  (Edinburgh,  2  vols.,  1845-47 ;  5th  ed.  1870) ; 
UommetUary  on  Ezekiel  (1851 ;  2d  ed.  1855) ;  Prophecy^  its 
Nature^  Functions^  and  Interpretation  (1856) ;  Hermeneur 
tical  Manual  (1858) ;  Revelation  of  Law  in  Scripture  (1868) ; 
and  a  commentary  on  T?te  Pastoral  Epistles  of  Paul  (1873) ; 
Pastoral  Theology  (posthumous,  1875).  He  visited  the  U.  S. 
in  1871.    D.  at  Glasgow,  Aug.  6, 1892. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Fairbairn,  Robert  Bringkerhofp,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  clergy- 
man of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church ;  b.  in  New  York 
city.  May  27, 1818 ;  educated  at  the  Mechanics'  School  in 
Chambers  Street,  New  York,  at  Trinity  College,  Hartford 
(B.  A.  1840),  and  also  at  the  General  Theological  Seminarv, 
New  York.  Immediately  after  his  ordination  as  deacon  Julv 
2, 1843,  he  became  the  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Trov,  N.  Y. 
From  1853  to  1862  he  was  the  principal  of  the  Catskill  Acad- 
emy, as  well  as  rector  of  Calvary  (3hurch,  Cairo,  N.  Y.  In 
1862  he  was  appointed  the  Professor  of  Mathematics  and 
Natural  Philosophy  in  St.  Stephen's  College,  Annandale, 
N.  Y.,  of  which  institution  he  became  warden  in  1863,  and 
also  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy.    He  still  continues  to 

S reside  over  this  college,  which,  tnrough  the  liberality  of  the 
^v.  C.  F.  Hoffman,  D.  D.,  of  New  York  city,  has  been  largely 
endowed  and  supplied  with  noble  buildings.  Is  the  author 
of  On  the  Doctrine  of  Morality  in  its  Relation  to  the  Orace 
of  Redemption  (1887),  etc. 

Fairbairn,  Sir  William,  Bart.,  F.  R.  S.,  LL.  D. :  civil  en- 
gineer;  b.  at  Kelso,  Scotland,  Feb.  19, 1789 ;  began  business 
at  Manchester  in  1817,  and  introduced  several  important 
mechanical  improvements,  among  which  were  the  substitu- 
tion of  iron  for  wood  in  the  shafting  of  cotton-mills  and  the 
use  of  lighter  shafting  where  metal  was  alreadv  in  use.  His 
attention  was  next  directed  to  the  use  of  iron  for  ships,  and 
he  was  the  first  in  England  to  constnict  an  iron  ship.  More 
than  100  iron  ships  were  constructed  by  his  firm,  varying 
in  size  from  the  smallest  to  the  war-vessel  of  2,600  tons.  By 
invitatitm  of  the  British  AssocMaticm  (1834-35),  in  connec- 
tion with  Mr.  Hodgkinson,  he  investigated  the  causes  of 
certain  8uppose<l  defects  in  in)n  pr(Hluce<i  by  hot-blast  fui^ 
naces,  and  submitted  a  valuable  rejwrt  upon  the  subject. 
His  experiments  to  test  the  strength  of  iron  and  the  resist- 
ance of  tubes  or  cylinders  led  to  valuable  practical  results. 
Mr.  Fairbairn  co-operated  with  Robert  Stephenson  in  de- 


signing and  constructing  the  great  tubular  bridge  across  the 
Menai  Strait.  Sir  William  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  and 
the  author  of  many  valuable  professional  bof>ks  and  papera, 
amon^  which  may  be  mentioned  Mills  and  Mill-teork ;  irtm, 
its  History  and  Manufacture:  Application  of  Iron  to  Build- 
ing Purposes ;  Iron  Ship-building ;  Useful  information  for 
Enffineers^  1st,  2d,  and  3d  series;  An  Experimental  In- 
qutry  into  the  Strength^  Elasticity^  Ductility,  and  <Hhr 
Properties  of  Steel  (1869),  which  was  several  times  reprint«-<l. 
President  oi  the  British  Association,  corresponding  mem))er 
of  the  National  Institute  of  France,  member  of  many  other 
learned  societies,  and  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Uon^tr. 
Created  a  baronet  in  1869.    D.  Aug.  18, 1874. 

Fairbary:  town  and  railway  junction;  Livingston  oo., 
111.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  4-F) :  10 
miles  S.  E.  of  Pontiac.  It  has  grain-elevators,  mills,  sh(»f«, 
factories,  etc.,  and  is  situated  in  a  thickly  settled  and  fertile 
region,  abounding  in  coal,  limestone,  fire-clay,  sandstone, 
and  a  micaceous  quartz  which  affords  a  fine  fireproof  build- 
ing material  Clays  of  nearly  all  colors  abound.  Pop.  (18^) 
2,140 ;  (1890)  2,324. 

Fairbary:  city  and  railway  center  (founded  in  1869); 
capital  of  Jefferson  co..  Neb.  (for  location  of  county,  see  nidp 
of  Nebraska,  ref.  11-6);  on  Little  Blue  River;  53  milt's 
S.  S.  W.  of  Lincoln.  It  has  fine  churches,  good  seh(K>l^ 
abundant  water-power,  a  flouring-mill,  a  foundry,  and  one 
of  the  largest  nurseries  in  the  U.  S. ;  also  electric  lights, 
water- works,  and  a  telephone  system.  Pop.  (1880)  1,251; 
(1890)  2,630 ;  (1893)  estimated,  4,600. 

Editosof  "Gazkttk." 

Fairchild,  Charles  Stbbbins,  A.  B.,  L.  B.,  LL.  D. :  law- 
yer ;  b.  at  Cazenovia,  N.  Y.,  Apr.  SO,  1842 ;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  1863,  at  the  Harvard  Law  School  1865,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  deputv  attomey-gi^neml 
of  New  York  1874-75,  attomev-;general  of  New  York  1876- 
77,  assistant  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  1885-87,  and  S<xre- 
tary  of  the  Treasury  1887-89.  He  received  the  degree  of 
LL'.  D.  from  Columbian  University.  B.  B.  H. 

Falrcliild,  James  Harris,  D.  D.  :  Conmgationalist :  for- 
mer president  of  Oberlin  College ;  b.  at  Stockbridge,  Ma^v., 
Nov.  25, 1817;  graduated  at  Oberlin  College,  1838;  a  rn- 
fessor  there,  in  different  chairs,  since  1839;  elected  president 
in  1866,  which  ofiice  he  resigned,  1889.  He  has  publi<:h«^ 
Moral  Philosophy  (186fiO;  Owrlin^  the  Colony  and  the  (VW- 
lege,  etc.  (1883) ;  The  Elements  of  Theology,  Natural  and 
RevecUed  (1892);  and  has  edited  the  Memoirs  of  Finney 
(1886)  and  Finney's  Systematic  Theology  (1878). 

Revised  by  Georgb  P.  Fisher. 

Fairchild,  Lucius,  LL.D.:  U.S.  military  officer:  b.  at 
Kent,  Portage  oo.,  O.,  Dec.  27, 1831.  In  1846  he  Temoreii 
with  his  father  to  Wisconsin,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  to 
California,  but  returned  to  Wisconsin  in  1865,  and  in  1860 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
in  1861  he  became  captain  of  the  First  Wisconsin  Regiment ; 
siibsequentlv  was  commissioned  a  captain  in  the  Sixteenth 
Regiment  of  the  regular  army,  also  major,  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  colonel  of  volunteers;  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  Oct.  19,  1863 ;  resigned  Nov.  2, 1863.  He  was 
Secretary  of  State  of  Wisconsin  1864-65 ;  and  Governor  1^*66- 
72;  U.  S.  consul  at  Liverpool,  England,  187^78;  con>iil- 
general  at  Paris,  1878-86 ;  and  U.  S.  minister  to  Spain  1(«^>- 
81 ;  in  1886  elected  commander-in-chief  of  the  Grand  Army 
of  the  Republic ;  also  served  as  regent  of  the  State  Univer- 
sity and  of  the  State  normal  schooS,  and  as  president  of  the 
Cherokee  commission. 

Fairfax,  Donald  McNeil  :  rear-admiral  U.  S.  navy :  b.  in 
Virginia,  Aug.  10,  1823 ;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman 
Aug.  12, 1837.  In  1861,  when  executive  officer  of  San  Ja- 
cinto, he  personally  supervised  the  arrest  of  Messrs.  Mh<«  n 
and  SlideU  on  board  the  English  mail-steamer  Tronic  (\>m- 
manded  steamer  Cayuga  in  1862  on  the  Mississippi  river :  in 
command  of  monitor  Nantucket  participated  in  the  first  at- 
tack upon  Fort  Sumter,  Apr.  7, 1863.  In  command  of  nit  >\\\- 
tor  Montauk  took  part  in  all  the  fights  with  the  forts  and  dt*- 
fenses  of  Charleston  harbor  which  occurred  during  July  ami 
Aug.,  186.3.  He  became  rear-admiral  July  11,  1880;  retirviJ 
Sept  30,  1880,  at  his  own  request,  after  forty  years*  conisecu- 
tive  service. 

Fairfax,  Edward:  poet;  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  :  K 
at  Denton,  Yorkshire,  England,  about  1580 ;  translated  T«  ^r- 
quato  Tasso^s  Jerusalem  Delivered  into  English,  verse  for 


274 


FAIR  OAKS 


FAITH 


sea,  and  is  accessible  for  ships  only  at  one  point,  on  the 
S.  E.  In  1588  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  admiral  of  the 
Spanish  Armada,  was  wrecked  here,  and  most  of  his  crew 
were  murdered.    Lat  59"  33'  N.,  Ion.  r  38'  W. 

Fair  Oaks  or  Seven  Fines,  Battle  of  :  a  battle  fought 
May  31,  and  June  1, 1862,  at  Fair  Oaks,  Va.,  a  station  on 
the' Richmond  and  York  River  Railroad,  where  it  is  crossed 
by  the  Nine  Mile  road,  about  6  miles  from  Richmond. 
The  junction  of  the  Nine  Mile  and  Williamsburg  roads, 
about  a  mile  S.  £.  of  Fair  Oaks,  is  called  Seven  Pines 
(hence  the  alternative  name  of  the  battle).  McClellan, 
moving  up  from  Torktown  vifi  White  House,  had  reached 
the  Chickahominy,  and  on  May  27  Keyes  and  Heintzel- 
man's  corps  were  on  the  south  (ri^ht)  bank  of  this  stream, 
their  front,  extending  from  Fair  Oaks  to  Seven  Pines, 
while  Sumner's,  Franklin's,  and  Porter's  corps  were  on 
the  north  (left)  bank,  the  line  extending  up  to  Mechanics- 
ville. 

McDowell  at  Fredericksburg  was  reported  to  be  march- 
ing southward  to  join  McClellan.  (xen.  Johnston,  com- 
mandincc  the  Confederate  army,  disposed  his  troops  to 
attack  tne  Union  right  wing  near  Mechanics ville,  on  May 
29,  before  McDowell  s  arrival.  Before  the  attack  was  made 
he  was  informed  that  McDowell  had  turned  back  toward 
Washington,  whereupon  he  changed  his  plans  and  attacked 
the  Union  left  wing,  consisting  of  the  two  corps  south  of  the 
Chickahominy,  with  a  view  to  destroying  this  wing  before 
it  could  be  re-enforced  from  the  right,  which  was  separated 
from  it  by  the  river,  much  swollen  by  recent  rains.  To 
overwhelm  the  Union  left  wing,  he  designed  to  reinforce 
his  right  wing  under  Gen.  D.  H.  Hill  with  the  divisions  of 
Gens.  G.  W.  Smith  and  Longstreet,  which  had  been  massed 
on  his  left  for  the  attack  previously  contemplated.  Owing 
to  some  misunderstanding  of  orders,  Longstreet's  division 
was  marched  and  countermarched  in  rear  of  the  Confed- 
erate army  in  such  a  way  that  less  than  half  its  brigades 
came  into  action  that  day;  and  by  occupying  the  roads 
it  delayed  the  movements  of  other  troops.  This,  in  connec- 
tion with  some  errors  in  transmitting  orders,  prevented  the 
attacks  being  made  simultaneously  along  the  Union  left 
wing.  About  1  p.  m.  D.  H.  Hill  on  the  Confederate  ri^ht 
began  the  attack,  drove  in  the  pickets,  and  by  successive 
advances  forced  back  the  Union  line  about  2  miles  to  a  posi- 
tion between  Seven  Pines  and  Savage's  Station,  where  at 
about  6  p.  M.  a  line  was  formed  which  was  held,  and  during 
the  night  was  strengthened  by  intrenchinents.  Meanwhile 
McClellan  ordered  Sumner's  corps  to  cross  the  Chicka- 
hominy and  re-enforce  Keyes.  Sumner  starting  at  once,  and 
marching  toward  Keyes's  right,  met  and  repulsed  the  attack 
just  made  by  Gen.  G.  W.  Smith's  troops  upon  Couch,  who 
was  on  the  extreme  right  of  Keyes's  command  and  separated 
by  some  distance  from  the  troops  on  his  left.  Fighting  for 
the  day  closed  at  about  6.30  p.  m.  in  this  part  of  the  field, 
and  the  Union  lines  were  made  continuous  and  strength- 
ened during  the  night. 

On  the  morning  of  the  next  day  (June  1),  after  some  pre- 
liminary skirmishing  commencing  at  about  5  A.  m.,  the  Con- 
federates at  about  6.30  a.  m.  made  a  determined  attack  upon 
the  Union  left  center  situated  upon  the  railroad,  about  half  a 
mile  east  of  Fair  Oaks.  After  about  an  hour  and  a  half  of 
fighting  this  was  repulsed.  Subsequently  a  second  was 
mtule,  which  continued  about  an  hour,  when  the  Union 
troops  charged  upon  the  Confederates,  and,  driving  them 
back,  advanced  and  reoccupied  the  line  from  Fair  Oaks  to 
Seven  Pines.  No  further  pursuit  was  attempted,  and  the 
fighting  ceased  at  about  i  p.  m.  The  aggregate  strength 
of  the  three  corps  of  the  Union  army  engaged  was  51,543, 
that  of  the  four  Confederate  divisions  about  39,000.  The 
numbers  in  the  front  or  fighting  lines  were  about  20,000  on 
each  side. 

The  total  Union  losses  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing 
were  5,031.  The  Confederate  losses  6,134.  See  The  Battle 
of  Seifen  Pines,  Gen.  G.  W.  Smith;  articles  by  Gen. 
Johnston  and  Gen.  Smith  in  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the 
Civil  War ;  The  Peninsula,  by  Gen.  Webb ;  and  the  Official 
Records,  James  Mercur. 

Fairport:  village;  Monroe  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Now  York,  ref.  4-D) ;  on  the  New  York 
Centnil  and  \\  est  Shore  railways,  and  on  the  Erie  Canal ; 
11  miles  E.  of  Rm^hester.  It  has  7  churches,  2  union  school- 
buildings,  a  flouring-inill,  a  furnace,  a  large  shoe-factory, 
marble-works,  3  planing-mills,  2  fruit-canning  establish- 
ments, and  manufactures  of  barrels,  staves,  agricultural  im- 


plements, carriages,  confectionery,  saleratus,  cream  of  tartv, 
baking-powder,  etc.    Pop.  (1880)  1,920 ;  (1890)  2,552. 

Editor  op  "  Monroe  Ck)UNTy  Mail." 

Fairy-lore:  a  name  sometimes  given  (on  the  analcr 
of  folk-lore)  to  the  body  of  popular  beliefs,  often  oddly  in- 
consistent, about  various  supernatural  beings  known  a^ 
fairies.  The  term  fairies  is  used  very  looselv,  being  often 
applied  not  only  to  such  diminutive,  sylph-fike  croatuivN 
tricky  but  not  malevolent,  as  Shakspeiuie  has  drawn  in  A 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  but  to  the  dwarfs,  elves,  ai.-l 
kobolds  of  German  popular  tales,  many  of  whom  are  earthr 
and  malicious,  the  t&es  of  Celtic  (and  French)  romance.  «  ho 
are  beings  of  human  stature  and  more  than  mortal  (wnt-r 
and  beauty,  and  the  genies  or  djinns  of  Arabian  story.  In- 
deed, almost  any  kind  of  supernatural  being  not  account*  ^\ 
for  in  the  creeds  of  Christendom,  and  not  exalted  enoujrh  to 
be  regarded  as  a  heathen  god,  has  been  included  un<1er  \\.s 
general  term — apparitions  of  the  dead  excepted.  It  f<>llu«* 
that  there  can  be  no  satisfactory  statement  of  the  origin  t.f 
fairy-lore.  Some  of  it  is  due  to  ancestor-worship,  some  u* 
mismterpreted  natural  phenomena,  some  to  the  survival  ii. 
a  degraded  condition  of  divinities  dethroned  by  Christianity. 
Mucn  of  it  may  be  the  detritus  of  myth ;  more  is  ass*ur»«<li> 
the  raw  material  of  myth.  It  is  always  influenced  hy  cli- 
mate, natural  scenery,  and  manner  of  fife;  and  sometuLe^. 
even  in  Christian  countries,  it  stands  in  a  curious  rekti>r. 
to  the  popular,  as  opposed  to  the  educated,  religion.  iS?^ 
also  Folk-lore  and  Mythology.)  The  term  fatry-^aU*  a 
often  used  in  English  as  an  equivalent  for  the  Germoo 
MdrcheUy  and  is  thus  not  infrequently  applied  to  storit^  iu 
which  fairies  play  no  part. 

Bibliography. — Works  on  the  folk-lore  of  a  country  uyj- 
ally  contain  something  about  its  fairy-beliefs,  and  the  fi  ix- 
lore  journals  contribute  much  that  is  of  interest.  The  1.1- 
lowing  books  and  articles  may  also  be  consulted :  Allit»s,  /  »n 
the  Ignis  Fatuus,  etc.  (Lonaon,  1846);  J.  T.  Bunce,  /'/i>  •, 
Tales,  their  Origin  and  Meaning  (London,  1878) ;  F.  J.  CI. ., ';. 
English  and  Scottish  Popular  BaUcids  (Boston,  \^i  fl.-: 
R.  H.  Croraek,  Character  of  the  Lowland  Scotch  Fairit*.  m 
his  Remains  ofNithsdale  and  OcUloway  Song (1810) ;  Ja^.>\. 
Grimm,  Deutsche  My th4)loaie  (4th  ed.  Berlin,  1875-7}^) :  N\  /- 
helm  Grimm,  JEinleitung  Uber  die  Elf  en,  in  his  Kleins  »Schrt  ^■ 
ten  (1881,  i.  405-490) ;  J.  O.  HalliweU,  Illustrations  of  t'u 
Fairy  Mythology  of  A  Midsummer  Nighfs  Dream  (1>  ►mi-  r., 
1845);  E.  S.  Ilartland.  The  Science  of  Fairy  Tales  (Ixmd.  n. 
1891);  W.  Hertz,  Die  bretonischen  Feen,  in  his  Spitlmaf,*j*- 
biwh  (Stuttgart,  1886) ;  T.  Keightley,  The  Fairy  Mythor  ; 
(London,  1833 ;  new  edition  1850) ;  W.  Mannhardt,  Wald-  u  -.■: 
Feldkulte (Beriin,  1877) ;  L. F.  A.  Maury.  Les Fees du  Mo. ' h 
Age  (Paris,  1843) ;  J.  Ritson,  Fairy  Tales  (London,  1881  u*  H. 
Schreiber,  Die  Feen  in  Europa  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1842> ;  Mr 
Walter  Scott,  On  the  Fairies  of  Popular  Superstition,  in  h  - 
Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border ;  the  same,  Lettmt  on 
Demonolo^y  and  Witchcraft.  Compare  also  the  referer.t  i  * 
in  an  article  on  Sir  Orfeo,  in  The  American  Journal  u* 
Philology,  vol.  vii.,  No.  2.  The  relations  of  fairv-loiv  i' 
Germanic  mythology  are  well  set  forth  by  E.  Mogk  in  •  * 
article  Mythologie,  in  Paul's  Qrundriss  aer  germam/tr'^u 
Philologie.  G.  L.  KnT»tiH.K 

Fairy-rings:  imperfectly  circular  or  annular  y«itr}i'-* 
in  grass-land  in  which  the  vegetation  is  either  riclKT  i- 
more  scanty  than  that  around  it.  They  are  common  in  ti  - 
British  islands  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  where,  a<x  •:•!• 
ing  to  folk-lore,  they  are  caused  by  the  dancing  of  fa:-^:.*. 
They  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  scientists  in  tlie  U*- 
ter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  At  first  they  weiv  <.  r 
sidered  to  be  the  effect  of  lightning.  After  much  invr-«:  - 
gation,  however,  and  not  a  little  debate,  it  was  shown  t  \  *\ 
they  are  caused  by  the  growth  of  mushrooms  (Aganr^*  - . 
which  spread  from  the  center  outward,  and  at  first  <-ho  v. 
but  afterward  by  their  decay  accelerate,  the  growth  of  t)t 
grass. 

Faith  [M.  Eng.  feith,  fayth,  fay  from  O.  Yr^feid,  f'.t, 
fei  >  Fr.  foi  :  Span,  fe  :  lUl.  fede  <  Lat  ftdes^  tieri^'.  i ! 
fidere,  to  trust :  (Jr.  vcftfciy.  wiBw,  to  persuade  :  Teuton,  hid-. 
to  ask  <  Indo-Eur.  hheidh,  hhoidh,  hhidhl :  belief,  omivu- 
tion,  assurance,  or  trust,  resting  on  any  sort  of  evidence  wl  «« 
force  is  affected  subjectively — that  is.  by  the  ment&l  «•-  n 
dition  of  the  recipient.  An  assurance  resting  on  piin^h  ft- 
jective  grounds  relies  upon  the  common  state  of  all  tnir.^:>. 
not  on  the  s()ecial  condition  of  any,  and  involves  knowK^^D^ 
Man  believes  there  is  a  God,  but  there  are  teraptiiti<vn«  :• 
unbelief  which  have  led  men  to  atheism.     He  3bnot<«  th&* 


FALASHA8 


S76 


times,  before  the  inTcntion  of  pinpowder.  Its  old  CRstta, 
now  mostly  in  mina,  was  the  seat  of  the  Dukes  of  Norman- 
dy and  the  birthplace  of  Wijliam  the  Conaueror.  There 
■re  manufactures  of  cottons,  hosiery,  and  bobuiDet,  and  dye 
and  tan  works.     Pop.  (18B1)  8,109. 

niflcs  wanderers 


Faloshas  [the  i 


Strang  people  in  Abyssinia  inhabiting  the  mountninouB 
re<;ions  of  bamen  and  the  plains  along'  Lake  Tzana,  and 
numberin);  about  100,000.    They  are  the  remnant  of  natives 


who  were  converta  to  Judaiam.  The  name  I'alaahah  „ 
flea  exile  or  wanderer,  and  they  have  been  much  opprc^ed 
by  the  neighboring  Christians,  However  uncertain  their 
origin,  they  have  become  thornughl;  Abyssinian,  and  are 
distinguished  from  their  fellows  only  by  their  religion. 
Like  the  native  Christians,  they  are  well  formed,  and  re- 
semble the  nomads  of  Arabia.  They  are  of  medium  height, 
with  face  oval,  nose  finely  sharpened,  mouth  well  propor- 
tioned, lips  properly  formed  and  by  no  means  eiuDerant, 
sparkling  eyes  and  well-set  teeth,  and  hair  somewhat  curled 
or  straight!  (Sue  Figui^r,  Jje»  Racai  IIuma\nea,  Paris, 
1873,  p.  406.)  Until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury they  constituted  an  independent  tribe,  and  were  gov- 
erned by  their  own  prince ;  it  is  said  that  in  the  t«nth  and 
twelfth  centuries  tney  even  ruled  over  the  AbyBsiniana. 
They  were  subjected  by  the  Amharas  about  ISOO,  and  are 
now  uniler  the  rule  of  the  princes  of  Tigri.  The  Falashaa 
speak  both  the  Amharic  and  a  dialect  of  the  Agaon  tongue, 
and  are  very  industrious,  devoting  themselves  to  the  vanoiit 
trades,  particularly  architecture ;  also  largely  to  agricul- 
ture. Unlike  other  Semitic  races  they  are  averse  to  com- 
merce, regarding  trsRit.'  an  obstacle  to  fidelity  and  rigor  in 
religious  observances.  The  Falashas,  although  they  possess 
the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  or  Jewish  canon  {in  the 
Geez  language,  a  sister-longue  of  the  Hebrew.  Arabic,  and 
Aramean  dialects  and  the  mother  of  the  Amharii').  together 
with  the  apocryphal  books  accepted  by  the  Abyssinian 
Church,  deviate  in  many  instances  from  Jewish  usages. 
Thus  the  fringeil  "  prayinc-scarf  "  (lalelh)  and  the  "  pTiy- 
lacteries  "  are  not  u.sed  in  their  devotions  ;  and  while  they 
retain  the  usage  of  oSering  sacrifices,  it  is  rather  as  com- 
memorative ceremonies  than  as  reil  sacrifices.  The  most 
common  is  the  offering  for  the  repose  of  the  dead  ;  but  no 
sacrifice  is  permittcil  on  the  babbath  or  on  the  day  of  atone- 
ment. Like  other  Jews,  the  Kalashahs  hope  for  a  return  to 
Jerusalem.  Their  priests,  who  live  round  the  inclosures  of 
the  temples  (which  are  situotod  near  the  edge  of  the  villages, 
and  have  more  the  appearance  of  the  ancient  sanctuary 
than  the  modem  synagogue),  observe  the  laws  of  purity 
with  rigor,  prepare  their  own  food,  and  keep  aloof  from  the 
world.  They  are  principally  engajted  in  the  education  of 
fouth,  making  the  Bible  and  tradition  the  basis  of  their 
instruction.  Polygamy,  though  tolerated,  is  nevertheless 
discouraged.  Slave-holding  is  suffered,  but  slave-dealing  is 
strictly  forbidden.  Slaves  are  kindly  treated,  instructed  in 
the  laws  of  Moses,  and  on  conversion  are  manumitted.  At- 
tempts on  the  part  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  and 
the  Scottish  Chureh  Mission  to  convert  the  Falashas  to 
Christianity  induced  the  Jewish  Alliance  Univereelle  in 
1H67  to  send  among  them  M.  Balevy,  of  Paris,  to  secure 
their  education  aiid  to  counteract  the  Christia:iiKinE  in- 
fluence of  the  missionaries.  See,  besides  works  on  Abys- 
sinia. Hotten.  Abj/Kinnia  and  ils  Ptopte  (London,  1868)i 
J,  M,  Plad,  TAe  Ftdtukaa  of  AiyKinia  (Eng  trans.  1868) ; 
J.  Halevy,  Travels  in  Abytnnia  (Eng.  trans.  1S78). 

Jmrs  H,  WoRHAH. 
Falcid'lan  Law :  a  law  under  the  civil  or  Roman  law 
system,  proposed  by  a  tribune,  Falcidius.  about  40  b.  c.,  by 
which  it  was  enacted  that  testators  should  not  have  power 
to  dispose  of  more  than  three-fourths  of  their  property  by 
will,  and  that  the  ronainiii);  one-fourth  should  desceni]  to 
the  heir.  This  fourth  was  termed  the  "  Falcidian  portion." 
No  such  restriction  exists  at  common  law,  a  testator  having 
an  unqualified  power  to  distribute  his  property  entirely 
among  strangers,  and  leave  his  family  unprovided  for  it  he 
desires.  In  the  U.  S,  Louisiana,  which  has  adopted  the 
civil  law,  has  a  provision  similar  to  the  Falcidian  law.  In 
some  of  the  other  States  restrictive  enactments  have  been 
niaile  in  regard  to  bequests  to  charitable  corporations  or 
associations.  For  instance,  in  New  York  a  testator  hav- 
ing; a  husliand,  wife,  child,  or  parent  living  can  leave  to 
such  institutions  only  one-half  of  his  pro[ierty  after  the 
pikvment  of  his  debts.     Lata  1860.  ch.  360. 

Kevised  by  T.  W.  Dwioht. 


Falck'enstolii,  Gduau>  Vooel.  von:  Pmseisn  gencnl 
of  infantry;  b.  in  Sile«ia,  Jan.  6. 1797.  He  was  the  srjo  .,r 
a  Prussian  major,  but  the  father  died  early,  and  the  rooiln-r. 
unable  to  educate  the  boy  herself,  asked  assistance  from  lii-r 
relative  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau.     The  prince-lii-l..i|i 

Eomised  to  help,  but  on  the  condition  that  the  boy  sliciul<l 
a  clergrman.  But  at  the  rising  of  the  Prussian  \-<-<-\\.- 
against  Napoleon,  in  1813,  the  boy  left  the  ecc-lesinMirj,! 
career  and  entered  as  a  volunteer  into  the  West  Pnj<-i^ii 
Grenadier  battalion  of  Col.  von  Kltkck.  He  distiugui.-l:.  .1 
himself  in  the  battle  of  the  Katxbach.  and  at  Montniirni) 
when  all  the  officers  had  fallen,  he  led  the  battalion  with  im- 
perturbable calmness,  though  a  youth  of  hardly  sevenlirn 
years.  After  the  war  he  studied  topography  with  great  ii-iil. 
and  founded  a  school  tor  glass-painting  in  ^rlin  under  llv 
auspices  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV.  On  Mar.  18. 184f.  in  itm 
riots  in  Berlin,  he  was  wounded,  but  took  part  in  the  saiui' 
year  in  the  campai^  in  Holstein,  and  became  commHim.  r 
of  the  foot-guards  in  1849,  and  in  1BG1  colonel  and  chief  i>l 
the  staff  of  Wrangel.  He  held  the  same  position  in  ImVI 
during  the  second  war  with  Deumark.  but  after  the  war  ht 
was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  Seventh  Ariny-rnq-;, 
In  the  war  of  1866  he  commanded  against  Hanover.  Jl<-=--.-, 
Nassau.  Baden,  WQrtembcrg,  and  Bavaria,  and  disiilasr.! 
considerable  strategic  talent  After  the  war  he  recciiL'il  a 
dotation,  was  elected  to  the  North  German  Diet  bv  the  niii 
of  KiJnigsberg,  and  spoke  energetically  for  a  triennial  nuli- 
tary  service  and  a  strong  military  budget.  During  the  war 
of  1870  he  held  the  chief  command  of  the  maritime  p^>l- 
inces.  and  organised  the  whole  defense  of  the  Baltic  and  ..f 
the  North  Sea.     D.  in  Silesia.  Apr.  6.  1885. 

Faloon  [M.  Eng.  faueon,  from  0.  Fr.  /aueon  <  Lat,  Mr-'. 
namederivBdfrom/aii,/a/fi«.sickle,  beeauseof  the  fak<.rii 
curving  talons]  :  a  name  applied  to  various  species  of  han  Ls 
but  more  especially  to  those  of  the  genus  Faleo.  whii:h  m- 
dudea  the  most  active  and  fearless  of  the  birds  of  pn-i. 
Among  the  numerous  and  widely  <listributed  specie?  »rv  i  \.-' 
gerfalcons  (FiUco  eandicatw  and  others),  the  jwregrim-  lai- 
con,  or  duck  hawk  {Falco  ptregrinua),  the  merlin  (^'cii.'. 


(MoJon),  and  the  hobby  {Faleo  gubbutfo).     The  gerfatc  - 
are  the  most  northern  of  the  diurnal  binls  of  prev.  it>i-.ii- 
iting  Greenland,  Iceland,  and  the  northern  Pftrts  of  Enr>  ;- 
Asia,  and  America,   TheGrccnIand  species  (/'nlcornn'/i^-i    - 
is,  when  adidt,  white,  with  fine  black  markings  on  thf  Iv,  . 
and  wings;  young  birds  have  more  black  in  their  pliirii.  .- 
The  peregrine  falcon  is  bluish  ash  above,  whitish  or  '' 
buff  below,  with  numerous  dark  spots  and  bars;  it  i^  h)-. 
18  inches  long  and  the  long,  pointed  wings  have  a  !<pn.H>! 
about  8i  feet.    This  species,  which  is  found  in  nesrlj  a 


278 


FALKMB 


FALKLAND   ISLANDS 


A  fn^nat  numUT  of  th(*^  t^rmii  and  roach  other  aoaint 
matt4*r  on  lhi!«  Mihj»H't  will  \h*  found  in  the  Boke  of  St.  Al- 
bans An«l  the  other  trvAti-^^fi  alM»vo  (]Uot*'<l.  In  the  fifth 
chapter  of  Cihrario**  Ihlla  Krorutmia  J\}iitira  del  Medw 
JCt^»  i«  A  full  tle-^irinthin  of  thi*  MM»rt:  "  The  time  of  the 
chaM*  wan  fit  her  early  in  the  nioniiii^  or  toward  eveninjf. 
The  «{M>rti«inen  nxle  out,,  with  their  fali>ons  re^tin^  u)>on 
thvir  Htnmjjiy  fflove*i  wri^ti*.  When  a  hirti  was  dlv^overed 
MJitiNl  to  the  nature  and  the  habits  of  the  falcon,  the  little 
hiHNi  whii-h<H>venMl  itj«  evf?*  waA  drawn  off,  and  the  falcon 
nwt*  in  rapui  ein'leM  hi^rh  above  it«  destined  prey;  if  the 
ijuarry  wa?*  a  •<mall  binl,  she  then  sudilenlr  swciope<l  (or 
attMifMii,  ms  the  phnu^r  wn>)  ilinntly  u|>on  her  victim  :  but  if 
the  Utter  wa-*  a  larjre  and  j»owerful  bini,  formidable  in  beak 
and  wuij;,  th**  faii^m  wa>«  eautioutt  and  cunning;  in  her  ad- 
van<N-s  tunuMl  and  whwiwi  with  jfn»«t  dexterity, sei/injf  only 
the  fav4»rablt*  moment  tortrike.  IlaviuK  »*«"ure<l  the  prize, 
she  "^wrpt  in  hu*o'  cin'le:*  over  the  hea*l  of  the  falct»ner,  and 
Anally  pn*f«ent«Ml  him  the  Uxitv;  the  faleoner  put  it  in  the 
fluiif>l«a4(.  and  then  !«et  U»fore  )ji«*  falcon  the  ftnid  prefiannl 
for  her.  Faleoiw  which  H«iare«l  hitfh  and  pursued  bin  Is  of 
lofty  flii;ht  were  calh^l  aJtani;  othem  tc»ok  a  lower  but  more 
extended  ranire;  Mune  wrn»  for  the  inland  country,  others 
for  a<piatic  binlv  The^'  In^t  were  a.v»i»4ted  by  doi?H.  When, 
for  exanii»U\  a  l1<K'k  of  henmn  was  di'W'overed,  the  falconer 
apprtia4'h*Nl  Uhmii  **<'n'tl\,  an«l  !*utldenly  beat  a  drum  Im*- 
f<»n»  the  hrT'Mi'*  «'ouM  gi*t  "iijht  of  the  fatcon,  otherwi«*e  thev 
wotild  not  djire  Ut  n^'.  Frik'ht«'n«'<l  by  the  drum,  they  took 
to  fli);ht :  then  Ihf  H|MirtHman  let  I<h»so  his  fali'oii,  ami  while 
fihe  pn'|tan«l  to  mmzc  the  heron<i  in  the  air,  the  luirkin^  of 
the  dof^  prevpnt4'«l  the  p<ior  binls  fnun  hiding  aicain  in  the 
water.  F-atflt*^  and  falmns  of  the  larjfi»?*t  «|¥'<-ie8  may  bt* 
trainetl  for  Ihi*  chaw,  and  they  will  even  take  foxes  and 
hare^'*  With  Fa>ti«m  -iovenMjfns  hawkinjf  is  still  in  jfreat 
favor,  Imt  it  has  alino<  entin'ly  disap(K>ar(*4l  fmm  Kun>f»e. 
The  rare  occasion**  in  which  the  fal(*<in  i*  now  employM  are 
rather  ••N-nir  rerin»^n  tat  ions  of  the  ohi  (■uj«t4>m  than  attempts 
to  revi\e  it.  Tne  hi^t^irv  of  this  pa.*>time  is  especially  inter- 
r>*tin^,  as  iM'iufC  alm<it4  the  only  outdcN>r  amu.s«>ment  in  which 
womm  of  rank,  in  the  Middle  Atr^*^.  t(M>k  an  active  (i«rt„  and 
it  has  fumi<«hi*«l  the  writer  of  firti<m  with  many  a  mmaiitie 
Mtuaiion.  the  pi>«*t  and  the  ixiinter  with  many  a  happy  illus- 
t  rat  I  on.  S-e  F  nv  m  an  and  >mU  v  i  n ,  Fa  lronry,it«(  *in  i  wm,  //i^ 
/ory,  and  I*rarttcf  d^ondon,  IH5U);  Ilartinj;.  HinU  on  the 
Mantuffnuni  of  Ilatrks  (1H84).       Akuklx)  dk  Gr  BERN  ATI  h. 

Fmlese,  faa*U'rad:  a  river  of  S^neptmbia,  W««tem 
Africa.  It  in  one  of  the  nnt<  imfxirtant  tributaries  of  the 
Senr^^U  which  it  joins  in  Ut.  14    40^  N„  Ion.  U    4H  W. 

Falr'rit :  fwwerful  city  of  ancient  Ktruria;  situated  N. 
of  Mt.  Sorai'te  and  W.  of  the  Til>er.  It  is  U-lieved  to  have 
been  on«»  of  thf  twelve  cities  of  the  KtruM'an  iH»nfe«leration. 
It  wax  often  at  war  with  Rome,  but  in  241  B.  c.  was  c<»n* 
quen^l  and  dentroyiyl  by  that  |>ower.  A  new  R4>man  Fnleni 
waa  fountlt*d  near  by,  the  nuns  of  which,  5  mili'^a  distant 
fn»m  Ncpi,  are  ttf  imat  interv»t.  The  old  FaJerii  probably 
«to<Hl  at  Civiu  CaKtcllana. 

Paler^BtMl  Wise  (frtHn  I^t.  /WemMJi,  wrtainintrtothe 
Falrrtm*  Aj^'r.  or  Falemian  Distnct  in  Tamtiania]:  the 
miMt  (M'lrbmt***!  of  the  wines  of  the  an<-ient  Koinafi«i.  Ac- 
ci>nlm>:  U>  rimy,  it  was  of  thrrr  vanetint — a  li^rht,  a  sweet, 
and  a  dry.  It  wa<«  «ery  strtiu^antl  isi^nenius,  so  that  it  would 
take  rtrr  from  a  li^'htod  ta)M>r.  When  new  it  was  very  harsh 
and  unplra*aiit.  The  etcdli-nt  Mav>ie  winp«(  came  fnan  the 
•atni*  n'»ci"n.  antl  the  two  wirts  Here  «»ften  conf«»undiM|.  In- 
dc«-«l,  tlh'  U'llcr  (lualities  were  i*all»Ml  iridi«*(*riiiiinatclv  bv 
rith'T  name.  Th«  -^'  n'»:iom»  still  pnwlu«"e  ifotnl  wine.  From 
aJi  ai^n.uiii*,  ihe  KaJi*mian  mu^t  liave  n»4'mk>le«l  the  modern 
•!)»rr)  wine. 

Fttlcvi^r^.  f-**!  ^*  Ir,  Jeai  AiKXA«i>Kr  J«>**hmi  :  s«Milf>- 
t<-r  und  ti^'.in  -imititt  r;  b.  at  Toul-'ii*-*,  Fmni'*',  Npt.  7,  lH:i|. 
|*jpl  i)f  J-.tifT' •*  ;  (trnnd  I*nx  dc  K«»riir  I'm  nipt  are)  IKVJ. 
Ill'*  i«"rk  in  U.Mi  hmiH  In  «  of  the  fiiH*  *rt*  i*«  '*tn»in;,  and  jh«*- 
««««*^  ijuni.!  H  4  «>r  ttir  hi^ti»-«t  ••nhr.  In  w  nlpture,  />i*iri/i. 
(  hrt»fiitn  .Viir'v'' »l^Wi.  and  \  %rtnr  %n  thr  (  tH-i-tti/ht  <1h;0i. 
the  l\*t  t«o  in  the  Lin»-nif«>iirt:  <ii%ll<  r>.  I*nri'..  are  ainoUj; 
hi«tM.t  w.irk*.  In  |K»ii*'MiC.  T'tf  UVf ;«//'T«i  (  1m74».  NM»/inri*l, 
.SV.fiV'.'^r './.I  ft',  /  .  1»**«I).  an-l  Ktn  and  h»f/n^ird  tl*vs2; 
L'li- till*  ijr,;  <ii..ir^i  *n  »» .•  I.r iii-»l.  .Meintt-r  ««f  the  In- 
Mi'u'r.  riiitd  of  h  .n.>r  "-uipMin'!  1*m>«;  otljier  l/e^;inn  t»f 
U.n  -r  \**:^     >'i,,ii-.  m  I'ar*.  W.  A.  ('. 

Fall^r*.  f-U  U; -•  rtj.  t.r  Fttllrii.  f..'*:tV  A  nV,  Mari%(»: 
doo*  <d  Vtn.<«  .  \l  of  an  tnitinnt  f^nih  in  1.74;  M*r>tdthe 


republic  in  war  and  on  important  embawiea,  and  is  l*:^ 
when  Bcventy-nine  vears  old,  was  chovn  t4»  th«*  df<fti»  •.• 
after  which  the  >  enetian  fle<«t  was  Imt  in  a  great  ^»!*  •  «  * 
the  Geno<»«e.  Not  Umf^  after,  at  a  camnal  trw^,  '.4.  «  •. 
was  fn^i«N»ly  insulted  by  a  youni;  nobleman,  and  in  rt*--:* 
Faliero  determines  I  to  destr*)y  the  whole  U«Jy  <  if  r  ■  • 
who  were  dete»te<l  by  the  peonle,  and  iKMii.nie  *  •  r  » 
His  c<msi>iracy  was  dete<'te<l  ami  suppre*w»«i,  ariii  th-  •  ,* 
after  a  lull  oonfe^^i<m,  was  iM'heailtHl  Apr.  17.  1  tW  }  . 
stiiry  has  b<»en  a  favorite  one  with  the  p««ets,  dr*/»  v  •**  i- : 
musical  com(K)eer« — Byron,  Delavii^ie,  Hoffuau,  U .  . 
and  others. 

Falk,  faalk,  Pai*l  Li^dwio  AniLaErr:  sta*«««n:fc-.    * 
Matschkau,  Prui^^ia,  Au^.  1<^  1N27:  eibicatpd  at  tf»  •>. 
nasium  and  University  of  Bn^iau:  studieti  law  ari'i  >-•« 
a  member  of  the  Fnivsian  Hou-***  <if  l)epiitn'*  i**.\s.-«'. 
was  .Minister  of  Worship  and  h^lucat  ion  lH7^-7!i.  ar'i      '•. 
was  nominated  to  the  presitlency  of  the  supr»Tij.  ••    - 
llamm.     Dunns:  his  administration  of  the  I»r(«r.r''  '  ' 
Worship  and  K<Tucation  he  [lasMetl  weral  nir*n»A»  n-  .*  -• 
dirw'tea   atrainst    the    hierarchv   and   clerm.      •>»•    Ki 
liAWh.)     Bismarck  at  first  su«taine<l  thi*  le;.n^;Att  f  j  .•  ■ 
sequently  made  some  advanc<*s  to  the  ultram<  u*a'-  •»- 
in  onler  to  gain  their  sup|M>rt,  and  Falk  na.*  f<  r*..  *   .. 
^i^.  i\  11.  1  ir  till. 

'Falkirk,  fawkirk:  city  of  Stirlinp«hin',  S»  t'.':  !9 
mihn*  W.  N.  W.  of  K^linbunrh;  on  the  Iviiiib'ir^'t,  *•  :  *t  »- 
>j*)W  and  S<»ottlsh  (Vnlral  Railway,  near  the  ttj.i  K-  r  ».-  w»l 
of  Antoninus  and  the  well-known  ('amm  lron««  -i*  •< 
map  of  Scotland,  rpf.  11-11).  It  c(»ntain«.  ani«>r.i:  ^  ' 
stitutions,  a  science  and  art  s<'h<M»l,  a  fnv  hbrarr.  »:  .  •  < 
ta»;e  hiwpital.  Its  thre**  annual  ** trysts"  at  <mi*  t.*  1  •  -^ 
the  larjjesl  cattle- fairs  in  SxHland,  sales  l>eiriir  n  vi«  *  '  i 
amount  of  nearly  £l,(MMl,UN>.  The^  h«%r  U**  n  i*-.-  *^ 
perse<led  by  weekly  aut'tions.  In  l^WN  Sir  \^  i  t*".  V*  •  al 
was  defeate<i  hen*  by  l<>lward  I.,  and  in  1746  th*  II  j'  •  J 
era,  under  Prince  (*harles  Kdwanl,  defeat «1  ii»r  n  la.  "  •« 
Pop.  (1H»1)  16.615;  with  subuH*,  25,{HiK). 

FalkUad,  fawk  land:  royal  bunrh  of  Fife,  S«t'«-  I 
miles  N.  of  Kdinburfdi  (S4h»  map  of  Sc^-tland.  n-f.  U*-  ••  1 
is  situat^Hi  at  the  l»ase  of  the  l»m(»nd  HilU,  wh  •  --  < 
abruptly  behind  it  as  to  interwpt  the  ray*  of  th ■••:'"  ^ 
it  for  several  weeks  during;  winter.  The  rvnur.*  f  *»^ 
land  Pala^'c  are  very  interest  in  jr,  Uith  in  ant..'*^*  ^  i 
s(ie<-ts  and  on  account  of  their  conne«tion  with  tr-  i  ^ 
of  James  IV.  and  James  V,     Pofi.  3,UINX 

Falklaad,  Licn's  ('aey,  Viscount:    si.n  of   S;»   !'  •! 
Canr,  a  man  of  literary  tast«**;  h.  protiably  at   H   -^  -.    1 
fonlshire,  in   1610;  eilm-att-tl  at  St,  John'*  r«  .    ^    *m 
iiTulg^.     In  16:i3,  u)Nm  the  death  of  bi«  father.  I, »    .'  •* 
cettliMl  as  viscount,  and  wan  maile  by  Kinj;  (  h*ri«-«  *- '  'J 
man  of  the  royal    b«M]chainber.      In    ltM4)   hr    wa*     *  « 
mendnT  of  the  Short  Parliament,  and  was  re-*  !.■.?.«         "I 
I>mvc  Parliament.     C>p|»o«*^l  to  what  sremetl  ii.  •  •     •• 
cent's  ancl  i I lejfali ties  t»f  the  (>o(>ular  t«ani,  h«    «•**-• 
linls  in  defeUM'  of  the  kinc  and  in  164i  Ui  an.«   *v  — 'fc"^ 
State.     When  civil  war  bn>ke  out  he  jotntnl  liw  *  •  ^  '.   ^ 
ailmirablv  at  the  battle  of  l<>)ifi'hill,  aiwl  wa*  k;    — t  a 
Ut tie  of  Newbury,  ,S«pt.  20,  HM-i.     He  wn^e  lar     *    ^ 
ti'S'S,  of  which  is  l»ei*t  known  the  thmcttttr^m  n'  tKm  ,*•    J 
hihty  of  the  Churrh  of  Home  (lir«t  «!.  I^tod"**.  !•*»    V 
voliiine  of  jMtems  by  Falkland.  e<iili*d  by  A.  R  <ir  »t  a"  « 
published  in  1H71. 

Falklaad  lalaada  (Malvixas  or  Mau  i\a«  -t  **.-  ""-j 
i*h):  an  archi|»elHC»>  in  the  Smth  Atlaiith  <s«»».  ■•  ■  ; 
K.  of  the  ,StraitS4)f  Mac'Han;  U-twern  .M  ar  1  V  « 
Ittt.,  an«l  tK'cupyinjj  alniut  •f\en  and  a  h.alf  il»,:^«-%  '  -j 
tude.  Kilt  1  n*  an'a,  al tout  6.'i4N)  •*!.  ni!i.-v  of  •■  -  "ti 
in  the  iKJaiid  of  Ka^t  Falk  lam  1  ami  U..tt»»  in  W«--*  Fs  .  n 
U'-Kidi**  tlh-M"  there  an»  f>\er  lUI  «!n*!I  i*i*n  1«  ar*)  '^  -  "^ 
i<H lets  and  HM'ks.     Nearlv  all  are  hich,  atiil  in  tt>-  -  * 

x\\v  two  larp'r  i*«land*  there  are  «i-%(r%l  f«ak«  r-»  *  a  ' 
'J.tMIO  fe*'t.  The  coaHl* are  much  bn»k en,  with  1  ."■•- ■■•  -i 
t^'nU  and  Nwne  extvlient  liarimrs.  The  t  .i'*.m:r  :•  •  1 
omiif^  rather  to  the  fntpient  •t4irm«  thafi  to  («  .  1  Y»«  I 
enoii*  fauna  an«l  Il«»rm  ar*' lioth  verj  [»»«.r  T  ^-rn-  ar»  •  "s 
Hanily  any  of  the  land  t*  tit  for  <ultiiati  -t.  »".t  :  &'i 
excellent  jMLMura*;!'.  SlKfiKfarmintf  i*  tl  e  |  -  -  ^ 
I  nltno^l  the  tmlv  li)<lu*lrT.  Tli»  Fal k iai»  .«.  «  .-.  **  1 
if  roRoiA  «/.  c.i,  fonn  a  cr^wn  (xtUmT  f»f  tirwi  lin*A  -_ 
c<»|l•nl*t^,  iH-arly  all  of  S^>tch  birtn  «c  tJi-^i*  r  t  «r«  a 
tnous  and  pnn(ien>u4,  and  mm«  i«  aliD««<   »;>ar,.  w«. 


PALK  LAWS.  THB 


PALLING  BODIES 


279 


porU,wool,  frosen  mntton,  sheepskins,  and  tallow.  The 
tnde  is  miinly  with  England  and  Uruguay.  Stanley  is  a 
tree  port,  exc«pt  for  liqaors,  wine,  tobacco,  and  a  few  other 
ttucm  of  laxury.  Weights  and  measures  and  currency  as 
a  EogUnd.  It  is  supposed  that  the  islands  were  first  dis- 
curered  by  Davis,  in  11!^  In  1690  Capt.  Strong  gave  the 
uffle  Falkland  (in  honor  of  Lord  Falkland)  to  the  straits, 
wj  erentoAlly  it  passed  to  the  islands.  The  Spanish  name, 
Milrinaa,  arose  from  the  great  numbers  of  St.  Malo  fisher- 
Bfn  vfao  formerly  frequented  the  archipelago.  The  French 
loder  De  BougainTille  formed  the  first  settlement  in  1763, 
bat  io  17S5  Byron  seized  the  islands  for  England.  France 
tnnsf erred  her  rights  to  the  Spanish,  who  drove  the  Eng- 
bali  oat,  and  the  islands  remained  nominally  under  the  ju- 
r.<iictioo  of  the  viceroys  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  later  of  the 
Anwitine  Confederation,  but  without  being  settled.  The 
fnAjA  again  took  possession  in  1833,  and  the  present  col- 
IDT  v»  formed  in  iB51,  but  Argentina  has  never  given  up 
kr  daiin  to  the  archipelago.  Pop.  of  the  islands  (1891) 
L^«.  Chief  town  and  capital,  Stanley  or  Port  Stanley,  in 
East  Paikland,  with  694  inhabitants 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Falk  Laws,  or  May  Laws,  The :  certain  measures  intro- 
fecpd  into  the  Prussian  Diet  by  the  Minister  of  Worship  and 
fiiocatioD,  Dr.  Paul  Ludwio  Adalbert  Falk  {q.  v.).  The 
frst  of  those  laws  was  passed  in  May,  1872,  and  transferred 
K^  fQperintendence  of^the  primary  schools  from  the  Church 
%)  the  state  by  orderin^^  that  the  inspector  of  schools  should 
Ir  a  layman,  and  a  mmisterial  order  of  June  of  the  same 
TW  aiiDOfit  completely  excluded  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
mm  eiercising  any  influence  on  the  schools  by  forbidding 
tb(  DODbers  of  the  religious  orders  to  teach  in  them.  By 
aavof  Nov..  1872,  a  supreme  ecclesiastical  court  was  es- 
tabitshed,  which  enabled  the  Government  to  deal  in  an  ef- 
Artire  manner  with  refractory  bishops,  and  another  law,  of 
Har,  1873,  considerably  restrained  the  power  of  the  bishops 
w^  the  inferior  clergy,  and  the  power  of  the  clergy  in  gen- 
ni  over  the  laity.  At  the  same  time,  civil  marfia^  was 
Mde  obligatorv,  the  religious  orders  living  within  the 
boniaries  of  the  Prussian  kingdom  were  forbidden  to  re- 
mre  new  members,  the  control  of  church  prop)erty  was 
tmnsferred  from  the  clergy  to  boards  of  trustees  composed 
ii  Unpen,  and  a  law  of  May,  1875,  renuired  the  whole 
elff]ET,  inclusive  of  bishops,  to  sign  a  declaration  of  obedi- 
■re  to  the  laws  of  the  state  before  entering  upon  office. 
IW  rt^r  of  these  laws  was  relaxed  by  the  policy  of  Bis- 
■Ank  in  1879. 

Fklk#pla^,  faal'chd-ping :  town  in  Sweden,  Westerg5th- 
Nod :  38  miles  S.  W.  of  Mariestad  (sec  map  of  Norway  and 
SKdm,  ref.  1 1-E) ;  known  by  the  battle  of  1389,  in  which 
ht  Daoish  Queen  Margrethe  conquered  the  army  of  the 
kttlish  King  Albrecht,  and  took  him  prisoner.  This  vie- 
hrr  led  to  l^he  famous  Union  of  Kalmar,  1397,  by  which 
Men,  Norway,  and  Denmark  were  united   under  one 


Pftlkaer.  fawk'ner,  Tbomas:  Jesuit  missionary;  b.  in 
lioHiester,  England,  Oct.  6,  1707i  He  studied  medicine 
al  beeuae  sargeon  on  a  slave-ship,  in  which  he  sailed  to 
Uhfta  and  thence  to  Buenos  Ayres ;  there  he  fell  sick  and 
m  kindly  cared  for  by  the  Jesuit  fathers  of  the  colony. 
I  May.  1732,  he  entered  their  order,  and  for  thirty-eight 
Mn  if  was  employed  as  a  missionary,  at  first  in  Paraguay 
id  Toctunaiu  and  after  1740  among  the  wild  tribes  of  rat- 
p<ua.  After  the  Jesnita  were  expelled  from  South  Amer- 
ail?S7)  he  resided  in  England,  where  he  was  chaplain  to 
r«f«]  distinguished  Catholic  families.  He  wrote  two  works 
I  Sooth  America,  and  a  Latin  treatise  on  surgery,  all  of 
ki-ii  |Hobabl J  are  lost,  but  a  compilation  from  his  papers 
hi  pabUahed  in  1774  as  A  Desertption  of  Patagonta  and 
bjk^oming  J^zrta  of  South  America,  Of  this  there  are 
vman,  Preoch,  and  Spanish  translations.  D.  at  Plowden 
ii2l  Shrop«hire,  Jan.  30, 1784  Hekbbst  H.  Smith. 

FkUary  [Mid.  Eng.  falktee^  from  Pr.  failace,  deception  < 
K.  ftHa'cia^  deriv.  of  faTlax,  deceitful,  deriv.  of  fal'lere, 
Bavv] :  in  lo^c,  a  wrong  notion  resulting  from  an  incor- 
K  pwfnrmAnce  of  the  process  of  reasoning.  Not  every 
tooj^  DoCion  is  s  fallacv.  If  the  process  of  reasoning  is 
kimoed  correctly,  and  the  wrong  notion  rises  either 
tt.  a  biased  and  prejudiced  assumption  of  distorts 
or  from  a  w^ik  and  groping  confidence  in  insuffi- 
it  is  in  the  first  case  an  error — in  the  latter,  a 


A*  tiK  whole  process  of  reasoning  can  be  reduced  to  the 


making  of  inferences,  and  as  the  fundamental  character  of 
all  inferences  is  the  syllogism,  the  fallacy  may  be  defined 
as  the  result  of  some  fault  in  the  formation  of  the  syllogism. 
And  furthermore,  as  all  faults  which  can  be  committed  in 
the  formation  of  a  syllogism  rise  either  from  the  two  prop- 
ositions being  repetitions  of  each  other,  and  consequently 
incapable  of  producing  any  legitimate  third  proposition,  or 
from  their  being  whoUy  incongruous,  lacking  the  true  mid- 
dle terra,  which  alone  could  draw  the  premises  together  into 
a  conclusion,  all  fallacies  fall  into  two  classes  corresponding 
to  these  two  divisions  of  faulty  syllo^sms,  and  may  be  char- 
acterized either  as  a  reasoning  in  a  circle  or  as  a  jumping  to 
the  conclusion. 

The  first  kind  of  logical  fallacy,  the  reasoning  in  a  circle 
— which  in  the  terminology  of  the  old  logical  systems  was 
called  a  petitio  />rtmn/wt— consists  in  proving  one  position 
by  assuming  another  which  is  identical  with  it.  Of  all  kinds 
of  logical  fallacies  this  is  the  most  desperate.  When  a  per- 
son is  caught  by  such  a  fallacy,  debate  must  stop ;  when  an 
^e  is  caught,  civilization  must  stop.  It  acts  on  the  mind 
liKe  a  magical  ring.  A  person  or  an  age  may  move  around 
in  it,  with  st-eadily  increasing  passions,  and  there  is  no  es- 
cape from  it  unless  through  a  revolutionary  concussion  of 
the  whole  mind.  It  is  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  theo- 
logical matters,  and  in  those  nuestions  of  politics  which  it 
seems  impossible  to  solve  satisfactorily  by  tne  mere  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  of  expediency,  without  any  intermedi- 
ate agency  of  moral  principles. 

The  otHer  kind  of  logical  fallacy  is  much  less  dangerous, 
though  much  more  frequent,  and  comprises  a  great  number 
of  distinct  forms,  which  the  old  logic  describes  s^  the  fallacy 
of  the  cequit'ocatio^  accidens^  argumentxim  ad  honiinem,  post 
hoe  ergo  propter  hoc^  undistributed  middle^  etc.  The  general 
characteristic  of  all  these  different  forms  is  the  application 
of  a  middle  term  composed  not  of  truly  constituent,  but  of 
merely  accidental,  qualifications  of  the  two  ideas  which  it 
is  meant  to  combine.  Thus,  in  a  comedy  of  Holber^, 
Erasmus  Montanus  proves  that  his  mother  is  a  stone  in  this 
way: 

A  stone  can  not  fly  ;  you  can  not  fly.    Ergo^  Tou  are  a  stone. 

A  more  thoroughgoing  definition  of  the  terms  will,  in  most 
cases,  be  able  to  destroy  tJiis  kind  of  logical  fallacy,  which, 
however,  has  become  dangerously  frequent  in  cases  in  which 
statistics  are  applied  to  the  solution  of  historical  or  moral 
questions.  Thus  Buckle,  in  his  History  of  Civilization  in 
England,  reasons  as  follows :  **  Necessary  laws  exclude  free 
will  Statistics  show  the  existence  of  necessary  laws  in 
history.  Ergo,  free  will  is  excluded  from  history."  Any 
definition  of  nistory  which  in  any  way  can  pretend  to  cover 
the  field  which  in  reality  belongs  to  the  idea  will  break  this 
syllogism  to  pieces,  and  show  the  fallacy  of  the  conclusion. 

It  must  be  noticed,  however,  that  even  when  a  fallacy  of 
this  kind  shows  a  fault  in  the  construction  of  the  syllogism, 
thus  making  the  incorrectness  of  the  performance  of  the 
process  of  reasoning  perfectly  apparent,  it  generally  origi- 
nates in  a  willful  or  unwarrantea  assumption  of  premises ; 
and  in  his  book  on  logic  Mill  treats  fallacies  of  this  kind  as 
errors  and  mistakes,  though  he  retains  the  name  of  fallacy. 

Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Fall  Dandelion :  See  Hawkbit. 

Pallet,  Nicolas  :  author ;  b.  at  Langres,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Haute-Marne,  France,  in  1753.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  hatter,  and  was  destined  for  the  t>ar;  but,  irresistibly 
drawn  toward  literature,  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  be- 
came a  contributor  to  the  Gazette  de  France,  the  Journal  de 
Paris,  and  the  Dictionnaire  universel.  Chief  among  his 
works  are  the  tragedies  Bamevelt  (1775)  and  Tih^re  (1783) ; 
the  comic  op)era  Matthieu,  represented  at  Fontainebleau  m 
1783,  and  afterward  in  Pans;  Les  fausses  Nouvetles,  a 
comedy ;  and  the  two  collections  of  poems,  Mes  Premices 
(1773),  and  Mes  Bagatelles  (1776).  D.  in  Paris,  Dec.  22, 
1801. 

Falling  Bodies :  The  motion  of  a  falling  bodv,  assuming 
it  to  meet  with  no  resistance  from  the  air,  affords  the  sim- 
plest example  of  uniformlv  accelerated  motion ;  that  is,  of 
a  motion  the  velocity  of  which  increases  by  equal  amounts 
in  equal  times.  It  is  found  that  in  the  case  supposed  all 
bodies  fall  according  to  the  same  law,  the  velocity  constant- 
ly increasing  at  a  rate,  in  north  temperate  latitudes,  of  32*2 
feet  in  a  second. 

It  may  be  shown  mathematically  that  the  general  law  of 
uniformly  accelerated  motion  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  if 


278 


FALEMB 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS 


A  great  Dumber  of  these  terms  and  much  other  quaint 
matter  on  this  subject  will  be  found  in  the  Soke  of  St  Al- 
bans and  the  other  treatises  above  cjuoted.  In  the  fifth 
chapter  of  Cibrario's  Delia  JSconomta  Politica  del  Medio 
Evo  is  a  full  description  of  this  sport :  "  The  time  of  the 
chase  was  either  early  in  the  morning  or  toward  evening. 
The  sportsmen  rode  out,  with  their  falcons  resting  upon 
their  strongly  gloved  wrists.  Wlien  a  bird  was  discovered 
suited  to  the  nature  and  the  habits  of  the  falcon,  the  little 
hood  which  covered  its  eyes  was  drawn  off,  and  the  falcon 
rose  in  rapid  circles  high  above  its  destined  prey ;  if  the 
quarry  was  a  small  bird,  she  then  suddenly  swooped  (or 
stooped^  as  the  phrase  was)  directly  upon  her  victim  ;  but  if 
the  latter  was  a  large  and  powerful  bird,  formidable  in  beak 
and  wing,  the  falcon  was  cautious  and  cunning  in  her  ad- 
vances, turned  and  wheeled  with  great  dexterity,  seizing  only 
the  favorable  moment  to  strike.  Having  secured  the  prize, 
she  swept  in  large  circles  over  the  head  of  the  falconer,  and 
finally  presented  him  the  bootv;  the  falconer  put  it  in  the 
game-bag,  and  then  set  before  nis  falcon  the  food  prepared 
for  her.  Falcons  which  soared  high  and  pursued  binls  of 
lofty  flight  were  called  altani ;  others  took  a  lower  but  more 
extended  range ;  some  were  for  the  inland  country,  others 
for  aquatic  birds.  These  last  were  assisted  by  dogs.  When, 
for  example,  a  flock  of  herons  was  discovered,  the  falconer 
approached  them  secretly,  and  suddenly  beat  a  drum  be- 
fore the  herons  could  get  si^ht  of  the  falcon,  otherwise  they 
would  not  dare  to  rise.  Frightened  by  the  drum,  they  took 
to  flight ;  then  the  sportsman  let  loose  his  falcon,  and  while 
she  prepared  to  seize  the  herons  in  the  air,  the  barking  of 
the  dogs  prevented  the  poor  birds  from  hiding  again  in  the 
water.  Eagles  and  falcons  of  the  largest  species  may  be 
trained  for  this  chase,  and  they  will  even  take  foxes  and 
hares."  With  Eastern  sovereigns  hawking  is  still  in  great 
favor,  but  it  has  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  Europe. 
The  rare  occasions  in  which  the  falcon  is  now  employed  are 
rather  scenic  representations  of  the  old  custom  than  attempts 
to  revive  it.  The  historv  of  this  pastime  is  especially  inter- 
esting, as  being  almost  the  only  outdoor  amusement  in  which 
women  of  rank,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  took  an  active  part,  and 
it  has  furnished  the  writer  of  fiction  with  many  a  romantic 
situation,  the  poet  and  the  painter  with  many  a  happy  illus- 
tration. See  Freeman  and  Salvin,  Falconry,  its  Claims,  His- 
tory, and  Practice  (London,  1859) ;  Harting,  Hints  on  the 
Management  of  Hawks  (1884).      Anoelo  db  Gubernatis. 

Faleme,  faa-lS'ma:  a  river  of  Senegambia,  Western 
Africa.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  tributaries  of  the 
Senegal,  which  it  joins  in  lat.  14°  40'  N.,  Ion.  11^48'  W. 

Fale'rii :  powerful  city  of  ancient  Etruria ;  situated  N. 
of  Mt.  Soracte  and  W.  of  the  Tiber.  It  is  believed  to  have 
been  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  the  Etruscan  confederation. 
It  was  often  at  war  with  Rome,  but  in  241  b.  c.  was  con- 
quered and  destroyed  by  that  power.  A  new  Roman  Falerii 
was  founded  near  by,  the  nuns  of  which,  5  miles  distant 
from  Nepi,  are  of  great  interest.  The  old  Falerii  probably 
stood  at  Civita  Castcllana. 

Faler'nian  Wine  [from  Lat.  Falemus,  pertaining  to  the 
Falemus  Ager,  or  Falemian  District  in  Campania]:  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  wines  of  the  ancient  Romans.  Ac- 
cording to  Pliny,  it  was  of  three  varieties— a  light,  a  sweet, 
and  a  dry.  It  was  very  strong  and  generous,  so  that  it  would 
take  fire  from  a  lighted  taper.  When  new  it  was  very  harsh 
and  unpleasant.  The  excellent  Massic  wines  came  from  the 
same  region,  and  the  two  sorts  were  often  confounded.  In- 
deed, the  better  qualities  were  called  indiscriminately  by 
either  name.  These  regions  still  produce  good  wine.  Prom 
all  accounts,  the  Falemian  must  have  resembled  the  modem 
sherry  wine. 

Falffuidre,  faal'gee'ar',  Jean  Alexandre  Joseph  :  sculp- 
tor and  figure-painter;  b.  at  Toulouse,  Prance,  Sept.  7, 1831. 
Pupil  of  Jouffroy;  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  (sculpture)  1859. 
His  work  in  both  branches  of  the  fine  arts  is  strong,  and  pos- 
sesses qualities  of  the  highest  order.  In  sculpture,  Diana. 
Christian  Martyr  (1868),  and  Victor  in  the  Cock-fight  (1870), 
the  last  two  in  the  Luxembourg  Gallery,  Paris,  are  among 
his  best  works.  In  painting,  The  Wrestlers  (1874),  Smanna, 
Slaughter  of  a  Bull  (1881),  and  Fan  and  Poignard  (1882; 
Luxembourg  Gallery)  are  celebrated.  Member  of  the  In- 
stitute ;  medal  of  honor  (sculpture)  1868 ;  officer  Legion  of 
Honor  1878.    Studio  in  Paris.  W.  A.  C. 

Faliero,  f&-lec-a'ro,  or  Falleri,  faa-Iee-a'ree,  Marino  : 
doge  of  Venice ;  b.  of  an  eminent  family  in  1274 ;  served  the 


republic  in  war  and  on  important  embassies,  and  in  1354, 
when  seventy-nine  years  old,  was  chosen  to  the  dogate,  soon 
after  which  the  Venetian  fleet  was  lost  in  a  great  battle  with 
the  Genoese.  Not  long  after,  at  a  carnival  feast,  his  wife 
was  grossly  insulted  by  a  young  nobleman,  and  in  revenue 
Faliero  determined  to  destroy  the  whole  body  of  nobles, 
who  were  detested  by  the  people,  and  become  sole  niler! 
His  conspiracy  was  detected  ana  suppressed,  and  the  dojr.\ 
after  a  full  confession,  was  beheaded  Apr.  17,  1855.  Hin 
story  has  been  a  favorite  one  with  the  poets,  dramatists,  and 
musical  composers— Byron,  Delavigne,  Hoffnmn,  Donizetti, 
and  others. 

Falk,  faalk,  Paul  Ludwio  Adalbert  :  statesman ;  b.  in 
Matschkau,  Prussia,  Aug.  IQ,  1827;  educated  at  the  Gym- 
nasium and  University  of  Breslau ;  studied  law  and  becaii^ 
a  member  of  the  Prussian  House  of  Deputies  1858-61.  \U 
was  Minister  of  Worship  and  Education  1872-79,  and  in  18*^2 
was  nominated  to  the  presidency  of  the  supreme  court  in 
Hamm.  During  his  administration  of  the  Department  rif 
Worship  and  Education  he  passed  several  rigorous  measure'? 
directed  against  the  hierarchy  and  clergy.  (See  Falk 
Laws.)  Bismarck  at  first  sustained  this  legislation,  but  ^uIk 
sequently  made  some  advances  to  the  ultramontane  party 
in  order  to  gain  their  support,  and  Falk  was  forced  to  ti- 
sign.  C.  H.  Thurbkh. 

Falkirk,  faw'kirk:  city  of  Stiriingshire,  Scotland;  25 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Edinburgh ;  on  the  Edinburgh  and  Gla- 
gow  and  Scottish  Central  Railway,  near  the  old  Roman  wall 
of  Antoninus  and  the  well-known  Carron  Iron-works  (no 
map  of  Scotland,  ref.  11-H).  It  contains,  among  other  in- 
stitutions, a  science  and  art  school,  a  free  library,  and  a  cui- 
tage  hospital.  Its  three  annual  "  trysts  "  at  one  time  wi  rv 
the  largest  cattle-fairs  in  Scotland,  sales  being  made  to  thi- 
amount  of  nearly  £1,000,000.  These  have  been  larcelv  su- 
perseded by  weekly  auctions.  In  1298  Sir  William  Wallace 
was  defeated  here  by  Edward  L,  and  in  1746  the  Highlttiid- 
ers,  under  Prince  Charles  Edward,  defeated  the  royal  trot>ps. 
Pop.  (1891)  16,615 ;  with  suburbs,  25,000. 

Falkland,  fawk'land :  royal  burgh  of  Fife,  Scotland ;  23 
milefl  N.  of  Edinburgh  (see  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  lO-H).  It 
is  situated  at  the  base  of  the  Xomond  Hills,  which  rise  so 
abruptly  behind  it  as  to  intercept  the  rays  of  the  sun  fn.m 
it  for  several  weeks  during  winter.  Th'e  remains  of  Falk- 
land Palace  are  very  interesting,  both  in  architectural  re- 
spects and  on  account  of  their  connection  with  the  histor? 
of  James  IV.  and  James  V.    Pop.  3,000. 

Falkland,  Lucius  Cary,  Viscount:  son  of  Sir  Ilenn 
Gary,  a  man  of  literary  tastes;  b.  probably  at  Burford,  <.>x- 
fordshire,  in  1610;  educated  at  St.  John's  College.  Cam- 
bridge. In  1633,  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  Lucius  ?iu- 
ceeded  as  viscount,  and  was  made  by  King  Charles  gentle- 
man of  the  royal  bedchamber.  In  1640  he  was  cho-^n 
member  of  the  Short  Parliament,  and  was  re-elected  to  thf 
Long  Parliament.  Opposed  to  what  seemed  to  him  the  ex- 
cesses and  illegalities  of  the  poi)ular  party,  he  entered  t  h* 
lists  in  defense  of  the  king,  and  in  1642  became  Secn»tarv«.f 
State.  When  civil  war  broke  out  he  joined  the  king,  fouVht 
admirably  at  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  and  was  killed  at  th»- 
battle  of  Newbury,  Sept.  20,  1643.  He  wrote  various  tr^ii- 
tises,  of  which  is  best  known  the  Discourses  of  the  In  falit- 
bility  of  the  Church  of  Borne  (best  ed.  London,  1600,  4to).  A 
volume  of  poems  by  Falkland,  edited  by  A.  B.  Groshart,  wa.-* 
published  in  1871. 

Falkland  Islands  (Malvinas  or  Maluinas  of  the  S|»hi;- 
ish) :  an  archipelago  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean ;  300  niii'  ^ 
E.  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan;  between  51"  and  52'  45  S. 
lat.,  and  occupying  about  seven  and  a  half  degrees  of  lonr.- 
tude.  Entire  area,  about  6,500  so.  miles,  of  which  3.(HKi  l^ 
in  the  island  of  East  Falkland  and  2,300  in  West  Falklan-i ; 
besides  these  there  are  over  100  small  islands  and  numonn'* 
islets  and  rocks.  Nearlv  all  are  high,  and  in  the  interit»r  of 
the  two  larger  islands  there  are  several  peaks  rising  »K»m 
2,000  feet.  The  coasts  are  much  broken,  with  numerous  <i. » | 
fiords  and  some  excellent  harbors.  The  climate  is  sexi-w 
owing  rather  to  the  frequent  storms  than  to  cold.  The  imi  ■.'.:- 
enous  fauna  and  flora  are  both  very  poor.  There  ar«  no  t  rt^«" 
Hardly  any  of  the  land  is  fit  for  cultivation,  but  it  alTtT'* 
excellent  pasturage.  Sheep-farming  is  the  principal  hi \.i 
almost  the  only  industry.  The  Falklands,  with  Son.* 
Georgia  {q.  v.),  form  a  crown  colony  of  Qreat  Britain.  Th. 
colonists,  nearly  all  of  Scotch  birth  or  descent,  are  indu> 
trious  and  prosperous,  and  crime  is  almost,  unknown.     Kx- 


380  FALUMO  BODIBS 

the  distance  which  the  bod;  foils  during  the  first  second,  or 
the  first  unit  of  time  be  repreaented  b;  unity,  the  distances 
fallen  during  the  (ollowinK  seconds  or  other  units  of  time 
will  be  8,  5.  7,  etc.  It  the  total  distance  be  com[)Utcd  it  will 
be  (ound  that  in  two  seconds  a  body  falls  four  times  as  far 
as  in  one ;  in  three  seconds,  nine  times  as  far,  etc.,  the  dis- 
tance increasing  as  the  square  of  the  time  of  tall. 

From  this  follows  another  law  of  the  fait,  namely,  that  at 
the  end  of  any  period  of  time  the  body  ia  falling  with  a 
Telocity  which,  in  an  equal  period  of  time,  would  carry  it 
through  double  the  space  octitallj  fallen.    This  is  illustrated 


n  it,  the  distances  through  whi 

continued  uniform,  would  curry  the  body  in  a  time  equal 
to  the  time  of  fall,  and  the  acquired  Telocity  (per  second) 
itself : 


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80600 

18- 100 

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mam 

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aa-a 

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lawoo 

8440 

The  law  of  falling  bodies  is  iUuslrated  by  a  machine  in- 
Tented  by  Gi!ORUK  Atwood  (9.  v.).  The  appearance  of  the 
machine  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure.  An  upright 
colnmn  about  6  feet  high 
sustains  a  small  platform  on 
which  the  essential  part  of 
the  machine  rests.  This 
consists  of  a  light  wheel  deli- 
cately supported  upon  largo 
friction- wheels  and  carrying  . 
twoequalvfcights  suspended 
at  the  extremities  of  a  slen- 
der and  Tery  Hexible  silkeD 
cord,  which  runs  in  a  groove 
upon  its  circumference- 
While  these  two  weights 
continue  to  be  equal  the  svs- 
tem  remains  at  r<^l,  but  if 
an  additional  weight,  how- 
ever small,  be  plsced  upon 
either,  this  one  will  descend, 
and  in  descending  will  gen- 
erate a  velocity  m  a  given 
time  as  many  times  less  than 
that  produced  in  the  same 
time  by  gravity  in  bodies 
falling  freely,  as  the  aildcd 
weight  is  less  than  the  entire 
mass  moved.  It  is  common, 
in  experimenting  with  this 
machine,  to  employ  weights 
having  a  definite  proportion 
I  to  this  mass.  Thus  if  the 
whole  mass  is  ainty-four 
^  limes  as  heavy  as  the  added 
I  weight  which' furnishes  the 
motive-power,  the  velocitv 
Aiwood's  mulilnu.  generated  in  one  second  wi[l 

be  the  siily-fourth  part  of 
33  feet  (difireganling  for  the  moment  Ihe  traction) — that  is  to 
say.  6  iiK'hes.  And  ax  the  space  fallen  through  in  the  fir^t 
inly  half  as  great  as  that  which  ex- 
vclocily,  the  weights  ol  the  machine 
e  only  J(  inches  in  this  first  .«ceond.  In  prepar- 
ing for  experiment,  one  of  the  weights  is  loaded  and  raised 
nearly  to  the  platform  at  the  top  of  the  column,  where  it  is 


FALLOPIAN  TUBES 


on  which  the  distancea  of  descent  are  to  be  noted, 
supporteil  by  a  bracket  on  the  side  of  the  column,  is  i-<in- 
nected  with  the  movable  arm  above  mentioned  by  a  meih- 
anism  which  causes  the  arm  to  drop  just  as  the  second-hand 
marks  zero.  Sliding  on  the  scale  is  a  small  movable  bruas 
stage,  which  may  be  placed  at  any  point  at  which  it  is  de- 
sired to  arrest  the  fall.  And  there  is  also  a  ring  sliding  on 
the  same  scale,  on  which  the  load  of  the  descending  weight 
may  rest,  leaving  the  weight  afterward  to  descend  un- 
loaded. The  forms  ot  the  weights  used  as  loads  may  b» 
seen  represented  on  the  left  in  the  figure,  where  al^iii  are 
given  direct  views  of  the  stage  and  ring.  The  loadinir 
weights  designed  to  be  arrest«d  by  the  ring  are  constructed 
witn  arms.  The  others  are  simple  disks  notched  to  the 
center,  that  they  may  not  interfere  with  the  suspending 
hook  and  cord.  The  clock  marks  the  seconds  with  a  loud 
tick.  The  moment  at  which  the  load  is  taken  ofl  by  the 
ring,  or  at  which  the  moving  weight  strikes  the  Btag^.  i?  in- 
dicated by  the  sound  of  the  contact.  The  law  of  motion  is 
illustrated  by  noting  the  points  on  the  scale  at  which  coin- 
cidence takes  place  oetween  these  sounds  and  the  beats  of 
the  clock.  Thus  it.  as  above  supposed,  the  load  is  one  sixty- 
fourth  of  the  whole  moving  mass,  and  the  stAge  is  flxnl  3 
inches  below  zero,  Ihe  stroke  of  the  weight  on  ine  stage  will 
coincide  exactly  with  the  first  beat  of  the  clock  heard  afiiT 
the  movement  bc(Tins;  but  in  order  that  «>ineiden<«  nmy 
occur  at  the  second  beat,  the  stage  must  be  placed  at  fi.u'r 
times  as  great  a  distance  down,  or  at  12  inches.  For  (-('in- 
cidence at  the  thinl  beat  the  distance  must  l>e  nine  times  hs 
^at,  or  37  inches.  In  like  manner  four  seconds  retjuirv 
sixteen  times  as  great  a  dislance;  and  five  seconds  twentv- 
flve  times,  or  75  inches,  which  is  equal  to  6  ft.  3  in.  Tlii* 
illustrates  the  law  ot  uniform  acceleration  theoretically  ■» 
tablished  above — viz.,  that  the  space  is  as  to  the  square  <>f 
the  time.  If,  however,  the  moving  weight  be  unloaded  at 
the  distance  three,  by  nlacinc-  the  nng  at  that  point,  then  ii.< 
subsequent*  motion  will  not  be  accelerated,  but  uniform,  ami 
its  velocity  will  be  3  x  3'  =  6' ;  so  that  it  will  Uke  it  twelve 
additional  seconds  (or  thirteen  in  all)  to  reach  the  sta^-<'  hi 
the  seventy-fifth  inch — a  point  which,  under  the  pr<-vi»ii-lr 
siip|Hised  conditions,  it  reaches  in  five.  See  Accsleeatiuk 
and  Force.  S.  Newcohb. 

Falling  SIcknetW:  See  Epilepsy. 

Falling  Stars:  See  Meteors. 

Fallmerayer,  f^l-me-ri'er,  Jakob  Phiup  :  traveler,  polit- 
ical agitator,  and  historical  investigator;  b.  at  Tschetscli.  in 
Tyrol,  Dec.  10,  1790.  His  contributions  to  the  bistrirt  nf 
Greece  during  the  Middle  Ages  are  of  great  Talue  and  in- 
clude Oesehiekle  der  Kaiaerthuma  Trapezwil  (Municli. 
1637);  Oeschiehle  dea  HalMnaf.i  Morta  in  Millihill-r 
(Stuttgart,  1B30-36).  He  was  the  first  who  assrrteil  ihttt 
the  modem  Greeks  are  properly  a  branch  of  the  Slav.ini; 
family  of  races,  and  that  in  spite  of  their  language  they  Iihvo 
but  little  of  the  blood  of  the  ancient  Greeks  in  their  Tim-i. 
D.  at  Munich,  Apr.  28,  1881. 

Fall  of  Man :  in  theoltujy,  the  lapse  of  the  first  man.  and 
through  him  the  lapse  ot  the  race,  from  the  state  ol  inti'f,Tir  y 
into  that  of  corruption.  The  myths  and  legends  of  ]>a«.i>ii- 
Ism  have  many  parallels  with  the  scriptural  account  ol  th" 
Fall.  The  tree  of  knowledge  is  generally  regarded  as  siiii- 
ply  affording  the  means  of  testing  man,  not  as  baring  in  [:» 
fruit  any  special  objective  character.  The  serpent  is  sim- 
ply organic  anil  instnimental,  the  mask  of  the  real  tempt,  r. 
the  devil.  The  sin  of  the  Fall  is  apostasy  from  moral  fell'  '»- 
ship  with  God.  caused  by  abuse  of  the  freedom  ot  (he  « ,  '. 
and  followed  by  the  loss  of  the  divine  image  and  by  liabili:* 
to  temjK>ral  and  eternal  death  on  the  part  of  Adara  and  lii< 
posterity.  Various  explanations  have  been  urged  as  sutM  1- 
tules  tor  the  historical  sense  of  the  narrative,  both  inani'i-'rl 
and  moilern  times.  The  Ophites  regarded  Ihe  serpent  as  11.- 
camate  Wisdom.  Many  modern  German  thinkers  <-oik«i,  i>  r 
the  Fall  as  a  necessary  part  of  man's  development  in  rra.'-i  ';■ 
and  character,  "  the  happieet  event  in  human  lii»^lory.~ 
Hase  calls  it "  the  image  of  tliat  which  occurs  in  every  mn'ri." 
Nitzs<'h  says,  "it  is  true  history,  but  not  aclual."  r^^-- 
Kraiith,  Cinme.n-ntire  Bfformalion,  !176-4-'t5.  and  Ilini;:-, 
Syelemalie  ITieotogy.  n.  12.3-139.  C.  P.  KBiiTnl 

Fallnplan  Tnhp8  [named  from  Fallopiits,  q.  c).  <>r, 
more  properly,  OvIdiictB;  in  the  higher  animals,  two  r»ii;il'. 
in  the  free  margin  of  the  broad  ligaments  of  Ihe  uterus.  1  i.. 


282 


FALSE  BAY 


PAMILISTS 


False  Bat  :  an  inlet  on  the  east  side  of  the  mountainous 
district  of  South  Africa,  which  terminates  in  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  As  it  is  sheltered  from  the  northwest  monsoon, 
to  which  the  harbor  of  Cape  Town  is  exposed,  it  receives 
periodically  all  trading-vessels  from  Cape  Town  for  tempo- 
rary protection,  and  it  is  the  permanent  station  of  the  naval 
force  of  Cape  Colony. 

False  Decretals :  See  Drcbetals,  False. 

False  Imprisonment :  an  unlawful  deprivation  of  per- 
sonal liberty.  To  constitute  this  offense  it  is  not  necessary 
that  there  should  be  an  actual  incarceration  of  the  person, 
or  that  any  actual  force  should  be  employed  in  procuring 
the  wrongful  restraint.  An  unwarrantable  detention  in  a 
private  apartment,  or  even  in  a  public  highway,  is  sufficient, 
and  there  need  be  no  other  exercise  of  power  than  a  mere 
command  or  direction  to  submit  to  arrest,  provided  it  is  ac- 
companied with  such  a  display  of  authority,  or  such  threats 
of  compulsion,  or  exhibition  of  means  to  procure  compli- 
ance, as  naturally  lead  the  person  accosted  to  believe  that 
he  is  submitting  to  legal  authority,  or  that  he  will  be  forced 
to  yield  if  he  attempts  resistance.  It  is  enoug)i  that  one's 
voluntary  control  and  direction  of  his  own  movements  is 
wrongfully  interfered  with.  False  imprisonment  usually 
occurs  from  the  unjustifiable  exercise  of  pretended  legal  au- 
thority, as  by  arresting  without  process  when  process  is 
known  to  be  necessary,  or  when  there  is  a  mistaken  assump- 
tion that  a  case  is  one  in  which  no  process  is  required  to 
sanction  an  arrest.  For  instance,  a  constable  or  other  peace- 
officer  has  power  to  arrest  without  warrant  if  he  have  reason- 
able ground  of  suspicion  that  a  felony  has  been  committed 
and  tiiat  the  person  whom  he  seeks  to  detain  is  the  offender. 
In  like  manner  a  private  individual  needs  no  legal  process 
to  justify  him  in  taking  into  custody  the  supposed  perpe- 
trator of  a  felony  whose  guilt  is  reasonably  presumable.  A 
private  person's  privilege  in  this  respect,  however,  is  more 
restricted  than  tnat  of  a  constable,  for  mere  suspicion  that 
the  offense  has  been  committed  is  not  enough,  but  it  must 
be  shown  to  have  actually  occurred,  even  though  the  party 
suspected  be  in  fact  innocent  Furthermore,  any  person, 
whether  he  be  an  officer  or  not,  in  whose  presence  a  breach 
of  the  peace  is  committed,  may  detain  the  wrongdoer  and 
deliver  him  to  the  proper  legal  authorities  for  punishment. 
But  whenever  the  right  of  arrest  without  warrant  is  exer- 
cised, a  just  occasion  must  be  shown  to  exist  by  the  entire 
correspondence  of  the  circumstances  of  the  case  with  those 
requirements  which  alone  afford  a  sufficient  cause  for  de- 
tention without  process,  or  the  person  making  the  arrest  will 
be  guilty  of  false  imprisonment  In  all  other  grades  of  of- 
fense legal  process  is  necessary  to  justify  an  arrest,  and  with- 
out it  any  restraint  or  detention  of  a  person  is  unlawful.  So 
an  arrest  is  invalid  and  wrongful,  even  if  made  under  color 
of  process,  if  the  process  be  void  from  some  irregularity  or 
dei^t,  or  if  the  arrest  be  made  on  an  unlawful  occasion,  as 
on  Sunday  or  a  le^al  holiday  upon  civil  process  merely.  All 
who  are  engaged  in  a  wrongful  int-erference  with  a  person's 
liberty,  either  as  principals  or  instigators,  or  those  who  are 
indirectly  its  cause,  as  by  suing  out  illegal  process,  knowing 
it  to  be  unjustifiable,  are  guilty  of  an  unlawful  arrest,  and 
equally  punishable. 

The  remedies  for  false  imprisonment  are  adapted  to  secure 
either  a  restoration  of  the  person  confined  to  liberty,  as  by 
writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  {g.  v.),  or  the  punishment  of  the 
party  who  is  chargeable  with  the  wrongful  confinement,  as 
by  a  civil  action  for  damages  or  a  criminal  indictment. 
The  jealous  care  and  watchfulness  with  which  the  right  of 
personal  liberty  is  protected  at  common  law,  and  the  nu- 
merous safeguards  which  have  been  provided  to  secure  its 
unhampered  exercise,  are  abundantly  indicated  by  this  va- 
riety of  remedies,  and  by  the  strict  rules  which  confine  the 
power  of  arrest  without  process  within  narrow  limits,  only 
permitting  its  exercise  wtien  offenses  of  a  particularly  crim- 
inal character  are  to  be  punished,  and  when  any  require- 
ment of  delay  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  warrant  would 
be  attended  with  danger  to  the  welfare  of  the  community. 
The  high  degree  of  civil  liljerty  which  English-speaking 
peoples  have  developed  and  maintained  so  sedulously  is  an 
outgrowth  of  that  sense  of  personal  independence  and  indi- 
viduality of  which  the  law  of  false  imprisonment  furnishes 
so  ample  and  noteworthy  an  exemplification.* 

lie  vised  by  T.  W.  Dwionx. 

False  Pretenses:  See  Cheat. 

Falster,  faaVst^r :  Danish  island  in  the  Baltic ;  separated 
from  Seeland,  Moen,  and  Laaland  by  very  narrow  straits. 


It  is  very  low,  entirely  flat,  and  somewhat  unhealthful,  but 
it  is  very  fruitful  and  well  cultivated.  It  has  an  area  of 
183  s().  miles,  and  a  population  of  35,000.  The  principal 
town  18  Nykjdbing,  on  the  Guldborgsund. 

Falster,  CnRisriAy :  Danish  poet  and  classical  scholar ; 
b.  Jan.  1, 1690.  He  spent  his  life  as  rector  of  the  sohocjl  at 
Ribe,  refusing  two  calls  to  the  university.  As  a  poi^t  hv  is 
chiefly  distinguished  for  his  satires,  which  were  publi>he<l 
anonymously  at  various  times  between  1720  and  1740.  Hi> 
philological  activity  was  mainly  in  the  line  of  Latin.  He 
made  collections  for  an  extensive  work  on  Aulus  Gellius, 
which  was  never  published.  His  best-known  contribution 
to  scholarship,  a  collection  of  papers  imder  the  title  of 
Amoenitates  Pkilologicce,  was  published  at  Amsterdam  in  3 
vols.  (1720-32).    D.  Oct  24, 1752.  G.  L.  K. 

Falnn,  faa'loon,  or  Fahlan :  town  of  Sweden ;  at  Lake 
Runn ;  120  miles  N.  W.  of  Stockholm  (see  map  of  Norway 
and  Sweden,  ref.  10-F).  It  is  famous  for  its  copper  min^, 
which  gave  Gustavus  Adolphus  occasion  to  call  it  "the 
treasury  of  Sweden,"  as  at  that  time  the  mines  yielded  :i,<MK» 
tons  annually.  The  amount  yielded  yearly  has  decreas(.*<i  t«i 
400  tons,  however.    Pop.  (1891)  8,010. 

Famagos'ta,  or  Famagnsta :  city  on  the  eastern  c^>aNt 
of  Cyprus  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  7^).  Prom  the  twelfth 
to  the  eighteenth  century,  while  Cyprus  was  under  the  Ve- 
netian rule,  Famagosta  was  one  of  the  principal  commercial 
cities  of  the  Levant,  but  now  its  defenses,  warcnouses.  pahu.t  >, 
and  churches  are  in  ruins,  and  its  harbor  is  choked  up  by  sand. 
Corn  and  pomegranates  are  exported.    Pop.  (1891)  3,867. 

Familiars  [liter.,  those  belonging  to  the  family,  i.  e.  tt> 
the  official  family  of  the  inquisitor.  From  Lat  familia  rU, 
deriv.  of  familia,  family] :  See  Inquisition. 

Familiar  Spirits  [familiar  is  vifi  Fr.  from  Lat.  famtlt- 
a'ria,  familiar,  domestic,  deriv.  of  familia,  family,  hou<<>- 
hold] :  demons  supposed  to  be  in  attendance  upon'  fortune- 
tellers, necromancers,  and  the  like.  The  original  Hebivw 
word  (3iK ;  plu.  niSlK)  which  is  rendered  in  the  English 
version  familiar  spirit  or  spirits  occurs  in  the  Bible  at 
least  fifteen  times  (Lev.  xix.  31 ;  xx.  6,  27  ;  Dent,  xviii.  11 : 
1  Sam.  xxviii.  3,  7,  8,  9 ;  2  Kings  xxi.  6 ;  xxiii.  24 ;  1  ('hr«»n. 
X.  13 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  6 ;  Isa.  viii.  19 ;  xix.  3 ;  xxix.  4), 
The  primary  meaning  of  hfalK,  oboth,  is  leathern  lM}fflt\ 
suggesting  the  idea  of  inflation  by  the  familiar  spirits,  wiiii 
some  reference,  perhaps,  to  the  tricks  of  ventriloouism.  The 
Hebrew  word  has  also  two  secondary  senses.  In  some  of 
the  passages  referred  to  above  it  denotes  the  persons  who 
"  have  "  or  employ  familiar  spirits ;  in  others,  it  denotes  the 
spirits  themselves.  For  example,  persons  are  meant  in  Lev. 
xix.  31,  and  spirits  in  Dent,  xviii.  11.  Nothing  is  said  in 
the  Bible  to  justify  the,  inference  that  such  spirit;?  were 
actually  in  attendance  upon  fortune-tellers  and  necroman- 
cers. The  witch  of  Enaor  (1  Sam.  xxviii.)  was  gcneml'.v 
supposed  to  have  a  familiar  spirit.  But  the  cominir  of 
Samuel  in  answer  to  her  incantations  appears  to  have  Wu 
more  than  the  witch  herself  was  expecting. 

Familists,  or  Family  of  LoTe :  an  English  mystic  sect ; 
founded  in  Holland  by  Henry  Nicholas,  a  native  of  West- 
phalia, and  originally  an  Anabaptists,  and  finally  transforri-d 
to  England  near  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.    Thf  > 
taught  that  religion  consists  wholly  in  love,  independently 
of  any  form   of  truth  held  and  believed.    Through  I  ve 
man  could  become  absolutely  absorbed  in  and  identitio  i 
with  Gk)d  in  a  subjective  sense;  that  God  regards  not  thv 
outward  actions,  but  only  the  heart;  that  to  the  pure  hi 
things  are  pure,  even  things  forbidden.    Nicholas,  as  ih^ 
apostle  of  tnis  "service  of  love,"  claimed,  it  is  8ai<l.  sup- 
nority  over  Christ,  on  the  ground  that  Moses  only  pivach«^ti 
Aope,  Christ  faith,  but  he  preached  love.    Much'  misrepn-- 
sentation  of  their  confession  of  faith  (piven   in  Stry}*'- 
Annals,  ii.  57)  brought  out  an  Apology  in  1575,  in  ^h-  ^ 
they  sought  to  identify  themselves  with  evangelical  ('tin^-- 
tianity.    In  1580  Queen  Elizabeth  instituted  an  invest  ij^*- 
tion  into  their  practices,  and  in  consequence  they  wen*  «i;- 
persed  and  their  books  publicly  burned.    They  contim.i  i 
to  flourish,  however,  for  another   century,  and   in   ItVM 
petitioned  King  James  for  permission  to'  publiclv  rl^a" 
themselves  of  the  charges  preferred  against  them,    'fhis  n  - 
quest  was  denied  them,  because  they  were  known  to  \ia\^ 
been  guilty  of  grossly  immoral  practices.    (Baxter,  A't.*  >- 
biography,  p.   77.)     See  a  curious  book  by  J.   R,  (Ji'M. 
Rogers)  entitled  The  Displaying  of  an  Horribh  Sett  f»f'^. 
ifig  tliemselves  the  Family  of  Love  (London,  1579),  ax.*1 


284 


PANARIOTS 


region  in  1872 ;  in  the  central  provinces  in  1880 ;  and  through- 
out the  center  and  east  in  1891-92.  The  famines  of  1838 
and  1891-92  have  been  the  worst.  The  latter  was  due  to  the 
failure  of  the  rye  crop  on  account  of  drought,  to  the  gen- 
eral poverty,  and  to  the  insufficient  means  of  transporta- 
tion to  the  most  afflicted  districts.  It  was  general  in  thir- 
teen provinces  and  partial  in  five  others,  the  population 
affected  by  it  being  estimated  at  27,000,000.  It  was  signal- 
ized by  more  efforts  at  relief  than  the  earlier,  and  the  con- 
tributions from  the  U.  S.  to  this  end  were  large  and  gener- 
ous. But  the  difficulty  lies  too  deep  for  superficial  measures 
of  relief.  It  is  found  in  the  inferior  economic  organization 
of  Russia.  The  deficiency  in  the  harvest  of  1891  was  only 
20  per  cent. — ^about  the  same  as  the  deficiency  in  the  U.  S. 
wheat  crop  of  1885.  Yet  there  was  no  famine  in  the  U.  S. ; 
partly  because  of  the  free  communication  between  different 
parts  of  the  country,  partly  because  of  forethought,  which 
nad  accumulated  supplies  from  past  years.  A  comparison  of 
these  two  cases  shows  better  than  anything  else  tne  reason 
why  famine  disappears  with  advancing  civilization. 

Deaths  in  times  of  famine  occur  quite  as  often  from  fam- 
ine types  of  disease  as  from  starvation.  Thus  relapsing 
fever  is  so  characteristic  of  famines  as  to  be  called  famine 
fever.  Typhus  and  cholera  follow  on  the  weakness  that 
results  from  insufficient  food,  and  where  drought  is  the 
main  cause,  the  concentration  of  bad  elements  in  the  water 
engenders  other  destructive  diseases. 

The  following  table  shows  the  most  noted  famines  men- 
tioned in  history : 


1708-01.  Egypt 
436.  Uome. 

A.  D. 

42.  Egypt. 

962.  Rome. 

872.  Britain. 

806.  Scotland. 

810.  England. 

870.  Phrygia. 

4ri0.  Ital7. 

739.  England,  Wales,  and  Scot- 
land. 

823.  The  same. 

95t-5M.  The  same. 
UK).').  England. 
1016.  Europe,  generally. 
1051.  Mexico. 
1052-«0.  Ghor,  India. 
1064-72.  Egypt. 
1069.  England,  north. 
10K7.  England. 

119^-95.  England  and  France. 
12.51.  England. 

1814.  Silesia,  Poland,  and  Lithua- 

nia. 

1815.  England. 
1335.  England. 
1344.  Decean,  India. 
I»t7.  Italy. 

1858.  England  and  France. 

1438.  England. 

1491.  Ireland. 

1565.  British  isles,  generally. 

1586-89.  IreUnd. 


A.  D. 

1600.  Russia. 

1631.  India,  Asia  generally. 

1693.  France. 

1711.  Camiola,  Austria-Hungaxy, 

several  years. 
1748.  British  isles,  generally. 
1769-71.  Bengal. 
177.5.  Cape  de  Verde. 
17K1-83.  Carnatic  and  Madras. 
1772-84.  Northwest        PrOYinces, 

India. 
1789.  France. 
1790-91.  India. 
1795.  England. 
1801.  British  isles,  generally. 

1813.  Drontheim.  Norway. 

1814,  1816.  1822, 1881,  and  1846.  Ire- 

land. 
1837-38.  India,  northwest. 
186(V61.  The  same. 
186.V66.  Bengal  and  Orissa. 
1868-69.  Rajputana,  India,  north- 

west 
1870-78.  Persia. 
1873-74.  Bengal. 
1873-75.  Angora  and  Konleh,  Asia 

Minor. 
1877.  Bombav.   Madras,   Mysore, 

etc.,  India. 
1877-79.  Northern  China. 

1879.  Kashmir. 

1880.  Asia  Minor. 
1888-89.  Northern  China. 
1891-92.  Russia. 


Revised  by  A.  T.  Hadlet. 
Fanar'iotg :  See  PHAyARiors. 

Fancy  [M.  Eng.  fantasy^  from  0.  Pr.  fantasie,  fantai- 
8te  <  Lat.  phanta'sla  =  Gr.  ^wrwrla^  appearance,  imagina- 
tion] :  a  term  used  by  philosophers,  sometimes  as  synony- 
mous with  Imagination  {q.  v.) ;  the  better  practice,  however, 
would  appear  to  conform  more  or  le.ss  closely  to  that  of 
Dugald  Stewart,  who  says :  **  The  office  of  this  power  is  to 
collect  materials  for  the  imagination ;  and  thereiore  the  lat- 
ter power  presupposes  the  former,  while  the  former  does 
not  presuppose  the  latter." 

•  Fandan'go:  a  national  dance  of  Spain  and  Spanish 
America,  usually  in  ^-4  or  6-8  time.  It  is  thought  by  some 
to  have  been  introdu{;ed  by  African  slaves  into  the  colonies, 
and  thence  carried  to  Spain.  It  is  very  popular,  and  is 
danced  generally  to  the  guitar  and  the  castanets. » 

Fanenil,  f&n'el  or  ffmel,  Hall :  a  building  in  Dock 
Square,  Boston,  Mass.;  built  in  1742  by  Peter  Faneuil,  a 
merchant  of  the  city  (b.  at  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  1700;  d,  in 
Boston,  Mar.  3,  1743),  and  given  to  the  town.  It  was  burned 
in  1761,  its  walls  of  brick  remaining.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1763, 
at  the  expense  of  the  town.  It  is  callod  the  "  Cradle  of  Lib- 
erty," from  the  fact  that  the  "  Sons  of  Liberty  "  held  many 
meetings  there  during  the  early  years  of  the  final  struggle 
of  the  colonies  with  the  mother  country.  The  British  troops, 
during  the  occupation  of  the  city,  used  it  as  a  theater.  In 
180o  it  was  maue  40  feet  wider  and  one  story  higher.    The 


FANNINQ-MACHINE 

ball,  which  is  used  for  publio  meetings,  is  about  80  fpct 
sauare,  and  contains  several  good  paintings,  including 
Webber  replying  to  Hayne. 

Fanino,  fiia-nee'no,  or  Fannio,  Pa  venting:  one  of  th« 
earliest  martyrs  during  the  Reformatory  period  in  Italy ;  a 
native  of  Faenza,  then  in  the  papal  dominions.  He  was  WdD 
over  to  the  Protestant  cause  by  the  reading  of  the  Sri|H 
tures  (probably  Bmccioli's  version,  1532)  and  of  l*n*t  extant 
apologies,  and' became  so  enthusiastic  for  the  new  relipnn 
that  he  gave  himself  to  proselyting  efforts,  which  came  to 
the  ear  of  the  ecclesiastics,  and  he  was  imprisone(L  B^ 
ing  the  head  of  a  family,  he  was  persuaded  to  recant  forth<« 
sake  of  his  wife  and  cnildren.  Upon  his  release,  howevtr, 
he  became  dejected  in  mind,  and  found  peace  only  in  tin* 
resolve  to  openly  battle  for  liberty  of  conscience ;  and  hi'  >et 
out  on  a  tour  through  the  Romagna,  preaching  everyw)un» 
the  Reformed  religion.  He  was  arrested  in  1548  at  Bairna 
Cavallo,  and  conducted  in  chains  to  Ferrara.  DurinL'  liii 
imprisonment  he  was  visited  by  many  distinguished  Itali^ins 
among  them  the  Princess  Lavinia  della  Rovero  and  Olym- 
piaMorata,  who  were  edified  by  his  instruction  and  pravtrs. 
and  took  a  deep  interest  in  his  fate.  But  his  repeated  and 
emphatic  refusals  to  recant  caused  his  condemnation  to  tlte 
stake  by  Pope  Julius  III.  Fanino  was  strangled  at  dn^^n 
and  his  body  burned  at  noon  in  Sept.,  1550.  See  for  int»r- 
esting details  Young,  Life  of  Pdleario^  ii.  Ill ;  McCrie,  i/i*- 
tory  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy ^  pp.  25^261. 

James  II.  Wokman. 

Fanning,  Col.  David:  Tory  leader  in  American  Rov.lu- 
lution;  b.  in  Wake  co.,  N.  C.,  about  1756;  became  tlif 
leader  of  a  band  of  Tories  or  loyalists,  chiefly  of  Chatlmm 
and  Randolph  Counties,  who  during  the  later  years  of  t  !>e 
war  of  the  Revolution  performed  in  Central  North  Carolina 
many  daring  exploits,  tarnished  by  wholesale  cruelty  and 
the  aesolation  of  settlements.  In  1781  he  took  the  town  of 
Pittsborough,  and  soon  after  Hillsborough,  then  the  StHt»^ 
capital,  carrying  off  Gov.  Burke  and  his  whole  suite.  He 
was  one  of  the  three  persons  excluded  by  act  of  the  N<.rh 
Carolina  Legislature  from  the  amnesty  proclaimed  after  \\\^ 
peace ;  escaped  into  Florida,  traded  witn  the  Indians.  Ti\Mii> 
tiis  way  to  New  Brunswick,  and  thence  to  Digby.  Nom 
Scotia,  where  he  died  in  1825.  He  wrot«  a  curious  \4«/<i*  •- 
ography  (limited  eds.  Richmond,  Va.,  1861,  New  York,  IMm'. 

Fanning,  Edmund,  LL.  D.  :  b.  on  Long  Island,  IT^tT; 
graduated  at  Yale  College  1757;  settled  in  Hillsl)ornui:^., 
N.  C,  and  became  colonel  of  militia,  clerk  of  the  suptri-r 
court,  and  a  member  of  the  Legislature;  by  his  exact  ion>  ctf 
recorder  of  deeds  for  Orange  County  provoked  the  hot  n  1 
of  the  people,  and  in  1771  went  to  New  York  with  Cfiv. 
Tryon,  who  was  his  father-in-law.  He  took  part  a>:Hii.-* 
the  people  in  their  struggle  for  independence  oi  Great  Brr- 
ain,  ana  in  1777  raised  and  commanaed  the  king*s  Ameri<  .in 
regiment  of  foot.  In  1779  his  property  was  confis<at»sl. 
After  the  war  he  was  appointed  councilor  and  lieutenai:'- 
^ovemor  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  governor  of  Prince  Kdw«M 
island  (1786-1805).  He  was  successively  major-gener.u. 
lieutenant-general,  and  general  in  the  British  army,  ani 
received  the  degree  of  D.  C.  L.  from  Oxford  in  1774.  an ! 
that  of  LL.  D.  from  both  Yale  and  Dartmouth  in  1803.  1>. 
in  London,  Feb.  28,  1818. 

Fanning.  John  Thomas:  civil  engineer;  b.  in  NorwioK 
Conn.,  Dec.  31, 1837.  He  was  educated  in  the  schools  of  N*  r- 
wich,  and  afterward  studied  architecture  and  civil  engin*^T- 
ing.  During  the  civil  war  he  served  with  the  Third  K*-;:!- 
mentof  Connecticut  volunteers.  From  1862  to  1871  he  n.t* 
acting  city  engineer  of  Norwich.  From  1872  to  1k^6  r  ■ 
held  a  similar  position  at  Manchester,  N.  H.  In  ls.V>  t  t. 
removed  to  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  as  chief  engineer  of  the  Si.  An- 
thony Falls  Water-power  Com|)any,  where  he  has  siikh?  n  • 
sided.  He  has  been  a  consulting  engineer  of  many  wn:.: - 
powers,  of  the  drainage  commission  of  the  valley  <'f  !!■. 
feed  River  of  the  North,  and  of  railway  enterprises,  lit-  i- 
the  author  of  a  Treatise  on  Water  Supply  Engintrn-  , 
(1877;  10th  ed.  1892).  He  is  an  ex-president  of  the  Aiut  r 
can  Water-works  Ass(Xjiation. 

Fannlng-machlne,orFannlng-nilll:  an  agricultural  .n.~ 
plement  for  winnowing  grain,  operated  by  machinery  «>rby :  :•  - 
nand.  The  principal  feature  is  a  rotary  fan.  As  the  sj-^i- 
passes  througn  the  sieve  in  which  it  is  agitated,  the  st  rem ^  «  r- 
rent  of  wind  produced  by  the  fan  cleanses  it  thf>n>iiirri.\ 
from  chaff.  Anciently,  the  wind  was  the  agent  chiefly  tv.- 
ployed  for  separating  chaff  and  dirt  from  grain ;  and  the  n.  ,  •«- 


286 


PANTIN-LATOUR 


FARADAY 


ly  peopled,  and  rich  in  gold-dust.  The  inhabitants  belong 
to  the  same  family  and  speak  nearly  the  same  language  as 
the  Ashantees,  though  they  are  inferior  to  them  both  in  skill 
and  vigor.  They  succeeded,  however,  in  defending  their 
independence.  They  started  an  individual  civilization. 
They  built  large  cities,  such  as  Yankumasi,  Abrah,  Anna- 
mabu,  etc.,  and  they  began  trading  and  manufacturing. 
But  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  they  came  in  contact 
with  the  British,  who  built  a  fort  and  estAblished  a  com- 
mercial station  at  Cape  Coast  Castle.  Their  labor  became 
subservient  to  Englisn  enterprise  and  speculation.  Their 
political  organization  l^ecame  weakened  and  almost  dissolved 
under  English^  influence  and  authority.  Their  civilization 
faded  away,  and  they  became  a  prey  for  the  Ashantees,  who 
in  their  turn  were  conquered  by  ihe  British.    See  Ashantee. 

Fantin-Latonr,  faan't&n'l&'toor',  Henri:  portrait  and 
genre  painter ;  b.  at  Qrenoble,  France.  Jan.  14, 1886.  Pupil 
of  Lecocq  de  Boisbaudran ;  medal.  Salon,  1870 ;  second-class 
medal.  Salon,  1875;  Legion  of  Honor  1879.  A  talented, 
conscientious  painter  whose  work  has  not  attracted  wide 
attention  until  recent  years ;  his  portraits  are  notable  for 
their  air  of  truth  and  quiet,  reserved  style.  Uomctge  to 
Delacroix  (1864)  is  one  of  his  celebrated  portrait  groups. 
Studio  in  Paris.  W.  A.  C. 

Fantoccini,  fftn-to-chee'nefe :  See  Puppets. 

Fan-tracery:  the  tracery-like  system  of  ribs  forming 
panels  in  English  Fan-vaulting  {q,  v.). 

Fan-vanlting :  a  species  of  vaulting  peculiar  to  the  Eng- 
lish Gothic  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  so  named  from  the 
fan-like  radiation  of  groups  of  ribs  from  the  caps  of  the 
vaulting-shafts.  Each  group  forms  a  kind  of  inverted  semi- 
cone  with  curved  sides ;  the  bases  of  these  semi-coues,  meet- 
ing at  points  along  the  ridge  of  the  vault,  inclose  between 
them  horizontal  lozenge-shaped  panels.  Cusps  and  foils 
adorn  the  panels  left  between  the  ribs.  Among  the  finest 
examples  are  the  chapels  of  King's  College,  Cambridge ;  St. 
George  at  Windsor ;  and  Henry  VII.  at  Westminster  Abbey. 
See  illustration  under  Architecture  (Fig.  42). 

Revised  by  A.  D.  F.  Hamlin. 

Farad  [from  Michael  Faraday  {q,  v.)  the  electrician,  in 
recognition  of  his  classical  researches  in  static  electricity. 
For  the  method  of  naming,  see  Ohm,  Amp&rb,  Volt,  etc.] : 
the  practical  unit  of  electrostatic  capacity.  It  is  the  capac- 
ity of  a  condenser  such  that  the  introduction  of  a  charge  of 
one  coulomb  of  electricity  will  produce  a  difference  of 
potential  of  one  volt  between  the  coatings.  A  farad  is  one- 
thousand-millionth  of  the  absolute  unit  of  cajxacity  (c.  g.  s. 
system).  A  micro-farad^  a  lesser  unit,  the  size  of  which 
renders  it  of  much  more  general  application  than  the  farad, 
is  one-millionth  of  the  latter.  The  capacity  of  the  ordinary 
condenser  is  a  micro-farad  or  a  simple  multiple  of  it. 

E.  L.  Nichols. 

Far'aday,  Michael,  D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.  S.  :  scientist ;  b.  at 
Stoke  Newington,  near  London,  Sept.  22,  1791.  His  father 
was  a  blacksmith,  and  his  own  education  he  describes  as 
being  "  of  the  most  ordinary  description,  consisting  of  little 
more  than  the  rudiments  of  reaoing,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic." In  1804  he  became  an  errand-boy  to  a  bookbinder, 
and  in  1805  he  was  taken  as  an  apprentice.  He  read  many 
of  the  books  he  bound,  especially  Mrs.  Marcet's  Conversa- 
tions on  Chemistry  and  the  articles  on  electricity  in  the 
Encyelopcedia  Britannica,  He  also  made  electrical  experi- 
ments, and  went  occasionally  to  evening  lectures  on  natural 
philosophy,  and  in  order  to  draw  the  apparatus  employed 
ne  took  lessons  in  perspective.  After  his  apprenticeship  he 
worked  for  a  time  as  a  journeyman  bookbinder,  ana  as 
amanuensis  for  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  who  had  become  inter- 
ested in  him. 

On  Mar.  18,  1813,  Davy  reported  to  the  managers  of  the 
Royal  Institution  his  engagement  of  Faraday  at  weekly 
wages.  Faraday  subsequently  traveled  with  Davy  on  the 
Continent,  returning  to  the  institution  in  1815.  Not  long 
after  he  became  connected  with  the  City  Philosophical  So- 
ciety, where  he  sometimes  lectured. 

Three  years  after  his  appointment  in  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion he  made  his  first  published  contribution  to*  science :  it 
was  an  analysis  of  some  caustic  lime  from  Tuscany.  Both 
skill  and  insight  are  revealed  by  a  short  paper  on  sounding 
flames  published  in  1818.  Other  smaller  contributions  fol- 
lowed. In  1820  a  chemical  paper  opened  the  lon^  series 
with  which  Faraday  subsequently  enriched  the  Philosoph- 
ical Transactions. 


Oersted's  discovery  in  1820  directed  all  minds  to  the  in- 
teraction of  magnetism  and  electricity.  In  1821  FaraiinT 
wrote  A  History  of  the  Proaress  of  Electro-Magnetism,  ainl, 
thus  prepared,  he  succeeded  on  Christmas  morning,  1821,  in 
making  a  magnetic  needle  rotate  round  a  wire  carrying  an 
electric  current.  To  Faraday's  intense  annoyance  it  wa» 
whispered  that  he  had  plagiarized  the  experiment  from 
Wolliaston,  but  he  completely  cleared  himself  of  this  charge. 
In  1823,  aided  by  suggestions  from  Davy,  he  liquefie<l  chlo- 
rine and  other  gases.  In  1824  Faraday  was  elected  a  fell«)w 
of  the  Royal  Society,  In  1825  and  1826  he  published  chem- 
ical papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transatti&ns,  In  one  of 
these  he  announced  the  discoverv  of  benzol,  which  aftt>r- 
ward  became  the  basis  of  aniline  iyes.  From  1825  to  1M29, 
in  conjunction  with  Herschel,  he  tried  to  improve  the  man- 
ufacture of  glass  for  optical  purposes.  Practically  con^i^i- 
ered,  this  investigation  was  a  failure,  but  the  **  heavy  gla?v>  ** 
they  produced  led  afterward  to  two  of  Faraday *s  gn-uu-xt 
discoveries.  In  1827  he  succeeded  to  Davy*s  chair  of  Clura- 
istry  in  the  Royal  Institution. 

Disciplined  and  strengthened  by  his  previous  work,  Fara- 
dav,  in  1831,  made  his  great  discovery  of  magnet o-t'Intrir 
induction,  opening  thereby  a  vast  and  novel  electrical  u.*- 
main.  Enigmas  which  had  previously  challenged  and  de- 
feated the  efforts  of  the  greatest  men  cea.sed  to  be  eni^ma^^. 
The  magnetism  of  rotation,  for  example,  discovenil  hy 
Arago  and  experimented  on  by  Babbage  and  Herschel.  whs 
shown  to  be  due  to  a  special  manifestation  of  Fanulay'^ 
induced  currents.  In  the  paper  here  referred  to  he  for  the 
first  time  calls  the  "magnetic  curves"  formed  when  iron 
filings  are  strewn  around  a  magnet  "lin&s  of  ma^ni^tit^ 
force."  All  his  subsequent  researches  upon  magiirtMii 
were  made  with  reference  to  those  lines.  They  enabltnl  liirn 
to  play  like  a  magician  with  the  magnetic  force.  guidir.L^ 
him  securely  through  mazes  of  phenomena  which  wit:i!ri 
have  been  perfectly  bewildering  without  their  aid.  1  h'- 
spark  of  the  extra  current  had  been  noticed  bv  Prof.  J<i<.»ji) 
Henry,  and  independently  by  Mr.  William  tfenkin.  Fnr.i- 
day  at  once  brought  this  observation  under  the  yoke  of  hii 
discovery,  proving  that  the  augmented  spark  was  the  y>r<"i- 
uct  of  a  secondary  current  evoked  by  tne  reaction  of  un 
primary  upon  its  own  wire. 

The  desire  to  refer  diverse  natural  energies  to  unity  .f 
principle  is  the  strongest  of  the  scientific  mind,  an<I  in  \si\^ 
Faraday  proved  experimentally  the  "identity  of  eU-oiri".- 
ties."  He  then  passed  on  to  electric  decomposition,  U  ?ri 
by  the  machine  and  the  pile,  and  was  led  to  (^n(']u<u 
though  he  was  almost  afraid  to  publish  the  conclusion,  thu: 
the  amount  of  electricity  involved  in  the  decomix>5itiori  of 
a  single  grain  of  water  equals  that  produced  bv  800.UH»  lii-- 
charges  of  his  large  Levden  battery.  In  May,  ISii^  h- 
published  a  paper  on  a  ^ew  Law  of  Electric  Conduction*, 
m  which  he  forcibly  showed  the  influence  of  the  **  state  <■' 
aggregation"  on  the  transmission  of  the  current,  TJi:- 
led  him  to  a  profound  consideration  of  the  subject  of  el.  t- 
trolysis.  Again,  in  June,  1833,  he  published  a  pap«r  r^\ 
this  subject,  and  in  the  same  year  another  entitle*  1  f /»*  //.r 
Power  of  Metals  and  other  Solids  to  Indues  the  Combina- 
tion of  Gaseous  Bodies. 

Far  more  important,  however,  was  the  establishment  v  * 
the  doctrine  of  "definite  electro-chemical  decomjKisitii.n/' 
He  included  in  the  same  circuit  water  and  fused  chlorid*  .f 
tin,  and  found  that  for  every  atom  of  hydrogen  and  oxvL't'.i 
liberated  in  the  one  cell  there  is  an  atom  of  tin  lil^eratnl  :n 
the  other.  With  the  indications  of  his  voltameter  he  e^rn- 
pared  the  decompositions  of  other  substances,  both  sii;!:<^ 
and  in  series,  and  after  submitting  his  conclusions  to  nur/- 
berless  tests  he  finally  established  the  truth,  ^^that  uvmt 
every  variety  of  circumstance  the  decompositions  of  »r 
voltaic  current  are  as  definite  in  their  charactex  as  th-^ 
chemical  combinations  which  gave  birth  to  the  atomic  thi- 


ory." 


With  regard  to  the  origin  of  power  in  the  voltaic  j  :'• 
scientific    opinion    had  been    divided.     Volta    found    t  >•: 
source  of  power  in  the  contact  of  heterogeneous  metals,  hi  : 
he  proved  beyond  a  doubt  that  electricity  arises  from  <u«.  t 
contact.    Faraday's  exi>erience  had  showed  him  that  clun.- 
ical  action  was  tfie  invariable  accompaniment  of  the  i  u^- 
rent ;  it  had  led  him  to  conclude  that  the  one  was  nrt^fxT- 
tional  to  the  other,  and  therefore  forced  upon  him  tuo  <  • ;  - 
viction  that  the  "  contact  theory,"  as  maintained  by  V.  .i 
was  a  delusion.    The  origin  of  power  in  the  pile  he  referri  - 
to  its  chemical  actions.    He  thus  became  the  stronges^t  pr.l-ur 
of  the  "  chemical  theory,"  which  had  been  previously  enun- 


290 


KAU31KKS*  CLIBS 


FARNAM 


c<iinraitt<^  U\  K't  with  the  Peopled  Partr  national  coraniit- 
ttn>  ou  the  nomination  of  a  national  (ii-ket.  anil  to  hohl  a 
national  ciMi  vent  ion  for  that  |iurf)0!«e.  A  platform  wa.H  al^> 
ail«>pu*<).  For  thr  f»olitu*al  a»f»eclj*  and  prin<*n»lt»«»  of  the  or- 
^iii7j»iion.  M^'  PeoplkV  Partt.  1'.  li.  Tiitrber, 

FArWfni*  Clobfi:  a*'*o<iHtionHof  a#^Tif»iliuristjs  p*nerally 
thivM*  of  some  one  ^Himniunity  or  ntMtfhUirh<»«H!,  who  mtH»t 
at  MattHl  timc^  for  th*»  dixtisMon  of  (jin'*tion>  affwtinp  the 
intj^nM**  of  a(jTi<'i»lt'*r*'.  ■'>*!  mon*  t**»[H»t-mlly  for  t*on>iilerinjj^ 
the  in*'th<MU  of  prtytu-nl  farmintr — ll»e  rtUlive  values  and 
u»^»H  of  ditTen^ut  fertili/i'rs.  tfie  atlnptation  <»f  siMiial  en)f>s 
to  |Mr1irular  «*»iK  the  <h«»uv  of  biv«MN  of  live-.stoi*k  and  of 
variitie*  of  cultivate*!  plant's  and  tin*  like.  S>lon  Robinson 
an<l  lloraee  iireeley  were  amoiit;  the  early  and  influential 
wlMieat*'!*  of  farmer**  elul»s  They  wen*  a'*>*«tiHt«Ml  with  the 
Karmen*'  (Mub  of  the  American  I'nMitute  in  New  York,  the 
diMiiKsion."*  of  which  wore  ft»r  many  year*  printtMl  weekly  in 
lh»*  .\fir  Vftrk  Tnbunf,  and  widely  n*a«!.  .Some  farmers* 
clul»^  have  libraries  an«I  invcMtHl  funds,  and  sustain  rejrular 
<NKirM»^of  lertun*^  in  the  winter  M'aiM»n.  and  in  j;eneral  Imlies 
an*  admitt^il.  The  (-4»n^tituti<>n  and  b\-law»  are,  or  Nhould 
U*.  Minpie  in  plan,  and  the  uuM'tniir*  an*  ■^xial  rather  than 
fi»nnal.  In  many  plai***^,  U'sid*'^  the  rei^ular  diMMi'v*.i()n, 
then*  !•*  the  rea<)ini;  <»f  one  or  mon*  oricinnl  jmixTH,  usually 
aKneuhural,  and  nui!*ic  a4lds  vHriety  to  the  exen'i*<s.  To 
t^Hue  extent  the  old  farmer*' el u I »^  have  Ut-n  eonverttMl  into 
or  nM>li»*-e<l  by  the  jfra^JT**'*  '>f  '!>**  Ptttn»n?»  ui  llu^^bantlrj' 
and  the  fanners'  institutes.    See  Gramok  and  Farmers'  In- 

UTITITI  s. 

FarwenhfTC^iierml :  an  a»MK'iation  of  (lersomt  in  Fram*e, 
under  the  old  monanhy,  to  whom  the  privile^'  of  levyinjf 
certain  taxe«.  as  imfwHtn  on  sail  or  IoImu'co,  or  town-<lue*»  in 
partifular  tli'itricts  wa>  fannwl  or  let  out  for  a  jriven  sum 
|iaid  down.  This  s>st4.'m  of  mi^iiiii:  the  imblic  revenue  was 
emplf*)*-*!  br  the  ttoman  state.  (See  F*i  bucaxs.)  It  was 
intnNlucwl  nitti  France  in  the  thirt4*enth  cenlurr,  when 
Philit*  the  Fair  jra\e  t4)  l>md>anl  Jew«  and  bn)kers  the 
privih'ce  of  collect injf  the  gahrlte^  or  tax  on  salt,  Uy  pn>vide 
meatL»  fi>r  carr)inK  on  war  a^inst  the  Knt;Iish.  It  contin- 
u<^l  to  t>e  emplo\nil  uiuler  various  raodiflcationa  down  to 
lT^<9.  In  1720  tfie  fannen  of  the  taxes  formcnl  a  re^rular 
a^^^K'iation.  (^lle«l  the  trrmr  t/rnrntle,  with  exclusive  man- 
ai^ment  of  the  yahtUr^  the  tax  on  toliaoco»  the  ortrtn*  <»f 
Paris,  and  other  excisH"  duti*^  Thes**  men  accumulattnl 
enormous  wealth,  and  br  bnbinjj  miniMer*  of  state,  cour- 
tirrv  and  funetuMiarifS  o?  all  clii.vM<s  had  influence  enouirh 
to  krep  up  the  ruinouH  •tystem.  Turifot  and  Ne«ker.  in  the 
rrijfn  of  I>»ui<  XVI.,  attfuipteil  to  chanire  the  arraiitn'ment, 
but  the  nobility,  clnijjinjj  t«»  their  privilejre  of  exemption 
fn>in  taxation,  efftHtually  n*sist<Nl  their  efftirts.  Hy  the 
re^oitittotiary  c*»n*titution  of  17111  the  sy*»tem  was  swept 
awa>.  luitl  many  of  the  farmere-ffeneral  were  aftcrwanl  exe- 
cut«*ii.  lietise<l  bT  A.  T.  IlAliLKY. 

Fanner**  lastitatet:  the  seri4*sof  meetinir"  held  in  many 
of  the  r.  S.  under  the  auspices,  dinntly  or  indins*tly,  of  the 
(>i»vrmin»'nt  of  the  |»anieular  State,  usually  dunni^  the  win- 
ter, in  whii-h  the  various  agricultural  oiHTation**  find  the 
various  matters  jiertainjn>f  ti»  the  fnrmer'*  life  anMli»<ML«*MsL 
Thr-  (vntral  ormtnization  u^uulU  i**  \e^tei!  in  s«»me  State  a*f- 
multural  «K'ietvor  the  ai^icuitural  coUcvre,  and  itinerant 
lecturer*  are  •••nt  to  the  various  inc^'tinifH  to  (Mwnwrate  with 
Iht*  h«  al  "*iN«kcr*.  Fjudi  meetiiijj  la^ls  fn»m  one  to  four 
diiy*.  tlunrii;  i»hi<  h  time  all  the  lea^liiiK  agricultural  pnd>- 
leitt^  of  lc«  rtl  iiitcn<»t  life  tou<  hcd  ii|Hin.  AU»ut  thirty  Stntt's 
appntprtate  fund*,  either  din^tly  «ir  thnuich  the  otTKial 
.st^re  fti^ri*  iiitumi  or^Hni/Jitioti.  for  the  mnintenan(*e  of  in- 
•T  *ut*  *  The  noioiiiiti*  \ «ry  •N.n^nlcmbl* .  I>«'inif  h^i  by  New 
York  »i*h  f  I.%.«Mm  |nt  annum  and  Wi'M^n^m  with  $12,W>0. 
►  AU'Ut  |Ht«»,<H»0  an-  now  M»'til  annuulu  in  th»»  l*.  S.  and 
\  anada  for  ihi«  pur(M»-*'.  T  he  Slut**  iri*litut<**»  an*  *tiinulat- 
ifu*  Uie  oru'Ain/.tti"ii  of  iimii>  !♦*<  nl  aiitl  t^iunty  iii«»titiite«» 
ati<l  far»fi' "^  »  iniw.  *<»  ih.tl  t t»c  m'»!itiiti'  movement.  <'<»nsid- 
tr»d  a-  a  »h  »le.  n  .i<  h***  iicttrlt  e\rr}  fanning  community,  at 
!•.*"•♦  in  Mie  Vfrh 

V.iti  lu'h  the  in-'titut*  m*  v.  nv  iit  ha-  acfpnn'<l  the  jrreater 
pi%rt  of  It*  tti-'tiit  iilniii  *iiii  e  iHHii^  jt  ri'.*if*  oru'inatcil  altout 
tfie  mi'l'lle  <if  t fw  ninet«efrh  cfjiturv.  The  pn<*eedinirs  i»f 
th*  New  York  ^K\\»  AkTm  uit'ir*;  >«■  .etv  fof  lH42-4i<  n-«-«inl 
wtiat  1%  jirrlutt**  the  ♦' r»t  r»  *1  <orn'ert«d  efT"rt  t*>  eM.ibh^h 
|t:rifranl  a^cn*  uit-trAl  leittir-^  artd  ii  ^t'-ut  *i'in.  A  »iinil;ir 
tiio^rrot  lit  »**  til  i'lr  \*\  tlu  Ma'«'*JW  ft  j-h  t  •  %  *^titf  littnr^l  of 
Air^t* -il'iirv  in  \<A*.  In  1*^1  ttir  Mnte  li^arl  of  Ai^ncul- 
tur*  of  Ml-  K./Aii,  »hn  h  contp*!*  the  "^tate  Agricultural  r«»l- 


lejfe.  was  aathorized  to  **  institute  winter  c<»upn^  *4  >  •  .^ 
for  others  than  studenta  of  the  institution,  umbr  b**  ^-^-^ 
ruh^  and  n»jfulatituis/*  This  ap(tt*ars  to  tM*  ib*  iir*»  a*  i 
ti»  c<mnect  a  fanners*  lecture-<Hmr*e  with  an  nlLf  a*.  - 1 
stitution.  Ten  years  elaj*se<l.  h<»wever,  lieforr  •u*  s  ■..-  -, 
courses  were  actually  pn)vidtMl.  F»»r  a  fuller  b  *:•  -  i  | 
statement  (»f  funds  expended,  nee  Bailer,  Annalm  *.'  } 
culture  for  ISUL  '       L.  II.  Ba.*ji 

FamlBf :  See  Auricilture. 

Farmlnfton:  town :  Hartford  co..  Conn,  ifor  1^%'  -  ■( 
county,  see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  IMt);  on  Far-  r  i 
river  and  on  the  Xorthaminon  l)iviM<»n  of  the  N.  ^  ,  N  ti) 
and  H.  Railn>a<l :  31  miles  N.  of  New  Haven.  It  fuM  &-  *i 
cellent  schtxd  for  jfirls,  (*stab|i>htHl  in  1H44,  a  ^*i' j^-  cj 
ami  important  manufm-tun***.  The  town  was  4*:*i-.  J 
1640.     Pop.  of  township  (183SO)  3.017;  (IHUO)  a^lTtl 

Faralnfton :  city  and  railway  junctitm ;  Van  Be.-*-  \ 
la.  (for  location  of  county,  see  man  of  Iitwa,  r»-r  7-J 
the  Des  Moines  river,  and  on  the  Ch..  B.  ami  K.  <\,  a- 
Ch..  H.  I.  and  Pao,  railways:  80  milt*s  N.  W.  of  K-*^ 
It  has  a  woolen-faotory,  a  (frist-mill,  raanu factum-*  •■:  :\^ 
bn>om«,  and  truss**,  a  wa^»n  and  carnaj:f»-fa<  ♦*  rr  #  ■  -^ 
li^rhts,  and  water-works.  Pop.  (l**Mb  TNl ;  il*'^'  '  •i 
(IHIKJ)  estimate<l.  1,864.  KDtTi>R  or  **  1 1  imal. 

FarmlBffton:  vilUKe:  capital  of  Franklin  i^  .  V  l 
location  or  county,  see  map  of  Maine,  ref.  7-P»  .  *^ 
Maine  Central  Railroail ;  HO  miles  N.  K.  of  Portia:.  L  .:  -4 
a  State  normal  sch(M)l,  a  family  schcM>l  fi>r  W*\^,  ui  «i  «  1 
hif^h  school,  and  fn^l<^  imblic  schools,  nam«-nii«  r  »  j 
shofis,  saw  and  fO'i'^t  mills,  manufactories  <*f  n  «<•.  •« 
wood,  spool-factory,  several  com-i-anninjc  fa«  t.«n-^,  ax  •« 
tric-li^ht  plant,  etc.  Its  scbooU  make  it  «»n<r  <»f  it  -  ••w  ^ 
ucational  centers  in  the  State.  Princi^ial  bu*inf-^  -  -^ 
tile,  farminfc.  and  dainrinf?.  Po|».  of  township  ,!***'  :  4 
(1890)  3,207;  of  villagi*  (18W))  1,243. 

EDrruR  or  ~<*ii»iBi  1 

FarmlliftoB:  city;  capital  of  St.  Franv^.M  «^t^  M 
I(»cation  of  county,  see  map  of  Mi"*««»uri,  rrt.  5-J    .  .. 
from  the  St.  L.  and  Inm  M<»untain  Kailn«*l ;  <«.  *.  •   1.4 
pike  leading  from  Iron  Mountain  t4)  Ste.  (frn*-i  .*  \  i      ^*  - 
S.  of  St.  Louis.    It  ha^  the  KImwood  KemaJe  ^^r^J. t.»r«    : 
byterian),  Carleton  Ct»llepe,  liaptM  Collrj:*-,  ai:  1  a  *--> 
public  flch(H>l.     In  the  vicinitv  are  mann    ;n.t-«T-*:!    i 
mine*?*,  also  Iron  Mountain.     Pop.  (!**>« b  61  *» ,     :  ***•      *2 
(1893)  including  |K>rtions  outride  city  limit v  at*  •-'      .••* 

Kui-nm  «>r  -  Timta 

FarwlBrtOB:  town  (incoqiorated  in  ITV^^t;  Sxnair  "t 
X.  H.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Xf  w    Ha     -«i 
ref.  8-(t) ;  on  a  branch  of  the  Biwion  ami  M»'.n*  Ka    -  ^ 
mUes  W.  N.  W.  of  Dover  and  H6  mih-*  N.  *  f  lWii<<  1  .  Vj 
10  miles  S.  F.  of  Alton  Bay.     It  has  thrtrr  t  ^  ir     .-• 
school,  and  manufar-tures  t»f  U«»t<*.  »iu)ra«anU  l^r-  *wr 
of  township  (1880)  3,044;  (IHUO)  3.064. 

Et>m»ft  <»r  -  \i«^ 

FamTllle:  town;  capital  of  IVtnrr  l-I^lwrnj*!  •«  . .  \  ^ 

location  of  cc»unty,  mh*  map  of  Virjnnia,  rvf,  7-*» 
way  and  on  the  ApfMimattox  river;  7t>  miii-*  s    \W  • 

mon«l.  and  7  mile*i  N.  of  Hara|iilen>Sidn«'v  « *.  .;  ^-^    «» 
Union  ThiH>loi;ical   Seminary.      It  ha»  a  >!«:•>    «  • 
wt»men,  and  several  larin*  toliaix^>-fa(1onr^  ar».*    «*- 
I*nnci{>al  business,  tol)a(.H.nKrade.     Pi>p.  tl***!   t*^'^^ 

Famabr,  or  Famable,  Thoma«  :  rrammarta**  ^-  \ 

er;  b.  in  f^ondon,  157Ji.     He  was  nlu'^tt-tl   »•    ••-e*    -  1 

came   a    Roman   Catholic,   and   went   to   >|«.r      «•  ^ 
entered  a  Jesuit  colleife.     ile«iMm>fi  it.ar<l  &!•.»-  * 
f¥*neniH*  in  the  army  tlnalU  a^'ttlcMi  at  Man-«  k     -    ^^ 
•ill ire,  when*  he  o(M.>ne4l  a  s*  h«*«»|,     Thi«  un  ii  ^«a      ^ 

srt  Ml4■4'e^^ful  that   after  the  tafM**  of  a  few  v«  a*^    ^    «  ,  j 

to  n'niove  the  inMitution  to  liondon,  w>i«  r»    K  *   «  ^ 

still  ^n*Hter.     His  mIumiI  (Nrntaun^l  m*  rr  \}^ma    a*  | 

nuwt  of  whom  were  »ms«>f  noblemen,  Uiarl  *  ^     -.  •  -^ 
and  mon*  chiindimen  and  stale^men   i*"i.««]    fv  ar 

from  any  other  in  the  ktnirdoni.     He  t  -t*,  %    r*  .  i 

institution  to  hi%  estate.  (Kfonl,  in  Sir^^i       H..     .  | 

annotiiT4'<l  (Nlitions  of  a  cn^at  niimlirr  >f  an>  ;«'«-*   ^      •  «J 

a  Su*f*^*Hfi  i  tram  mat  trum  il^iktMloo,  1641  ^      i*    ^t  •  -j 
ltM7. 

Famaoi.  Hkxrt  Wkuirrr:  Prnf<^4M4' ef  |*  ^     | 

oniv;  b.  at   New  Haven.  I'ooii.,  No*,  fl^  l«v\.»      ^.      ^ 
YaleiA.  B.  lw74  and  M.  A.  IK75k  «<u.lii^j   t-.-^"*^ 


■  ■ 


292 


PARRAKHABAD 


FARRIERY 


1868  he  was  engaged  in  establishing  the  navy-yard  at  Mare 
Island,  in  San  Francisco  Bay.  In  1858  he  was  given  com- 
mand of  the  sloop  of  war  Brooklyn.  He  passed  the  winter 
of  18fiO-61  at  Norfolk,  Va.  In  Dec.,  1861,  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  steam  sloop  of  war  Hartford  in  an  expedi- 
tion commanded  by  David  H.  Porter,  sent  to  capture  New 
Orleans.  The  force  included  the  West  Gulf  blockading 
squadron  and  Porter's  mortar  flotilla,  and  was  the  largest 
expedition  that  ever  sailed  under  the  U.  S.  flag.  The  fleet 
saued  from  Hampton  Roads,  Feb.  2, 1862 ;  on  Apr.  24,  un- 
der Farragut's  directions,  it  passed  Forts  Jackson  and  St. 
Philip  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  destroyed  a  Confed- 
erate fleet  of  fifteen  vessels,  the  loss  on  the  Union  side  being 
thirty-seven  men  and  the  gunboat  Varuna,  which  was  sunk, 
silenced  the  Chalmette  batteries  3  miles  below  New  Orleans, 
and  on  the  25th  accomplished  the  surrender  of  the  city.  On 
June  28  Farragut's  fleet,  after  an  engagement  of  about  two 
hours,  passed  the  batteries  at  Vicksburg,  and  again  passed  the 
batteries  on  his  return  on  July  15.  The  following  aay  he  was 
commissioned  rear-admiral.  In  Mar.,  1863,  he  ran  the  fire 
of  the  forts  at  Port  Hudson  and  opened  communication 
with  Flag-Officer  Porter,  who  commanded  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi. On  May  24,  in  conjunction  with  the  army,  he  com- 
menced active  operations  against  Port  Hudson,  and  when  it 
fell,  on  July  9,  he  turned  over  to  Admiral  Porter  the  entire 
control  of  the  Western  waters  above  New  Orleans.  After  a 
short  respite  from  his  labors,  he,  in  Jan.,  1864,  made  a  re- 
connoissance  of  Forts  Morgan  and  Gaines,  the  defenses  of 
Mobile,  and  expressed  the  opinion  that  with  a  single  iron- 
clad and  5,000  men  he  could  take  that  city. 

On  Aug.  5, 1864,  with  four  ironclads  ana  fourteen  wooden 
vessels,  Farragut  passed  the  forts  at  the  entrance  of  Mobile 
Bay,  after  a  desperate  engagement,  in  which  the  Tecumseh, 
one  of  the  vessels  of  his  fleet,  was  sunk  by  striking  a  torpedo, 
and  335  men  in  all  were  lost.  During  the  fight  Farragut 
gave  his  directions  from  a  place  high  up  in  the  main  rig- 
ging of  the  Hartford.  In  a  few  days  the  forts  sur  rendered, 
and  the  passage  of  bUx;kade-runners  was  stopped,  although 
the  city  itself  was  not  taken,  because  of  shoal  water  and  ob- 
structions in  the  channel.  In  November  Farragut  returned 
to  the  North,  and  in  New  York  was  presented  with  a  purse  of 
$50,000  for  the  purchase  of  a  home  in  that  city.  On  Dec. 
22  a  bill  creating  the  grade  of  vice-admiral  was  created,  and 
on  Dec.  28  Farragut  was  nominated  for  the  office  by  Presi- 
dent Lincoln.  On  July  25, 1866,  Congress  created  the  grade 
of  admiral  and  the  rank  was  given  to  Farragut.  In  1867, 
in  the  flagship  Franklin,  he  commanded  the  Eurojjean 
squadron,  and  was  received  with  highest  honors  in  the  cities 
he  visited.  In  1870  he  passed  the  summer  at  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  and  died  there  on  Aug.  14.  He  was  buried  in  Wood- 
lawn  Cemetery,  New  York.  Among  the  memorials  erected 
in  his  honor  are  statues  in  Madison  Square  Park,  New  York, 
and  in  Marine  Park,  South  Boston,  Mass.  See  Com.  Foshall 
Parker,  Tfie  Battle  of  Mobile  Bay  (Boston,  1878) ;  the  Life 
by  Loyall  Farragut  (New  York,  1879) ;  Capt.  A.  T.  Mahan, 
Admiral  Farragut  (New  York,  1892). 

Farrakhabad':  city  of  the  Agra  division.  Northwestern 
Provinces,  British  India ;  the  capital  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name ;  on  the  Ganges,  on  the  road  l)etween  Calcutta  and 
Delhi ;  3  miles  W.  of  the  military  station  of  Fathigarh,  with 
which  it  is  sometimes  confounded  on  maps  (see  map  of  N. 
India,  ref.  6-F).  It  is  one  of  the  commercial  centers  of 
Up()er  Hindustan.  Lord  Lake  defeated  the  troops  of  Holkar 
here  in  1805.     Pop.  65,000. 

Farrar,  Frederic  William,  D.  D.,  F.  R.S. :  English  di- 
vine and  author;  son  of  a  clergyman ;  b.  in  the  Fort,  Bom- 
bay, India,  Aug.  7,  1831 :  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1854; 
became  assistant  master  at  Harrow  in  1855,  and  master  of 
Marlborough  College  in  1871 ;  rector  of  St.  Margaret's,  Lon- 
don, and  canon  of  Westminster  1876 ;  archdeacon  1883,  and 
chaplain  of  the  House  of  Commons  1890.  He  is  also  chap- 
lain in  ordinary  to  the  Queen.  He  has  published  the  fol- 
lowing works  of  fiction  :  Eric  (10th  ed.  1858) :  Julian  Home 
(4th  ed.  1859);  St,  Winifred's  (4th  ed.  1863);  Darkness  and 
Dawn  (1891;  3d  ed.  1H92).  His  philological  works  are  Tfie 
Origin  of  Language  (1860);  Chapters  on  Language  (1865); 
Greek  Grammar  Rules  (6th  ed.  1805) ;  Greek  Syntax  (3d  ed. 
1867) ;  and  Families  of  Speech  (1870).  His  more  important 
theological  works  are  Seekers  after  God  (1869) ;  Ths  Wit- 
ness of  History  to  Christ  (1871) ;  The  Silence  and  Voices  of 
God  (1873) ;  ne  Life  of  Christ  (in  2  vols..  1874) ;  The  Life 
and  Works  of  St.  Paul  (2  vols.,  1879) ;  The  Early  Days  of 
Christianity  (2  vols.,  1882) ;   The  Messages  of  the  Books : 


Discourses  and  Notes  on  the  New  Testament  (1884):  Hie 
History  of  Interpretation  (Bampton  Lectures,  1886);  Xii>a 
of  the  Fathers  (2  vols.,  1889).  He  also  contributed  to 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  and  is  master  of  a  sin:;ii- 
larly  fresh  and  brilliant  style.  He  delivere<l  a  eulogy  on 
Gen.  Grant  in  Westminster  Abbey,  Aug.  4,  1885,  and  in  the 
same  year  lectured  in  the  U.  S. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Farrar,  John:  b.  at  Alnwick,  Northumberland,  July  2^). 
1802 ;  educated  near  Leeds ;  became  a  Wesleyan  minister  in 
Aug.,  1822;  was  governor  of  Abney  House  Wesleyan  The(H 
logical  Institution,  Stoke  Newington,  London.'  in  1k,1); 
and  subsequently  of  Headingley  College,  Leeds  (186H; :  ^ii* 
secretary  and  president  of  the  Wesleyan  Conferenof.  ili»- 
latter  in  1854  and  in  1870.  D.  at  Heaflinglev,  Leeds,  N.^v. 
19,  1884  Wrote  Proper  Names  of  the  Bible  (18:^9);  A 
Biblical  and  Theological  Dictionary  (London,  1851) ;  Ecrk- 
siastical  Dictionary  (1853). 

Farren,  Wuaaah  :  actor ;  b.  in  London,  England,  in  \>*2'h 
His  father  was  a  well-known  comedian  of  the  London  stai:". 
contemporary  with  Macready,  and  was  descended  from  a 
family  of  actors.  Previous  to  entering  the  dramatic  i>rt>- 
fession  he  appeared  in  London  with  some  success  as  a  siiii^-r 
at  concerts.  At  the  outset  of  his  stage  career  he  {)crfoniH-<l 
at  the  Strand  and  Olympic  theaters  under  the  name  of  For- 
rester and  as  William  Farren,  Jr.  In  Jan.,  1851,  he  lie<  a!iu* 
a  member  of  the  company  of  the  Olympic  theater,  and  'H 
Jan.  13  he  played  the  part  of  Frederick  Plum  in  the  tir^t 
performance  of  Morton's  comedy  All  that  Glitters  is  ^^d 
Gold.  In  1853  he  joined  Buckstone*s  company  at  the  II ay- 
market  theater,  where  he  appeared  as  Captain  AbM>l '.'.•>, 
Mar.  28,  in  The  Rivals.  At  the  Vaudeville  theater,  in  Ju.«. 
1872,  he  played  Sir  Peter  Teazle  in  a  revival  of  The  Schi^-l 
for  Sca/ndat.  In  1875,  at  the  same  house,  he  was  the  ^i^ 
Geoffrey  Champneys  in  the  comedy  of  Oar  Boys,  '»h:ih 
character  he  continued  to  play  without  intermission  uumI 
July,  1878.  At  the  Shaftesbury  theater  in  1888  he  ap|)eart-i 
as  Adam  in  As  You  Like  It.  In  1890  he  played  in  I^m  <J 
Garrick,  and  t^ok  the  part  of  Sir  Peter  Teazle  in  a  tvm^&I 
of  The  School  for  Scandal  in  1891.        B.  B.  Vaj-lentiml 

Farrer,  Henrt:  landscape-painter;  b.  in  London,  Mar. 
23.  1843 i  "self-taught";  removed  to  the  U.  S.  in  1.^)1, 
member  American  Water-color  Society.  He  exhibits  ch u.  t'  v 
paintings  in  water-color.  His  work  is  carefuUy  wr<Mi^^.: 
out,  but  is  somewhat  dry  in  general  aspect.  Studio  ;n 
New  York.  *  W.  A.  1\ 

Farriery  [deriv.  of  farrier,  horseshoer  <  M.  Eng.  frr- 
rour,ferrer,  from  0.  Ft.  ferreor,ferrier  <  Low  lAt.ferra  /.♦•, 
ferra'rius,  shoer,  derivs.  of  ferra're,  to  shoe,  deriv.  of  u*-- 
rum,  iron,  horseshoe]:  originally  the  trade  of  af>plyinf:  ir^'. 
to  the  horse's  foot.  However,  as  all  horse-surgery  ^as  .  ♦ 
the  coarsest  and  often  of  the  most  brutal  kind,  ;>erfnrn.'  \ 
by  the  common  smith  with  the  tools  and  implements  at  han'I. 
it  is  natural  that  veterinary  surgery  as  it  grew  into  a  pn  -'•-- 
sion  should  have  been  called  farriery.  Now,  howevir,  t  * 
treatment  of  the  diseases  of  domestic  animals  is  no  !•  dl-t 
of  necessity  left  to  the  guesswork  of  the  blacksmith,  n  .r 
surgical  operations  to  the  tongs  and  searing-iron. 

Ihe  foot  of  the  horse  is  wonderfully  guarded  against  i^-- 
jury  from  without,  and  equally  protected  against  paii  '  .. 
jars  and  disease  which  one  might  suppose  would  ari^e  fr< :. 
the  tremendous  blows  which  the  feet  sustain  when  trax.- 
ing  upon  hard  roads.    The  hoof  is  a  tough,  elastic.  h<»Tj- 
like  substance,  completely  boxing  in  the  delicate  li>-ui% 
cushions,  and  bones  of  the  foot.    In  the  living  animal  ai  *: 
in  its  first  state  it  is  in  one  piece,  but  after  maoerati<  i.   / 
may  be  separated  into  the  crust  or  wall,  the  sole,  and  t  r 
frog.    The  front  part  of  the  crust  of  each  hoof  is  calleti  t^ 
toe,  the  hindmost  parts  the  heels,  and  the  intermediate  par- 
the  quarters.    The  corresponding  parts  of  the  shoe  have  t:j- 
same  names.    The  crust  ^rows  from  the  coronet,  at  tho  :•  i 
of  the  hoof  next  the  hair,  and  from  the  sensitive  iam:r  • 
which  surround  the  pedal  or  coffin  bone  upon  its  upper  si-i^  - 
It  is  about  half  an  inch  in  thickness  at  the  e<ig«^,  and  .  - 
many  horses  so  hard  and  tough  that  they  hardly  need  >h»»- 
ing  at  all  except  in  icy  weatner  or  when  used  upon   pa  v.  i 
roads.    The  sole  is  a  slightly  arched  dome  with  a  largt*  •*  ;: 
ment  removed,  in  the  place  of  which  the  frog  is  found.  T\ 
horn  of  the  sole  differs  essentially  from  that  of  either  *  I 
crust  or  the  frog,  it  being  more  granular  and  shelly,  wean  •  j 
off  naturally  with  comparatively  little  abrasion.     At   t:. 
rearward  portions  of  the  sole,  divided  as  they  are  by  the  f^-'-  _ 
two  elevated  ridges,  of  a  character  of  horn  more  reaembii:  . 


294 


FARS 


FASHION 


Fars,  or  Faraifttan  [Pers.;  from  Arab.  Fdrs,  Persia, 
from  Pers.  Pars  +  Pers.  stan,  place]:  a  province  of  Persia; 
stretching  along  the  eastern  shore  oi  the  Gulf  of  Persia ;  be- 
tween lat.  26°  and  32°  N.  and  Ion.  50"  and  58°  E. ;  having 
an  area  of  about  55,000  miles.  The  province  is  bounded 
by  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  provinces  of  Khuzistan,  Isfa- 
han, Yezd,  and  Kerman.  Along  the  g^lf  the  land  is  low, 
sandy,  or  argillaceous,  scorched  by  the  sun — a  desert ;  but 
the  ooast-Iine  presents  several  convenient  and  secure  har- 
bors. Farther  back  it  rises  throu^  broad  terraces,  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  high  ana  wild  mountain-ranges, 
into  a  Hat,  sandy  table-land,  where  the  large  salt  lake  Bakh- 
tegan  occurs.  The  terraces  are  fertile  and  beautiful,  well 
watered  by  the  Bunderaeer  (Araxes),  which  flows  into 
Bakhtegan,  and  by  the  Nabou  and  the  Tab  (Arosis),  which 
fall  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  They  produce  tobacco,  wine, 
rice,  dates,  opium,  linen,  cotton,  silk,  and  kermes.  They  are 
the  home  of  the  rose,  from  which  is  manufactured  the  cele- 
brated perfume,  attar.  They  have  iron  and  lead  mines  and 
marble  and  alabaster  quarries^  The  principal  towns  are 
Shiraz,  Jehrum,  Darab,  and  Bushire.  In  this  province  oc- 
cur the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  Pasargade,  and  Shapur,  and 
the  celebrated  sculptured  rocks  called  by  the  Persians 
Naksh-i'Rttstam.    Pop,  (estimated)  1,700,000. 

Farther  India,  or  Chin-India :  See  Indo-Cbina. 

Farthing  [M.  Eng.  ferthing  <  0.  Eng.  feorhung,  deriv. 
of  fearha^  fourth] :  a  British  coin ;  the  fourth  part  of  a 
penny.  It  was  coined  by  the  Saxons,  and  again  by  King 
John  (1210),  but  the  quarter  of  a  penny,  cut  twice  across, 
also  passed  for  a  farthing.  In  Edward  VI. 's  time  the 
coinage  of  silver  farthings  ceased.  An  act  9  Henry  V. 
mentions  a  gold  farthing.  Copper  farthings  were  first 
struck  in  16o5 ;  tin  farthings  appeared  in  1684  and  1692 ; 
half  farthings  were  coined  in  1843  and  1852.  A  farthing  is 
worth  about  half  a  cent. 

Farthingale,  or  (obs.  form)  Fardingale:  See  Crino- 
line. 

Fasano,  f&-saa'n5 :  town  in  Southern  Italy ;  province  of 
Apulia ;  on  the  road  from  Bari  to  Brindisi  (see  map  of  Italy, 
ref.  7-H).  It  is  celebrated  for  its  olive  plantations,  and 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  produce.  But  in  the  sum- 
mer the  flies  become  such  a  plae^e  as  to  drive  away  most 
of  the  inhabitants  to  the  neighboring  La  Selva,  on  the 
hills.    Pop.  18,500. 

Fas'ces  [  =  Lat.  fasces,  plur.  of  fas'ciSy  bundle]:  a 
bundle  of  rods  of  birch  or  elm,  sometimes  having  an  ax 
(securia)  tied  up  within  it.  Such  fasces  were  borne  by  the 
lictors  before  the  superior  magistrates  of  ancient  Rome. 
The  ancient  kings,  the  consuls,  the  prtBtors,  the  dictators, 
ete.,  had  the  fasces  carried  before  them  ;  while  the  quaestors 
had  this  distinction  in  the  provinces  only.  Generals  who 
had  been  saluted  as  imperatores  had  fasces  crowned  with 
laurel,  a  custom  anciently  observed  with  some  of  the  other 
magistrates.  The  number  of  the  fasces  and  lictors  varied 
with  the  rank  of  the  dignitary,  and  was  different  in  differ- 
ent ages. 

Fa8'eia  [from  Lat.  fas' da,  bandage ;  cf.  Fasces]  :  in  the 
anatomy  of  man  and  most  of  the  vertebrate  animals,  a  lami- 
nated tissue  of  fibrous  or  aponeurotic  character  found  in 
nearljr  all  parts  of  the  bodjr.  There  are  two  kinds,  the  su- 
perficial and  the  deep  fascitp.  The  superficial  fascia  lies 
under  the  skin,  is  of  varying  thickness,  and  is  disposed 
into  several  layers  of  fibro-areolar  substance,  contiiiiiing 
particles  and  layei*s  of  fat.  Between  its  layers  blood-vessels 
and  nerves  run.  Its  fat  serves  to  keep  the  body  warm.  The 
deep  fascias  are  composed  of  unyielding  fibrous  substance. 
They  sheathe  the  several  musc;les  and  the  entire  limbs  (apo- 
neuroses of  investment),  or  serve  instead  of  bones  for  the 
insertion  of  certain  mus<:les  (aponeuroses  of  insertion). 

Fascination  by  Serpents :  a  power  of  so  charming  weak 
animals  by  the  eyes  and  movements  of  l)ody  that  they  are 
easily  secured  as  prey.  This  is  not  a  blind,  overpowering 
force,  but  one  which  the  doomed  animal  seems  partly  to  ap- 
preciate, and  yet  is  unwilling  to  resist  entirely.  '  Squir- 
rels, mice,  and  the  weaker  birds  are  the  animals  which  are 
most  often  captivated  by  this  power.  They  are  described 
as  running  in  front  of  the  fascinator  by  short  vibrations 
of  distance  or  passing  round  in  a  circle,  gradually  short- 
ening the  intervals  until  they  are  seized  by  the  serpent. 
Often  the  animal  during  the  prcn-ess  utters  piercing  cries, 
as  if  aware  of  its  danger,  and  yet  unable  to  resist.  Some- 
times a  diversion  of  the  animal's  attention  by  a  sudden 


noise,  or  the  interposition  of  some  material  obstruction  t^i 
the  vision,  breaks  the  charm  and  sets  the  captive  free. 

Unfortunately,  thoroughly  full  and  accurate  accounts,  by 
good  observers,  who  have  witnessed  the  fascinati<m  of  a  hinl 
by  a  serpent  from  beginning  to  end,  are  practically  lac  kin-, 
but  there  would  seem  to  be  several  more  or  less'  plausii tit- 
explanations  of  the  phenomenon.  Many  animab«  an*  t-i- 
tremely  curious,  and  are  attracted  by  any  unfamiliar  (.bj*. ; 
or  unusual  sound.  A  familiar  example  of  this  is  the  mac- 
ner  in  which  wild  ducks  are  attracted  by  the  antics  of  m 
dog.  which  has  been  trained  to  gambof  in  front  of  j 
"  blind ''  and  thus  draw  ducks  within  gunshot.  Squills  ar. 
caught  with  bits  of  looking-glass,  the  electric  light  is  u^.i 
with  great  siiccess  to  attract  fishes,  and  many  others  }»r.* 
readily  at  artificial  baits  which  resemble  nothing  in  nature* 
The  antipathy  of  birds,  and  especially  small  ones,  for  nwU 
is  well  known,  and  monkeys  appear  to  have  much  the  san.*- 
feeling  toward  a  snake,  being  at  once  terrified  and  attract*-*] 
by  the  reptile.  It  may  happen  that  the  snake's  oriifina. 
intention  was  to  secure  the  young  of  the  bird  or  mou«<^  th.it 
ultimately  becomes  his  prey,  and  that  in  the  efff>rt  t*- 
frighten  or  coax  the  enemy  away  from  the  ricinitv  of  tiir 
nest  or  burrow  one  of  the  parents  becomes  a  victim  in- 
stead. Or  the  birds  or  squirrels  may  at  first  be  attm*  r.'.i 
toward  the  serpent  by  curiosity,  or  by  the  same  impu!^ 
which  leads  birds  to  mob  an  owl,  and  as  they  flit  back  ar.i 
forth,  and  circle  around  the  snake,  screaming  with  t<^rr«  r 
and  anger,  becoming  more  and  more  excited  all  the  time, 
an  incautious  move  brings  one  within  striking  distanc^e. 

There  is  still  another  possible  explanation:  It  b*  w»l,' 
known  that  the  common  hen  mav  be  readily  hypnoti/.-i. 
and  music  seems  to  have  much  the  same  effect  on  si  n.r- 
small  mammals,  rendering  them  incapable  of  niovem*  n*. 
The  first  approach  of  bird  or  mammal  toward  the  snake  iwiw 
be  caused  by  curiosity,  but  once  sufficiently  near,  the  sriaki 
may,  even  without  himself  being  aware  of  it,  exert  a  hyj.iM- 
tizing  influence,  and  seeing  his  prey  within  reach  natiiraih 
avails  himself  of  the  opportunity.  F.  A.  L.rrA>. 

Fascines  [Fr.,  from  Lat.  fas'cina,  a  bundle]:  bundle*  .f 
brushwood  tied  together.  These  are  formed  into  mattn-M  - 
for  the  construction  of  levees  and  jetties,  and  sometimes  fMr 
breakwaters,  and  in  marshy  places  for  the  foundation  '.f 
piers  of  bridges. 

Fasliion  [M.  Eng.  fa«own,  fadoun,  shape,  manner,  frnm 
0.  Fr.  faceoii,  fa^on,  thing  made,  making  <  l^X.f actio,  fn^- 
iio'nem,  a  making,  deriv.  of  fa  cere,  make.  Cf.  Fa(Tor]  :  ri.f 
peculiar  shape,  make,  or  style  of  anything.  The  etymol.u'^ 
of  the  word  points  to  special  characteristics  caused  bj  ♦!;• 
composition  or  construction  of  anything,  and  this  i^  tiu 
original  force  of  the  term ;  thus  Thi  Fashion  of  Funniurr 
was  the  well-chosen  title  of  an  essay  on  fltting  and  «j>ir— 
priate  design  in  modem  domestic  interiors.  Nearly  akiii  ^. 
this  is  the  most  usual  meaning,  namely,  the  rapidly  ohai.-:- 
ing  character  of  dress,  or  of  table  furniture,  or  of  h«.u^- 
decoration,  or  of  writing-paper,  visiting-cards,  or  any  m- 
pendage  of  easier  and  more  elegant  life.  A  bonnet  wh'  : 
was  in  fashion,  that  is,  in  the  accepted  character  or  stylf  .'t 
the  day,  in  1860,  looked  very  odd  in  1890 :  the  fashion,  {\>  t 
is  that  special  character  or  style  to  which  the  bonm't  wr> 
made  to  conform.  The  reign  of  fashion  is  the  arbitn.-} 
imposing  of  this  character  or  style  upon  every  womaiu  i'' 
matter  what  her  complexion  or  stature,  under  penalty  i  f 
seeming  ridiculous;  and,  in  like  manner,  its  im(H><:'ti  r\ 
upon  every  man,  every  carriage,  the  interior  (»f  every  n-". 
OI  anv  elegance.  In  fashion  or  in  the  fashion  mean*  '• 
accordance  with  the  accepted  character  or  style,  when  <..  • 
of  any  object ;  or,  when  applied  to  a  person  it  means  fli.t  !»•«:. 
gloved,  and  having  jewelry,  etc.,  in  acconlance  with  thr  ;u  ~ 
cented  character  or  style  of  each  object  of  ap|iarel. 

The  extent  to  which  changes  of  fashion  are  carrio!  i^ 
very  curious.    Thus  in  jewelry,  coral  either  is  or  is  ik  ♦    - 
beautiful  and  effective  material  for  necklaces,  earring>,«t« 
If  it  is  not  so,  why  was  it  in  use  so  freely  before  1875  f    It    • 
is  so,  why  was  it  wholly  neglected  and  despised  for  :j  . 
fifteen  years  thereafter  f    Or  if  pink  coral  is  l)ecorainsr  t 
one  person  and  not  to  another,  why  is  it  worn  by  all  m  S  • 
in  fashion,  and  abandoned  by  all  when  the  fashion  chans?^ 
Earrings  in  the  form  of  long  pendants  may  be  thou^-  : 
highly  l>ecoming  to  one  woman,  and  large,  light  hoop-*  .-»- 
rings  becoming  to  another,  and  a  third  will  do  well  to  lu^ 
no  earrings  at  all ;  but  fashion  decides  that  all  women  ^r  a 
wear  pendants  from  1860  to  1870.  that  all  shall  wear  «n!:i . 
knobs  or  buttons  hugging  the  lobe  of  the  ear  close  fn;- 


296 


FAST  FKKIOHT  LINE 


PASTING 


llflh  erntury  ;  it  was  first  institutcnl  in  Vienn©  in  France,  to 
MvomfiAnT  a  sv«M»n  of  9|%H.'ial  rt>pit ions  (fN>t it  ions)  that  Qod 
Wdultl  withdraw  certain  teni(M>ral  chikHtisementH.  It  was 
pn^iiably  Axvtl  tMvaiiM*  of  it»  bipiiif?  a  nuH^t  introduction  to  a 
jfTvat  fi^tj\al.  Fourth,  every  hViday,  this  day  being  the 
w«t*klv  cunin^'moration  of  the  crucitixion,  even  a«  the  first 
day,  the  Ixinrn  l>ay.  in  a  joyful  remembrance  of  hit*  resur- 
n»<^ti(»fi.  Fifth,  the  vi^jiU  on  the  eves  <»f  certain  (freat  fcjsti- 
▼aK  At  one  time  these  vipils  were  literally  kept  as  watches, 
lh«*  whole  nitfht,  or  a  |>art^  (leing  spent  in  devotions  in  the 
rhuffht**.  They  are  not  so  kept  n«»w.  Advent,  the  four 
wci't*  U»forr  Chri'ttmas,  U^n*  M>me  analogy  to  I^i'nt,  but  its 
Wt<«lnt*>iiay9  and  Fridays  are  alone  kept  as  fa^ts.  The 
I*r«>t«-*tanl  KpLS(^>pal  Church  in  the  V.  S.  follows  the  Angli- 
can rule,  excepting  that  vigils  an*  not  imposed,  though  in 
the  new  Stamlard  (1H92)  rwognition  of  the  "eves**  or 
•*vigiii*'is  found.  In  the  Kiigli.*«h  and  American  prayer- 
bo«»k<4  the  "Table  of  Fa-^ts"  compris*^  Ash  Wwlne«<lay  and 
({•mmI  Friday,  while  the  "other  days  of  fasting  on  which  the 
I'hurch  nnpiires  such  a  niea.Hu re  of  al)stinence  as  is  more 
e*|>e«M«lly  suit4<<l  to  extraordinary  acts*  and  exereise«  of  de- 
votion "•are : 

I.  The  forty  days  of  Ijent. 

II.  The  Krnl)ef  Days  at  the  four  seasons,  l)eing  the 
Weilnesiiay,  Friday,  and  Saturday  after  the  first  Sunday  in 
Lent,  after  the  Feast  of  I*eiitiH«>Ht  (\Vhiti»un<lay).  after  H<»ly 
Cr*>*w  Day  <Sept.  U),  and  after  St.  Lucv's  Dav  U>ec.  13). 

IIL  In  the  lioman  Catholic  Church  Fridays,  outside  of 
the  above-mentioned  fasting-seasons,  art*  simply  da>s  of  ab- 
stinence. The  ot)servun<*e  of  the  li«>gation  fai«t  ha«  varied 
greatly,  and  ha«t  general iv  ceaMxl. 

The  rule  of  the  Orthodox,  the  Annenian.  and  other 
ohurohes  of  the  Ka^t  is  nearlv  like  that  of  the  Western,  hav- 
ing the  same  origin,  that  oi  the  usage  Ijefttre  the  M^hism, 
but  in  some  details  they  differ — e.  g.,  in  the  Holy  Orthodox 
Church  on  Aug.  1  begins  the  fast  of  the  Mother  of  God, 
which  lai«ts  until  the  tvuni  of  her  reji«>He — fourte«.»n  days.  It 
is  t4>  be  ol»M»rved,  however,  that  in  the  Ka^t  the  strict  idea 
of  a  ihst  iH  preM»r%'e«l  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  the  Went. 
Frv>in  earliei«t  times  a  dintinction  in  food  was  recognize«l, 
and  allowance  ma«le  for  those  who  through  bodily  weakness 
could  not  wholly  aliAtain.  To  whatever  uue.  it  is  a  fact  that 
in  the  West  the  rules  of  fasting  have  always  been  mon* 
lenient  than  in  the  Vjisii,  Very  few  of  the  days  sf>oken  of 
as  fajitnlavN  are  strictly  such;  they  are  davs  of  abstinence, 
when  less  Unnl  and  of  a  coarser  character  is  taken.  In  the 
Holy  Orth'Mlox  Church  266  days  in  the  year  are  kept  as  fasts 
with  "«.*rupuhius  fidelity. 

A  pHM'titv  so  universal  as  that  of  facing  must  be  based 
«»n  ^»iue  n<'<'e^'*ity  of  man.  Nevertheh-nH,  the  objei'tion  is 
*  aonK'tumii  htNird  that  it  tends  to  spiritual  pride  and  for- 
malism. Thi«  must  be  granted,  but  abuse  is  no  argument 
agam<  due  um\  A  Cnri'^tian,  who  knows  that  his  I^ml 
joiiu^il  titgrther  prayer  and  fasting,  can  hardly  atlvaniv  the 
obji*('tion.  It  is  al«*»  oljjwted  that  health  is /nnjuently  in- 
lurv«l  hy  religious  fasting.  It  may  \te  so.  Hut  on  the  other 
hand.  It  4>an  ailmit  of  no  doubt  that  in  an  age  and  c«>untry 
parth'ularly  luxurious  a  stated  at>*ttinem*e  from  ftMnl,  a 
W(*<*kly  putting  ahide  of  st*lf-indulgenc«\  an<l  sup(K>rting  the 
Uidy  tiu  plnitier,  le^**  attrm'tive  ftKMl.  would  go  far  towanl 
fn<itrig  m-n  fr»m  many  of  the  eviln  that  wait  on  appetite. 
N-<*  Ki^TiHti.  K4*vi«4'<l  by  Willuh  Stkvkxs  Perry. 

Fast  Frf  Ickt  Line  :  an  organization  for  i^rompt  delivery 
of  tlir  •  .t;h  fnight.  It  has  two  fi>riiiN  the  ituorfMirat^sl  or 
U'tn  <^>-o;-ri»iiw  <ine.  which  i»  very  niurh  like  an  expn*^ 
(<>'iit*an\.  iiiikiiig  ixiiitnu'tH  on  it*i  own  acenunt  with  the 
•tiii>|«  r*  aiitl  In  Mig  n-sfM.n^ilile  f«»r  the  j^imnU  re*'eiv«Ml.  It 
d.if'f*  fn-rn  an  ex|»n>H4  (Nnn|>aiiy  chiefly  in  handling  Ini'^'i- 
ti' -'  in  j.»r^'t  r  h-ilU.  iiihI  not  oet-upving  itself  with  the  cul- 
h '  t  ofj  aihI  dtliti-rv  of  piirxeN.  The  more  eoiniuoii  ft»rm  *»f 
fr»  .:ht  iirif.  known  hh  th«'  c«>-<»|M'riitive  line.  i%  not  a  com- 
piMi  at  All.  but  an  nrriingeiueiit  tM*t  wi  <  n  ennntn  iing  n>.uU 
f, .f  r»  i-'^ti'i^  r.ir  fnilra;.i'  lo  ••iii-  hhuIIh  r  aiid  tm<  tiik*  tin*  rr- 
•;"'rt«,f'..;M  ft-r  ii*>»*  or  •l.ini.i;;!*  «»f  *;imm1-..  .\I.w.|  fr»  ;^'lit  linei 
*rt  *>(  till*  ki'id.  Tl»i'\  htt>e  till*  uiKtinlA/i',  tin  ri<in(Mri«i 
wi'tiih**  iiM  .trin'mtiil  litu',  iif  oIloHtnt:  no  o(t|»tr*uiiit\  for 
m-Me  rift.:'*  to  rniiWe  unfair  prulit^;  !lir\  h.iM'  the  di*^wi- 
*  *i,Iaj«'  tf  gniiii*  llie  ^iii|>|H<r  l»  •**  •••.nn*!  fur  r» '*|M*n*il»le 
tr»  »'  •■  f  n' .  J'  v-'-iU'  U  a-  li«*  i*  d*  nl.iitr  *  '  h  a  miinU  r  i*f  dif- 
fi  r  nt  r*iilrm»*l^  in-t^  ud  of  a  oii.^m-  in*  <ir}>*  ra'^-ii  <  i>iii(uir.v. 

A.  T.    li  At'Ll  ). 

Fasti  ( I^t.  t^\  (/i  fM).  i\mTi'*\n\\  It**  r,,  1a*  ful  d  iw  f^lur. 
ttt  f*t*  /•!«.  U»ful,  deriv.  of  /(u,  dnirie  r.^'hl,  U»,  tUrw.  of 


/art,  speak] :  the  oourt-dars  or  fesdival-days  of  thr  a-  ••«< 
Romans.  In  accordance  with  the  derivation,  ti*^9  /  •<.  ««^ 
days  on  which  it  was  allowed  to  speiU,  hrntv  da^*  •  <i  «-  t 
judgment  could  be  pronounced,  on  which  <Hi«rt«  .  .  4 
held— court-<lavs.  A  dies  ne/astwi  therrfofv  a«ii. '  .  *{ 
oj)posite,  and  </iVs  ne fasti  wen»  e»te*»roed  unlwk^  iU'»  Ti 
the  dies  fasti  Ixdtmged  the  dies  comttutl^s  :  to  ttt'  it^i  «( 
fastis  the  dies  religiosi^  which  wen*  con*iderr<l  lUt*  *  ■•>{ 
omen.    The  institution  of  thcwe  davs  is  aH*nt«nl  t  >  \   -| 

« 

I'ompilius,  and  belongs  therefon*  to  the  cariic^  cLi<«  ^ 
Rome.  Their  onler  or  succewion  was  long  kn<»wo  -.  -  ( 
the  priests,  who  thus  ac<|uired  great  |M>hti<*al  f»'W.-  .--i 
Cn.  rlavius  made  it  public  about  3(M  a.  c.  Fn'iu  f  .•  ;  -i 
onward  the  lists  of  i\w  dies  fasti  et  n*  fasti  m^-*«l  a  1 
particular  attention,  and  eontaine<l,  gra(luall]k  rnUrc^t  m 
perfected,  an  accurate  deetcription  of  the  whi-lr  i-*/  * 
cording  to  its  months,  with  exact  spe«Mfi<«tion  *i  ts  *i 
fastis  dies  romitiales — festivals  and  holidays,  d«T «  af  ■  -.  ^ 
icjr  the  celebration  of  public  games,  etc.  Thu«  i*  •  « 
suiniHl  the  form  of  the  later  calendam  or  aiinaft*  *  \ 
they  were  still,  notwithstanding  the  car?  takrn  in  t*-- 1-  -rij 
araiion,  unavoidably  inaccurate  and  imiM^rft^-t.  we  v*  \ 
of  (^a«ar  ** fastos  correxiC*  ©tc.  As  the  fai»ti  i^r  » •- '  -^^ 
of  ancient  Rome  were  engrared  on  stone  and  art  up  u.  *.  .  { 

f>Iace8,  remnants  or  fragments  of  such  rm»rti*,  n  -  1 
ess  complete,  have  been  preserved  ami  put  t^nrrtK-f.  -.  -j 
der  to  produce  as  perfect  a  representation  as  fMrn^it  .•  •  f  \ 
of  these  ancient  Roman  calendam  or  almanat^  If  '*•  ^ 
dinary  fasti  or  calendaria  are  valuable  asaffon-.iT«;  a 
rect  Knowle<lge  of  the  Roman  year,  much  itn.rt  i-  i-ri 
are  those  which  Livy  calls**  faAti'c<«nsulars^"atjtj  **. 
cause  thev  were  set  up  on  the  Capitoline.  are  al«>  e&!  <.  ai 
t^dint  The  Fasti  Canitolini  contain  lists  «>f  th#  ai.*^  k  «j 
sub*,  of  the  cens«)rs,  uietators,  magiMri  etpntum.  ar.  1  »  • 
generals  who  celebrated  triumphs  {fastt  /nwmi.A.^  * «  aAJ 
record  of  the  servicers  for  which  a  triumph  ha*i  U-  1  ,.T»f 'i 
Of  such  Fasti  Capitolini  important  fragnirnl«,  Ut^-  •-■-i 
1547  at  Rome,  are  extant.  For  further  }mn^  ..a.n  1 
Pauly*8  Bfol'Enryktopddie^  etc. 

Fasti  is  also  the  title  of  a  well-known  liut  vn*  -  ^ 
poem  by  Ovid,  the  subjt»ct  of  which  is  the  R*  f!i«r  *  -■  -j 
— the  festivalH^alendar.  It  may  lie  rrganlinl  «!»-*«(••  J 
year-lK>ok  or  companion  to  the  almanac,  ha«ing  N*-  ^ 
pttsed  to  illustrate  the  Fasti  publi«h(Nl  by  Juliu*  ^  «"•*?.  i 
corrected  and  entirely  reformed  the  calendar. 

lla>aT  I.  >iii«-:H 

FastisiT*  properly,  the  total  alxitinencr  frmn  t-»:  .^ 
monly,  however,  a  restricted!  diet  in  whu  h  onii  err »  •  H 
cle«  of  food  are  excluded  because  of  religious  or  ^  'T  i 
tires. 

The  effects  of  fasting  upon  the  organi^fn  are  ■!•-••* 
by  the  kind  of  fcMxlstuffa  that  are  withht^^l  ami  t*-'    si 
oi  abstention,  the  state  of  the  Uidy  an«i  ntttfl.  tb« 
of  animal,  the  length  of  time  the  fant  Cfntir.u"*.  : 
cieiicy  of  the  supitlv  of  water,  and  (^rtaan  att«  •'.  las 
tions.     A  study  of  dietetics  tem*ht*^  tliat  th«*  h 


iMu  al>M)Iutelv  demands  for  iti*  health v  ma<rtC4"'j 
kinds  of  fofMlKtuffs,  whereas  others  whi<h  rfit«-r  '•a«'«. 
everyday  diet  and  are  of  gn>at  nutntnr  «alue  arr 
incidental  im[>ortan(*e.     Albumin<»uft  Mit<«tax  - «-«  aj»  a 
sity  because  it  is  only  by  their  mean*  that  ih^  'rr—  »- 
nitrogi»n   are   suppliwl.  and   were  th****    eti^  r»;»    v 
stanatif^n  woul«l  a<»  inevitably  ensue,  e\rn  th«iu^h  a* 

■  dance  of  other  food  l>e  taken,  as  when  thrrv   xm   ti  '» 
nenee.     On  the  other  hand,  stan'hy  and  «r«  hart&tf  " 
might  be  reyvted   without  causing  ph%*i«ai   «ar  ' 
they  are  capable  of  In-ing  rrplaer><l  a«  nutniMr   f  ..- 
fat  and  |Mirtly  bv  the  album inou«  materials      ^^^  "^  .  .- 
the   fath  lie  n*pla<Mil.     At»ientjoD   frt»m  "H.^  •    fc*-. 
fo«>d  d<»e^  not  aff«M't  the  nutntivr  <iindii»-  n  <  ft'-   .»• 

I  vide<l  that  their  dietetic  value*  are  rt'plMni  t>«  ^rf*.,  -  ^ 
Muffs.  In  (*ertain  niorl»id  *tatr«  ^^t  tt^e  «•?*•-•  «»  — 
various  form^  of  dy<|H»|RMa,  mal-a«^imilati  Ci.  d.Ai«'t« 
the  e\cluM4»n  of  wrtain  articli*s  i*t  fo*i»i  «*ftrn  jr*-*  -•    ■  J 

'  Ijcnellt, 

W  hen  there  is  total  alHitinencr  for  th  rt  fwrv  •£•  4 
or  two  nr»  iinfMirtani  effe^'t*  are  ol>"irr««J  ^air  i*  -#  -  « 
ger,  gaMnc  di^^t  rvw,  hewlarhe,  wrakne^A^  a***!  a  ?••■••• 
ilitit>n;  but  when  pnMticed  for  pr^l' oj^^  (wri  •;  1 
phi-iioinena  of  a  markt^l  character  are  d«<i^1  |*»  •  •  » 
the^'  may  l»e  uniler»t«NMl  it  i*  nec» *iary  i*t  Ivar  -n  ^  ■  . 
(he  vital  prtK-o^s  defirnd  for  th«*ir  ai'ti«it«  &t»  ^  ^ 
which  is  (^tnlinuaily  being  suppbed  by  mwm   %4  «kH 


298 


PASTINO 


Fasti  n;.  faasti 
b.  in  Bergen.  Oct. 
his  theolofric'Bl  """ 


In  the  restontion  of  diet  utter  prolonK^  fasting  the  ad- 
min iatnition  of  food  should  be  begun  by  giving;  small  quan- 
tities of  lieef  tea,  milk,  diluted  spirits,  rice  broth,  or  similar 
Terr  light  diet ;  after  twenty-four  hours,  corn  starch,  rice, 
luelloiv  apples.  oran$^  juice,  etc. ;  then  (^nulually  increasing 
the  number  of  articles  from  day  to  day  as  indicatiomi  sug- 
gest In  instances  in  which  absolute  freedom  of  diet  has 
been  permitted,  the  most  serious  results  have  followed.  See 
" —  Edwabd  T.  Reiciiert. 

Claus;  Norwegian  pool  and  critic: 
1740.  He  stmiie<l  divinity,  and  Cnok 
at  Copenhagen  in  17m ;  but  his 
and  literature.  From  1770  to  1777  he 
resided  in  Copenhagen,  where  he  became  a  distinguished 
member  of  the  Norsbe  Selskab.  Ilia  tragedy  Htrmiont 
(1770)  shows  the  influence  of  Voltaire.  He  wan  more  impor- 
tant as  a  critic  and  the  editor  of  critical  journals  (1773, 
1775-76)  than  as  a  poet  or  a  dramatist.  From  1777  till  his 
death  (Dec.  24,  1791)  he  liveil  in  Bergen,  where,  from  1T87 
on,  he  held  various  public  oiTlces.  Ilis  drama  Aklitrrm  ap- 
peared in  178(4.  A  selection  from  his  works  was  edited  by 
L.  Sagen :  Udvalg  af  Claut  FruHngs  Skrifltr  med  Bidrag 
til  han»  Biograti  (Bergen,  1837).  G.  L.  Kittredqe. 

Fat:  See  Pats. 

Fata  Morgana,  faa'tiOk-mdr-gaa  nuik  [Ital.,  the  Fairy 
Morgana,  the  phenomenon  being  regarih'd  as  the  work  of 
a  fairy  ifala)  named  Jforgann.     Fata  <  Ldw  IjuLfala,  a 

Siddess  of  tale,  a  fairy  >  O.  Fr.fte./ar.  (>  Fr. /'»,  whence 
"(?■  /"y.  tairy] ;  a  remarkable  and  singularly  beautiful 
effect  of  mirage,  occasionally  observable  in  the  Sea  of 
Reggio,  Straits  of  Messina.  I>etwcen  Sicily  an<l  Calabria.  Il 
presents  a  series  of  mogniflcent  architectural  structures 
And  landscape  views,  emijracing  columns,  arches,  towers, 
castles,  palaces,  trees,  avenues,  and  wooded  plains,  with 
crow<ls  of  moving  uicn  and  anlimils,  all  constantly  vary- 
ing and  assuming  new  aspects,  and  in  certain  conditions 
of  the  atmospheric  becoming  resplendent  with  prismatic 
colors.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  images  are  de- 
rived from  objects  on  the  shore,  their  singular  forms  and 
transform atirins  being  the  result  of  extraordinary  refrac- 
tions in  the  atmosphere  (tor  the  explanation  of  which  see 

MlRAUB). 

Fate  (M.  Eng.  fatt  <  0.  Fr.  faf  <  Lat.  fdtum.  thing 
spoken,  accreo,  fate,  neut.  pert,  partic.  ot  fa'ri.  sjieak  :  Gr. 
finu,  s]>eak] :  inevitable  destiny.  The  belief  in  such  a  des- 
tiny has  various  forms.  The  old  Chaldaic  or  astrol<vical 
fatalism  looked  upon  the  visible  heavens  as  the  book  of  this 
destiny,  and  found  all  things  necessarily  prefigured  in  the 
positions  ot  the  stars.  The  old  Stoical  fatalism  considered 
the  rise  and  the  decay  of  the  world  as  controlled  by  an  ab- 
solute necessity,  but  while  this  necessity,  with  them,  was  a 
fate  {.tiiiofiiirti),  which  determines,  it  was  also  a  providence 
{*pJnu)  which  governs  all  things.  The  fatalism  ot  the 
Greek  dramatists  made  all  events  fixed  under  the  control  of 
Dike  and  Nemesis,  Justice  and  Kelribution.  Mohammedan 
fatalism  regards  all  things,  great  and  small,  as  so  inexor- 
ably predetermined  from  the  foundation  of  the  world  that 
no  accident  is  possible,  and  any  attempted  defense  against 
danger  is  futile.  Pantheistic  fatalism  considers  the  infinite 
substance  which  It  calls  God  to  be  developed  in  space  and 
time  by  a  proce<lure  so  changeless  that  things  extended  or 
things  thought  are  equally  necessary  ;  and  which  not  only 
destroys  alt  freedom  ot  the  will,  bnf  obliterates  all  distinc- 
tion between  gmd  ami  evil.  The  modem  philosophical  con- 
ception of  fate  is  that  of  a  blind  causality  undirected  and 
undetermined  by  any  conditions.  J.  H.  Skelve. 

Fates.  The  (transl.  of  Lat.  Pare(B,  Gr.  WtSoai.  the  god- 
desses of  fate,  liter,,  the  distributers,  or  dividers):  in  the 
Greek  mythology,  three  giMlde*ses  who  rLiled  the  fates  nf 
men  and  all  thing.  They  iire  )^>nerally  nametl  Clotho,  who 
spins  the  thread  uf  life ;  Lachesis.  who  marks  off  the  allotted 
span :  and  Atrojios — the  inllexible — who  cuts  the  thread. 
Their  freiiealogy  and  the  whole  mvthus  are  quite  variouslv 
given  in  dilTereiit  authors.  The  Isomeric  poetns  speak  usu- 
ally only  of  one  Moira,  and  the  person!  Beat  ion  is  not  com- 
Elele:  no  |>articu!nr  ap]ieiirani'e  of  the  goddess,  no  atlri- 
utes,and  no  parentage  are  mcnlioned.  Soris  the  Homeric 
Moira  an  inflexible  fate  to  which  the  gr«ls  themselves  must 
bow;  on  the  contrary,  Zeus,  as  the  father  ot  goiis  and  men, 
weighs  out  their  fate  tot hein.  With  Hesiod  the  [lersonifl ca- 
tion ot  the  Fates  is  comjileted,  hut  they  are  still  representeil 
as  depending  un  their  father  Zeus,  and  subject  to  his  com- 


PATHERS  (OF  THE  CHURCll) 

mands.  And  it  was  nut  until  the  lime  of  J^schylu-  itini 
they  appeared  as  the  divinities  of  fate  in  the  i-trict  » ii» 
of  the  word,  independent  of  the  Olympic  gods,  the  nic — il- 
gers  ot  the  eternal  necessity  to  which  even  the  gials  tiiu-' 
bow.  They  are  generallv  associated  with  the  Erinnyi':'.  ol,.. 
inflict  the  punishment  for  evil  deeds,  and  they  are  !"[Lt- 
times  called  their  sistets. 

Father  Lasher,  or  Lack;  Proack  :  a  marine  fish  (.Ir^n. 
thocotlun  bubaiia)  ot  the  Ruropean  coasts,  from  6  iiji;ti--> 
long  up  to  a  much  larger  size.     It  belongs  to  the  Cottiilirvr 


Tbe  Father  laaher. 

sculpin  family,  its  bead  is  covered  with  spines,  and  it  ha'  & 
repulsive  aspect.  It  can  live  a  long  time  out  of  water,  am. 
though  regarded  with  aversion  it  affords  a  palatable  ani.  '.< 
of  food. 

Fathers.  Apolo^etle :  Sec  Apoloqetics. 

Fathers  (of  the  Church) :  the  distinguished  earlier  hil»r- 
ers  in  the  Christian  Church.  (See  APosroLfc  Fathir-. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  distinguishes  between  ('liiir'':> 
Fathers,  Church  teachers,  and  Church  writers.  The  (.'bur  1 
teachers  are  men  of  acknowledged  orthodoxv.  authoriii,- 
for  the  doctriiies  of  the  Church,  while  the  Church  wrii'-r^ 
are  of  less,  or  even  doubtful,  authority.  The  grealr-i  "( 
the  Church  teachers  are  also  Church  fathers.     Such  w>-' 


giistine,  and  Gregory  the  Great  in  the  Church  of  tbe  W.?i. 
Thomas  Aquinas  and  Bona  venture  may  be  named  as  I'liiifl 
teachers  who  were  not  Fathers,  and  Tertullian  in  his  »-«'[  ■: 
era  and  Origen  as  Church  writers  who  were  not  Fallitr>  m- 
conling  to  the  Roman  definition,  which  includes  iirthinl'Si 
The  line  of  Church  Fathers  is  generally  regarde<l  by  ProL- 
iant theologians  as  terminating  with  the  eighth  <i'nli.ri 
(John  ot  Damascus  in  the  Greek,  Gregory  I.  in  the  l.ii':'. 
Church) :  the  Roman  Catholic  writers  extend  tt  to  the  iI:t- 
teenth,  or  even  to  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  scientific  trm'- 
ment  ot  the  matter  contained  in  the  writings  of  the  Path,  r- 
is  embraced  in  Patristic  (q.  r.),  while  their  lives  and  toy.f 
which  are  related  to  the  externals  of  their  work.<  C'  i:.' 
under  the  head  of  Patroloot  (9.  v.\  but  this  distincti<ii  i- 
not  always  observed.  The  Fathers  are  ot  great  value  in  1  n- 
history  ot  biblical  interpretation,  the  history  of  li-i-.'niH-. 
creeds,  rituals,  tlie  constitution  of  the  Church,  and  ind'- 
in  every  part  of  historical  theology ;  nor  is  there  anv  |  ;.ri 
ot  theology  in  which  they  may  not  be  made  highlv  li-l  u- 
In  the  greatest  internal  struggles  of  the  Church  the  inii-  r- 
tance  ot  the  Fathers  as  witnessi's  or  as  authorities  has  )- ' : 
recognized  on  both  sides,  as  in  the  Reformation,  and  iu  r.^ 
nineteenth  century  in  the  controvereies  of  the  Anglu  ■.! 
Church.  (The  principles  to  be  observed  in  interpret  in  1;  i.i- 
Fathers  are  staled  in  Kraut  h's  ConsenWiV  Rtfunu-t':- 
726,  f^f.)  N'cxt  to  the  Apostolic  Fathers  in  value  an-  v 
Apologists,  or  Apologetic  Fathers  (see  Apologetusi  :  t  • 
Alexandrians.  Clement  and  Origen;  the  Xicene  an<l  I''  >:- 
Nicene  Fathers :  Rusebius.  Athanasius,  Gregory  ot  N>->--' 
Chrysoslom.  Augustine,  and  Jerome.  (All  the  earlier  w'ni.  -• 
on  intrology,  beginning  with  Jerome.'were  edited  toget  Ikt  i  > 
Fabricius,  1716.)  The  greatest  laborers  in  the  Issue  of  ,,:.. 
lions  ot  the  Fathers  have  been  the  BEKEDimxEs  (o.  f.  .  ?  ■ 
also  BENEDirriNE  EDmoN-s  op  tbe  Fathers).  Noxt  1 
them  have  been  the  Anglican  divines.  The  must  rr.-;.', 
interest  in  iiatristics  in  Great  Britain  has  l>een  shown  ::, 
the  issue  of  translations  of  the  Fathen.  In  the  Ki.ir.,'" 
Catholic  Church,  among  the  names  ilhislrious  in  patiN-l  -ji 
are  Bellarmin,  Oudin,  Du  Pin.  Lc  Nourry.  TiUemont.  M.  ^ 
or,  licfele,  Al7x»g.  Nirschl;  in  the  Prot«t'ant  churches  nf  r!  . 
Continent,   Sciiltetus,   Walch.  Dam.  Keander.  Otto,    H,.-- 


300 


PAUCHE 


PAUNUS 


of  a  county,"  but  extends  over  the  Great  Lakes  and  over  all 
rivers,  etc.,  capable  of  navigation  for  practical  commercial 
purposes.  The  v^hole  subject  is  fully  developed  in  the  de- 
cisions of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S.,  as  found  in  the 
volumes  of  reports.  George  Chase. 

Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwioht. 

Fanche,  fosh,  Hippolyte  :  Sanskrit  scholar;  b.  at  Auxerre, 
Prance,  in  1797.  His  translations  of  the  Rdmdyana  (9  vols., 
1854-58)  and  the  Mahdbhdrata  (7  vols.,  unfinished,  1863-67) 
are  among  his  most  important  works.  He  published  an 
original  tale  and  some  poems.  D.  at  Juilly,  Seme-et-Mame. 
1869. 

Fancher,  fo'sha',  L^on:  state  minister,  political  econ- 
omist, and  financial  writer ;  b.  in  Limoges,  France,  Sept.  8, 
1803 ;  was  in  youth  a  designer  of  embroidery  patterns,  and 
then  a  teacher ;  wrote  for  the  Courrier  Francis  and  the 
Revue  dee  Deux  Mondes,  In  1846,  in  the  French  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  acted  with  the  Left ;  Minister  of  the  Interior 
from  Dec.,  1B48,  to  May.  1849,  and  from  Apr.  to  Oct.,  1851 ; 
was  liberal  but  not  republican  in  politics.  Studies  an  Eng- 
land (1845)  and  Miscellanies  of  Autical  Economy  and  Fi- 
nance (2  vols.,  1856)  were  his  productions.  D.  at  Marseilles, 
Dec.  15, 1854,  having  always  declined  office  under  the  Em- 
peror Louis  Napoleon. 

Fancher  de  Saint-Maurice,  Le  Chevalier  Narcisse 
Henri  Edouard,  LL.  D.  :  Canadian  journalist ;  b.  at  Quebec, 
Apr.  18,  1844 ;  educated  there  and  at  the  College  of  Ste. 
Anne  de  la  Pocatiere.  He  went  to  Mexico  in  1864 ;  became 
a  captain  in  the  army  of  Maximilian,  and  subsequently 
aide-de-camp  to  Gen.  Viscount  d'Hurbal.  He  served  tlirough 
the  war,  and  for  his  services  was  created  a  Knight  of  the 
Imperial  Order  of  Guadeloupe;  received  the  medal  of  the 
Mexican  campaign  from  Napoleon  III.,  and  the  military 
medal  for  valor  and  integrity  given  by  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian. He  returned  to  Canada  in  1866;  has  since  edited 
Journal  de  Quebec  and  Le  Canaditn,  and  Ls  now  (1893) 
president  of  the  Press  Association  of  Province  of  Quebec. 
He  was  created  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  France, 
in  1881,  and  is  a  member  of  various  learned  societies.  For 
fourteen  years  he  was  clerk  in  the  Legislative  Council, 
Province  of  Quebec ;  a  representative  in  its  Legislature  1881- 
92,  and  is  (1893)  president  of  the  Quebec  Oriental  Railway 
Company.  Among  his  works  are :  A  la  Brunante,  De  Que- 
bec d  Mexico  (2  vols.),  Choses  et  autres,  De  Tribord  d  Ba- 
bord,  Cours  de  Tactiqu^,  Deux  ans  au  Mexico,  Lee  lies,  and 
En  Route.  Neil  Macdonald. 

Fan'cit  Helen  {Lady  Martin) :  actress ;  b.  Oct.  11, 1820 ; 
made  her  debut  at  Co  vent  Garden,  London,  Jan.  5,  1836,  in 
the  character  of  Julia  in  The  Hunchback,  in  which  she 
achieved  great  success  and  at  once  took  high  rank  as  an 
actress,  becoming  a  leading  member  of  Macready's  coin- 

ganies  during  the  production  of  his  Shakspearean  revivals, 
he  was  the  original  representative  of  the  heroines  in  Bul- 
wer's  Lady  of  Lyons,  Michelieu,  etc.,  and  in  many  other 

Slays  of  different  authors.  In  1851  she  married  Theodore 
Lartin,  but  continued  to  appear  on  the  stage  at  intervals. 
In  1880  her  husband  was  knighted  by  Queen  Victoria  for 
his  literary  attainments.  Lady  Martin's  last  appearances 
were  at  Stratford-upon-Avon  in  Apr.,  1879,  when  sue  played 
Beatrice  at  the  opening  of  the  Shakspeare  Memorial  theater, 
and  at  Manchester  when  she  played  Rosalind  for  the  benefit 
of  the  widow  of  an  actor.     Revised  by  B.  B.  Vallentine, 

Faulkner,  fawk'ner,  Charles  James:  lawyer;  b.  in 
Berkeley  co.,  Va.,  in  1805 ;  received  a  collegiate  education, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1829.  In  1832-33  he  was 
elected  to  the  House  of  Delegates,  in  1841  to  the  Senate  of 
Virginia,  in  1848  again  to  the  House  of  Delegates,  and  in  1850 
was  a  member  of  a  convention  to  revise  the  constitution  of 
the  State;  representative  in  Congress  from  Virginia  1851- 
60,  when  appointed  minister  to  France  by  President  Bu- 
chanan. He  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  1861,  was  imprisoned, 
on  suspicion  of  disloyalty,  in  Fort  Warren,  Boston  harbor, 
and  exchanged  in  December  of  that  year  for  Hon.  Alfred 
Ely.  In  1874  was  elected  to  Congress  from  West  Virginia. 
D.  Nov.  1,  1884. 

Faulkner's  Island :  a  small  elevated  island  lying  off  the 
harbor  of  Guilford,  Conn.,  in  Long  Island  iSoiind.  It  is 
within  the  limits  of  New  York,  and  has  a  lighthouse  with  a 
flashing  light  and  a  fog-bell ;  lat.  41"  12'  41"  N.,  Ion.  72'  38' 
54'  W. 

PanltsTreadapted  from  M.  Eng. /aM/, /aw^e,  from  0.  Pr. 
faute  >  Fir.  faute  <  Low  Lat.  *falta,  deriv.  of  fal'lere,  de- 


ceive, lack] :  in  geology,  a  displacement  of  rocks  along  a 
plane  of  fracture.  The  inclination  of  a  fault-plane  is  c^llf^i 
its  hade,  and  is  counted  in  degrees  from  the  vertical.  Th.- 
direction  of  a  horizontal  line  lying  in  a  fault  plane  is  call«'0 
its  strike.  The  direction  of  the  hade  is  the  direction  towairi 
which  the  plane  descends,  and  is  at  right  angles  to  tht 
strike.    The  extent  of  the  displacement  is  called  the  thrme 

C  A 


Ideal  section  Bhowin^  normal  and  reverse  faults. 

of  the  fault,  and  oblique  throw  is  distinguished  from  ven: 
cal  throw.  A  fault  of  which  the  hade  is  directed  to  war. 
the  body  of  rock  that  has  been  relatively  depressed  is  a^  i 
to  "  hade  to  the  downthrow,"  and  is  called  a  normal  fauli . 
a  fault  hading  to  the  upthrow  is  called  a  reverse  fault.  K 
reverse  fault  of  which  the  hade  is  great  is  called  a  tkrti-4 
fault,  or  overthrust  fault  A  system  of  parallel  faults  wir, 
throw  on  the  same  side  are  called  step  faults.  Fault  jilan-. 
are  never  planes  in  the  mathematical  sense,  but  are  var 
ously  curved,  the  hade  and  strike  continuaUv  chanpir.::. 
The  bodies  of  rock  on  the  two  sides  are  not  always  in  v*  Z- 
tact,  but  there  usually  intervenes  a  sheet  of  crushed  mat*- 
rial  known  as  fault  rock.  The  walls  of  a  fault  usually  ex- 
hibit polish  and  fine  striae  (slickensides),  the  stri«  showir  j 
the  direction  of  movement. 

As  related  to  mining,  faults  are  interruptions  in  the  o.'j- 
tinuity  of  ore-beds ;  as  related  to  earth  structure,  thev  &r,. 
incidents  of  erogenic  dislocations  whereby  great  ma&^es  ..f 
rock  have  been  lifted  higher  or  dropped  lower  than  c«  d- 
tiguous  masses.  Overthrust  faults  involve  the  horizon i*u 
crowding  together  of  rock  masses,  and  are  associated  w.th 
other  evidence  of  such  compression.  Normal  faults  are  a^.- 
sociated  with  movements  causing  the  affected  bodie>  «»' 
rock  to  occupy  greater  horizontal  space.  The  dimeiiM*  i> 
of  faults  exhibit  great  range.  The  tnrow  may  be  meH>ur.i: 
by  inches,  by  feet,  or  even  by  tens  of  thousands  of  f.- 
The  linear  extent  may  be  a  few  hundred  yards,  a  few  m;.-- 
or  even  some  hundreds  of  miles.  See  Geology  and  M«ir\ 
TAINS.  G.  K.  GiLBEar. 

Fau'na  [from  Low  Lat  ^awno.  a  rustic  goddess,  sister  tf 
Faunus,  but  by  analogy  with  flora  (thought  of  as  plur.  .  i 
Xiat  flos,  flower),  the  word  is  thought  of  as  a  plural  of /au- 
nus,  a  faun,  with  generalized  meaning]:  the  assemblajrc  »  ' 
animals  inhabiting  any  given  locality,  either  in  the  pres-tiit .  .' 
past  ages  of  the  globe.  In  paliBontolo^,  however,  it  ;> 
sometimes  used  with  more  latitude,  and  is  given  to  an  tk^ 
semblage  of  animals  characteristic  of  a  given  period.  Ina:^ 
much  as  there  are  no  very  abrupt  demarkations  for  a:.} 
given  region,  the  idea  of  a  fauna  is  based,  to  a  great*  r  c: 
less  extent,  on  the  forms  combined  in  a  central,  or,  as  it  t> 
called,  metropolitan  district  Various  combinations  of  ani- 
mals are  more  or  less  characteristic  of  certain  countric':^  <  r 
|)ortions  of  the  earth's  surface,  many  forms  being  lixuit«-i 
by  climatal  or  physiographical  or  unknown  conditions. 

Various  names  nave  been  applied  to  these  combinati«T.K 
or  to  the  areas  of  which  these  combinations  are  charai^t^  r^»- 
tic,  different  authors  using  the  same  term  in  differs  r.* 
senses.  The  larger  areas  have  been  variously  desig-natt-*! 
realm,  region^  or  rarely,  as  by  Louis  Agassiz,  fauna,  1 1 » 
more  limited  areas  have  been  called  region^  din^irict^  nr 
fauna,  this  latter  being  the  name  adopted  by  Dr.  J.  A. 
Allen,  who  has  devoted  particular  attention  to  the  siuiit 
and  systematic  arrangement  of  life  areas.  Fauna,  thou.  U 
used  in  two  different  senses — 1,  as  expressing  the  sum  t..tAi 
of  animals  inhabiting  any  area  or  locality;  and  2.  les^s  of:.;! 
as  the  designation  of  one  of  the  life  areas  of  the  w<>r.  i. 
The  consideration  of  the  faunas  of  the  respective  regii>n5  <■! 
the  earth  is  the  subject  of  a  particular  branch  of  isc-ivn.  ♦-. 
ZoSlogical  Geography  ;  and  under  that  head  the  priiicij  \  - 
and  facts  involved  will  be  treated,  while  the  principal  r.  a- 
tures  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  various  jrr*.  li:  v 
of  animals — the  subject  of  geographical  zo5logy — ^will  V»e  {  r»  - 
sented  in  the  articles  on  such  groups.        Theodore  Oiu. 

Fan'nns:  a  Roman  woodland  deity,  corresponding  to  t>i.. 
Grecian  Pan,  many  of  whose  attributes  were  assi|rn«><l   '. 


302 


FAirVETTK 


FkDTette  [Ft.  dimin  of  faave.  fawn-colored]  :  See 
Blackcap. 

Farara.  fa&-vaa'nia:  town  of  Sicily;  4  mitoH  S.  E.  ofGir- 
genti  (see  map  of  Italy,  ret.  10-E) ;  celebraled  for  its  neh 
mines  of  sulpnur  and  itt  inarbln  quarries.     Pop,  17,000. 

FaT'ersham,  or  Feversbam:  municipal  borough  an<l 
river-port  of  Kent,  England;  52  mile?  E.  S.  K  of  London 
(see  map  of  England,  ref.  12-L).  It  has  valuable  oystcr- 
ftsheries.     Pop.  (1891)  10,47a 

FavlKHaua.  fHSt-ve'en-jaK'na^:  the  chief  of  the  .lEgades, 
aitroi'P  of  islands  in  the  Mediterranean.flmileaofl  the  west 
coast  of  Sicily.  It  is  fruitful,  has  good  pasturage,  excellent 
wine,  and  a  town  of  the  surae  name  with  h  population  of 
4.000.     Lai.  37°  67'  N.,  Ion.  12°  18  W. 

FaTO'nla  [from  Lat.  Favo'nittn,  the  west  wind,  deriv.  of 
fave're,  favor,  proraotej:  a  genus  of  acalephs  (j'ellyfishes)  of 
the  order  Discophora, 
including  some  o(  the 
most  characteristic  or- 
ganisms of  that  order. 
The  Favoma  oclane- 
ma  of  the  South  Seas 
has  a  somewhat  hem- 
ispherical body,  with 
a  long  proboscis  and 
cightbranchiferousap- 
pendages. 

Faro'iiln§,      Mar- 
cua  :    Bonian     politi- 

marked  by  strong  per- 
sonal opposition  to 
Pompey  and  admira- 
tion for  C'ato.  In  55 
B.  c.  he  was  o^ile,  and 

FavoHiaoclontma.  4^'Sent  o^r^'to  Pom" 

pey's  party  in  48.  and  after  the  battle  of  Pharmlia  was  rec- 
oncile to  Ciesar.  but  after  Cesar's  murder  was  a  partisan  of 
Bnitus,  and  was  out&wed  and  put  to  death  42  b.  c. 

f  avorl'nlis :  a  philosopher  and  rhetorician  in  Rome  under 
Tr^an  and  Iladnan;  b.  at  Arelate  {now  Aries)  in  the  south 
of  Oaul.  He  received  his  education  in  Rome,  and  became 
distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  Greek,  in  which  language 
he  had  Dion  Chrysostom  as  instructor.  He  stood  high  in 
the  favor  of  Hailrian,  and  numbcre<l  among  his  friends  De- 
metrius of  Alexandria,  Fronto,  Plutarch,  who  dedicated  to 
him  iine  of  his  treatises,  and  Herodes  Atticiia,  to  whom  he 
bequeathed  his  library  and  his  house  in  Kome.   Wrote 


a  few  fragments  of  his  historical  writings  have  liei>n  preserved. 
See  J.  L.  Marres,  Dismrlalio  de  Favorini  Artlatfnaia  vita, 
ttudiU,  leriptis.  accedunt  Fragmtnta  (Utrecht,  IBM).  The 
fraements  are  collected  also  in  Mailer's  EUt.  Ortre.  Fragm. 
(vol,  iii.  pp.  577-585).         Revised  by  B.  L,  Gildebsleeve. 

FavoSi'tfS  [Mod.  Lat.,  as  if  deriv.  of  favo'tua,  honey- 
combed, deriv.  of  LaLfaima,  honeycomb;  so  called  becau^Ki 
some  of  the  sjiecics  closely  resemble  a  honeycomb]:  a  genus 
of  eitinct  corals  exceedingly  common  in  tnc  Devonian  and 
Carboniferous  rocks,  of  which  a  large  number  of  species 
are  described.  The  eorallum  of  Faroaitea  is  compound, 
and  usually  forms  hemispherical  or  conical  mas»i«^  composeil 
of  a  largo  number  of  prismatic  columns  divided  horiiontally 
by  transverse  septa  or  labulie,  and  usually  having  the  verti- 
cal walls  pierced  by  one  or  several  rows  of  pores. 

Favre,  fiQiv'r,  Julo  Ci.iude  Gabkiel:  politician  and 
author;  b.  in  Lyons,  France.  Mar.  31, 1809:  became  a  promi- 
nent lawyer  and  liberal  of  Paris,  and  in  1848  held  piBiitions 
in  the  revolutionary  ministry.  He  opposed  Louis  Napoleon 
during  his  presidency,  and  more  especially  after  the  coup 
d'ital  of  1851.  In  1858  he  ably  defended  Orsini.  the  would- 
be  assassin,  ami  in  the  Corps  Iiegislalif  eloquently  and  irrec- 
oncilably op  [Hiscd  the  p.il  icy  o(  the  emperor  on  all  leading 
fublic  questions ;  opposed  the  measures  which  ended  in  the 
'ranco-German  war,  and  after  the  fall  of  Sedan  advocated 
the  deposition  of  the  im|M'rial  dynasty.and  became  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs  and  vice-president  in  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment. As  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  he  took  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  negotiations  for  peace  with  Bismarck.  He 
— »  tor  a  time,  during  the  siege  of  Paris,  acting  Minister  of 
I  1871  from  the  Government 


PAWKES 

during  the  presidency  of  Thiers,  and  devoted  himself  t<>  U* 
and  literature.  He  was  the  author  of  Jiome  et  la  Ripublimi 
Franfaiae  (1871)  and  Le  Gottvtmfment  du  4  Hfptemhri 
(1871-72).     D.  at  Versailles,  France,  Jan.  19,  1880. 

Fa'VDB  [from  l^t.  faivs,  honeycomb],  or  Scald  Held 
[aeald  for  tcalled,  deriv.  of  seall,  scurf,  scali  <  M.  Ylui. 
HctUh.  from  Dan.  akal,  husk.  Seaie  and  ahalf{<0.  V.ni. 
acealu)  are  originally  the  .lame] :  a  disease  tormerlv  knoiii 
as  iitiea  and  porrigo,  gencratlv  seated  on  the  hairy  pan  i.f 
the  scalp,  but  sometimes  attacKing  the  roots  of  the 'nHilsand 
other  parts.  It  is  a  disease  especially  met  with  in  the  pun'r 
classes,  and  is  somewhat  rare  in  the  U.  S.  It  frequeiillv  «/- 
fects  cats,  rabbits,  and  mice,  from  which  it  may  be  '•■••m- 
municated  to  man.  This  disease  is  known  to  be  causeil  hv 
a  parasitic  fungus,  known  aa  Aehoriott  tehanUinii.  Fnvii. 
is  a  contMious  disease,  best  prevented  by  cleanline^«.  and 
beat  cured  by  carefully  removing  the  hair  and  apjilvin/ 
parasiticide  medicines,  such  as  have  the  power  of  destn-yinif 
low  organisms,  Sulphurous  and  carbolic  acids  and  wvsh 
solutions  of  corrosive  sublimate  are  the  best  applic*tiiih« 
It  is  called /a  1-11  s  because  the  diseased  surface  often  assiirn-- 
a  honeycombed  appearance.  It  leads  to  permanent  Ixilil- 
uess.  Revised  by  Williih  rEppEa. 

Fawcett,  EiiQAR :  novelistand  poet;  b.in  New  Yorkeiir. 
May  26,  1847 ;  graduated  at  Columbia  College.  Anions  hi- 
norels  are  A  liopehaa  Caae  (1881)  and  The  Houm  at  iluih 
Bridge  (1887).  He  wrote  a  successful  play.  Thr  Fi'lf 
Friend  (ItiBO).  and  has  published  a  number  of  volumes  of 
verse,  including  Poems  of  Fantasy  and  J'aimon  (1878j  ami 
The  BunlUrig  liail  (18S4),  a  clever  anonymous  satire  whi<  b 
had  much  vogue.  H.  A.  li. 

Fawcett,  Henrv  :  political  economist  and  statesman ;  h. 
at  Salisbury,  England,  in  1833;  educated  at  Carobriili.-. 
where  he  graduated  as  seventh  wrangler  in  1856.  In  ls>. 
while  hunting  near  Salisbury,  an  accidental  shot  from  lii> 
father's  gun  destroyed  hia  eyesight,  but  this  misfortune  ili'l 
not  induce  him  to  abandon  his  determination  to  enter  Par- 
liament, and  after  three  unsuccessful  attempts  he  finullr 
secured  a  seat  in  1865.  He  had  in  the  meantime  bmui:hT 
out  his  Manual  of  Political  Economy,  which  has  ]iii*,-.-il 
through  many  editions.  Though  this  work  represents  ihr 
laiaaez-faire  system  of  economic  philosophy,  and  is  ba.-iiil  in 
general  on  the  principles  of  Ricardo  and  J.  S.  ^ill.  il.->  kt-m 
reasoning  and  clear  and  effective  style  have  given  it  a  wi^l- 
popularity.  Its  publication  was  followed  in  the  (all  of  Ih'-'. 
by  bis  election  to  the  chair  of  Political  Economy  in  ('Drr,- 
bridge,  a  position  which  he  held  till  his  death.  In  poli)i< - 
Fawcett  was  a  Liberal, but  somewhat  inconsiderate  i>f  |<nn} 
ties  and  opposed  to  several  important  features  of  Mr  IJlii.i- 
slonc's  policy.  His  career  in  Parliament  was  markeil  !■> 
his  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  native  populations  >/ 
India,  by  his  efforts  to  preserve  the  commons  and  nj,r, 
spaces  in  the  towns  of  Great  Britain,  and  in  general  by  li)> 
support  of  measures  of  practical  reform.  After  his  sei'"ii>i 
election  for  Hackney  in  1880  he  was  apjiointed  bv  Mr.  lilarl- 
stone's  government  to  the  Postmaster-Generalship,  an  fiflTn--.' 
which  he  administered  with  leal  and  ability,  intrtnlucing 
useful  reforms  into  the  service  and  improving  the  conditi' n 
of  the  employees  i>t  the  department.  D.  Nov.  6. 1884.  The 
best  known  of  his  other  writings  are  The  Eronomif  Pbtilie-n 
of  the  Britiah  Latmrtr  (1868);  Pauperism  (I8T1):  Frt' 
Trade  and  Proftclion  (1878).        Revised  by  F.  M.  Colbv. 

Faweett.  Millicent  Gabbbtt:  English  writer;  b.  Jun? 
11,  1847;  married  Prof.  Henry  Fawcett  1867;  soon  beiariK^ 
a  prominent  leader  of  the  woman's  suffrage  movcim-nt  ; 
author  of  Folitieal  Econirmy  for  Beginntra,  Tatef  in  Ji^ 
Hfieal  Economy,  etc. — Her  daughter,  Philippa  Oabiett 
pAwrETT,  was  liorn  in  Ijondon,  1868;  educated  at  Claphaii. 
High  School.  Bedford  College, and  University  College.  Cair.- 
bridge,  where  she  passicd  the  higher  local  examination*  »-i! I 
brilliant  standing  and  received  the  Gilchrist  scholarshij' . 
attained  the  unique  distinction  of  being  rated  as  "aU'v,- 
he  senior  wrangler"  in  the  competition  in  the  mathenuiti- 
'al  group  at  Cambridge. 

Fairkrs.  (iuv,  or  Guido  :  English  conspirator  in  the  n^ign 
of  James  I.;  a  Roman  Catholic;  b.  in  Yorkshire.  Fnitn 
\rm  till  ie04  he  served  in  the  Spanish  armv  in  the  N.^th.-r- 
lands.  In  1605,  with  Rol«rt  Catesbv,  Thomas  Percy,  i.n.i 
others,  he  endeavored  to  blow  up  the  English  House  of  Par 
liament.  with  king,  Lonls,  and  Commons,  having  hir>'<l  a 
vault  under  the  House  of  Lords  and  lodged  in  it  thirTT->ii 
barrels  of  gunpowder,  but  was  arrested  on  theoigbl  ofN'"^. 


304 


PEATHERPOIL 


FEATHERS 


when  scarcely  any  other  tie  was  maintained  with  the 
mother  country.  It  could  not  be  that  the  associating  thus 
as  members  of  one  family  on  equal  footing  did  not  keep 
alive  to  some  extent  a  feeling  of  common  interest.  What- 
ever their  dissensions  among  themselves,  as  against  the 
rest  of  the  world  they  were  of  one  blood ;  they  maide  a  clear 
distinction  between  Greeks  and  barbarians,  and. their  na- 
tional games  helped  to  mark  this  line  of  separation  and  to 
draw  them  to  each  other.  Among  the  Romans  there  were 
many  festivals,  private  and  public ;  the  latter  were  stativcB, 
fixea,  or  conceptitw,  movable,  or  imperitivcB^  occasional; 
these  were  divided  into  days  of  sacrince  and  days  of  ban- 
aueting,  days  of  games  and  days  of  rest,  or  fericd.  Some  of 
tne  feasts  were  celebrated  with"  very  great  pomp. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  observance  of  seasons  is  in  obe- 
dience to  an  instinct  with  most  persons.  The  believer  in 
revelation  recognizes  also  that  it  was  commanded  by  Gkxl. 
The  Son  of  Sirach  asks  (Eccles.  xxxiii.),  "Why  doth  one 
day  excel  another,  whereas  all  the  light  of  every  day  in 
the  year  is  of  the  sunf  By  the  knowledge  of  the  fiord 
they  were  distinguished;  and  he  altered  the  seasons  and 
the  feasts.  Some  of  them  hath  he  made  high  days  and 
hallowed,  and  some  of  them  bath  he  made  ordinary  days." 
In  Leviticus  xxiii.  is  given  a  list  of  the  "feasts  of  the 
Lord";  a.  The  Sabbath;  jB.  The  Passover;  7.  The  Feast  of 
Weeks;  5.  The  Feast  of  Trumpets;  c.  The  Atonement;  C 
The  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

Under  the  New  Testament  there  are  no  festivals  of  Divine 
appointment,  save  as  the  Church  rules  in  God's  name — 
none  enforced  ba  were  those  commanded  to  Moses.  During 
the  first  few  years  of  Christianity  while  the  essentially  Jew- 
ish character  of  the  Church  was  m  a  measure  continued,  the 
Jewish  yearly  festivals  were  without  doubt  observed,  espe- 
cially the  Passover  and  Pentecost,  which  associations  with 
the  Resurrection  and  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  had  in- 
vested with  an  increased  dignity.  The  Jewish  Sabbath,  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week,  also  continued  to  be  observed,  and 
with  it  the  first  day  of  each  week  became  a  lesser  Easter 
day — ^**  an  Easter  day  in  every  week."  Additions  were  grad- 
ually made  to  these  feasts,  until  each  prominent  event  in 
the  life  of  our  blessed  Lord  had  its  special  day  of  observ- 
ance. Some  of  these  are,  as  near  as  may  be,  anniversaries ; 
others  are  assumed  to  be  such.  Some  are  fixed,  recurring 
always  on  the  same  day  of  the  month ;  others,  deuendent 
upon  Easter,  are  movable.  All  Christian  bodies  wno  keep 
stated  festivals  agree  in  their  general  observances  while  dif- 
fering in  respect  to  the  minor  feasts.  The  Church  of  Eng- 
land, when  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  set  forth,  pro- 
vided special  services  (with  two  exceptions^  only  for  the 
days  of  saints  connecte<l  directly  with  the  history  of  our 
Lord,  while  yet,  from  whatever  reason,  other  names  were  re- 
tained on  her  calendar.  The  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S. 
has  omitted  all  days  for  which  tnere  is  no  prescribed  service. 

As  the  term  "  holy  day,"  a  day  of  sacred  rest,  has  been 
changed  to  "  holiday,"  a  mere  season  of  leisure  and  enjoy- 
ment, so  the  word  "  feast "  has  naturally  come  to  express 
in  a  lower  sense  feasting,  banqueting.  For,  as  sorrow  is 
marked  by  a  setting  aside  of  luxuries,  so  joy  that  is  shared 
with  others  generally  finds  expression  m  indulgence  of 
appetite,  in  eating  and  drinking.  The  plea,  **  for  good  fel- 
lowship," which  has  led  to  so  much  intemperance,  has  its 
warrant  in  nature,  if  the  habits  of  all  ages  result  from  the 
teaching  of  nature.  The  word  festum^  whence  comes 
"  feast,  has  been  derived  from  itrridu^  to  "  receive  on  one's 
own  hearth,"  to  "  feast " ;  however  true  this  may  be,  festi- 
vals were  always  accompanied  by  sacrificial  banquetings. 
The  habits  of  the  Jews  on  glad  days  holy  to  the  Lord  was 
to  "  eat  the  fat,  drink  the  sweet,  and  send  portions."  And 
in  the  Christian  Church,  while  spiritual  joy  is  not  connected 
with  indulgence  of  the  senkes,  feasts  are  contrasted  with 
fasts.  The  most  ascetic  rule  is  modified  by  the  occurrence 
of  a  feast-day.  William  F.  Brand. 

Featherfoil  [feather  +  foil  <  M.  Eng.  foile,  from  0.  Fr. 
foil^oille  >  ¥v,feuiUe  <  Lat./o'/iMm,  leaf],  Water-feather, 
or  W ater-violet :  the  popular  name  of  the  Hottonia  in- 
Jiata  of  the  U.  S.  and  Hottonia  palustris  of  Europe,  curious 
primulaceous  plants  which  grow  submerged  in  water,  and 
thrust  up  long  scapes  into  the  air  to  produce  the  blossoms, 
which  in  the  European  species  are  very  beautiful.  Other 
species  are  known.  The  generic  name  commemorates  Peter 
Hot  ton,  a  Dutch  botanist  who  died  in  1709. 

Feather-grass  [so  called  from  it^  long  feathery  awns] : 
any  one  of  several  long-awned  grasses,  particularly  any  spe- 


cies of  the  genus  Stipa^  several  of  which  grow  in  the  T.  S, 
From  the  hygroscopic  twisting  and  untwisting  of  tht?*e 
awns  the  name  "weather-grass"  is  also  used.  This  hypn«- 
scopic  twist  causes  the  awn  to  screw  the  seed  down  into  ^ft 
earth,  where  it  takes  root.  On  the  Great  Plains  of  the  West- 
ern U.  S.  some  species,  e.  g.  iS.  spartea  and  S,  camata,  art' 
called  porcuj)ine  grasses  >)ecause  the  pungently  pointed  fniii^ 
work  tneir  way  into  clothing,  and  even  through  the  skiju 
Sheep  and  dogs  are  often  seriously  injured  by  tnem. 

Charles  E.  Be^^sey. 

Feather  River:  a  river  of  California;  formed  by  th- 
union  of  its  N.,  S.,  and  Middle  forks,  which  rise  in  Pluma> 
County,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Its  waters  reach  the  Satra- 
mento  in  Sutter  County.  It  is  a  beautiful  stream,  y>\n*^ 
lower  waters  are  navigated  by  steamboats  as  far  as  YuU 
City. 

Feathers  [M.  Eng.  fetTier  <  0.  Eng.  /(P<Scr,  feather,  p^'n  : 
Icel.  fJS^r  :  0.  H.  Germ,  fedara  <  Mod.  Germ.  Fuhr, 
feather,  pen  <  Teuton.  fe\r-a  <  Indo-Eur.  pet-^  fall,  fly.  A. 
Sanskr.  pattra^  feather,  Gr.  vrcp^ir,  feather,  and  Lat.  pvn  m 
(for  *pet-na\  feather]:  epidermal  structures  peculiar  i*> 
birds.  No  oird  is  without  featHers,  and  no  otner  animal 
has  them.  A  typical  feather  consists  of  a  stiff  central  ^teul, 
or  scapuSf  on  either  side  of  which  is  the  soft  web,  or  rtj il- 
ium. The  stem  consists  of  the  lower,  homy,  transpanrii 
barrel,  cjuill,  or  ealamua,  and  the  shaft  (rhachts).  The  shaft, 
which  is  usually  longer  than  the  <juill,  tapers  from  b;iM 
to  apex,  is  nearly  four-sided,  and  is  more  or  less  cunxl 
toward  the  bird*s  tody.  Its  inner  face  is  marked  with  a  fui*^ 
longitudinal  groove,  while  the  outer  surface  is  smooth  nrni 
slightly  convex.  It  is  composed  of  a  white  elastic  pith, 
covered  by  a  homy  material  similar  to  that  of  the  barrel 
At  the  point  where  auill  and  shaft  unite  there  frequ**nily 
grows  from  the  barrel  an  appendage  termed  the  aftenshnft. 
or  hyporhachis.  This  is  usually  small  and  downy,  but  in 
the  emu  and  cassowary  it  almost  equals  in  size  the  feather 
from  which  it  springs.  The  web  is  formed  by  the  lonj 
slender  barha  which  grow  from  either  side  of  the'  shaft,  ai.<i 
in  a  like  manner  short  harhulea  spring  from  the  sides  uf  thf 
barbs,  each  barb  being  thus  a  feather  in  miniature.  Tht- 
upper  and  under  edges  of  the  barbules  give  off  little  hair- 
like  projections,  or  cilia,  and  finally  these  may  terminate 
in  little  hooks,  hamuli.  The  object  of  these  little  h<x)k>, 
which  grow  only  on  the  under  side  of  those  barbules  whi<-b 
point  toward  the  tip  of  the  feather,  is  to  fasten  the  l^ir^^ 
together,  and  make  the  web  a  compact  structure.  Tiii> 
they  do  by  catching  on  the  upper  edges  of  those  barbu-f- 

Eointing  toward  the  root  of  the  feather.    These  upper  edgc> 
ear  no  hooks,  but  are  simply  bent  over. 
Feathers  may  be  divided  into  several  classes,  although  no 
hard  and   fast   line  can   be  drawn  among  them,  and  t<^ 
tween  the  firmest  feather  and  the  softest  down  all  intinnt*- 
diate  conditions  may  be  found.      The  first   and   lar;:»< 

froup  is  that  of  contour  feathers,  penrur  or  pfumce.  Tht-^- 
ave  a  well-developed  shaft  and  webs,  and  attain  ih«ir 
greatest  development  as  tail  or  wing  feathers.  Some  con- 
tour feathers  have  the  barbs  far  apart  and  the  barbul*^ 
without  hooks,  and  such  are  soft  aha  wavy  in  their  chanw- 
ter,  like  the  plumes  of  birds  of  paradise.  Others  a^in  iua> 
lack  the  web,  like  some  of  the  tail  feathers  of  birds  of  parr*- 
dise  and  of  the  lyre  bird,  and  the  bristles  about  the  mouth> 
of  goat-suckers. 

The  downs,  plnmulcB,  which  are  usually  hidden  beneath 
the  contour  feathers,  have  the  rhaehis  weak  or  wanting,  ih- 
barbs  long,  soft,  and  loose,  owing  to  the  absence  of  h«H-Vx 
Lastly  the  Cloplumes,  filoplunue,  are  slender.  hair-hW- 
feathers,  such  as  are  seen  here  and  there  projecting  fr^nD 
among  the  neck  feathers  of  s|>arrows  or  thrushes.  Th.' 
down  which  clothes  the  young  of  birds  is  slightly  differ- 
ent from  that  on  the  adults,  as  the  barbules  have  no  prujc^- 
tions  whatever,  and  the  barrel  has  no  aftershaft 

The  first  indications  of  feathers  are  minute  pro jet*tiin> 
which  appear  on  the  skin  of  the  embr}'o  about  the  fifth  *--r 
sixth  day,  and  from  these  the  downy  covering  is  devoloj-».'i. 
The  feathers  which  follow  are  produced  from  the  same  puij>. 
the  feathers  being  formed  around  the  papilla,  betwt-x»n  u 
and  the  inclosing  sac  or  sheath.  Pro/.  Huxley  in  hi^  lu- 
irod^iction  to  the  Classijicntion  of  AnimtUn  describes  the 
process  as  follows :  **  The  external  surface  of  the  dermal  j*»- 
pilla,  whence  a  feather  is  to  be  developed,  is  provided  up.  r. 
its  dorsal  surface  with  a  median  groove,  which  be*.'»  mh^** 
shallower  toward  the  apex  of  the  papilla.  From  thi>  rh- 
dian  groove  lateral  furrows  proceed  at  an  open  angU%  «i^-i 


306 


FEBRIFUGE 


FEDERALIST 


warm  or  cold  water  to  drink,  as  best  suits  the  patient,  the 
use  of  enemata  if  called  for,  and  other  simple  treatment  is 
sufficient,  for  the  disease  will  pass  away  of  itself  if  allowed 
to  do  so.  It  is  often  followed  by  an  eruption  or  a  stage  of 
profuse  sweating.  There  would  appear  to  be  no  constant 
factor  in  the  causes  of  febricula,  wnich  may  be  associated 
with  a  seyere  cold,  a  profound  emotional  disturbance,  or 
with  some  excess  on  the  patient's  part.  It  is  especially  com- 
mon during  epidemics  oi  typhoid  and  typhus  fevers. 

Feb'riftige  [from  Fr,  febrifuge  :  Ital.  fehhrifugo  <  Low 
Lat.  *febrijug\i8 ;  fe'bris^  feyer  +  fuga're^  drive  away,  deriv. 
of  fu'ga,  flight] :  a  medicine  capable  of  diminishing  or  ban- 
ishing fever.  The  term  was  formerly  used  in  the  sense  of  a 
remedy  which  has  the  power  of  entirely  removing  fever.  In 
the  present  state  of  knowledge  it  is  clear  that  remedies  hard- 
ly ever  have  this  power,  for  on  the  one  hand  the  infectious 
aiseases  known  as  **  fevers  **  are  for  the  most  part  self-limited 
diseases  which  subside  when  the  infection  has  spent  its  force, 
and  in  which  the  temperature  or  fever  may  only  be  tempo- 
rarily reduced,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  fevers  due  to  in- 
flammations are  permanently  removable  only  by  removing 
the  cause.  In  the  limited  sense  of  temporarily  reducing 
temperature  there  are  a  number  of  remedies  which  may 
be  styled  febrifuge.  Aconite,  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  and 
quinine  are  the  drugs  most  frequently  used  in  mild  cases ; 
and  antipyrin,  antifebrin,  and  phenacetin  those  which  are 
useful  in  severer  fevers ;  but  the  external  use  of  cold  water 
has  to  a  large  extent  supplanted  these  remedies.  In  typhoid 
fever,  particularly,  cold  bathing  is  of  great  value,  and  under 
its  use  the  mortality  in  this  disease  has  been  lowered  fully 
10  per  cent.,  that  is,  from  a  previous  death-rate  of  15  per 
cent,  to  20  per  cent  the  mortality  is  now  reduced  to  5  per 
cent.,  and  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  only  1 
per  cent,  of  patients  succumb.  There  is  often  objection  on 
the  part  of  the  patient's  friends  o^inst  a  seemingly  cruel 
treatment,  for  the  patient  often  shivers  and  moans  or  grows 
somewhat  blue,  but  the  systematic  employment  of  this  mode 
of  treatment  in  hospit«ds  has  been  overwhelmingly  con- 
vincine  of  its  value.  Sponge  bathing,  with  water  or  diluted 
alcohol,  or  the  cold  pack  (wrapping  the  patient  in  sheets 
wrung  out  in  cold  water),  may  be  used  instead  of  the  full 
bath,  out  are  much  less  powerful. 

Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Febro'nianism  [deriv.  of  Febronian,  pertaining  to  Jus- 
tinus  Febronius,  the  pseudonym  of  the  founder  oi  Febro- 
nianismj:  the  views  taught  in  the  writings  of  J.  N.  von 
Hontheim  (1701-00),  suffragan  bishop  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic diocese  of  Treves.  He  taught  that  the  primacy  of  the  pope 
is  of  human  origin,  and  opposed  with  great  success  the  Ultra- 
montane view.  lie  had  many  followers,  but  in  his  old  age 
was  so  annoyed  by  the  persecutions  visited  upon  himself  and 
his  family  that  he  recanted  twice,  and  finally  abandoned  his 
bishopric;  but  Fcbronianism  long  survived,  and  the  Old 
Catholic  movement  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  its  devel- 
opment.   See  Hontheim,  von. 

February  [from  Lat.  Febnia'rius,  deriv.  of  fe'brua  (plur.), 
the  festival  of  purifications,  deriv.  of  febrvxt're,  purify,  akin 
to  febris,  fever] :  the  second  month  of  the  Gregorian  year, 
having  twenty-eight  days,  except  in  leap-years,  when  it  has 
twenty-nine. 

Fecamp,  td'kakn'  (in  Lat.  Fiscannum) :  seaport  of  France, 
department  of  Seine-Inferieure  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  2- 
E).  Its  port,  though  small,  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  English 
channel,  and  is  much  frequented  by  colliers  from  Newcastle 
and  Sunderland,  and  by  timber-ships  and  fishing- vessels 
from  the  Baltic.  Lat.  of  Fecamp  light,  49'  46'  N.,  Ion.  22' 
E.  It  is  a  favorite  resort  for  sea-bathing,  and  has  ship-yards, 
tanneries,  cotton-mills,  sugar-refineries,  and  some  manu- 
facturing interests.    Pop.  (1891)  12,825. 

Fechner,  fech'n«r,  Gustav  Theodoe:  scientist;  b.  at 
Gross-Sarchen,  Germany,  Apr.  19,  1801 ;  after  a  brilliant 
course  of  study  at  Sorau  and  Dresden  studied  medicine  at 
Leipzig,  where  he  was  Professor  of  Physics  from  1834  till 
1839 ;  wrote  much  and  ably  upon  chemistry,  physics,  anthro- 
pology, medical  science,  philosophy,  and.  antic^uities,  and 
under  the  fien-narne  of  Dr.  Mises,  [M)etry,  criticism,  and 
humorous  literature.  Among  his  more  important  works  are 
Ueber  das  hochMe  Gut  (1848);  Eh-mctite  der  Psycophysik 
(I860);  Zar  Geschichte  der  Holbeinschen  Madonna  (1866). 
D.  Nov.  18,  1887. 

Pechter,  fech't«r,  Charles  Albert  :  actor ;  b.  in  London, 
Oct.  23,  1824.     His  father  was  a  German,  his  mother  a 


Frenchwoman,  and  he  was  educated  in  England  and  Franco. 
For  some  time  he  devoted  himself  to  sculpture,  but  haviut: 
an  inclination  for  the  stage,  he  made  his  dibui  in  1840  ki 
the  Salle  Moliere  in  Le  Man  de  la  Veuve;  after  paxMn^- 
some  weeks  at  the  Conservatory  he  joined  a  company  ami 
made  the  tour  of  Italy;  on  his  return  he  resumed  his 
occupation  of  sculptor.  His  first  success  on  the  French 
stage  was  as  Duval  in  La  Dame  aux  Camiliag,  In  1860  he 
appeared  on  the  stage  as  Hamlet,  and  in  1861  as  Othello; 
and  in  1863  he  leased  the  London  Lyceum  theater  and  [fro- 
duced  The  Duke* 8  MottOy  Bel  Demofiio,  etc.,  assumini;  the 
principal  characters  himself.  In  1870  and  in  1872  he  )>la\«fj 
successful  enga^ments  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  L' *  S.. 
and  managed  the  Globe  theater  in  Boston  for  a  season.  He 
purchased  a  farm  near  Quakertown,  Pa.,  and  died  tb^r^ 
Aug.  6, 1879. 

Feekenham,  or  Feekenam,  Johk,  de :  Catholic  divine, 
whose  real  name  was  Howman  ;  b.  in  Feekenham  Fon-^t, 
Worcestershire,  England,  about  1516 ;  educated  at  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  at  Evesham  and  at  Gloucester  Coll«<:f. 
Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.  D.  in  1539.  Chaplairi 
to  the  Bishop  of  Worcester  and  afterward  to  Bonner.  Bi^h<  \^ 
of  London,  Doth  vigorous  opponents  of  the  reform  moxv- 
ment,  he  showed  such  zeal  for  his  religion  that  he  was  s«'n: 
to  the  Tower  1549,  but  afterward  released  temporarily  ti> 
take  part  in  religious  disputations.  On  Mary's  accessirm  he 
was  received  into  favor,  and  in  1556  made  Abbot  of  West- 
minster. During  Lady  Jane  Grey's  captivity  be  was  sent  \n 
convert  her  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  but  did  not  suc- 
ceed. In  his  time  of  prosperity  he  showed  a  tolerant  >\nnx 
toward  the  Protestants,  opposing  the  adoption  of  vru\ 
measures  against  them,  and  going  so  far  as  to  interce«le  with 
the  queen  for  the  imprisoned  Elizabeth,  a  service  which  r  t » 
latter  rewarded  after  her  accession  by  the  offer  of  the  an  i.- 
bishopric  of  Canterbury,  subject,  however,  to  the  condit:i'L 
of  conforming  to  the  newly  established  religion.  Ferk^n- 
ham  refused,  and  in  Parliament,  where  he  was  the  l&st  <  f 
the  mitered  abbots  to  have  a  seat,  he  opposed  every  mea-urt» 
in  the  interest  of  the  reformed  Church.  He  was  agaiin  t  hn  ••*  i 
into  the  Tower  1560,  and  for  the  rest  of  his  life  was  ht'l«i  m 
confinement,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  brief  intcnaL^ 
D.  at  the  Castle  of  Wisbeach,  1585.  He  has  left,  be.«»ide5  fu- 
neral orations  and  sennons,  an  account  of  his  int4,'rvifw> 
with  Lady  Jane  Grey  in  the  Conference  Dialogue, 

Fec'nla :  See  Starch. 

Fecnndation :  See  Embbtoloot  and  Gestatioh. 

Federalist  [deriv.  of  federal,  from  Fr.  fidiral  <  L.iL 
*f(Bdera'li8,  deriv.  of  fa'dus,  fa'deris,  league] :  a  term  .:. 
politics  which  in  general  is  applied  to  an  advocate  an<l  mi:- 
porter  of  a  close  union  of  states  under  a  common  po^  ♦  n.- 
ment  as  against  those  who  would  weaken  or  destroy  .•«u<  h  a 
union.  More  specifically  th^  term  has  been  appHe<i  to  a  re- 
markable series  of  papers  written  in  the  early  history  «if  t:j- 
U.  S.  Government  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  mlopri  r 
of  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  to  the  political  party  wh:  r, 
immediately  after  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution,  aii>«~ 
cated  a  strong  central  government  instead  of  a  weak  or''. 

I.  With   the  exception  of   the  concluding  nine   <4  ^* 
eighty-six  numbers,  the  collection  of  essays  termed  the  /'■  • 
eraliat  was  originally  published  in  The  Independent  Juun . 
a    semi-weekly  newspaper   printed   in   the    city    of   N  - 
York,    between    Oct.    27,   1y87,  and    Apr.    2,  '17WK      1-^ 
authors  were   Alexander   Hamilton,  Jamee   Madisf^tn.  a*  : 
John  Jay,  who  addressed  themselves  over  the  common  -•.•- 
nature  of  **  Publius,"  in  a  series  of  letters,  **  To  the  Po<n  K-  >  f 
the  State  of  New  York,"  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  mx  wr- 
ing the  accession  of  that  State  to  the  Constitution  a;s  pr- 
posed  hj  the  Federal  convention  of  Sept.  17,  1787. 

The  immediate  cause,  or,  so  to  say,  provocation  «»f  »*  ■• 
work,  was  the  appearance,  almost  simultaneously  with  :  ' 
recommendation  of  the  convention,  of  two  series  of  a  't 
aiticles  so  severely  criticising  the  proposed  Constitution  t  st 
its  adoption  was  more  than  endangered.  Ilamilton  resi  k  >  J 
to  counteract  these  attacks  through  the  same  mo«zi>.  *:  » 
public  press — to  answer  the  arguments  advanced.  an«l.  in  r^  • 
ply  to  a  charge  that  the  supporters  of  the  Constitution  ■:•• 
signed  to  supplant  the  Union  of  the  States  by  their  fu>i  i 
under  a  centralized  (if  not  monarchical)  government^  Ui  n^:  ^1 
upon  its  opponents  with  an  implied  accusation  of  favi>r;'.  { 
the  division  of  the  States  into  separate  confederacies  Y  ~ 
this  puri)ose  he  drew  up  a  syllabus  of  essays,  to  lie  wni: 
by  hmiself  and  associates,  which  should  perspicuous h  t 
hlbit  the  advantages  of  the  Union,  expose  the  iiisufiicA«.i:^p 


i 


308 


FEDKRMANN 


FEELING 


Cauca,  Cundinamarca,  Magdalena,  Panama,  Santander,  To- 
lima),  and  the  United  States  of  Rio  de  la  Plata  (fourteen 
provinces,  commonly  called  the  Argentine  Republic). 

The  Swiss  or  Helvetian  federation  is  composed  of  twenty- 
two  political  cantons,  of  which  the  supreme  authority  is 
vested  in  a  federal  diet  composed  of  a  national  council  (a 
deputy  for  every  30,000  inhabitants)  and  a  state  council  (two 
delegates  from  each  canton).  Seven  members  are  chosen 
by  the  two  branches  of  the  diet,  on  a  joint  ballot,  to  form 
the  federal  council,  which  exercises  the  executive  authority 
under  a  president,  who  holds  office  but  one  year,  and  is  in- 
eligible lor  the  next  ensuing  term.  The  diet  is  responsible 
for  the  internal  and  external  security  of  the  federation.  It 
alone  can  declare  war  or  conclude  treaties  of  peace,  com- 
merce, or  alliance  with  foreign  powers.  The  several  cantons 
can,  however,  conclude  conventions  respecting  matters  of 
revenue  and  police  with  subordinate  departments  of  foreign 
governments,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  federal  author- 
ity. Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Federmann,  fa'dar-m&n,  Nicholas  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Ulm, 
in  Swabia,  Germany,  1501.  In  1529  he  went  to  Venezuela 
as  a  captain  in  the  employ  of  the  Wclsers  of  Augsburg ;  there 
he  was  made  chief  lieutenant  of  Alfinger,  and  conducted  an 
extended  exploration  from  Coro  to  the  interior.  After  visit- 
ing Europe  (1582)  he  returned  in  1534  as  lieutenant  of  George 
of  Spire.  The  latter  started  for  the  interior,  leaving  orders 
for  Federmann  to  follow  with  re-enforcements ;  instead  of 
doing  so,  he  engaged  in  pearl-fishing  on  the  coasts  and  in 
15d5  started  on  an  independent  expedition  with  200  men. 
He  wandered  for  some  years  in  the  Orinoco  valley,  finally 
crossed  the  mountains  westward,  and  early  in  1539  reached 
the  rich  country  of  the  Chibchas  of  New  Granada.  There 
he  found  Gonzalo  Quesada  {q.  c),  who  had  already  entered 
this  region,  coming  from  Santa  Marta.  It  is  said  that  Que- 
sada paid  Federmann  10,000  pesos  of  gold  to  relinquish  the 
conquest.  The  two  leaders  descended  the  river  Magdalena 
together,  and  went  to  Spain ;  thence  Federmann  passed  to 
Augsburg,  where  he  immediately  fell  into  trouble  with  the 
Welsers,  owing  to  his  desertion  of  Quesada.  He  lost  his 
office,  and  narrowly  escaped  confiscation  of  his  property. 
He  then  started  for  Spam  to  seek  employment,  out  died, 
either  in  a  shipwreck  or  shortly  after  reaching  Madrid 
(about  1543).  He  wrote  an  account  of  his  fii'st  exploration, 
which  was  published  in  German  at  Ilaguenau  1557,  and 
there  is  a  French  translation  in  the  Ternaux-Corapans  col- 
lection, 18S7.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Fee  [M.  Bng.  fee,  feoh  <  0.  Eng.  feoh,  cattle,  property, 
money  :  Mod.  Germ.  Vieh,  cattle  :  Goth,  faihu,  cattle,  prop- 
erty ;  cf.  Lat.  peeus,  cattle,  money :  Sanskr.  pafu,  cattle] :  in 
its  original  signification  under  the  feudal-law  system  of 
tenure,  the  allotment  of  land  which  a  vassal  received  from 
his  superior  lord  on  condition  of  the  performance  of  various 
services  in  his  lord's  behalf — especially  of  military  service 
in  time  of  war.  (See  Feudal  System.)  It  was  used  in  con- 
tradistinction to  allodium,  which  applied  to  land  which  a 
man  owned  in  his  own  right,  without  any  obligation  to  ren- 
der service  to  another.  But  in  the  gradual  modification  of 
the  law  appertaining  to  the  tenure  of  landed  property  the 
word  "  fee,"  while  still  retained,  has  undergone  a  cnange  of 
signification,  being  used  to  designate  the  estate  which  a  land- 
owner possesses.  And  by  "estate"  in  this  connection  is 
meant  not  the  propertjr  itself — ^though  such  an  application 
of  the  term  is  common  in  popular  parlance — ^but  the  interest 
which  one  has  in  the  land  as  regards  the  nature  and  dur^ 
tion  of  his  title.  A  fee  therefore  signifies  an  estate  of  in- 
heritance— i.  e.  an  interest  in  land  which,  on  the  death  of 
the  owner  without  a  will,  passes  immediately  to  his  heirs. 
When  used  without  any  word  of  description  it  has  the  same 
general  extent  of  meaning  as  the  phrases  "  fee-simple  "  and 
"fee-simple  absolute."  These  words  of  designation  ap- 
pended are  employed  to  indicate  more  specifically  that  the 
estate  is  to  be  enjoyed  without  anv  qualincations  or  restric- 
tions limiting  or  tending  to  limit  the  indefinite  duration  and 
absoluteness  of  the  tenure,  and  that  it  is  indefeasible,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  terms  "  qualified  fee,"  "  determin- 
able fee,"  etc.,  to  be  hereafter  explained.  A  fee  or  fee-simple 
is  the  highest  estate  known  to  the  law.  Its  mode  of  creation 
by  deed  at  common  law  still  exhibits  the  application  of  ar- 
bitrarjr  rules  derived  from  the  feudal  system,  which  derive 
their  justification  only  from  the  circumstance  that  they  are 
the  result  of  the  historic  growth  of  the  system  of  tenure,  a 
factitious  importance  being  given  to  them  which  seems,  to 
a  great  degree,  unreasonable  when  they  are  considered  with- 


out reference  to  their  origin.  Thus  it  is  absolutely  t^Mtt. 
tial  that  the  word  "heir"  or  "heirs"  be  employed  in  & 
deed  in  connection  with  the  name  of  the  grantee,  or  the 
only  interest  created  will  be  a  life  estate.  The  purely  arbi- 
trary nature  of  this  requirement  has  caused  ita  abrogHtioD 
in  a'few  of  the  U.  S.  by  statute.  In  wills,  moreover,  and  in 
estates  created  under  the  doctrines  of  uses  (see  Uses  and 
Trusts),  it  has  never  been  obligatory,  since  in  these  cav^ 
the  object  of  legal  interpretation  has  been  to  arrive  at  th^ 
true  intent  of  the  devisor  or  grantor,  and  to  effectuate  hh 
real  purposes  without  suchprecise  re^^ard  to  the  forms  in 
which  they  are  couched.  Wnen  a  fee  is  conveyed  to  a  iw- 
poration  aggregate  the  word  "heirs"  is  unnecessary,  even 
in  a  deed,  since  it  is  not  properly  applicable:  if  the  conv^v- 
ance  be  to  a  corporation  sole,  the  word  "  successors  "  should 
be  substituted.  The  most  important  right  which  the  owner 
of  a  fee-simple  possesses  is  that  of  free  and  unrestrict^ni  en- 
joyment of  tne  property,  and  an  unlimited  power  to  disy^r^ 
of  it  at  his  own  pleasure.  Even  if  any  l&nfpi&ge  be  instrt^'d 
in  the  conveyance  throu|;h  which  he  received  his  title  iv- 
stricting  his  power  of  alienation,  it  is  void  and  may  be  dw 
regarded.  This  is  not  true,  however,  as  to  restrictions  u|«»n 
the  mode  of  occupation,  for  there  may  be  prohibition* 
against  erecting  buildings  of  a  ceriain  character  or  the  u^e 
of  the  land  for  certain  specified  purposes  which  can  not  l<« 
transgressed.  An  owner  in  fee  m&y  transfer  his  entire  e^^thte 
to  another,  or  he  may  carve  out  of  it  any  inferior  estate,  sy.  h 
as  a  life  estate  or  ah  estate  for  vears,  retaining  in  hirrwlf 
a  reversion  or  creating  a  remaiuaer  in  a  third  person,  or  iie 
may  make  any  other  transfer  he  may  think  desirable.  Hi« 
interest  may  be  seized  and  sold  for  the  payment  of  his  didt>, 
cither  in  his  own  lifetime  or  after  his  death,  in  exclusion  of 
the  claims  of  his  heirs. 

Estates  in  fee  inferior  to  a  fee-simple  are  termed  "  has*- " 
or  "  qualified  "  or  "  determinable  "  fees — i.  e.  estates  of  in- 
heritance which  are  granted  with  qualifications  or  re<t  no- 
tions which  may  cause  their  defeasance.     These  a?*-unie 
various  forms.    Thus  there  may  be  a  fee  upon  limit  at  I'.n, 
as  an  estate  given  to  A  until  B  goes  to  Boston.     In  such  a 
case,  if  B  ever  goes  to  Boston  the  estate  is  at  once  defeatt-l; 
if  he  never  goes,  the  fee  becomes  absolut«.     A  fee  may  U 
granted  upon  condition,  as  an  estate  to  A  on  condition  tlrt* 
he  builds  a  market  upon  the  land  within  three  vears.    If  thf 
grantee  fails  to  comply  with  the  stipulation,  the  grantor  **x 
his  heirs  may  re-enter  after  the  condition  is  broken  and  rv- 
cover  the  astate.    Limitations  are  created  by  words  of  tim**; 
conditions,  by  terms  in  the  nature  of  a  proviso.     There  aiv 
also  what  arc  styled  estates  upon  conditional  limitation.  »> 
an  estate  to  A  until  B  goes  to  Boston,  when  the  estate  is  i  • 
pass  to  C,  some  third  person.    No  entry  is  required  in  ^u -r 
a  case  by  the  grantor  to  defeat  the  estate,  as  in  the  case  •  >f  a 
condition,  but  on  the  occurrence  of  the  event  specified  tri»: 
estate  is  at  once,  ipso  facto,  vested  in  C,  the  grantee  in  th*- 
alternative.  There  was,  moreover,  a  fee  conditional  at  o«-.ir:- 
mon  law,  which  was  afterward  modified  by  statute  iiit><  a 
peculiar  estate  termed  a  fee  tail.    This  was  created  when  &:: 
estate  was  g^ven  to  a  man  and  the  "  heirs  of  his  bodv.*^     !:> 
this  case  the  grantee  had  a  fee,  but  could  not  make  cii>p-  *<i- 
tion  of  it  so  as  to  defeat  the  right  of  the  heirs  desjigTiat^i 
This  particular  restriction  at  common  law  was,  in  eourM>  "f 
time,  in  England  avoided  by  a  resort  to  ingenious  lejral  f;<  - 
tions,  as  by  fines  and  recoveries;  and  in  the  Unite<l  St:itF> 
there  has  been  very  generally  an  entire  abolition  of  this  fora* 
of  estate,  or  so  fundamental  a  change  in  it  that  tlii^  riii-i" 
of  limitation  is  made  equivalent  to  a  conveyance  in  f*'^- 
simple.    On  this  general  topic  consult  Washburn  on  /if"i.* 
Property;  Williams  on  the  same  subject;  Cruise's  DiV^a.' 
Kent's  Commefitaries,  etc.  See  also  Entail  and  FEorrMi.vT 
George  Chase.    Revised  by  T,  W,  D wight. 

Feejee:  same  as  Fiji  (g.  v.). 

Feeling:  in  its  narrower  meaning  the  sensation  pr^ 
duced  by  an  object  on  the  sensory  nerve,  as  hearing  denntr-* 
the  sensation  produced  by  an  object  on  the  auditory  iicrr* , 
sight  the  sensation  produced  by  an  object  on  the  vim\5i' 
nerve,  and  so  on.  In  its  wider  sense  it  comorises  all  t'  r 
impressions  received  through  the  senses,  as  tney  ail  a-:-* 
from  the  same  general  sensibility,  which  is  merely  partu  k- 
larifled  in  the  special  sensory  ofpms;  but  it  refers  to  t>i*-*' 
not  as  far  as  they  are  sensations  m  the  organs  of  senstN  h\i* 
as  far  as  they  are  modifications  of  consciousness.  TV)  :* 
feeling  is  nearly  synonymous  with  emotion,  and  the  t^ri-»  e\ 
pressions  are  often  used  svnonymously,  though  emotion  i^ 
more  properly  applied  to  the  separate  states  of  the  feeliuir 


310 


FEIGNED  DISEASES 


PELCH 


and  exhausting  attitudes,  and  to  submit  to  most  heroic 
methods  of  treatment.  The  malingerer  went  from  hospital 
to  hospital  in  London,  and  was  the  subject  of  so  many 
demonstrations  and  lectures  to  students  that  he  gradually 
improYod  his  acting,  rectifying  in  one  hospital  the  anomalies 
in  nis  case  which  he  had  heaixl  pointed  out  in  the  preceding 
one,  and  finally  received  the  ministrations  of  a  clergyman 
in  view  of  his  expected  death  before  his  imposture  was  dis- 
coTered. 

The  motive  for  malingering  is  usually  a  desire  to  avoid 
unpleasant  or  dangerous  situations,  or  to  secure  money  or 
sympatiiy  or  notoriety,  or  to  punish  others  through  their 
feehngs.  Thus  in  all  countries  and  all  times  persons  liable 
to  military  or  naval  service  have  pretended  to  be  unfit  for 
each  service,  and  those  already  engaged  in  it  have  sought  to 
secure  discharge  or  exeinption  from  the  performance  of 
duty  by  like  pretending.  In  European  countries  especially, 
and  in  times  of  more  rigorous  exactions,  attempts  to  escape 
military  duty  have  been  so  widespread  and  so  ingenious 
that  stringent  laws  have  been  adopted  to  punish  not  only 
those  making  such  attempts,  but  also  those  who  in  any  way 
aid  or  abet  them.  The  pretense  of  insanity  is  an  altogether 
too  familiAr  resonrce  of  criminals,  and  especially  of  mur- 
derers. In  hospitals  patients  often  endeavor  to  enlist  spe- 
cial sympathy  or  to  secure  unusual  privileges  by  feigning 
curious  cusorders,  peculiar  feebleness,  or  pain.  In  a  case  in 
the  Philadelphia  Hospital,  under  the  care  of  the  writer,  a 
young  woman  repeatedly  submitted  to  painful  and  danger- 
ous operations  in  support  of  her  pretense  of  excruciating 
pain  in  order  to  ^t  morphia.  In  schools,  almshouses,  re- 
formatories, and  prisons  the  same  mode  of  imposture  is  prac- 
ticed, while  beggars  on  the  streets  and  pampered  women 
alike  avail  themselves  of  this  method  of  securing  their  desires. 

The  detection  of  malingering  or  simulation  is  sometimes 
easy,  but  often  it  is  very  difficult.  Ingenuity  often  plays  a 
more  important  part  in  unmasking  an  impostor  than  does 
mere  skill  in  meaicine.    A  French  surgeon  once  watched  a 

Eretended  epileptic  in  a  fit,  and  when  it  subsided  put  his 
and  on  the  patient's  heart  and  said  :  "  It  is  all  over  with 
him.  Carry  him  to  the  dead-house."  This  brought  the 
man  out  of  that  attack,  and  frightened  him  out  of  having 
any  other. 

An  exercise  of  acumen  was  also  shown  in  the  case  of  a 

Sretended  deaf-mute,  who  was  exposed  by  the  Abb^  Sicard, 
irector  of  the  Institute  for  Deaf-mutes'  in  Paris,  who  ob- 
served that  the  mistakes  tlie  pretender  made  in  writing 
were  phonetic — that  he  wrote  as  he  heard,  and  not  as  he 
saw.  In  cases  of  pretended  defects  of  vision  the  instru- 
ments and  methods  of  examination  of  modern  oculists  fur- 
nish a  very  strong  defense  against  deception.  For  example, 
when  one  eye  is  said  to  be  blind,  the  examiner  places  in 
front  of  the  eyes  of  the  pretender  a  pair  of  spectacles,  one 
lens  of  which  contains  a  prism  with  its  base  turned  up  or 
down,  and  then  makes  him  look  through  an  aperture  at  a 
hitherto  concealed  candle.  He  is  then  asked  what  he  sees ; 
and  if  he  says  he  sees  (as  he  does,  if  he  is  using  both  eyes) 
two  candles,  his  fraud  is  discovered.  Or  the  eye  admitted 
to  be  sound  is  covered  with  a  red  glass,  and  he  is  asked  to 
read  lines  written  in  green  upon  a  black  ground.  If  he  can 
do  this,  he  is  known  to  be  reading  with  the  eye  said  to  be 
defective ;  because  at  a  certain  distance  green  rays  passing 
through  a  red  glass  appear  black. 

Countless  other  methods  have  been  employed  in  dejiling 
with  malingerers.  Some  of  them  were  such  as  would  test 
the  fortitude  of  the  susi)e(?t.  In  earlier  times  these  used 
to  be  in  great  favor,  and  were  often  carried  to  a  barbarous 
extent.  But  modern  civilization  and  the  advance  of  medi- 
cal science  have  le<l  to  the  dismission  as  abhorrent,  or  the 
abandonment  as  unnecessary,  of  every  method  which  is 
cruel  or  which  may  be  injurious.  It  is  rejjarded  as  proper, 
however,  to  apply  a  test  which  is  painful,  provided  the  pro- 
cedure would  \)G  benefifial  if  the  pretended  disease  were 
actually  present.  For  example,  a  blister,  or  even  the  actual 
cauterv  (ourning  with  the  rod-hot  iron),  might  be  used  in  a 
case  of  asserted  stiff-knee. 

Fortunately,  with  the  general  elevation  of  the  human 
race  and  with  the  improved  coiulitions  of  military  and 
naval  service,  malingering  is  no  longer  us  common  as  it 
once  was.  But  there  still  remain  sulTicient  (x-casions  when 
cupidity  or  fear  prompt  to  this  form  of  im|)osture  to  make  it 
necessary  to  recognize  its  existence  and  to  giuird  against  it. 
Modem  times  have  also  furnished  a  comparatively  new  form 
of  this  sort  of  fraud,  of  which  corporations  are  the  special 
victims — ^the  nervous  affecticms  following  railway  acciuents. 


The  obscurity  of  the  processes  of  many  injuries  of  th*- 
nervous  system  makes  it  very  difficult  at  times  to  determine* 
whether  a  claimant  is  a  real  sufferer  or  a  pretender,  ancl 
medico-legal  experts  are  often  unable  to  decide  sunh 
whether  or  not  a  particular  claimant  is  a  real  sufferer  or  at 
impostor.  In  all  such  cases  it  is  important  for  those  uh** 
are  called  upon  for  an  opinion  to  weigh  carefully  the  motivt^ 
for  deception  which  may  be  present,  so  to  give  them  due  aii'l 
yet  not  undue  weight.  Justice  requires  that  the  expert  in 
these  cases  shall  not  make  the  mistake  of  regaining  hinw  If 
as  an  inquisitor,  and  that  he  shall  always  be  willing  to  hdimi 
uncertainty  when  he  feels  it.  A  wise  conclusion  in  this  mat- 
ter is  reconied  by  an  eminent  German  expert.  Dr.  L.  Brunr 
in  Schmidt's  Jahrbueher^  1891,  No.  4.  He  nad  had  submit t*^! 
to  him  the  opinions  of  four  physicians,  two  of  whom  ex- 
pressed a  positive  opinion  that  a  case  was  one  of  malinu't  r- 
ing;  one  said  positively  it  was  not:  and  one  wrote:  **Non 
liquet:  I  do  not  know  whether  the  patient  lies  or  U'\h  the 
truth."  "  This,"  says  Dr.  Bruns,  **  was  the  only  just  ojiii.-  ' 
ion." 

Such  a  prudent  attitude  may  be  assumed  without  daiipr 
of  mortification  by  any  medical  man  who  is  at  all  familiar 
with  the  facts  on  record  in  regard  to  malingering ;  and  jus- 
tice to  all  concerned  makes  it  important  that  no  one  sh<<i.i'i 
hastilv  formulate  as  opinions  mere  suspicions,  lest  he  tiol 
himself  in  the  quandary  of  choosing  between  retrartiijL* 
what  he  has  said  or  doing  a  wrong  to  the  innocent. 

Charles  W.  Duller, 

FeiJ6,  fd-zho',  Diooo  Antonio  :  Brazilian  statesman :  I 
in  S3o  Paulo,  Aug.,  1784.  He  took  orders,  and  was  a  {>ri«^' 
in  Parahyba,  Campinas,  and  Itu.  In  1822  he  was  deput>  •  f 
SSk)  Paulo  to  the  Cortes  at  Lisbon,  and  was  one  of  th«'  ti\> 
Brazilian  deputies  who  left  that  body  on  the  declaratioi!  f 
independence.  He  was  deputy  1826-^,  and  a  leader  of  th> 
liberals;  in  1827  he  presented  a  bill  for  the  abolitinii  .f 
celibacy  in  the  clergy.  From  July  4,  1831,  to  July  26,  iNiJ, 
he  was  minister  of  justice,  preserving  order  under  \*t} 
difficult  circumstances.  In  July,  1833,  he  entered  the  .Vrm** . 
and  next  year  he  was  elected  regent  of  Brazil  during  f*- 
minority  of  Pedro  II. ;  he  retained  his  post  from  C>ct.  IJ. 
1835,  until  Sept.  18, 1887,  in  an  almost  constant  stru<:.'i( 
with  the  conservatives.  In  1842  he  took  the  leadershi]>  -.l 
the  liberal  revolt  at  Sorocaba,  and  for  a  short  time  wh>  un 
der  arrest.  The  Padre  Ve\j6  was  noted  for  his  virtue  i.:  -1 
austere  adherence  to  principle.  D.  at  Sflo  Paulo,  Ni»v.  1*^ 
1843.  Hebbert  11.  Smith. 

Feints :  See  Fencing. 

Feitli,  Rhunvis:  poet;  b.  at  ZwoUe,  Over>'S8el,  Holiai.i. 
Feb.  7,  1753;  studieci  law  at  Leyden,  but  retunietl  lo  f> 
native  town  1772;  was  elected  burgomaster  1780,  and  U- 
c^me  a  prominent  member  of  important  literary  sotie^rrv 
His  worK  was  sing^arly  successful,  and  won  for  him  r, 
highest  honors  from  his  countrymen.  His  life  was  oin-  .* 
remarkable  prosperity,  but  his  poems  deal  with  emotimi^  • ' 
melancholy  and  despair  to  a  greater  extent  than  th«»^-  f 
any  other  Dutch  poet.  Though  this  provoked  a<h«r^ 
criticism,  and  was  characterized  bv  manv  as  sentime?i"i.- 
ism,  Feith  was  undoubtedlv  the  most  popular  poet  of  !.:> 
time.  D.  at  Zwolle,  Feb.  6,  1824  His  earliest  imiit.r:..  : 
work  was  JuHa,  a  novel  written  in  the  style  of  Wi  rt  .. ' 
(1783).  Then  followed  7%irza  (1784),  a  tragedy  ;/>rifwM  ; 
and  Consfantia^  another  novel,  and  the  Patriots  {ll<* 
works  which  were  publicly  crowned  at  Leyden.  IJet  f"^ '' 
{The  Grave),  published  in  1792,  was  a  didactic  |Kicm  •  f  « 
gloomy  and  sentimental  tone.  From  1706  to  1814  ap}»»«r.  . 
hve  volumes  of  Odes  arid  Miscellaneous  Poems,  aiu-  . 
which  are  many  specimens  of  his  best  stvle,  notably  \.  ^ 
spirited  patriotic  lyrics.  De  (hiderdom  (Old  Age),  mu**]  •- 
didactic  poem,  appeared  in  1802.  In  prose  he  hns  . 
Brievenover  verRcneiden  Ondenrerpen  (Letters  on  Ih'fftrr"' 
Subjects,  1784-94). 

Felaniche,  fa-laa-neech',  or  Felanitx:  an  old  town  < ' 
the  Spanish  island  of  Majorca  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  llv-1 
It  has  considerable  trade  in  wine,  brandy,  and  fruit.     <  M    .-. 
neighboring  mountain  is  the  old  castle,  with  its  subttrr.i 
nean  vaults  constnicted  by  the  Moors.     Pop.  11,000. 

Felch,  Alphkus,  LL.  D. :  lawyer;  b.  in  Limerick,  Y  r« 
CO.,  Me.,  Sept.  28, 1806;  graduateid  at  Bowdoin  Collet'*'  1>-T 
and  became  a  lawyer  of  Michigan,  whither  he  emicrn' 
while  still  very  young;  sat  in  the  State  Legislature  l^:tev^:T 
bank  commissioner  18i38-39;  auditor-general  of  Mithici'. 
was  a  judge  of  the  State  Supreme  Court  1842-45:  Goveru.  - 


312 


PBLLENBERG 


FELONY 


nation — have  many  tribes,  several  shades  of  color  and  va- 
rieties of  form,  probably  from  the  fact  that  they  have  blend- 
ed with  various  subject-races.  They  cultivate  Mohammedan 
learning  with  much  enthusiasm.  Their  history  is  quite  ob- 
scure. Sokoto  is  their  principal  state,  but  they  are  the  pre- 
dominant people  of  many  countries  in  the  Sudan. 

Fellenberg:,  fel'lgli-barch,  Philipp  Emanuel,  von :  educa- 
tor and  statesman ;  b.  in  Berne,  Switzerland,  June  27,  1771 ; 
was  a  descendant  on  the  mother's  side  of  Admiral  Van 
Tromp.  In  youth  he  imbibed  in  some  measure  the  philan- 
thropic views  of  Pestalozzi,  his  father's  friend.  Pellenberg 
studied  at  Colmar  and  Tubingen,  and  a  visit  to  Paris  just 
irfter  Robespierre's  death  convinced  him  that  a  better  public 
education  was  necessary  to  the  safety  of  society.  lie  op- 
posed the  French  in  their  occupation  of  Switzerland,  for 
which  cause  he  was  banished,  out  after  his  return  was 
employed  in  important  diplomatic,  political,  and  military 
officesi  After  failing  to  secure  government  aid  in  his  plans, 
he  founded  in  1799  his  famous  educational  and  manual-labor 
establishment  on  his  own  estate  at  Hofwvl,  near  SchonbUhl, 
in  the  canton  of  Berne,  and  to  this  school  he  consecrated  all 
his  large  fortune.  In  1804  Pestalozzi  removed  his  Bur^orf 
sch(X)l  to  the  old  monastery  of  Mlinchen-Buchsee,  adjoining 
Hofwyl.  Here  the  teachers  gave  the  chief  direction  to  Fel- 
lenberg,  as  Pestalozzi  said,  "Not  without  my  consent,  but  to 
my  profound  mortification."  In  1805  Pestalozzi  accepted  a 
call  to  open  a  school  at  Yverdun.  In  1807  Fellenberg  es- 
tablishea  a  scientific  department,  and  in  1808  a  normal 
school  and  an  agricultural  institution,  where  scientific  agri- 
culture was  taught  and  practiced  and  farming  implements 
manufactured.  The  Hofwyl  institution  flourished,  and  be- 
fore Fellenberg's  death  there  were  in  it  ten  distinct  depart- 
ments of  instruction.  Children  of  all  ages,  the  rich  and  poor 
alike,  were  received.  The  wife  and  nine  children  of  Fellen- 
berg assisted  him  in  his  work.  He  died  at  Berne  while 
grand  bailiff,  Nov.  21,  1844.  A  few  years  after  his  death 
his  establishment  was  abandoned.  Fellenberg  was  in  tem- 
per and  method  almost  the  exact  opposite  of  Pestalozzi, 
though  he  pursued  the  same  ends.  The  ruling  spirit  of  his 
school  was  common  sense.  Order  was  there  as  prominent 
as  the  lack  of  it  was  at  Yverdun.  See  Payne's  Lectures  on 
the  History  of  Education.       Revised  by  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Fellows,  Sir  Charles:  b.  at  Nottingham,  England,  in 
1799;  made  four  expeditions  into  Asia  Minor;  collected  the 
Lycian  Marbles,  now  in  the  British  Museum ;  was  knighted 
in  1845.  Author  of  Journal  of  an  Excursion  into  Asia 
Minor  (1839);  a  Journal  (1841)  of  his  second  expedition; 
Xanthian  Marbles  (1843);  Account  of  an  Ionic  Trophy 
Monument  (1848) ;  Coins  of  Ancient  Lycia  (1855),  etc.  The 
rich  archsBological  remains  of  Lycia  were  quite  unknown 
until  described  by  him.     D.  at  Nottingham,  Nov.  8,  1860. 

Fellow  Servants;  two  orjnoi-e  persons  who  are  sub- 
ject to  the  same  general  control,  and  engaged  in  the  same 
pursuit.  The  rule  of  law  is  that  one  who  engages  in  the 
employment  of  another  for  the  performance  of  specified 
duties  and  services,  for  a  compensation,  takes  upon  nimself 
the  ordinary  risks  and  perils  incident  to  the  performance 
of  such  services,  including  the  perils  arising  from  the  care- 
lessness and  negligence  of  those  engaged  in  the  same  em- 
ployment. So  that  while  a  master  is  ordinarily  liable  to  a 
third  person  for  the  wrongful  acts  of  his  servant  if  the  acts 
are  done  in  the  cxecufion  of  the  master's  business  within 
the  scope  of  the  servant's  employment,  yet  the  master  is  not 
liable  if  the  person  injured  is  a  fellow  servant  with  him 
who  worked  tne  injury  in  the  manner  above  defined.  The 
test  for  determining  who  are  fellow  servants  does  not  con- 
sist in  the  grade  or  rank  of  the  offending  or  injured  serv- 
ant, but  in  the  character  of  the  act  done  by  the  offending 
servant.  If  the  act  is  one  which  the  law  implies  a  contract 
duty  upon  the  employer's  part  to  perform,  then  the  offend- 
ing employee  is  not  a  servant  but  an  agent,  and  the  master's 
liability  is  clear.  A  master  who  knowingly  employs  and 
retains  an  incompetent  servant  is  liable  for  injuries  done  by 
such  servant  to  a  fellow  servant,  if  it  appears  that  the  injured 
servant  did  not  know  and  did  not  have  the  means  of  know- 
ing of  the  incompetency  of  his  fellow  servant,  and  provided 
the  injury  is  the  result  of  the  fellow  servant's  unskilfullness 
or  incompetency.  If  a  servant  is  generally  known  to  be 
incompetent  the  master  is  chargeable  with  negligence  in  not 
knowing  what  that  reputation  is.  If  the  master  originally 
used  due  care  in  the  selection  of  the  servant,  and  subse- 
quently obtains  knowledge  of  his  unfitness,  but  continues 
him  in  his  employment,  he  makes  himself  thereby  liable  for 


injuries  resulting  to  fellow  servants  from  such  onskillful- 
ness.  In  Groat  Britain,  and  in  some  of  the  commonwealths 
of  the  U.  S.,  statutes  have  been  passed  on  this  subject  chan^^- 
ing  the  common-law  rule,  and  making  the  mai^ter  in  si  inn- 
cases  liable  for  injury  caused  to  employees  by  the  negligence 
of  a  co-employee.    See  Master  and  Servant. 

Henry  Wade  Rogers. 

Fellowship:  in  the  universities  of  Oxford,  Cambridc:*-, 
Durham,  and  Dublin,  a  position  held  by  the  fellows  {wtfH) 
of  a  particular  college.  The  fellows  were  originally  iKK»r 
students  (chiefly  of  divinity)  who  received  the  income' of  tin- 
fellowship  as  a  means  of  support,  but  when  they  obtain>'(l 
a  sufficient  benefice,  or  became  owners  of  property  Ijcyond 
a  certain  amount,  or  bv  marriage  signified  their  abandon- 
ment of  the  Church,  they  lost  the  fellowship.  The  same 
causes,  with  some  modifications  and  exceptions,  will  vaoMt*- 
a  fellowship  at  present.  Now,  however,  tne  fellowships  are 
rewards  for  eminent  scholarship,  vielding  in  some  cbm<  k 
very  handsome  income,  besides  other  valuable  perquisititt-s 
Recent  legislation  has  much  simplified  the  ancient  5y>i«-m 
of  fellowships.  The  system  of  fellowships  has  extern* UmI 
rapidly  among  colleges  and  universities  in  the  U.  S.  The 
conditions  under  which  they  are  awarded  vary  in  different 
institutions.  They  are,  however,  always  given  to  coli<^:e 
graduates  of  superior  attainments,  to  enable  them  to  pursue 
advanced  studies.  Generally  they  are  tenable  for  a  yexir 
only,  though  holders  may  be  re-elected.  The  stipends*  niv 
never  large,  $500  per  annum  being  the  usual  amount.  Tbt- 
fellows  hold  the  most  dignified  position  in  the  student  bodr. 
and  the  ranks  of  the  faculties  are  apt  to  be  recruited  froiu 
them.  In  a  number  of  institutions  m  the  U.  S.  the  truste*^ 
are  called  fellows.  Revised  by  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Felltham,  or  Feltham,  Owen:  author;  b.  in  Suffolk. 
England,  1608 ;  was  for  a  time  an  inmate  of  the  Earl  of 
Thomond's  household.  Felltham  wrote  about  1628  his  h^- 
solves^  Divine^  Moral,  and  PoUtic<il,  a  book  of  moral  re- 
flections which  was  very  popular  in  the  seventeenth  eentur}. 
and  has  been  often  reprinted.    D.  in  1677. 

Fe'lo  de  se  [Med.  Lat.,  a  felon  concerning  himself,  mur- 
derer of  himself;  felo  is  the  Lat.  form  of  a  Romance  won! . 
cf.  I tal. /eWone,  Ft,  felon,  ultim.  of  Germ,  origin]  :  one  wli^ 
commits  suicide.    See  Suicide. 

Felon :  See  Whitlow. 


i"'tt. 


Felony  [0.  Yr.felonie,  deriv.  of  felon ;  cf.  Ital.  fell 
outlaw,  a  word  of  German  origin] :  as  a  term  of  the  Wwz 
lish  common  law,  an  offense  the  commission  of  which  «a> 
attended  with  a  forfeiture  of  the  wrongdoer's  lands;.  giHHiN 
or  both  ;  distinguished  from  a  misdemeanor.  The  princij'ie 
of  classification  in  accordance  with  which  all  crimes  wi  rr- 
divided  into  the  two  classes  of  felonies  and  niisdemeanvnt 
did  not  depend  upon  any  definite  inherent  peculiarity  by 
which  the  offenses  in  one  category  were  separated  fn«ni 
those  in  the  other,  but  merely  upon  the  difference  in  the 
modes  of  punishment  adopted.  Death  was  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  instances  superadded  to  forfeiture  in  the  ea<e  nf 
felonies,  but  was  not  a  distinguishing;  characteristic  of  tlu> 
grade  of  offense.  The  common  belief  that  in  order  f<»r  a 
crime  to  be  felonious  it  must  be  one  for  which  capital  pun- 
ishment is  inflicted,  is  entirely  erroneous.  In  tne  law  of 
Great  Britain  there  have  l)een  some  important  changes  ma«it^ 
in  the  laws  concerning  forfeiture,  but  the  term  "  felony  **  n- 
tains  its  previously  established  signification,  and  no  offen^ 
comes  under  this  designation  to  which  forfeiture  is  not  an- 
nexed as  a  penalty.  Goods  and  chattels  are  forfeited  ufwr 
conviction  for  any  felonv,  but  in  the  case  of  lands  conviiti*  tj 
alone  is  not  sufficient,  but  sentence  of  attainder  must  t»- 
pronounced.  (See  Attainder.)  By  attainder  for  felony  tl;. 
offender  forfeits  the  profits  of  all  freehold  estates  dunni: 
life;  if  the  offense  be  murder,  he  also  forfeits,  after  hi> 
death,  all  lands  held  in  fee  simple  to  the  crown  for  a  venr 
and  a  day.  (See  Forfeiture.)  In  the  U.  S.,  when^tFje 
nature  and  punishment  of  crimes  are  generally  detennin*  i 
by  statutory  provisions,  there  is  no  universally  reof»i:iii/«' ; 
nieanine  given  to  the  word  "felony."  S<mie  Statt»s  !»}■■<  F 
have  still  retained  it  in  use  give  to  it  a  specific  definiti<  :*. 
employing  it  to  designate  crimes  invohing  a  certain  kin«i  <  •' 

?ienaltv.  but  making  the  penalty  of  a  different  cbara*t.  '- 
rom  that  by  which  its  meaning  was  originally  determined. 
Thus  in  New  York  any  offense  punishable  bv  death  or  !•> 
imprisonment  in  a  State  prison  is  a  felony.  In  a  few  Stat«"> 
the  use  of  the  term  is  entirely  discarded,  and  if  it  )>e  mi- 
ployed  at  all  in  legal  proceedings  it  is  without  deflnitene>^ 


314 


FENCING 


bayonet  was  finally  arranged  so  as  to  remain  fixed  to  the 
musket  and  not  interfere  with  loading  and  firing. 

During  the  rei^  of  Louis  XIV.  the  small  sword  proper 
replaced  the  heavier  weapons  of  earlier  times,  the  two-hanaed 
fence  was  abandoned,  and  the  modern  system  was  slowly  de- 
veloped. The  small-sword,  when  once  it  came  into  use,  was 
adopted  as  the  fairest  weapon  for  dueling ;  and  though  to 
the  custom  of  wearing  it  may  be  charged  the  disposition  to 
indulge  in  violence,  many  desperate  encounters  in  which  in- 
nocent persons  sometimes  sunered,  and  the  loss  of  valuable 
lives,  it  must  be  said  that  the  piractice  of  Dueling  (q.  v.^, 
which  had  previously  been  so  conducted  that  every  unfair 
advantage  was  taken  and  allowed,  and  with  a  revolting  dis- 
play of  Precious  passions,  was  greatly  humanized  by  the  re- 
finement introduced  by  the  rules  ana  art  of  fencing.  Skill 
with  the  sword  is  practically  of  advantage  to  those  upon 
whom  falls  the  duty  of  the  national  defense,  to  enable  them 
to  use  lovally  the  weapon  they  alone  are  required  to  wear. 
But  as  the  sword  is  no  longer  generally  worn,  and  is  not, 
among  English-speaking  peoples,  used  in  dueling,  adroitness 
in  its  use  may  no  longer  be  feared  as  likely  to  create  a  fond- 
ness for  contention ;  and  fencing  may  be  and  is  now  resorted 
to  as  an  enjoyable  and  healthful  recreation  and  as  a  certain 
means  of  physical  development.  As  an  exercise  it  is  void 
of  danger,  gives  no  occasion  for  rudeness,  calls  for  no  over- 
exertion, yet  brings  into  active  and  graceful  play  every 
muscle  of  the  body,  and  demands  the  eager  and  unremitting 
attention  of  every  faculty. 

A  distinguished  French  authority  on  the  art  of  fencing 
declares  that  a  swordsman,  on  crossing  blades  with  an  an- 
tagonist and  before  closing  in  combat,  must  take  in  at  a 
glance  the  intellectual  and  physical  powers  of  his  adversary, 
80  as  to  judge  of  the  employment  he  will  likelv  make  of 
them,  and  decide  by  the  nrst  few  movements  of  his  weapon 
if  he  is  a  man  of  nerve  or  one  that  may  be  intimidated  or 
confused ;  observe  on  the  instant  if  his  guard  is  faulty,  and 
what  advantage  mav  be  taken  of  it ;  discover  by  feints  his 
natural  parry,  and  by  his  attitude  and  aspect  whether  his 
forte  is  the  attack  or  defense ;  if  he  will  probably  rush  in, 
trusting  all  to  strength  and  audacitv ;  and  if  he  is  one  of 
whose  attack  signal  advantage  may  be  taken  if  anticipated, 
or  who  will  contend  warily  with  the  skill  of  one  accustomed 
to  fencing,  and  must  therefore  be  attacked  with  caution. 
This,  so  true  in  mortal  combat,  must  be  borne  in  mind  by 
fencers  to  secure  the  best  advantages  from  the  use  of  foils  as 
an  exercise. 

ITie  Foil. — The  foil  or  small-sword  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  hilt  and  blade ;  and  the  hilt  of  three  pieces,  the  pom- 
mel, the  gripe,  and  the  guard.  The  part  of  the  blade  near- 
est the  guard  is  the  fort.  The  two-tnirds  nearest  the  point 
are  the  feeble.  The  side  of  the  gripe  on  which  the  thumb 
rests  should  be  broad,  flat,  and  convex,  the  opposite  side 
slightly  concave. 

To  hold  the  foil  or  sword  in  the  most  advantageous  man- 
ner, the  thumb  must  be  extended  along  the  convex  side  of 
the  handle,  and  at  least  half  an  inch  from  the  guard.  The 
forefinger  is  partially  extended  on  the  under  side,  the  mid- 
dle portion  opposite  the  thumb.  The  remaining  fingers 
embrace  lightly  the  side  of  the  handle.  At  the  moment  of 
making  a  blow  or  parry  the  handle  is  firmly  grasped,  but 
to  hold  it  so  constantly  would  soon  fatigue  and  paralyze  the 
hand. 

The  gwird  is  the  attitude  a  swordsman  assumes,  best  cal- 
culated for  attack  and  defense.  It  is  the  position  men  take 
naturally  when  they  meet  in  combat.  The  right  foot  is 
twice  its  length  in  front  of  the  left,  the  knees  bent  equally, 
the  right  being  vertically  over  the  instep.  The  body  should 
be  erect,  and  its  weight  resting  a  little  more  on  the  left  than 
the  right  leg.  The  right  foot  should  point  directly  to  the 
front,  and  the  knees  be  flared  apart.  The  weapon  is  at  the 
same  time  raised  to  the  height  of  the  waist  and  turned  near 
the  left  side,  bringing  the  point  to  the  front ;  the  right  arm 
is  extended  till  it  is  half  bant,  the  elbow  about  6  inches  in 
front  of  the  side  and  turned  in  toward  the  body,  the  hand 
at  the  height  of  and  opposite  the  right  nipple,  the  nails 
turned  up,  the  thumb  horizontal,  the  back  to  tne  right.  The 
point  of  the  blade  should  be  at  the  height  and  in  front  of  the 
eyes.  The  left  hand  is  extended  to  the  rear  and  a  few  inches 
higher  than  the  head,  the  elbow  is  slightly  bent,  the  hand 
open,  palm  to  the  front.  The  arm  from  the  shoulder  to  the 
end  of  the  fingers  forms  a  curve.  The  reverse  of  this  posi- 
tion is  true  for  left-handed  men.  The  guard  here  described 
is  the  "  middle  ^uard,"  because  in  it  the  weapon  occupies  a 
middle  position  in  reference  to  those  it  assumes  in  the  defense. 


When  on  guard  it  is  essential  to  be  covered  on  the  side  to- 
ward which  the  adversary's  blade  points. 

If  the  hand  is  carried  to  the  right  till  it  is  so  nearly  iri 
front  of  the  right  shoulder  that  the  adversary's  \ioinU  if  • '^• 
tended  on  that  side,  would  not  touch,  one  is  covered  anil  tht 
guard  of  tierce  is  formed ;  if  to  the  left  till  the  hand  i^  suf- 
ficiently in  front  of  the  left  breast  to  divert  the  point  i.n 
that  side,  the  guard  of  quarte  is  formed.  The  moment  hlu^^s 
are  crossed  one  or  the  other  of  these  guards  is  formcvi,  ari<i 
is  called  the  engagement 

Men  of  small  stature  should  form  the  guard  with  the  Wfl 
nearly  as  high  as  the  neck;  those  of  medium  size,  with  the 
hand  as  high  as  the  breast ;  tall  men,  with  the  hand  a  liM.f 
below  the  breast.  Although  the  guard  should  be  habit  nai  v 
taken  according  to  stature,  still  it  must  be  varied,  for  it  :> 
dangerous  not  to  make  the  height  of  the  guard  corre.«{x'Uii 
with  that  of  one's  adversary. 

The  efigagement  is  the  act  of  crossing  weapons  and  hrin;:- 
ing  them  into  contact.  When  the  right  of  the  blades  i>  \l 
contact,  the  engagement  is  in  tierce ;  if  the  left,  the  enjri-^' - 
ment  is  in  quarte.  When  the  hand  is  turned  so  as  t4>  hr.*  z 
the  back  up  and  obliquely  to  the  left,  and  the  points  lowtrft 
and  brought  in  contact  on  the  right,  and  at  the  height  <f 
the  groin,  the  engagement  is  in  seconde. 

These  are  the  only  three  engagements,  and  from  4hesp  u\ 
blows  are  made ;  the  last  is  rarely  offered,  unless  from  a  ftr: 
ing  of  superiority  and  to  provoke  an  attack. 

The  opposition  is  a  sli^nt  movement  of  the  sword  to  Ka*^ 
the  point  of  the  antagomst's  weapon  out  of  the  line  of  \h 
person  while  delivering  a  blow  to  prevent  filing  uptm  it, 
and  to  avoid  receiving  a  blow  in  return  when  in  the  act  ni 
recovering  the  position  of  guard.  It  must  be  insisted  uj>"ti 
from  the  first  blow  a  beginner  makes  till  it  becomes  a  <  >n- 
firmed  habit. 

To  change  the  engagement,  make  a  very  small  quick  move- 
ment of  the  point,  passing  it  under  and  as  near  as  po>^tt  :• 
to  the  blade  of  the  antagonist  to  the  opposite  side;  ww- 
movement  must.be  abrupt,  and  executed  with  the  finc"^ 
only,  without  lowering  tne  hand.  Cover  at  the  instant  th^ 
point  of  the  opposing  blade  is  felt. 

Feelinp  the  blade  consists  in  supporting  and  keeping  th- 
weapon  in  contact*  with  the  adversary's,  without  pIv^-.:lL' 
upon  it.  This  requires  a  delicate  sensibility  of  the  hand  m-  -* 
essential  to  acquire.  It  indicates,  in  connection  with  the  <  v» 
when  the  opponent's  blade  has  commenced  an  attack,  n:  i 
enables  the  weapon  to  be  so  managed  in  the  parries  a>  t«>  dtr 
fiect  a  blow  without  violence. 

Fingering  the  sword  is  to  conduct  the  point  of  the  sw.  ri 
by  the  action  of  the  fingers  alone,  without  the  aid  of  thr 
wrist.  To  do  this,  the  grasp,  particularly  of  the  two  mi  i- 
dle  fingers,  must  be  altematelv  relaxed  and  tiglit^ne^l.  It 
is  only  by  cultivating  this  that  disengagements  can  U 
abruptly  and  closely  made,  and  the  point  moved  with  qui^  k- 
ness.  dexterity,  and  precision  either  in  making  a  foint  vt 
avoiding  the  adversary's  disengagement  in  order  to  <ieliwr 
a  blow. 

'  The  blow  is  the  act  of  directing  the  point  toward  thi'  an- 
tagonist. It  mav  be  delivered  in  two  ways — ^by  mean?  ••,' 
the  thrust  J  or  witli  the  thrust  combined  with  the  cxit'n>.<  :• 
of  the  body  called  the  development. 

To  thrust,  extend  the  arm  to  the  front  fully  and  xi^^r- 
ously,  raising  the  hand  to  the  height  of  the  mouth.  .*• 
lower  the  pomt  slightly  by  bending  the  wrist,  but  witf  <  / 
loosening  tne  grasp.  At  the  same  time  throw  the  wciir'ti*  • 
the  body  forward  ^n  the  right  leg  by  straightening  <|hi'  ^  ■ 
and  stiffly  the  left,  and  bring  down  the  left  arm  by  th*»  <i  • 
rigidly  extended,  the  hand  about  3  inches  above  the  left  l*,' 
fingers  extended  and  joined,  the  palm  to  the  left. 

The  elevation  is  raising  the  sword-hand  when  deliv»^nr.« 
the  blow.  This  movement  of  the  hand  increases  the  pr -t- 
abilities  of  making  a  successful  blow,  while  it  acts  as  an  :ji  • 
portant  protection  from  a  return  blow. 

The  development  is  executed  by,  in  addition  to  the  »»"T  r 
prescribed  for  the  thrust,  advancing  the  right  foot  cU  •^'  * 
the  ground  about  twice  its  length,  the  left  foot  reniHii.  • .; 
firm  in  its  position  ;  the  body  is  slightly  tbrown  forwjtni  .: 
an  easy  attitude,  the  head  erect  ;  the  right  knee  vertical  «*^  ^  * 
the  instep. 

To  recover  the  auard,  raise  the  toe  of  the  right  fo<>T,  ;t'' ' 
exert  strongly  tne  muscles  of  the  right  leg,  throwiiii:   ..; 
rapidly  the  left  arm  to  the  rear  at  the  same  moment.  «»• 
take  the   position  of  guard.     The  right  hand  should    i% 
brought  instantly  to  its  position,  never  falling  belotr  it. 

The  left  arm  is  an  important  auxiliary  in  all  these  mox*- 


with  the  back  domi ;  the  point  moves  as  little  as  possible, 
the  hand  is  drawn  alightly  back. 

Quarle  would  naturally  follow  to  parry  a  hieh  disengaee- 
ment  from  tiarce.    It  is  formed  from  the  inidole  guard  oy 


Front  Tien.  Quute.  Side  view. 

movinK  the  lianQ  to  the  left  as  far  as  the  left  si'le,  inclinEng 
the  naUs  sli^httv  to  the  left.  The  point  is  inaintaincd  in  its 
position  as  nearly  as  possible. 

^in/e.— yiiinte  is  naturally  resorted  to  in  order  to  parry 
a  low  discneagempnt  from  tierce.  It  h  formed  by  lowering 
the  hand  diagooall?,  placing  it  in  front  of  the  left  side  at 


gulnl 


the  heiffht  of  the  groin,  (he  nails  to  the  left;  the  point  h 
arrested  as  nearly  as  possible  on  a  line  with  the  right  shoul- 
der of  the  anta^nist. 

Sis  was  formerly  tierce  parry,  and  constituted  among 
early  musters  the  guard  of  tierce;  it  is  yet  too  frequently 
confounded  with  the  true  tierce.     It  is  formed  from  middle 


guard  by  turning  the  hand  in  pronalinn  and  moving  it  op- 
posite the  right  side ;  the  point  ix  in  fi'ont  of  the  antagonist 
and  at  Che  height  of  the  crown  of  the  Ijoud. 

Sept. — This  parry  is  also  called  demi-circle.  It  is  formed 
from  middle  yiard  by  bending  the  wrist  and  lowering  the 
point,  describing  with  it  a  slight  curve,  the  conveiitv  to  the 
right ;  the  hand  is  raised  slightly  and  moved  to  the  left 
posite  the  left  side,  and  the  point  is  arrested  in  front  ol 


Side  view.  e«pt.  Front  tIfw. 

Oelave. — This  parry  Js  formed  from  guard  by  bending  th' 
wrist,  retaining  the  arm  in  its  position,  and  lowering  rhe 

fioint,  describing  with  it  a  slight  cnrve,  the  ronveiity  t"  thf 
eft;  the  hand  is  moved  in  front  at  the  right  side,  and  thr 
point  is  arrested  opposite  the  groin  of  the  antagonist. 

Counter-parries  arc  those  in  which  the  point  movps  un^l-T 
and  around  the  antagonist's  weapon,  returning  to  the  piM- 
tion  from  which  it  started.  In  executing  a  counter  thv  ann 
^ould  not  move,  the  wrist  alone  acts.  The  point  in  is 
motion  describes  an  eUipse.  Every  parry  may  have  a  [i>r 
responding  counter;  but  two,  however,  are  found  to  W  •■'. 

advantage — eounter-t  lerce  and  counler-quarte.     The  r n- 

ters  have  two  advantages:  thev  cut  all  the  lines  of  altHct. 
and  throw  off  the  weapon  of  the  a ' 


Mow. 

Connler-lierce. — Being  engaged  in  tierce,  when  thf  ui- 
tagonist  disengages  at  the  "left"  lower  the  point  with  t 
quick  bend  of  the  wrist,  passing  it  under  the  appriwcbir:; 
weapon,  and  throw  it  off  to  the  right. 

Counier-quarle  is  executed  after  the  same  manner  tr'n^ 
the  engagement  of  quarte;  the  blow  is  thrown  off  1<>  th'- 
left.  The  point  in  both  these  parries  must  be  anvsti^l  i^f-- 
posite  the  antagonist's  face. 

Double  C<»inler$. — The  execution  of  the  counters  iviire 
in  quick  succession  is  called  a  doubU  counter.  It  ii  a  i^tyri 
that  should  be  much  practiced,  as  it  gives  great  (■.)miiuiiiii 
of  the  weapon. 

Diaengagemenll, — The  disengagement  from  tient'  :• 
quarte,  or  from  quarte  to  tierce,  is  made  by  pressing  on  ifc- 
gripe  with  the  thumb  and  middle  fingers.  changinL'  'f- 
point  from  one  side  to  the  other  with  an  abrupt  and  nipi<J 
motion,  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  moved  in  a  spirsi  liii-- 
tion  to  the  front.  The  point  should  be  directed  at  the  riirh- 
nipple.  The  curve  which  the  point  makes  around  the  \-,iu: 
should  be  as  small  as  possible.  To  disengage  "in'l-*' 
from  tierce  or  quarte.  the  point  is  lowered  by  bending  lii' 
wrijj.  and  moved  to  the  front  at  the  same  time  just  uiNit  - 
the  blaile  of  the  antagonist.  The  <lisengBgement  fn<D 
tierce  at  the  "  left  "  may  be  parried  with  quarte,  a  sittij ' 
parry,  prime,  secondc,  and  octave,  half  counter,  and  "i.- 
counter-tierce.  The  disengagement  from  quarte  at  li- 
"right"  may  be  parried  with  tierce  and  six.  with  priti- 
and  sept,  and  with  eounter-quarte.  The  tlisengsf."'"-' ' ' 
"below "from  tierce  may  be  parried  with  quintf.  prr 
and  with  seconde  and  octave;  from  quarte.  with  prinii-  it- 

Feinh, — A  feint  is  a  quick  movement  of  the  |H<ini  i 
ward  an  exposed  "point  of  attack," as  if  a  blow  ita>  i; 
tended,  the  object  being  to  disquiet  the  antagonist  and  <r- 
diice  him  to  move  his  blade,  and  thus  expose  himMdf.  '■'< 
execute  a  feint,  the  point  must  be  moved  suioothly  i' 
quickly  to  the  front,  nearly  to  the  full  extent  of  tin-  art- 
and  as  close  as  possible  to  the  antagonist's  weapon.  TC' 
hand  should  be  raised  to  the  height  of  the  moutn  ;  neii's'^ 
the  bod^  nor  the  legs  should  move.  The  feint  may  tv  >•  - 
companied  with  an  appel.  In  feinting  "  below."  lower  tl- 
point  in  a  vertical  line,  and  move  it  to  the  front  hist  un>l<' 
the  antagonist's  guartl,  being  careful  to  raise  the  haiid  ■■'!. 
To  execute  a  feint  at  the  "  left."  supposing  the  enjiagijn-  ■ 
to  be  in  tierce,  change  the  point  and  advance  it  nearh  ["th- 
full  length  of  the  arm.  describing  with  it  the  smalli'--:i   \.r.- 


to  each  other,  and  to  assure  themselves  before  engaging'  in 
an  assault.  The  masks  are  laid  aside.  The  fencers,  on 
first  taking  the  position  of  guard,  rise,  salute  with  their 
weapons  each  other  and  the  spectators  on  the  right  and 
lefL  On  resuming  guard  in  tierce,  one  disengages  first  at 
the  "left,"  then  at  the  "right,"  the  blows  being  delivered 
with  a  tooae  hand,  so  that  the  weapon,  on  being  parried, 
will  bo  turned  and  the  point  thrown  to  the  rear,  the  par- 
rier  at  the  same  time  lowering  his  point  out  of  line.  After 
A  tew  repetitions  of  these  disengageidents  the  Srst  fencer 
will  discontinue,  and  will  so  indicate  hj  an  appel,  both 
rising.  The  guard  of  tierce  is  then  again  resumed,  and 
the  other  fencer  will  make  the  same  disengagements.  On 
appelling  and  both  rising,  the  salute  with  the  weapon  wiU 
terminate  the  exercise,  when  masks  will  be  resumed  and 
the  assault  commenced. 


Prim*  agalDM  cut.    Tierce  ngaiiat  ci 


Quane  (galnM  cut. 


Vie  Sober.— The  attack  and  defense  with  the  foil  are  the 
bases  for  those  of  the  saber. 

The  guards  with  the  saber  are  essentially  the  same  as 
with  the  (oil — in  tierce,  quarte,  and  seconde;  the  left  hand, 
however,  is  placed  on  the  hip.  to  avoid  cutting  the  arm.  The 
edges  of  the  sabers  are  in  contact.  The  ordinary  guanl  is 
tierce.  The  points  of  attack  are  the  same — at  the  "  right," 
"  left,"  and  "  oelow."  Blows,  both  points  and  cuts,  are  de- 
livered with  the  thrust  and  development,  clirect  or  bv  disen- 
gagement. The  at- 
tack is  begun  by 
feints  or  by  attacks 
upon  the  weapon. 
In  delivering  the 
point  at  the  "right" 
from  the  engage- 
ment of  tierce,  the 
saber  is  turned,  the 
edge  up,  the  back  of 
the  hand  to  the 
left.  The  parries 
are  prime,  seconde. 
tierce,  quarte,  and 
Slipping  ■ 

against  points  are 
eiecnted  in  the  same  manner  as  with  the  foil.  Against 
cuts  at  the  head,  the  hand,  in  parrying  prime,  tierce,  and 
(quarte.  is  raised,  so  that  the  saber  affords  the  required  protec- 
tion. Cuts  are  made  with  the  point  of  the  saber  and  by  a 
motion  of  the  wrist  alone,  raising  the  Eal)er  as  little  as  pos- 
sible. With  a  keen  edge  slight  force  will  inflict  a  fatal  cut. 
From  the  ordinary  engagement  of  tierce  the  first  cut  would 


be  made  at  the  face  oi 

tierce.     Or  the  cut  may  be  at  the  left  of  L _. 

ing  the  hand,  turning  the  edge  of  the  saber  la  the  left  ■; 

'-      mched  bej""^  " ■--  -  --^--       -i-^-     ->         .  -     . 

^  the  hand 
back.  The  par- 
ry against  this 
cut    is    prime. 


HlpoMe  with  point  after  Uene  ptirf. 


the  engage- 
ment of  quarte 
the  first  cut 
would  be  at  the 
face  or  left  of 
the  head,  and 
parried  by  quarte, 

the  hand,  turning  t  „     _.^...  _.   ._  ..   

beyond  the  antagonist,  making  the  cut  in  drawing  the  hanJ 

The  cut "  below  "  at  the  left  flank  would  be  parried  b; 
demi-circle.  The  cut  at  the  leg  is  best  avoided  by  with'. 
drawing  the  leg,  at  the  some  time  extending  the  poinL 


The  must  effective  parries  are  prime  and  seconde.  The  mest 
effective  ripostes  are  with  the  point  after  tierce  parry,  will 
the  cut  after  prime.  J.  C.  Kelton. 

Fendal),  Josus:  Oovemor  of  Maryland  from  IftSA  t" 
16WI ;  received  appointment  from  the  commissioner?  of  I'ar- 
liament  in  1658.  his  previous  appointment,  in  1650.  havinL' 
been  made  by  the  proprietors;  was  sunerseded  in  16S(>  lor 
intrigues  and  sedition,  and  sui>sequently  was  banishivl :  in 
1681  a  fine  of  40,000  lb.  of  tobacco  was  imposed  upon  him. 

FineloD,  f4'na-ldn',  Fbanpois  de  Salionac  dk  la  MirrHi: 
archbishop  and  author ;  b.  at  the  chateau  de  F£nelon.  P^rl- 
gord,  France,  Aug.  6,  1651 ;  went  to  the  Univewitv  of  I's- 
hora  in  1S63,  and  thence  to  the  College  of  Ple^is.  ]U 
preached  his  first  sermon  in  1666,  went  thence  to  the  Sen>* 
inaiT  of  Sulpice,  and  received  holy  onlers  about  1675.  In 
1678  was  superior  of  the  order  of  Ivouvelles  CathoUqueis  fn; 
the  instruction  of  new  converts.  In  1666.  after  the  Revrx*- 
tion  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  be  was  sent  by  Loois  XIV.  ijp 
Poitoutoconvert  Protestants.  He  was  preceptor  to  the  IhikF 
of  Burgundy  in  1666,  tul^r  to  the  Duke  of  Anjou  in  16!«l. 
and  to  the  liukc  of  Berri  in  1693.  In  the  same  year  he  l»- 
came  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  Was  appoinird 
Archbishop  of  Cambray  Feb.,  1695,  and  during  that  vt»t, 
as  afterward,  became  the  friend  and  defender  of  >lac)amr 
Guyon.  Bossiiet  denounced  him  as  a  heretic  in  169T.  aiKl 
in  1699,  Fenelon,  having  in  vain  appealed  to  the  pnpr. 
signed  his  renunciation  of  Mme.  Guyon  s  doctrines, and  dii>l 
at  Cambray.  Jan.  7,  1715.  Among  F^nelon'a  earliest  wi>rV< 
was  Train  du  Minittire  des  Pasteurs,an  argument  a^in^t 
Protestantism.  While  tutor  to  the  Dube  of  Burgnnily  tr 
wrot«  Dialogtita  of  iht  Dead,  etc.  H  is  Erplieation  il'* 
Maximea  dfs.Sainlt,  regarded  as  an  indirect  apnlngy  (. r 
Guvonism,  appeared  in  1697.  Lea  Aventvre*  de  Tilimatj%' 
in  1699,  Other  works  of  Fi^nelon's  were  DialMwa  on  M' 
ElomenfA  of  thf,  Pulpil,  Demonttralton  oflhr  KiiittrKrr  !■; 
(?oa.  On  the  Temporal  Power  of  the  Medim'ol  Ilipr'.  a 
Treatise  on  the  Edueation  of  OirU,  et«.  The  followini; 
works  may  be  consulted;  Ramsay,  Vie  de  Ffnrlon  (Pan-. 
1725);  Cardinal  de  Bausset,  Hisioire  de  FfneloH  ^■^  v..;>. 
1808);  Oosielin,  Hiatoire  littirairt  de  Ffndoit  (I)*H'; 
Charles  Butler,  Life  of  Finelon  (London.  1610);  Alphocw 


320 


PENWICK 


FERDINAND  I. 


taindor  against  him  being  passed  on  Jan.  11,  1697,  he  was 
executed  on  Jan.  28  in  the  same  year.  This  was  the  last 
execution  in  consequence  of  attainder  in  Great  Britain. 

Fenwick,  John  :  Quaker  and  founder  of  a  colony  in  New 
Jersey ;  b.  in  England  in  1618.  His  grant  of  land  in  West 
Jersey  was  obtained  in  1673,  and  he  settled  at  Salem  in 
1675.  In  1678  Gov.  Andros,  disputing  his  claim  to  the  gov- 
ernorship, confined  him  in  prison  two  years.  Fenwick  trans- 
ferred his  claim  to  William  Penn,  and  died  in  poverty  in 
1683.  ^ 


Fenwick,  John  R.  :  soldier;  b.  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  1780; 
educated  in  England,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  U.  S. 
as  lieutenant  of  marines  Nov.,  1799 ;  promoted  to  be  captain 
in  that  corps  1809.  In  Dec.,  1811,  he  accepted  the  commis- 
sion in  the  army  of  lieut«nant-colone]  of  artillery ;  as  such 
served  with  distinction  in  the  war  with  Great  Britain  1812- 
16,  particularly  at  the  assault  on  Queenstown  Heights,  Oct. 
13, 1812,  where  he  was  three  times  wounded  and  made  pris- 
oner. Breveted  colonel  Mar.  18,  1813,  for  gallant  conduct 
on  the  Niagara  frontier,  was  on  same  date  appointed  adju- 
tant-general of  the  army,  with  the  rank  of  cofcnel,  and  dis- 
banded as  such  June  1,  1815,  but  retained  in  the  army  as 
lieutenant-colonel  of  light  artillery;  commissioned  colonel 
Fourth  Artillery  May  8,  1822;  brevet  brigadier-general 
Mar.  18,  1823.     D.  at  Marseilles,  France,  Mar.  19,  1842. 

Feodosia:  See  Kaffa. 

FeoAnent  [from  0.  Fr.  feoffement,  deriv.  of  fief er,  to  in- 
vest with  a  fee,  deriv.  of  feu,  from  0.  H.  Germ,  fehu,  prc»p- 
erty,  cattle  :  O.  Eng.  feoh  >  Eng.  fee ;  cf.  Lat.  pecu] :   a 
mode  of  conveyance  of  landed  property,  formerly  in  use  in 
the  English  law,  by  which  land  or  other  corporeal  heredita- 
ments were  transferred  by  one  person  called  a  feoffor  to 
another  called  a  feoffee.    Feoffment  meant  originallv,  under 
the  feudal  system,  the  giving  of  a  feud  or  fee  (see  F^ee),  but 
in  the  modification  of  the  system  of  land  tenure  which  af- 
terward ensued  it  was  employed  to  denote  the  grant  of  an 
estate  in  fee-simple,  and  was  then  extended  to  any  transfer 
of  freehold  estates  in  herwlitaments  purely  corporeal.    An 
actual  delivery  of  the  land  was  made  by  a  peculiar  ceremony 
known  as  livery  ofseizin^l  e.  a  delivery  of  the  possession 
of  the  land  by  taking  the  feoffee  upon  or  near  it  and  directly 
investing  him  with  the  ownership  and  occupation.    When 
the  parties  entered  upon  the  land  the  livery  was  said  to  be 
in  deed,  and  in  the  presence  of  witnesses  the  feoffor  handed 
to  the  feoffee  a  clod  or  turf  or  a  twig  or  bough  as  a  symbol 
of  actual  investiture,  at  the  same   time   uttering  certain 
words  of  transfer.    When  the  delivery  was  made  in  sight 
only  of  the  land,  the  livery  was  said  to  be  in  law ;  and  in 
order  to  make  the  transfer  effectual  the  feoffee  had  to  make 
an  actual  entry  during  the  feoffor's  life.    The  words  of  do- 
nation which  accompanied  the  liverv  were  at  first  oral,  but 
at  an  early  jMjriod  they  were  reduced  to  writing  in  the  form 
of  a  deed  of  transfer,  though  no  written  instrument  was  im- 
peratively required  until  the  enactment  of  the  Statute  op 
Frauds  {o.  v.).    Conveyance  by  feoffment  was  for  a  long 
period  in  English  history  the  only  ordinary  method  of  trans- 
fer of  land  in  possession.    It  has  been  entirely  superseded 
by  more  convenient  methods.    It  was  only  to  be  tolerated 
at  a  time  when  the  means  of  communication  between  differ- 
ent sections  of  country  were  imperfect,  and  transfers  of 
property  were  generally  made  between  residents  in  the  same 
immediate  neighborhood.    As  a  part  of  the  common  law  it 
was  in  use  in  the  U.  S.  until  abolished.    It  was  frequently 
resorted  to  as  a  means  of  "disseising"  a  claimant  of  land 
and  thus  setting  in  motion  the  statute  of  limitations.    In 
this  way,  after  the  lapse  of  a  certain  number  of  vears  (say 
twenty-one),  a  party  would  gain  a  title  by  force  of  his  unin- 
terrupted possession  and  claim  of  ownership.    For  an  in- 
stance of  this,  see  McGregor  vs.  Comstock,  17  New  York  Re- 
ports, 162.    The  rao<ie  of  conveyance  now  in  use  is  by  deed. 
See  Deed.       George  Chase.    Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Fe'rae  Natn're  [Lat.,  of  a  wild  nature] :  a  legal  term  ap- 
plied  to  such  animals  as  are  naturally  of  a  wild  disposition, 
as  bears,  foxes,  deer,  pigeons,  wild  geese,  etc.  The  separa- 
tion of  such  animals  as  a  class  from  those  which  are  domes- 
tic IS  of  importance  in  law,  on  account  of  the  difference  in 
the  right  of  property  which  an  owner  is  held  to  have  in  the 
two  instances.  Pro{)erty  in  domestic  animals  is  absolute,  or 
mdefeasible,  while  in  animals  ferce  natur(B  it  is  only  quali- 
fied—i.  e.  the  right  of  property  continues  to  exist  "only  as 
long  as  the  animals  are  reclaimed  from  their  savage  or  wild 
condition,  and  ceases  when  they  return  to  it.    When  ani- 


mals are  of  such  a  kind  that  if  once  restored  to  their  frw- 
dom  they  would  never  return  of  themselves  to  their  owbit. 
his  ownership  of  them  can  continue  only  so  long  as  he  ket- ps 
them  confined.    Wild  beasts  in  a  menagerie  would  Ije  of 
this  character.    But  if  animals  naturally  wild  hare  bwr.ic- 
so  tamed  that  if  suffered  to  escape  or  roam  at  large  thv\ 
have  a  habit  or  disposition  of  returning  (an*mi/m  revertmdu 
a  qualified  property  in  them  continues  so  long  as  this  haM: 
IS  found  to  nave  a  controlling  influence.    But  if  thev  -^trar 
and  remain  absent  it  is  lawful  for  any  stranger  to  take  ihvm 
as  his  own  property.     Pigeons,  bees,  deer  are  familiar  px- 
amples  of  this  kind  of  wild  animals.    A  property  in  bet-s  is 
obtained  by  hiving  them.    But  if  they  swarm  and  fly  a^av 
the  owner  retains  his  property  as  long  as  he  keeps  them  in 
sight  while  pursuing  them,  so  that  he  may  distinguish  th. n, 
as  from  his  own  hive.    A  qualified  property  may  also  oxi-.^ 
in  certain  cases  by  reason  of  the  inability  of  the  animal-^  t.. 
depart  from  a  person's  proprty,  as  in  th'e  ease  of  the  Toun  ' 
of  wild  birds  who  have  built  their  nest  in  trees,     W'liil,.  a 
quahfled  property  continues,  the  owner  s  right  is  as  nm.  h 
under  legal  protection  as  is  his  interest  in  property  of  anx 
kind,  and  any  interference  with  it  is  punished  in  the  sani'<» 
manner.    The  owner  of  such  animals  will  in  some  instani^^* 
be  liable  for  their  acts.    A  distinction  is  to  be  taken  be- 
tween animals  that  are  and  are  not  naturally  inclined  to  .lo 
mischief.    In  cases  of  the  first  class  the  owner  is  not  in  p  n- 
eral  responsible  for  injuries  done  by  his  animals  unle^  hv  > 
shown  to  have  special  knowledge  ol  some  vicious  profien-ir  v 
This  knowledge  is  technically  called  scienter,  and  mu^t  U- 
alleged  in  an  action  and  proved.    This  proof  would  not  I* 
necessary  if  the  animals  were  trespassing  on  the  land  of  «ii- 
other.    The  owner  in  tliat  case  is  liable  for  acts  done  in  t}.e 
course  of  the  trespass.     When  the  animal  belongs  to  \W  jhv- 
ond  class,  and  is  naturally  inclined  to  do  mischief,  no  pn-»f 
of  knowledge  is  requisite,  as  the  owner  is  pr^umed  to  ha^e 
knowledge  of  its  vicious  propensities. 

In  regard  to  the  right  in  wild  animals  killed  upon  nn\ 
person's  property,  certain  peculiar  rules  have  been  e>tai- 
lished.  If  such  animals,  while  upon  or  flying  over  a  i»crN.:;  > 
land,  are  killed  either  by  himself  or  by  a  trespasser,  they  U- 
come  the  land-owner's  property.  If  he  starts  animals  ui^-  n 
his  own  grounds,  follows  them  into  another's,  and  theri-  kilN 
them,  the  property  remains  in  himself.    If  a  trespasser  clm*^  > 

fame  from  one  man's  land  into  another's,  and  there  kilL^  it 
e  has  a  claim  superior  to  that  of  the  owner  of  either  of  th»' 
contiguous  estates.    This  last  rule  has,  however,  Ijeen  «jiu>^ 
tioned.    A  number  of  statutes  in  regard  to  the  preset  at  i-.'i 
of  game  and  the  protection  of  wild  animals  of  various  kiih;> 
have  been  passed  both  in  Great  Britain  and  in  the  U.  S. 
George  Chase.    Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 
Fer  de  Lance,  ffirde-laaiis'  [Fr.,  liter.,  lance-iron,  lant-c- 
head]:  a  venomous  serpent  {Cra^pedoeephalus  lanceolntu*\ 
of    the     West 
Indies.   It  is  so 
named    in   al- 
lusion   to  the 
peculiar  mark- 
ings    on     its 
head.         This 
much-dreaded 
serpent  is  ex- 
tremely prolif- 
ic, and  is  from 
5  to  8  feet  long. 
It     ^ives     no 
warning  of  its 
attack.       The 
bit«     is     very 

often  fatal,  and  when  its  present  effects  are  warded  off  hr 
stimulants  it  usually  ruins  the  health  of  the  sufferer  wh«.  i'- 
for  years  afflicted  with  boils  and  ulcers,  and  often  wit  h\>aral  v . 
SIS  and  other  distressing  symptoms.  It  is  dreaded  bv  kli  hi n- 
mals,  and  the  horse  can  not  by  the  spur  or  the  whip  be  U^n  r\ 
to  pass  within  striking  distance  of  this  formidable  rept.> 
Ferdinand  the  Jnst :  King  of  Aragon ;  was  co-rt^o-ti* .  f 
Castile  and  Leon  near  the  close  of  Dec,  1406;  becarnt^  k'-.- 
m  June  1412  and  in  1413  defeated  and  imprisontni  r :  T 
Count  of  Urgel.    D.  1416.  *  •^  i^. 

Ferdinand  I. :  Emperor  of  Austria ;  eldest  son  of  Frun- 
CIS  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany;  b.  Apr.  19,  179:3;  marrtcni  Ma- 
na  Anna  Carolina  Pia,  daughter  of  Victor  Emmanuel   I 
King  of  Sardinia,  m  1831.   He  took  the  throne  Mar.  2    is:ci' 
but  was  under  the  direction  of  Prince  Mettemich,  hi«t  Pnnu 


Fer  de  lance. 


322 


FERDINAND  VII. 


FKRGUSSON 


but  was  opposed  by  Henry  II.  of  that  kingdom,  and  after 
an  indecisive  war  made  peace  in  1371.  The  war  being  re- 
newed, a  Like  issue  ensued  in  1373.  He  again  warred  with 
Castile,  assisted  by  Edmund,  Duke  of  Cambridge,  in  1381. 
D.  Oct.  20, 1383. 

Ferdinand  Til. :  King  of  Spain ;  b.  at  St.  Ildefonso,  Oct. 
14,  1784,  and  was  proclaimed  Prince  of  Asturios  and  heir  to 
the  crown  in  1790 ;  in  1802  he  married  Maria  Antoinetta 
Theresa  of  Naples,  who  d.  May  21,  1806.  On  the  abdica- 
tion of  his  father  (Mar.  19,  1808)  he  succeeded  to  the  king- 
dom, but  was  compelled  by  Napoleon  to  give  up  his  claims 
May  6, 1808,  and  sent  with  his  brother  and  uncle  to  the 
ch&teau  of  ValenQay.  On  being  liberated  he  returned  to 
Spain  Mar.,  1814,  and  in  May  annulled  the  Spanish  constitu- 
tion and  dissolved  the  Cortes ;  Sept.  29,  1816,  he  married 
Isabella  Maria,  Infanta  of  Portugal,  who  d.  Dec.  26,1818; 
Oct.  2, 1819,  married  Maria  Josephine  of  Saxony.  The  French 
having  invaded  Spain  under  the  Duke  of  Angouleme  in  Apr., 
1823,  Ferdinand  was  held  a  prisoner  by  the  revolutionists, 
but  the  success  of  the  French  caused  his  restoration,  which 
he  celebrated  bv  an  amnesty  and  false  promises  of  good 
government.  Ue  married  the  daughter  of  Maximilian  of 
Saxony  in  1824,  and  she  died  in  1829.  The  same  year  he 
married  Maria  Christina  of  Naples.  Mar.  29,  1830,  he  re- 
established the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  1789.  D.  Sept.  29, 
1833. 

Ferdinand  II.:  of  the  Two  Sicilies;  known  as  Kino 
BoMBA ;  b.  Jan.  12, 1810 ;  succeeded  his  father,  Francis  I.,  in 
1830 ;  by  false  promises  and  liberal  measures  at  first  excited 
great  hopes  among  the  friends  of  liberty,  which  his  subse- 
quent course  cruelly  disappointed.  The  history  of  his  reign 
is  a  catalogue  of  conspiracies,  rebellions,  executions.  His 
reckless  bombardment  of  Messina  Sept.  2-7, 1848,  won  him 
his  shameful  title.     D.  at  Naples,  May  22, 1859. 

Ferdinand,  Prince  of  Bulgaria  :  b.  Feb.  26,  1861 ; 
youngest  son  of  Prince  Augustus  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Prin- 
cess Clementin,  daughter  of  King  Louis  Philippe;  served 
as  lieutenant  in  the  Austrian  army  until  1886;  accepted 
the  throne  of  Bulgaria  1888,  but  has' not  been  recognized  by 
the  powers,  though  he  was  well  received  b^  the  Bulgarian 
nation.    He  possesses  large  estates  in  Austria. 

Ferg^as:  town;  Wellington  co.,  Ontario;  on  the  Grand 
river ;  10  miles  N.  of  Guelph,  and  on  Ellora  Branch  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  and  the  Wellington,  Gray  and  Bruce 
Branch  of  the  Grand  Trunk  R.  Rs.  (see  map  of  Ontario,  ref. 
4-C).  It  contains  mills,  distilleries,  manufactories,  and  an 
iron-foundry.    Pop.  1,600. 

Fers^us  Falls :  city  and  railway  center  (founded  in  1870) ; 
capital  of  Otter  Tail  co.,  Minn,  (lor  location  of  county,  see 
^ap  of  Minnesota,  ref.  6-B) ;  on  the  Red  River  of  the  North ; 
187  miles  N.  W.  of  St.  Paul.  It  is  situated  in  a  rich  agri- 
cultural country  in  the  center  of  the  famous  "  Park  or 
Lake  region,  and  has  14  churches,  4  school-buildings,  a 
State  high  school,  the  Norwegian  Lutheran  College,  fine 
water-power,  and  manufactures  of  fiour,  paper,  etc.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,635 ;  (1890)  3,772 ;  (1893)  estimated,  5,000. 

Editor  of  "Journal." 

Ferg^uson,  Adam,  LL.  D.  :  an  historian  and  philosopher 
who  occupies  a  place  of  his  own  in  the  history  of  Scotch 
philosophy  by  his  application  to  morals  of  the  principles  of 

Jerfection.  He  was  born  at  Logierait,  Perthshire,  Scotland, 
une  20,  1723;  studied  at  St.  Andrews;  read  divinity  in 
Edinburgh ;  was  ordained  in  1745 ;  became  Gaelic  chaplain 
in  the  Forty-second  Regiment ;  succeeded  David  Hume  as 
keeper  of  the  Advocates'  Library  in  Edinburgh  ;  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  Philosophy  at  Edinburgh  1759-64 ;  Pro- 
fessor of  Moral  Philosophy  1764-85 ;  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners sent  in  1778  to* the  U.  S.  to  effect  a  peace.  Au- 
thor of  a  History  of  Civil  Society  (1767) ;  History  of  the 
Progress  and  Termination  of  the  Roman  Republic  (1783) ; 
Institutes  of  Moral  Philosophy  {17^9);  Moral  and  Politi- 
cal Science  (1792).  D.  at  St.  Andrews,  Feb.  22,  1816.  See 
Life  by  Small  (1864). 

Ferguson,  James,  F.  R.  S.  :  astronomer  and  mechanician ; 
b.  near  Rothiemay,  Banffshire,  Scotland,  Apr.  25,  1710.  His 
mechanical  genius  was  developed  at  a  very  early  age  by  in- 
vestigation into  the  wheel  and  axle  and  the  construction  of  a 
wooden  clock  and  watch  which  were  good  timekeepers.  He 
sp)ent  several  years  in  Edinburgh,  and  in  1743  went  to  Lon- 
don, supporting  himself  in  both  places  by  drawing  portraits. 
In  1747  ne  published  a  Dissertation  on,  the  Phenomena  of 
the  Harvest  Moon,  and  in  1748  commenced  lecturing  upon 


astronomy  and  mechanics.  Elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1763,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  in  1770.  Astronomy  Explaitird 
(1756)  and  Lectures  on  Subjects  in  Mechanics^  Hydro«tattrj*, 
PneumralicSf  and  Optics  (1760),  were  among  nis  M'or/l>, 
which  were  edited  m  5  vols.  8vo  by  Sir  David  Brewstt-r. 
The  EfhcydoptBdia  Britannica  is  authority  for  the  assertion 
that  "  in  his  whole  life  he  had  not  received  above  half  a 
year's  instruction  at  school."  D.  in  London,  Nov.  16,  1776. 
'See  the  Life  by  Henderson  (1867 ;  2d  ed.  1870). 

Ferguson,  James:  astronomer;  b.  in  Perthshire,  Soot- 
land,  Aug.  31,  1797  ;  removed  to  New  York  Sept.,  1MK.I, 
and  was  assistant  civil  engineer  on  the  Erie  Canal  1817- 
19 ;  assistant  surveyor  on  the  boundary  commission  under 
the  treaty  of  Ghent  1819-22 ;  astronomical  surveyor  on  th»- 
same  commission  1822-27 ;  civil  engineer  for  the  Stat^-  of 
Pennsylvania  1827-32;  first  assistant  of  the  U.  S.  (.V>a5t 
Survey  1833-47;  and  assistant  astronomer  of  the  U.  S. 
Naval  Observatorv  1847-67.  He  discovered  during  tl.is 
latter  service  the  following  asteroids :  Euphrosyne  in  S*pt.. 
1854 ;  Virginia  in  1857 ;  Echo  in  1860,  for  which  he  *  a^ 
awarded  the  astronomical  prize  medal  by  the  Academy  ••! 
Sciences  of  France  in  1854,  and  again,  by  the  same  in^titu- 
tion,  in  1860.  Prof.  Ferguson  was  a  valued  contributi»r  t  • 
Dr.  Gould's  Astronomical  Journal  and  to  the  Astronanuj-^hf 
Na^hrichten:  also  to  the  Episcopal  Church  Revieir^  to  t  K.- 
Albany Argus,  the  Merchants*  Magazine  of  New  York,  aini 
to  other  standard  papers.    D.  Sept.  26, 1867. 

FerguBBOn,  James,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.  S. :  writer  c.n 
architecture ;  b.  at  Ayr,  Scotland,  in  1808 ;  became  an  in- 
digo-planter in  Bengal ;  journeyed  in  the  East,  and  pnU 
lishea  Illustrations  of  the  Rock-cut  Temples  of  India  (lK4o» ; 
Picturesque  Illustrations  of  Ancient  Architecture  in  Hiu- 
dostan  (1847) ;  Essay  on  a  Proposed  New  System  of  Forti- 
fication  by  Earthworks  (1849) ;  The  Palaces  of  Nin^vth 
omd  Persepolis  Restored  (1851);  Hislory  of  the  Modtru 
Styles  of  Architecture  (1862) ;  Temples  of  the  Jews  and  thr 
Other  Buildings  in  the  Haram  Area  at  Jerusahm  (isTs. 
His  History  of  Architecture  (2  vols.,  1865-76) ;  History  •  /" 
Modem  Architecture  (i.  e.  since  the  beginning  of  t. 'it- 
Renaissance),  2  vols. ;  and  History  of  Indian  and  £n^t*-rf» 
Architecture  fonn  together  the  most  important  work  of 
the  kind  in  English.  On  Apr.  17,  1871,  he  received  th- 
royal  gold  medal  at  a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Institute  «>r 
British  Architects.    D.  Jan.  9,  1886. 

Fergnsson,  Robert:  poet;  b.  at  Edinburgh,  Scot  Ian- i. 
Sept.  5,  1750;  educated  at  St.  Andrews  University:  t<i»'k 
up  medicine  as  a  profession,  but  soon  wearied  of  it  an-i 
entered  the  office  of  the  commissary  clerk  at  Edinbur^'i. 
Much  of  his  spare  time  was  spent  in  writing  verses  in  «i.:i- 
lect,  which  were  printed  in  a  local  magazine  an<]  wtr- 
greatlv  admired.  His  health  became  impaired  bv  di>;>i{vH 
tion,  insanity  resulted,  and  he  died  from  the  efif(Ht>  <>f  « 
fall  Oct.  16, 1774.  His  poems  were  collected  in  1778,  ar.  i 
several  editions  have  been  printed,  the  latest  being  tlmt  <f 
Groshart  (1851).  Robert  Bums  had  a  profound  admirHturi 
for  Fergusson^s  talent,  and  imitated  him  to  some  extent,  *  - 
pecially  in  the  subjects  of  his  poems.  In  1789  he  erect  e«i  % 
memorial  stone  over  Fergusson's  grave. 

Fergnsson,  Sir  William,  Bart.,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  R.  S.  E. :  «.r- 
geon;  D.  at  Prestonpans,  East  Lothian,  Scotland,  Mar.  '^i. 
1808;  studied  under  Dr.  Knox  and  Dr.  Turner  in  the  Koy^ 
College  of  Surgeons  at  Edinburgh  at  the  age  of  ei|rht*^r' . 
and  l^ame  a  licentiate  of  that  institution  in  1828,  a  fc'/  « 
of  the  corporation  in  1829,  and  began  to  lecture  on  t!* 
principles  and  practice  of  surgery  in  1831.  In  1886  he  «a- 
assistant  surgeon  to  the  Royal  Infirmary,  and  in  1^^-:;'  % 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  lie  settle* I  :-^ 
London  in  1840,  having  been  appointed  Professor  of  S-ir- 
gery  in  King's  College  and  surgeon  to  King's  Collegv  II  -^ 

{)ital;  became  Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery  in  Kind's  (-!- 
ege,  having  also  been  elected  president  of  the  Royal  ColN  c 
of  Surgeons  of  England  July  4,  1870,  and  having  bet  n  i  •  ' 
some  time  Professor  of  Surgery  and  Human  Anatc^in^    .• 
that  institution.    These  are  but  a  few  of  the  active's.* 
honorary  positions  to  which  he  was  called.    His    /V**;-  »■• 
of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  in  the  Nineteenth  Cenfurtf  1. 1'^^*? 
was  the  substance  of  two  courses  of  his  lectures^.      li  • 
System  of  Practical  Surgery  has  passed  throup-h   seVf* 
editions;  he  was  the  inventor  of  numerous  surgieaJ  in*'r-. 
ments,  and  in  1866  was  made  a  baronet.     D.  in    I  a  r..:   •. 
England,  Feb.  10,  1877.    See  H.  Smith,  Sir  IT.    /Vry:- 
son,  a  Biographical  Sketch  (London,  1877). 


324 


FERMENTATION 


carbon  dioxide,  etc.  What  has  really  happened  here  is  that 
the  so-called  ferment  contains  not  only  the  true  ferment, 
but  also  certain  nitrogenous  and  mineral  substances,  which, 
added  to  the  sugar,  facilitate  decomposition.  The  sweet 
juices  of  plants  contain,  in  addition  to  sugar,  small  quan- 
tities of  albumen,  gluten,  and  legumen,  and  when  they  are 
exposed  to  unfUtered  air  and  maintained  at  a  temperature 
of  about  80^  P.,  they  appear  to  undergo  fermentation  spon- 
taneously, the  process  continuing  from  forty-eight  hours  to 
several  weeks,  according  to  the  temperature,  the  amount  of 
sugar  present,  and  the  nature  and  quantity  of  the  nitroge- 
nous bodies  which  act  as  ferments.  The  most  striking  phe- 
nomena of  this  fermentation  are — (1)  the  liquid  becomes 
turbid ;  (2)  bubbles  of  gas  rise  to  the  surface ;  (3)  the  temper- 
ature rises ;  (4)  the  sugar  disappears ;  (5)  alcohol  makes  its 
appearance ;  (6)  by  and  oy  the  hquid  becomes  clear  and  quiet 
again,  and  a  light  scum  and  a  light-colored  deposit  are 
formed.  This  deposit  consists  of  yeast,  which  is  capable  of 
exciting  vinous  fermentation  in  other  solutions  of  sugar. 
The  conditions  essential  to  vinous  fermentation  are — (1)  an 
aqueous  solution  of  sugar,  which  may  be  either  glucose, 
cane-sugar,  or  milk-sugar.  The  two  latter  are,  however,  in- 
variably changed  to  glucose  before  they  undergo  vinous  fer- 
mentation (see  Saceharous  FermentcUion,  page  329). 

Cane-sugar.     Water.       Qlucose. 
CnH„Oi,  +  H.O  =  2C.Hx,0a. 

(2)  The  presence  of  yeast  or  of  some  similar  nitrogenous  fer- 
ment ;  (3)  access  of  air,  at  least  at  the  outset ;  (4)  a  certain 
temperature,  the  limits  of  which  are  41*'  and  86"  F.  The 
lower  the  temperature  the  slower  the  process,  while  at  the 
temperature  of  86*  the  vinous  fermentation  is  liable  to  pass 
into  butyrous  fermentation  by  the  greater  activity  of  the 
butyrous  ferment  The  chief  products  of  the  fermentation 
are  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide,  which  might  be  produced 
from  the  glucose  by  the  following  decomposition : 


Glucose. 
CaHitOa 


Alcohol. 
2CaH«0 


Carbon  dioxide. 
+     2C0,. 


Were  these  the  only  products,  100  parts  of  glucose  would 
yield  51*11  of  alcohol  and  48*89  of  carbon  dioxide;  but  as  a 
fact  only  about  95  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  is  accounted  for  by 
these  products.  Most  of  the  missing  5  per  cent,  is  converted 
into  succinic  acid  (discovered  by  C.  Schmidt  in  1847)  and 

glycerin  (discovered  by  Pasteur),  so  that  the  real  equation  of 
ecomposition  must  bie  far  more  complex.  In  addition  to 
these  bodies,  there  is  a  host  of  others  in  minute  quantities, 
derived  partly  from  the  glucose,  partly  from  the  ferment, 
and  partly  from  the  other  bodies  always  present  in  vege- 
table solutions.  The  following  scheme  gives  approximately 
the  products  from  100  parts  of  glucose : 

Alcohol 48*6  per  cent. 


Carbon  dioxide. 

Glycerin 

Succinic  acid 

Acetic  acid 

Cellulose 

Fatty  substances. 

Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 

Hydrocarbon  (methane  ?) 

Propylic  alcohol  * 

Buty  lie  alcohol  ♦   

Amylic  alcohol  ♦ 

Acetate,  butyrate,  valerianate,  and  cenan- 
thate  of  ethyl,  amyl,  etc.* 


46-6 
8-6 
0*7 


it 

41 


li 


0*7 


(* 


Total 1000  per  cent. 

The  last-mentioned  bodies,  indicated  by  a*,  constitute,  when 
separated  by  distillation,  what  is  called'  the  fusel  oil. 

The  infusion  of  malt  and  sugar  solutions  to  which  gluten, 
casein,  albumen,  or  substances  of  like  nature  are  added,  docs 
not  generally  undergo  a  purely  vinous  fermentation ;  lac- 
tous,  butyrous,  acetous,  and  putrefactive  fermentation  also 
occur,  and  offensive  products  result.  This  can  be  prevented 
by  the  widition  at  the  outset  of  a  proper  quantity  of  yeast, 
which  at  once  determines  the  vinous  fermentation;  and  if 
a  temperature  below  86'  F.  is  maintained,  and  the  air  is 
properly  excluded,  the  products  of  this  kind  of  fermenta- 
tion alone  ordinarily  result.  Sometimes,  however,  the  other 
(non-alcoholic)  fermentations  prevail  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
do  damage,  and  thus  arise  the  so-called  **  disea^^es  "  of  wine 
and  beer.  (See  beyond.)  In  the  making  of  wine  and  the 
brewing  of  beer  the  complete  destruction  of  the  sugar  is  not 
desirable,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  occurs,  but  in  the  manufacture 
of  spirits  the  change  to  alcohol  is  made  as  complete  as  pos- 
sible. (See  Wine  and  Beer.)  When  vinous  lermentation 
is  resorted  to  in  making  bread,  the  object  is  not  to  produce 


alcohol,  but  carbon  dioxide,  which  shall  make  the  bn*aii 
light.  Many  substitutes  for  fermentation  are  in  uj<e  hv 
which  the  carbon  dioxide  is  produced  without  the  alccthoL 
See  Bread. 

Theories  of  Fermentation, — The  discovery  of  fermenta- 
tion and  the  preparation  of  wine  date  back  beyond  hi<t«'rt<> 
times.  According  to  the  Egyptians,  Osiris,  and  acconlin;: 
to  the  Greeks,  Bacchus,  taught  the  art  to  men.  The  Israi  i- 
ites  attribute  the  discovery  to  Noah.  The  alchemists  oft*n 
employed  the  i^rms  fermentation  axid  putrefa^.tion,  but  in  a 
sense  quite  different  from  that  in  which  the  words  are  now 
used ;  the  gradual  solution  of  an  inorganic  body  was  ealii-*! 
putrefaction,  while  fermentation  was  used  as  equivalrnt  to 
our  word  digestion — ^i.  e.  the  digestion  of  a  mineral  witli  nti 
acid.  The  term  ferment  was  applied  to  every  active  chemi- 
cal agent.  Valentine  supposed  the  alcohol  to  pre-exist  in 
the  wort,  and  to  be  simply  set  free  during  fermentat. -n. 
Libavius  believed  fermentation  and  putrefaction  to  be  >! (hi- 
lar processes,  differing  merelv  in  their  products.  Van  IM- 
mont  (1648)  attributed  to  lermentation  the  formation  of 
gases  during  digestion,  also  the  formation  of  the  blood  an<i 
of  the  sap.  He  considered  fermentation  to  be  the  eau^-  of 
the  formation  of  living  organisms,  and  of  their  repn»iiuc- 
tion  and  development.  Mayow  (1669)  noticed  the  im^xr- 
tance  of  air  to  fermentation.  Sylvius  de  le  Boe  (1(>VJ) 
claimed  that  fermentation  differed  entirely  from  the  ac  ti.n 
of  acids  upon  alkalies  (carbonates).  He  says  the  lati'-r 
results  in  combination,  while  fermentation  results  in  tie- 
composition.  Lemery  (1775)  recognized  a  similar  distiiu- 
tion.  Becher  (1669)  considered  fermentation  as  similar  Vj 
combustion  (separation  of  phlogiston  from  calx)  an«i  &> 
resulting  in  a  splitting  up  of  the  fermenting  body.  Will;- 
f  1659)  and  Stahi  (169^  considered  fermentation  and  putre- 
faction similar  processes,  and  attributed  them  to  the  acii'D 
of  a  ferment — ^a  bo<ly  possessed  of  internal  motion.,  w  h:cl. 
motion  it  communicated  to  the  fermentable  bodies. 

The  modern  theories  of  fermentation  have  been  (level*  •[ *m1 
as  knowledge  of  the  conditions  and  products  of  the  fr*- 
ess  has  become  more  accurate.    The  production  of  ah^.l.  ! 
attracted  attention  very  many  centuries  ago.    Van  Hflm-.tit 
(1648)  noticed  the  gas  liberated  during  vinous  fenuentati<*ri. 
and  called  it  "gas  vinosum,"  to  distinguish  it  fn>m  **rJi'» 
carbonum,"  produced  by  coal.    He  recognized  the  fact  tK  r 
during  fermentation  something  disappears  or  evafxira't-^ 
(sugar),  which  could  otherwise  he;  changed  to  coal  (ehan^oal'. 
He  says  fermentum  volatilisat  quod  alias   in    caritt>nr',. 
mutator,     McBride  (1764)  showed  that  fermentation  n:.': 
putrefaction  yielded  the  gas  called  ** fixed  air"  by  BLuL 
and  Cavendish  (1776)  showed  that  sugar  yielded 57  per oi.t 
(correctly  48*89)  of  the  same  gas  wnich  is  obtained  fr>-ir 
marble.   After  the  discovery  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitri  - 
gen,  of  the  composition  of  water  and  of  the  atroosphen?.  a:i  i 
the  elementary  composition  of  vegetable  and  animal  bixiirs 
and  the  recognition  of  the  true  character  of  combustion.  \j\- 
voisier  (1789),  in  his  TrattS  elSmentaire  de  CAtmi>,exhil..t«t 
the  quantitative  relations  of  cane-sugar  to  its  proihicts  t»n  f».r- 
mentation.    He  assumed  that  sugar,  an  oxide,  was  split  \\ :  - 
two  products,  the  gas  and  the  alcohol,  which,  if  they  v*  u  . 
reunite,  would  regenerate  the  sugar.    Berthollet  (180;i»  i^ 
lieved  that  the  alcohol  had  no  isolated  existence  in  the  ^kva- 
but  that,  excluding  the  argol  and  the  acids,  the  wine  wa-»  a 
homogeneous  body,  in  which  alcohol  was  produced  by  hr:** 
Branae  (1811)  and  Gay-Lussac  (1813)  proved  the  piv-^\l-:- 
ence  of  alcohol  in  wine.    The  further  investigation  of  tj- 
nitrogenous  ferments,  and  finally  the  study  of  the  y.A< 
plant,  have  given  us  the  following  definite  theories  <>f  f-*-- 
mentation  :  (1)  acid  theory;  (2)  contact  theory;  (3)  itiffur  •• 
theory;  (4)  chemical  theory;  (5)  galvanic  ineory;  (Hi*;^' 
theory, 

1.  The  Acid   Theory. — Pliny  considered   the    action     ' 
leaven  in  raising  breadf  to  be  due  to  an  acid.     Fabn-ni.  :' 
his  prize  essay  on  fermentation,  published  at  Fl<irL»n«t   • 
1787,  claims  that  fermentation  depends  on  th<»  acti<»n  vf 
vegetable  acid  on  sugar.    He  afterward  advanced  the  th«    ••' 
that  the  ferment  is  a  vegeto-animal  body,  like  gluten,  a: 
that  the  products  result  both  from  the  sugar  and   fn»ni  . ' 
ferment — the  carbon  of  the  ferment  and  oxvgen  of  the  ^'.^ 
fonning  the  carbonic  acid,  while  the  deoxidized  sn|;iir  f«  -- 
alcohol  with  the  hydrogen  and  nitrogen  of  the  fenii vnt,   " 
acid  theory  was  long  since  disproved  by  the  fact  t  hat  f  r 
mentation  occurs  in  the  presence  of  calcic  as  well  as  of  a.i 
line  carbonates,  and  of  metallic  oxides. 

2.  Contact  Theory. — Berzelius supposed  that  fermentn: 
is  due  to  the  contact  or  ea/o/^/ic  action  of  the  foment. 


326 


FERMENTATION 


organisms,  the  Infusoria.  Needham,  in  1748,  wrote  that 
he  had  seen  them  produced  from  decaying  organic  matter. 
He  boiled  solutions  containing  animal  matter,  corked  them 
hot  to  exclude  air,  and  found  after  a  few  days  that  they 
were  full  of  living  organisms,  whose  origin  he  attributed  to 
**  vegetative  force  "  residing  in  the  solutions.  Spallanzani, 
in  1776,  repeated  these  experiments  in  glass  flasks,  with 
more  care,  and  satisfied  himself  that  the  germs  of  life  en- 
tered the  solutions  from  the  air.  Schultze,  in  1836,  success- 
fully repeated  the  experiments,  renewing  the  air,  but  sub- 
jecting it  on  its  way  to  the  flasks  to  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid  or  caustic  potassa,  to  destroy  the  vitality  of  any  germs 
it  might  contain.  Schwann,  in  the  following  year,  varied 
these  experiments  by  passing  the  air  into  the  flasks  through 
tubes  heated  to  600**  P.  'uiey  showed  that  the  Infusoria 
were  not  produced  spontaneously,  but  from  spores  or  germs 
floating  in  the  air.  Schroedef  and  Dusch  in  1854,  and 
Schroeder  alone  in  1859,  went  stiU  further,  and  found  that 
if  the  air  admitted  to  the  flasks  was  merely  filtered 
through  cotton  plugs,  it  failed  to  induce  decomposition  and 
develop  animal  or  vegetable  organisms.  Pasteur  employed 
guncotton  for  the  filter,  dissolved  it,  and  detected  germs 
on  the  cotton  plugs  by  the  microscope,  and  found  that 
when  the  plugs  were  placed  in  suitable  solutions  they  at 
once  gave  rise  to  numerous  animals  and  fungi.  Dr.  Le- 
maire,  in  1864,  collected  germs  by  condensing  the  moisture 
of  the  air  in  glass  tubes  cooled  by  ice,  and  Tyndall  showed 
that  the  floating  particles  made  visible  in  the  air  by  a  beam 
of  light  may  contain  the  germs  of  putrefaction.  It  was 
thus  established  that  the  germs  of  the  yeast-fungus  and 
of  Infusoria  float  in  the  air,  fall  into  organic  solutions,  and 
give  rise  to  fermentation  and  putrefaction,  and,  as  many 
think,  to  infectious  diseases.  There  are  still,  however,  some 
advocates  for  the  theory  of  spontaneous  generation,  who  base 
their  belief  on  the  experiments  of  Wyman,  Bastian,  Can- 
toni,  and  others,  who  claim  to  have  seen  living  organisms 
develop  in  sealed  flasks  which  had  been  exposed,  after  seal- 
ing, to  temperatures  varying  from  140°  to  300'  F.  The 
facts  upon  which  the  theory  of  spontaneous  generation  is 
based  are,  however,  now  more  easiljr  explained  as  errors  of 
experiment,  e.  g.  in  the  cases  first  cited,  by  imperfect  steril- 
ization bv  heat. 


VOI 


xrv 


^■^^m 


Fio.  2.— Wine-yeast,  Reess:  VIII.,  IX.,  X.  Sciccharomyces ellip9oideiu\ 
XL.  8.  apiculattLS]XLL  8.  Pustoriantu;  XIII.  8.  conglomerattia; 
XIV.  5.  reeMii;  XV.  Mucor  racemoaus,  bullet-yeast. 

The  yeast-fungus  consists  of  little  cells  composed  of  cel- 
lulose, containing  a  protoplasmic  fluid,  in  wnich  may  be 
seen  granules  or  germinal  cells ;  it  multiplies  by  budding 
(gemmation).  The  name  Torula  or  Torvula  cerevisice  was 
first  applied  to  it;  it  was  subsequently  called  Mycodei'ma 
vini^  Cryptococcus,  Hanniscium,  etc.  Dr.  Max  Ree.ss,  who 
was  one  of  the  first  to  make  an  elaborate  study  of  the  sub- 
ject {Botanische  Vntersuchunfjen  liher  die  Alkoholgdhrung- 
tmihe^  Leipzig,  1870),  found  that  there  is  a  variety  of  yeast- 
ningi,  and  adopted  for  the  genus  the  name  Sarcharomi/ces, 
proposed  by  Meyen,  which  has  been  generally  adopted.  Beer- 
yeast  is  S.  cerevistcp,  which  develops  in  two  different  ways, 
according  to  the  temperature.  At  about  72''  F.,  as  in  the 
brewing  of  ale,  the  fermentation  is  rapid,  and  the  yeast 
is  carried  to  the  surface  of  the  liquid  by  the  bubbles  oi  car- 
bon dioxide ;  this  is  top  yeaM.  When  the  fermentation 
proceeds  at  a  temperature  between  40^  and  50°  F.,  in  brew- 
ing lager  beer,  it  proceeds  much  slower,  and  the  yeast  ap- 


pears as  a  sediment — bottom  yeast.  (See  Beeb.^  These  two 
varieties  have  a  tendency  to  reproduce  the  kind  of  fenui-n- 
tation  by  which  they  were  developed;  and  if  the  hnitnm 
yeast  is  placed  in  wort  at  a  terai)erature  of  72°  F.,  it  «l«»-> 
not  develop  into  top  yeast,  although  its  mode  of  growth  i> 
considerably  modified.  The  after-fermentation  of  \H^eT  Ls 
caused  by  the  development  of  another  species,  S.  ejcigitn*, 
the  smallest  of  all  yeast-fungL 

Acconiing  to  Reess  and  others,  there  is  a  greater  nii ru- 
ber of  species  noticed  in  the  fermentation  of  wme ;  S,  fl'i}>- 
8oideu8  is  the  most  common,  and  often  the  only  form  '^ «  n. 
Next  in  order  of  frequency  occurs  S.  apiculaius,  Eni.^1 
insists  that  this  form  belongs  to  a  different  genus,  an4l  <-«;•- 
it  Carpozyma  apieulattia.  During  the  aftcr-fermentati.u 
of  wines,  especially  of  sweet  wines  and  of  other  winr-; 
than  the  grape,  ^S^  »a«/ortanu8  appears.  S.  conglomeratHt 
is  often  noticed  at  the  beginning  of  the  fermentation.  N. 
reessii  occurs  in  some  red  wines.  One  or  two  familiar 
mould-fungi,  Mucor  mucedoy  and  especially  M.  racemot^uj^. 
have  the  property, in  the  total  exclusion  of  the  air, of  <l«'\ *]- 
oping  their  mycelium  in  sugar  solutions  in  more  or  If-v^ 
globular  forms,  producing  true  alcoholic  fermentation. 
This  was  formerly  considered  as  a  confirmation  of  thi-  <n^;i' 
gestion  made  by  certain  observers,  that  the  yeast-funiruh  i^ 
developed  from  the  spores  of  common  mould-fun t;i,  like 
Peniculium  alatieum,  etc.  Fitz  noticed  that  when  th-- 
quantity  of  alcohol  reached  8^  per  cent.,  the  development 
of  the  Mucor  ceased. 

The  whole  subject  has  taken  on  a  highly  practical  asi^-ct 
since  the  labors  of  Pasteur  established  the  germ  theory  of 
fermentation.  Pasteur  showed  that  beer  and  wine  are  '<u\^ 
ject  to  certain  diseases  due  to  the  infiuence  of  germs  f»th»'r 
than  yeast  (bacteria).  He  therefore  urged  that  yeA>t  \»c 
cultivated  in  a  " pure"  condition — i.  e.  free  from* bacteria— 
and  placed  the  art  of  brewing  on  a  scientific  basis.  Moiv 
recently  Hansen,  in  an  elaborate  series  of  papers,  has  r&r- 
ried  these  ideas  into  practice,  so  that  in  brewing  "  pure  cul- 
tures "  of  yeast  are  now  very  widely  employed. 

The  chemical  composition  of  yeast  has  not  been  very  fujlv 
determined.  It  consists  chiefly,  as  do  ail  plants,  of'ci'lu- 
lose,  albuminoids,  fat,  and  metallic  salts.  It  contain^  n  • 
chlorophyll.  An  elementary  analysis  gives  about  th^- f.  I- 
lowing  percentages :  carbon,  48*9 ;  hydrogen.  6*8  ;  nitn.ct^n, 
10*8 ;  oxygen,  29*9  ;  sulphur,  0*6 ;  ash,  §,  Some  anal)  -  * 
make  the  ash  in  dry  yeast  as  high  as  7  or  8  per  cent.  Tti» 
ash  consists  chiefly  of  potassic  phosphate,  witn  small  quanti- 
ties of  sodic,  calcic,  magn^esic,  and  ferric  phosphate«i. 

II.  Acetous  Fermentation. — While  it  is  true  that  alcol.. ! 
and  other  organic  bodies  may  be  readily  oxidized  to  8<^-*i 
acid  without  the  aid  of  fungi,  as  when  platinum-blHck.  <"  u- 
taining  condensed  oxygen,  chromic  acid,  nitric  acid,  Uy 
pochlorous  acid,  etc.,  is  employed,  it  is  nevertheless!  iru- 
that  in  the  ordinary  process  of  vinegar-making  there  i^  » 
true  fermentation,  caused  by  a  peculiar  fungus,  the  M'  - 
derma  acetiy  which  acts  as  a  carrier  of  oxygen.  Pure  dilLt»'^ 
alcohol  does  not  undergo  oxidation  to  acetic  acid  wh»*n  ex- 
posed to  the  air.  Like  all  other  fungoid  plants,  the  Ai.  ?k»  '» 
requires  food  in  the  form  of  nitrogenous  bodies  and  minvr.i 
salts,  which  are  always  present  in  wine,  beer,  end  oth^r  f •  r- 
mented  vegetable  juices.  The  formation  of  vinegar  i^  h  - 
ways  preceded  in  such  cases  by  the  development  of  th* 
plant,  either  from  small  additions  from  a  previous  forni»- - 
tation  or  from  germs  from  the  air.  The  plant  acts  »'«  t 
carrier  of  oxygen  from  the  air  to  the  alcohol,  and  the  oxi-i.v 
tion  oc^curs  in  two  successive  stages ;  alcohol  becomes  aK:-- 
hyde  by  the  loss  of  hydrogen  (withdrawal  by  oxygen k  ai. 
tSen  passes  into  acetic  acid  by  a  gain  of  oxygen. 

Alcohol.  Aldehyde. 

CH.o  -I-  0  =  cfto  4-  n,o. 

Aldehyde.  Acetic  acid. 

C,H40  +  O  =  CJI«0,. 

In  the  quick  vinegar  process  considerable  losses  ocourretl  &* 
first  from  the  evaporation  of  the  very  volatile  aldt-hv  \- 
which  escaped  conversion  into  acetic  acid  from  a  defu  i»:.* 
supply  of  air.    The  conditions  most  favorable  to  the  fi»n   i 
tion  of  acetic  acid  by  fermentation  are — (1)  a  suffice  •  \ 
dilution ;  the  fluid  should  not  contain  more  than   10  j-- 
cent,  of  alcohol,  nor  should  it  be  much  below  4  or  5  i-  - 
cent. ;  (2)  the  presence  of  nitrogenous  and  saline   \hm\\'  - 
(8)  the  presence  of  the  M.  aceti  added  from  a  previ<vn<  .  | 
eration  ;  (4)  a  suitable  temperature,  not  above  86"  C\  <i*'  ** 
F.),  nor  below  WC.  (50^  F.);  below  7"  C.  (44-6°  F.)  thv  f.  r 
I  mation  of  vinegar  no  longer  takes  place.    Above  40    ^ 


328 


FERMENTATION 


into  calcium  butyrate,  with  some  valerianate  and  acetate. 
(Williamson,  Chem,  News,  xxii.  236).  Blondeau  refers  buty- 
rous  fermentation  to  Penicillium  glaucum^  but  Pasteur 
(Compt.  rend,,  lii.  344 ;  liv.  416)  refers  it  to  minute  bacteria 
or  vibrios.  They  appear  as  small  cylindrical  stems,  rounded 
at  the  ends,  usually  straight,  and  occurring  singly  or  in 
chains  of  two,  three,  or  more,  Tfirnrth  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
a  single  stem  varying  from  irirnrth  to  TiWth  of  an  inch  in 
length.  They  increase  by  division,  and  may  be  sown  and 
cultivated  in  a  suitable  medium  like  beer-yeast.  Sugar  or 
lactates,  with  ammonia  salts  and  phosphates,  constitute  the 
necessary  food  of  the  plant.  (Buu,  Soc.  Chim,,  1862,  p.  52.) 
As  soon  as  the  lactate  is  all  converted,  the  vibrios  die.  Here 
also  it  is  probable  that  various  micro-organisms  are  able  un- 
der favorable  conditions  to  produce  butyric  acid,  and  that  its 
production  is  not  the  specific  privilege  of  any  one  form. 
American  Chemist,  ii.  371. 

V.  Mucous  or  viscous  fermentation  occurs  in  solutions 
of  cane-sugar  under  the  influence  of  nitrogenous  bodies,  and 
in  contact  with  the  air,  under  circumstances  not  fully  in- 
vestigated. Carbonic  acid  gas  and  hydrogen  are  evolved,  and 
the  sugar-cane  is  converted  into  mannite,  a  i^culiar  gum,  and 
a  mucilaginous  substance.  The  ferment  is  composed  of 
spherules  about  Tiriinrth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  When 
tnese  are  added  to  100  parts  of  cane-sugar  in  water,  with 
some  albumen,  51*00  parte  of  mannite  and  45*5  parts  of  gum 
are  obtained,  which  corresponds  to 

Cane-sugar.  Mannite.  Gum. 

26C»,H„Ou  -I-  13H,0  =  24C,Hi40.  +  12Ci,H„0i,  +  12C0,. 

Although  often  accompanied  by  vinous  and  lactous  fermen- 
tation, mucous  fermentation  may  occur  without  the  forma- 
tion of  either  alcohol  or  acid.  It  occurs  at  temperatures 
ranging  from  68°  to  104*  P.  The  juice  of  the  sugar-cane, 
sugar-beet,  mangold  wurzel,  carrot,  dandelion,  etc.,  is  liable 
to  undergo  this  form  of  fermentation  spontaneously  when 
exposed  to  the  air.  Effervescing  lemonade,  made  from  sugar, 
citric  acid,  oil  of  lemon,  and  carbonic  acid,  loses  its  fluidity 
on  long  keeping  from  this  kind  of  fermentation.  The  most 
recent  view  of  the  several  fermentations  just  described  is 
that,  given  the  proper  raw  material,  acetic,  lactic,  or  butyric 
acids,  or  mannite,  will  be  formed  by  the  bacteria  present,  al- 
though some  kinds  are  certainly  more  adapted  to  a  particular 
work  than  others  are.  \ 

When  yeast  is  washed  with  cold  water,  then  boiled  with 
water,  and  i^th  part  of  sugar  added  to  the  filtrate,  the  liquid 
undergoes  fermentation  for  a  week  or  two,  evolving  hydro- 
gen, carbonic  acid,  and  carbonic  oxide,  and  becoming  turbid 
and  tenacious  like  a  decoction  of  linseed.  Water  boiled  with 
gluten  produces  a  similar  change  in  solutions  of  cane-sugar. 
When  tne  fermentation  is  completed,  the  liquid  is  still  sweet, 
but  is  so  thick  that  it  runs  out  in  threads  when  the  vessel  is 
inverted.  The  gum  produced  resembles  gum  arable,  but  is 
less  soluble  in  water,  makes  a  thicker  mucilage,  but  yields 
scarcely  any  mucic  acid  when  treated  with  nitric  acid.  Pas- 
teur, Bull,  Soc,  Chim,y  1861,  p.  30 ;  Hochstetter,  J,pr,  Ch,, 
xxix.  30;  Plague,  J,  Pharm,,  xxvi.  248;  Kircher,  Ann, 
Pharm,,  xxxi.  837 ;  Desfosses,  J,  Pharm,,  xv.  602 ;  Vauque- 
lin,  Ann.  Chim.  Phys,,  xx.  93. 

VI.  Putrefaetion,  or  putrefactive  fermentation,  is  the 
process  by  which  azotizea  animal  and  vegetable  substances 
undergo  decomposition  spontaneously,  with  the  production 
of  offensive  gases.  The  essential  conditions  are  the  presence 
of  moisture,  a  temperature  between  32"  and  140°  F.,  and  ex- 
posure to  the  air  auring  or  previous  to  the  process.  The 
process  is  very  complicated,  resulting  in  the  formation  of 
carbonic  acid,  sulphuretted  liydrogen,  phosphuretted  hydro- 
gen, marsh  gas,  ammonia,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  acetic,  lactic, 
butyric,  and  valerianic  acids,  and  many  offensive  bodies 
which  have  not  yet  been  identified.  Resins,  if  present,  are 
but  little  changed,  and  fats  often  r3sist  all  decomposition 
save  saponification,  remaining  as  free  fatty  acids  for  vears. 
(See  Adipotere.)  The  process  varies  consiAeraV)ly  witti  the 
quantity  of  water  present  and  the  extent  to  which  air  has 
access.  Two  theories  were  formerly  advanced  to  account 
for  putrefaction.  Liebig  claimed  that  **  when  the  life-power 
or  vital  force  hasceai«»d  to  control  the  organic  combinations, 
the  nitrogen  in  the  albuminous  bodies,  by  its  affinity  for 
hydrogen,  decomposes  water,  with  tlie  formation  of  am- 
iiionia."  "  The  molecule  set  in  motion  by  this  afiinity  im- 
fwirts  its  motion  to  other  molecules  with  which  it  is  in  con- 
tact." A  few  investigators  still  hold  that  the  true  putre- 
factive ferment  is  an  albuminoid  substance  not  endowed 
with  vitality.    (Panum,  in  Virchoic's  Arch ir  fur  path,  A nat., 


1874.)  The  theory  generally  accepted,  however,  is  that  •■[ 
Schwann,  Pasteur,  and  Cohn,  which  describes  putrffncti-  ri 
as  a  chemical  process  induced  by  bacteria.  The  batt.ria 
bear  the  same  relation  to  putrefaction  that  the  yeast-plhn'^ 
bear  to  alcoholic  fermentation,  the  Bacterium  tenno  (V}i:. 
8,  2)  being  one  of  the  most  common  species.  If  a  clear  *-  lu- 
tion  of  any  nitrogenous  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  such  n^ 
an  infusion  of  hay,  be  exposed  to  the  air  at  ordinary  ti-n!- 
peratures,  it  will  soon  become  turbid,  and  exhibit  the  u^un. 
signs  of  decomposition,  evolving  offensive  gases.  The  mi<-rH 
scope  shows  the  turbidity  to  be  caused  by  innumerable  h>i<  • 
teria,  which  move  in  every  direction  and  multiply  by  ds^:- 
sion.  After  a  time  putrefaction  ceases,  the  liquid  been  u.s 
clear,  and  a  sediment  of  bacteria  is  found  to  have  separate <i. 
The  smallest  portion  of  this  sediment  will  excite  putnfa-  - 
tion  in  another  albuminous  liquid,  just  as  yeast  cauM^  fer- 
mentation. Any  process  by  which  the  access  of  barUT.i 
germs  to  the  albuminous  solutions  can  be  prevented  ii$  foi.i.  i 
to  protect  them  from  putrefaction.  Dr.  Burdon-Sandi  r^n 
has  shown  {13th  Rep,  Med,  Officer  of  the  Privy  Counctlulu: 
contamination  by  germs  of  bacteria  usually  occurs  fruEi 
contact  with  water  and  moist  surfaces,  not  directly  from  ili*- 
air,  while  the  germs  of  the  mould-fungi  enter  dii^tly  fr<'ii 
the  atmosphere.  This  is  now  known  to  be  subject  to  niaiM 
exceptions,  although  it  is  a  fact  that  the  bacteria  settlt^  inoiv 
rapialythan  mould-germs,  probably  because  they  have  greHt.>r 
specific  gravity.  Substances  protected  from  bacteria  gmi  > 
mould,  but  do  not  putrefy.  A  piece  of  muscle  cut  out  « f  n. 
recently  killed  animal  with  a  knife  which  had  ju>t  1<<:j 
heated  was  hung  under  a  bell-jar,  and  after  thirty-one  dh\<, 
although  overgrown  with  mould-fungi,  Penicillium,  etc..  v 
showed  no  signs  of  bacteria  or  putrefaction.  In  the  ord i uhh- 
process  of  decay  the  putrefaction  occasioned  by  bacteria  > 
accompanied  by  the  action  of  the  mould-fungi,  the  organi^r  > 
themselves  being  subsequently  destroyed  by  similar  agenc  i-  >, 
other  bacteria,  and  fungi,  till  nothing  remains  save  brown 
humus  (see  HuMUS^and  the  mineral  salts,  the  carbon,  by«lr>- 
gen,  nitrogen,  sulpnur,  and  oxygen  passing  into  the  aiin-*- 
phere  or  washed  into  the  soil  as  carbonic  acid,  ammou^, 
water,  etc. 

Bacteria,    Vibrimies,  Microzvmas,  Mierozoaires,  J/v"- 
derma,  etc.,  were  first  recognized  by  Kircher  about  1650  ^Lii 


% 


o 
o 


0 


18  8  4 

Fio.  8.— Bacteria. 

next  by  Leeuwenhoeck  in  1684.    0.  F.  Mfiller  in  the  oiir.!- 
teenth  century  recognized  and  described  the  most  im|M)rtai/ 
forms,  and  Ehrenber^  in  1830  established  for  them  the  f^n.- 
ily  of  Vihrionidoe,  which  Dujardin  in  1841  placed  as  the^  ih-^^ 
and  lowest  form  of  Infusoria.    They  were  first  supfHi^'l  t . 
be  animals — ^at  least  those  which  are  endowed  with  nuitl-n— 
but  all  are  now  regarded  as  plants.    Ferdinand  Cohn  t>^:a  - 
lished  their  vegetable  character  and  structural   reluti.  hn 
{Nova  Acta  Ac,  Car,  Leop,  nat,  cur.,  xxiv.  1, 1853),  and  -u 
sequentlv  added  much  to  the  knowledge  of  their  clas>i^.  ^^ 
tion  antl  general  physiology.    {Beitrdge  zur  Biohijir  -t- 
Pflanze7h,  Heft.  ii.  p.  127,  1872.)    The  bacteria  consist^  4 . .   - 
composed  of  cellulose  or  a  body  similar  to  it,containint:  pr  - 
toplasmic  matter,  but  no  chlorophylU  They  are  spht  r.^  ;.*. 
oblong,  cylindrical,  curved  or  twisted,  isolated  or  coniun  t*  : 
in  chains.    They  are  extremely  minute,  taxing  the  p«>w.rN  <  .* 
the  bes.t  immersion  lenses.    The  Bacterium  termo  i^  »•  '.' 
mm.,  or  TiriTjTyth  inch,  in  length,  and  yrflnrth  mm.,  or  y «," , 
inch,  in  diameter;  according  to  Cohn  41,000,000.0*H)  «. '. 
one  grain.    They  multiply  by  division  or  scission,  n«iL«' 
buds  nor  spores  having  been  detected.    Cohn,  belie  vine  '  t.v' 
they  divide  once  every  hour,  finds  that  one  bacterium  «   \ 
by  doubling  every  hour  produce  in  24  hours  16^  niilli- 1  * 
bacteria:  in  2  days,  281  billions;  in  3  days, 47  trillion> ;  a:  i 
in  a  week  a  number  expressed  by  51   figures.    Six>r»^   -• 
called)   consisting  of  spherical   masses  of  protopiai'm  .*: 
formed  in  the  interior  of  some  bacteria,  and  when  set  t-r  - 
sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  liquids.    Most  bacteria  are  kil. 


330 


FERMENTED  LIQUORS 


Some  of  the  soluble  ferments  are  produced  by  the  organ- 
ized ferments.  Thus  yeast  produces  a  substance,  invertctse^ 
which  has  the  power  of  converting  cane-sugar  into  dextrose 
and  Iipvulose. 

XVII.  Prevention  of  Fermentation  and  Putrefaction, — 
As  moisture  and  the  development  of  bacterial  germs  are 
necessary  to  induce  these  processes,  they  may  be  prevented 
by  (1)  drying  thoroughly ;  (2)  cooling  to  prevent  the  devel- 
opment of  the  germs;  (3)  sealing  hermetically  in  jars  or 
tm  cans,  and  subjecting  to  a  temperature  sufficient  to 
destroy  the  vitality  of  all  the  germs  present ;  (4)  employ- 
ing antiseptic  substances,  such  as  alcohol,  common  salt, 
saltpeter,  sugar,  sirup,  tannic  acid,  creosote,  smoke,  phenol, 
salicylic  acid,  salts  of  iron,  zinc,  lead,  mercury,  and  copper, 
borax,  sulphurous  acid,  sulphites,  etc.  See  Preservation 
OF  Food,  Preservation  of  Timber,  and  Embalming. 

For  further  information  on  fermentation,  etc.,  consult,  in 
addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  F.  A.  P.  Bar- 
nard, The  Germ  Theory  of  Disease  (Am,  Chemist,  v.  15); 
Dr.  J.  C.  Dalton,  The  Origin  and  Propagation  of  Disease 
(Am,  Chemist,  iv.  378)  and  Spontaneous  Generation  (New 
York  Med.  J„  Feb.,  18?2) ;  A.  W.  WiUianison,  Four  Lec- 
tures on  Fermentation  (Chem,  News,  xxii.  234 ;  xxiii,  9) ; 
Dr.  J.  Wyman,  in  Am,  J,  Sci.,  xliv.,  Sept.,  1867);  T.  H. 
Huxley,  Jnaua,  Address  {Chem,  News,  xxii.  133)  and  A  Lec- 
ture on  Yeast  {Pop,  Sei,  Monthly,  1872,  i.  p.  573) ;  Burdon- 
Sanderson,  l£th  Rep,  Med,  Officer  Privy  Council;  A.  E. 
Sansom,  Tfie  Antiseptic  System,  and  The  Germ  T/ieory  of 
Fermentation  (Chem,  News,  xxii.  241,  254);  L.  S.  Beale, 
Disease- Germs;  H.  C.  Bastian,  The  Beginnings  of  Life; 
Pasteur,  MSmoire  sur  la  fermentation  alcoolique  (Ann, 
Chim,  Phys,,  Iviii.  1800,  823) ;  Animalcules  infusoires  t*i- 
vant  dans  gaz  oxygens  lihre  et  determinant  des  fermen- 
tations (Compt.  rend,,  1861),  and  Memoire  sur  les  cor- 
puscles organis^es  qui  existent  dans  V atmosphere  (Ann, 
Chim,  Phys,,  1862,  p.  52) ;  L.  Engel,  Les  ferments  alcoolique^ 
^aris,  1872)  and  paper  On  Yeast  (Compt,  rend,,  1874,  468) ; 
Kopp,  Fermentation,  history  (Geschichte  der  Chem,,  iv, 
285) ;  A.  Mayer,  Lehrbuch  der  Gdhrungschemie  (Heidelberg, 
1874);  Dr.  F.  A.  Z^m,  Die  pflanzlichen  Parasiten  (Weimar, 
1874);  G.  Httfner,  Unqeformte  Fermenfe  (J,f,pr,  Ch,,  1872, 
Nos.  8  and  9) ;  Weinberg,  Die  Gdhrung  (Bayerisches  In- 
dustrie u.  Gewerheblatt,  Aug.,  1870) ;  Schwann,  Pogg.  Ann,, 
xli.  184;  Helmholtz,  J,  f  pr,  Ch,,  xxxi.  429;  Iiandw,  d, 
Chem,,  iii.  207;  Watt's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  iL  538; 
Dictionary  of  Applied  Chemistry,  ii.  105;  A.  JSrgensen, 
The  Micro-organisms  of  Fermentation  (Eng.  trans.  Lon- 
don, 1889),  in  which  will  be  found  a  full  literature,  and  a 
valuable  account  of  the  labors  of  Hansen  and  of  the  latest 
workers.  C.  F.  Chandler.    Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Fermented  Liquors :  See  Beer  and  Wine. 

Fermoy':  town;  county  of  Cork,  Ireland;  19  miles  N. E. 
of  Cork,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Blackwater,  over  which  a 
bridge  on  thirteen  arches  was  built  in  1689  (see  map  of  Ire- 
land, ref.  13-E) ;  is  the  site  of  St.  Colman's  College  (Roman 
Catholic).  The  town  dates  from  the  twelfth  century,  when 
it  was  the  seat  of  a  magnificent  abljey.    Pop.  6,500. 

Fern  [0.  Eng.  feam  :  Germ.  Fam  (in  Famkraut,  fern) ; 
cf .  Sanskr. ^ama,  feather,  leaf] :  any  plant  belonging  to  the 
class  FilictfUB,    See  Fernworts  and  Fossil  Plants. 

Fern,  Fanny  :  See  Parton. 

Fernandez  CordoTa,  Francisco*.  See  Cordova,  Fran- 
cisco Hernandez. 

Fernandez  de  Castro  Andrade  j  Portugal,  Pedro 
Antonio  :  See  Castro  Andrade  y  Portugal. 

Fernandez  de  Castro,  dd-kaas'trd,  ^Ianuel  :  geologist ; 
b.  at  Madrid,  Spain,  Dec.  25,  1825,  Part  of  his  childhood 
was  spent  in  Cuba.  He  graduated  in  the  School  of  Mines 
at  Madrid  1844,  was  for  a  time  sub-director  of  a  mine  at 
Almaden,  and  subsequently  traveled  in  various  countries, 
studying  railroad  svstems.  In  1857  his  work,  La  ehctrici- 
dad  y  los  caminos  ae  hierro,  was  published  by  the  Govern- 
ment. In  it  he  proposed  a  new  system  of  railroad  signals 
which  was  generally  adopted.  From  1859  to  1869  he  was 
engaged  in  Government  mining  and  geological  work  in 
Cuba  and  Santo  Domingo.  He  made  an  extended  report 
on  the  latter  island,  of  which  only  portions  were  publisned. 
In  1869  he  accepted  a  professorate  at  the  Madrid  School  of 
Mines,  and  in  1873  took  charge  of  the  commission  appointed 
to  form  a  geological  map  of  Spain.  Under  his  direction  a 
large  number  of  geological  reports  and  maps  connecte<l 
with  this  work  have  been  publisned.    In  1879  he  was  elected 


FERNANDINA  , 

to  the  Spanish  senate  to  represent  Santa  Clara,  Cuba.  IV 
sides  the  works  mentioned,  he  has  published  a  treati^*  ou 
hurricanes  (1872)  and  many  geological  papers. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Fernandez  de  CordoTa,  Diego:  Marquis  of  Guailal- 
cazar;  Spanish  administrator  of  the  seventeenth  cent  tin. 
He  was  probably  a  native  of  Cordova,  and  was  deseend/il 
from  Gonzalo  de  Cordoba,  called  **  the  CTcat  captain.*'  Fn  in 
Oct.  18, 1612,  to  Mar.  14,  1621,  he  was  Viceroy  of  New  Spain 
or  Mexico:  beyond  some  trouble  with  corsairs  on  the  <H»a«t, 
and  witli  revolted  Indians,  his  term  was  quiet.  Transffrr^^l 
to  Peru,  he  was  viceroy  there  July,  1622,  to  Jan.,  1629.  'Y\\y 
incursions  of  the  corsairs,  especially  of  the  Dutch,  had  n*  w 
extended  to  the  Peruvian  coasts ;  Jacob  THeremite  blocka«)c] 
Callao  for  four  months,  and  attempted  to  take  Lima,  nui 
one  of  the  treasure-ships  was  captured  by  Heyn ;  much  uf 
the  coast  was  ravageu;  the  miners  of  the  Potosi  di>tr.(t 
engaged  in  a  bloody  faction  war,  which  was  brought  to  an 
end  with  difficulty.  Returning  to  Spain,  1629,  the  niari|m> 
resided  in  his  estate  of  Guadalcazar,  near  Cordova,  and  proU 
ably  died  there.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Fernandez  de  Enciso,  Martin  :  See  K.vciso. 

Fernandez  de  la  Cneva,  Francisco:  Duke  of  AUnKpur- 

?ue;  Spanish  administrator;  b.  about  1610.  From  An::., 
653,  to  May,  1661,  he  was  Viceroy  of  New  Spain  or  Mexi«  ■«, 
His  term  was  marked  rather  by  lavish  display  and  ex|K*i)Mi- 
ture  than  by  any  real  benefit  to  the  country.  The  j:p  at 
cathedral  of  Mexico  city  was  finished  and  dedicated  durini: 
this  period.  On  Mar.  12,  1660,  the  duke  narrowly  eK-a[4-<i 
death  at  the  hands  of  an  insane  soldier  who  attacked  Inni 
in  his  private  chapel.  After  his  return  to  Spain  he  wa> 
made  Viceroy  of  Sicily.  The  date  of  his  death  is  not  re- 
corded. H.  H.  S. 

Fernandez  de  la  Gneya  Henriqnez,  Francisco  :  I>ukr 

of  Albucjuerque ;  grandson  of  Francisco;  was  Vi<-?roy  ■•( 
New  Spain  Nov.  27,  1702,  to  Jan.  15,  1711.  Like  his  grMTi'i- 
father  he  was  greatly  g^ven  to  display,  and  his  imni«r-^' 
wealth  enabled  him  to  surpass  all  his  predecessors  in  in»^'- 
nificence  ;  few  courts  of  Europe  equaled  that  of  Mexii-i-  ii. 
the  pomp  and  show  of  this  period.  By  his  order  vari*"^^ 
new  towns  were  founded  in  the  north,  among  others  that  of 
Albuquerque,  New  Mexico,  so  named  in  his  honor. 

H.  H.  S. 

Fernandez  de  Palencia,  -paa-len'th^-aa,  Diego:  >>1- 
dier  and  author;  b.  in  Palencia,  Spain,  about  1520.  l)*^ 
went  to  Peru  in  1545  or  earlier,  and  served  in  the  civil  ^ar 
against  the  rel)el  Giron  1553-54.  The  Viceroy  Meiido/,» 
made  him  historiographer  in  1556,  and  he  began  the  w<<rK 
which  was  extended  and  finished  after  his  return  to  Span:. 
It  was  finally  published  in  Seville  (1571)  as  Prim&ra  y  .•«•- 
gunda  parte  de  la  historia  del  Peru,  including  the  *•  vent>  .'f 
the  rel)ellions  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro  and  Giron.  It  is  on«-  "f 
the  principal  authorities  for  this  period.  D.  in  Se%i;.»\ 
1581.  H.  H.  .< 

Fernandez  Madrid,  Jos£ :  physician,  tx)et.  and  st«it<*^ 
man;  b.  at  ('artagena,  New  Granada,  Feb.  9,  17HJ>.  H' 
studied  at  Bogotii,  and  received  the  degree  of  doctor  K»j 
in  law  and  medicine.  In  1810  he  joined  the  |Mirtv  of  ii-  .  - 
pendence,  was  twice  elected  to  congress  from  ^arta^  *  j. 
and  on  Mar.  14, 1816,  accepted  the  aifficult  po<5t  of  j»n  ^.- 
dent  of  New  Granada,  succeeding  Torres,  who  had  re^itri**  •'> 
Obliged  to  fly  from  the  Spaniards,  he  resigned  his  ofRc-i*.  j.rii 
soon  after  was  captured  and  sent  to  Havana.  Cuba.  Tb»  r^ 
he  remained  for  nine  years,  and  distinguished  himsolf  a^  « 
physician  and  scientific  author.  In  1825  he  returned  to  Nt  ^ 
Granada,  and  Bolivar  made  him  minister  to  En^iJi!.«l 
Among  his  published  works  are  his  poems,  which  bM\' 
passed  through  several  editions ;  two  tragedies,  Atala  a-^  t 
Guatimozin;  an  important  treatise  on  yellow  fever:  a^. . 
others  on  medical,  agricultural,  and  scientific  subject:!^.  I), 
near  Ix)ndon,  June  28, 1830.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Fernandina,  fer-nfln-dee'na :  city:  port  of  entry    at!.: 
capital  of  Nassau  co.,  Fla.  (for  location  of  county,  stx*  i»:..'.i 
of  Florida,  ref.  1-J);  on  the  west  side  of  Amelia  islaml.  U- 
tween  Nassau  and  Prince  William  sounds,  and  st»p«r^»»'  i 
from  the  mainland  by  a  channel  calle<l  Amelia  river,  ^hv  : 
affords  a  deep,  safe,  and  spacious  anchorage.    The  h^iri "  ' 
entrance  is  marked  by  a  lighthouse.     Vessels  drawing  -j 
feet  can  enter  at  high  tide.    Fernandina  ships  larpe  (|i2.it 
titles  of  phosphate  and  lumber;   it  has  a  manufaetoo   i  * 
superior  plastering  fiber  from  raw  palmetto,  extensive  wi»rk^ 
for  creosoting  lumber   and   piling,  sawmills,  etc^   an«l   ;> 


PERNWOEl-S 


species,  which  extend  ft  measureless  distAnce  buck  in  geo- 
iogio  time,  doubtless  the  number  would  be  swelled  U>  manj 
times  that  given  above.  As  it  is,  although  fossil  fragments 
are  very  abiindunt,  the  definite Ij  known  species  do  not  num- 
ber above  1,000.  The  living  species  are  widely  distributed, 
being  most  abuntUat  in  the  hot,  moist  regions,  and  laaet 


HagotlhU 
abundant  in   dry  climat«s.     In  North   Ai 


1  ther 


about  350  species  and  well-marked  varieties,  three-fourths 
of  which  are  ferns  proper. 

The  femworts  are  usually  separated  into  three  elasBes, 
although  investigations  by  Campbell  render  it  probable  that 
this  Dumber  must  be  increased.  The  sequence  of  the  ordetB 
is  likewise  in  doubt,  us  shown  by  Campbell's  studies.  The 
following  synopsis  is  therefore  provisional : 

Class  I.  FiLiclsa. — The  ferns.  Stems  solid,  leaves  usu- 
ally large,  with  broadly  expanded  blade,  and  elongated  pet- 

Urder  1 .  Ophio^loMocfrt,  spores  developed  from  cells  in 
the  tissue  of  the  feaf ;  leaves  erect  in  the  bud  (not  circinate). 


Fm.  4.— Partaofipore-burliirleaTM, 


>TM,  ibowlDa  am 
■Jul  D,  Atpldiu\ 


Family  1.  Ophioglosserr,  the  adder- tongues,  with  the 
characters  of  the  order.  There  are  several  species  of  Bo- 
tryehium  and  Ophioglo$»um  in  the  U.  S. 


Flo.  t.~MaTt{Ha  tmHIa,  of 
Order  2.  MaraHiacfce.  the        ^,  .    , 

oped  in  external  cell-masses  {sporangia)  which  originate 


icrlca.  lUghUy  rcduond. 
igless  ferns ;  spores  devel- 


Family  2.  Angiopteridea,  vifh  a  single  surviving  p'lm?. 
Angiopterit.  oontnining  one  variable  tree-like  species  if 
Southeast  Asia,  Australia,  and  Madagascar. 

Family  3.  Maratfiae,   with   two  genera,  Maratlia  ud 
Kaulfusaia,  of  the  tropica  of 
both  hemispheres,  some  of  the 
species  tree-like. 

Family  i.  DatutOMa,  with 
but  a  single  genus — Daruea — 
of  aliout  a  dozen  species  of 
smaller  ferns  of  tropical  Amer- 

Order  8.  Filiea,  the  true 
ferns ;  spores  developed  from 
cells  ins[>ecially  modified  hairs 
(sporaTUfta),  usually  on  the  un- 
der surface  of  the  leaf  and  col- 
lected incluster?  (.fori) ;  leaves 
circinate  in  the  bud. 

Family  S.  OKmundetcea,  with 
globoee  sporangia  which  have 
only  a  trace  of  a  horizontal 
belt  of  thick-walled  cells,  and 
split  open  vertically.  Three 
of  the  six  species  of  Osmvnda 
occur  in  North  America ;  To- 
dea  with  four  species  (one 
tree-like)  is  almost  confined  to 
the  south  temperate  zone. 

Family  8.  Oleithrniace/t. 
with  globose  sporangia  which 
have  a  horizontal  belt  (ring) 
of  thiek-wallod  cells,  splitting  "'  "'™'^ 

vertically.  Platyioma  of  Australia  and  Oleiehenia  of  ih* 
hot  regions  of  lioth  hemispheres  are  represented  by  al"ut 
thirty  species  of  small  or  slender  ferns. 

Family  7.  Schilrraceir,  with  ovate  or  sub-irlobose  s|«irwi- 
gia.  which  have  a  terminal  belt  of  thick-walled  celU.  "plit- 
ting  vertically.  Lygodiam,  the  climbing  fems  of  manv  •]*- 
cies,  represented  by  L.  pa-lmatum  in  Eastern  U.  S. ;  Srhiyii 
mostly  of  the  tropics  (one  of  U.  S.);  Anemia  of  ti 


a  globulifln. 


« the  principal 
Hymmophyllaeta,    with 


fl 


cells,  splitting  vertically.  The  leaves  ai 
mostly  coranosed  of  but  a  single  layer 
ol  ceAs,  anu  the  sori  are  marginal,  the 
sporangia  developing  on  a  proujngation 
of  a  vein.  Hymenophgllum  a.KA  Trieli^- 
manea  (two  species  in  Southern  U.  S.), 
the  principal  genera,  include  150  or 
more  species  of  delicate  ferns,  mostly  of 
warm  climates. 

Family  9.  Cyatkracfo;  (tree-ferns), 
with  compressed  sporangia  which  have 
a  vertical  or  sub-oblique  belt  of  thick- 
walled  cells,  splitting  transversely.  Sori 
often  covered  or  surrounded  by  an  in- 
volucre (iWimum).  Mostly  lai^  trop- 
ical fems  with  erect  stems,  Aliophita, 
Jlemitetia,  Cyathea,  and  Matonia  are 
the  principal  genera,  some  species  of 
which  reach  40  to  50  or  more  feet  in 
height. 

Family  10.  Potypodiaeea,  with  com- 
pressed, stalked  sporangia,  which  have 
a  vertical    incomplete    belt   of    thick- 
walled  cells,  splitting  transversely.    Sori 
often  covered  or  surrounded  by  an  in- 
volucre (iWiiai'um).    This  is  by  far  the   Ym. 
largest  family  of  living  ferns,  and  in-      bran 
eludes  nearly  all  the  common  species  of 
the   U.  S.      The   principal  genera   are 
Afroaiichum,Adintitum{Yia.  4,  B),  A»-     urged'Ma 
pienium.  Aiipidium  (Pig.  4,  C,  D),  Slrfh- 
uiim,    Chfilnnlhfs,    Gamptotorut.    Cyalopttrit.   T>iek"-f 
a amnogramme, yolhotiTria (Fig.  3.A),  Onofka. Myf-f • 
(Fig.  4,  A),  Plerit.  Pellita.  Phegopterit,  Seolopendrivm  \  I 
2,  B),  Woodmirdia,  and  Woodsia. 


1   <letadir<l    •(■■:^ 


334 


FBRRARA 


PERKIER 


tensive  pastures.  In  the  Middle  Ages  Ferrara  fonned  a 
dukedom  belonging  to  the  house  of  Este.  In  1698  Clem- 
ent VIII.  united  it  to  the  Papal  States.  In  1860  it  became 
a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.    Pop.  (1890)  250,430. 

Ferrara :  a  fortified  city  of  Northern  Italy ;  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name  ;  29  miles  by  rail  if.  E.  of 
Bologna  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  3-D).  While  this  province 
belonged  to  the  house  of  Este,  Ferrara  was  the  ducal  resi- 
dence and  a  city  of  great  splendor  and  importance.  It  was 
a  commercial  center  in  Northern  Italy;  it  developed  a 
school  of  art  of  its  own ;  Tasso,  Ariosto,  and  Guarino  lived 
here.  Under  the  papal  rule  it  went  into  decay,  and  it  has 
now  a  somewhat  deserted  and  melancholy  appearance.  The 
cathedral,  the  ducal  palace,  etc.,  with  their  collections  of 

fictures,  are  of  great  mterest.    The  university,  founded  in 
264,  has  an  excellent  library  of  100,000  volumes.    Ferrara 
is  an  archbishop's  see.    Pop.  28,814. 

Ferrara,  Conncil  of:  an  ecclesiastical  council  whose 
sixteen  sessions  were  in  continuation  of  the  Council  of 
Basel,  and  which  began  on  Jan.  8, 1438.    In  March  of  that 

J  rear  it  was  visited  by  the  Byzantine  emperor,  John  Pal»o- 
ogus,  with  700  followers,  including  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, the  emperor  hoping,  by  obtaining  a  union  of 
the  Eastern  and  Latin  Churcnes,  to  gain  the  aid  of  the  West 
against  the  Turks.  On  Apr.  9, 1488,  the  council  was  opened 
as  a  union  council  of  the  two  Churches,  and  discussed  prin- 
cipally their  points  of  difference.  In  Jan.,  1439,  the  council 
was  transferred  to  Florence.    See  Florence,  Council  op. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Ferrari,  -raa'ree,  Gaudenzio  :  painter ;  b.  at  Valduggia, 
in  Piedmont,  in  1484.  His  artistic  training  began  under 
Girolamo  Giovannone,  and  afterward  at  Milan  he  studied 
with  Scotto,  and  as  some  assert  with  Bernardino  Luini.  He 
then  went  to  Rome,  attracted  by  the  fame  of  Raphael,  who 
received  him  as  a  colleague,  and  with  whom  he  worked  till 
he  was  recalled  to  his  own  country  to  execute  important 
commissions  in  1514.  Lomazzo  considers  Ferrari  as  one  of 
the  seven  principal  painters  the  world  ever  had.  His  chief 
work  is  the  Crucifixion,  in  a  chapel  of  the  sanctuary  of 
Varallo.  At  Milan  he  painted  the  Passion  of  Our  Lord,  in 
the  church  of  the  Grazie,  and  St.  Paul  in  Meditation,  These 
two  pictures  were  taken  to  Paris  in  1797.  Milan,  VerceUi, 
Saronno,  and  other  cities  of  Lombardy  contain  many  of  his 
works.  He  had  a  flourishing  school  of  painters,  who  imitated 
him.    D.  in  1650.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Ferrari,  Giuseppe  :  philosopher  and  historian ;  b.  in  Mi- 
lan in  1811 ;  studied  law  at  Pavia,  but  devoted  himself  sub- 
sequently to  literature ;  published  in  1835  a  complete  edition 
of  the  works  of  Vico;  went  in  1837  to  Paris,  where  in  1839 
he  published  Vico  et  VltcUie ;  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Philosophy  in  1840  at  Rochefort,  and  afterward  at  Strass- 
burg,  but  was  removed  on  account  of  his  communistic  ideas; 
published  in  1847  Essai  sur  le  Principe  et  les  Limites  de  la 
Philosophic  de  VHistoire;  was  reinstated  in  his  chair  in 
Strassburg  in  1848,  but  again  removed,  and  returned  in  1859 
to  Italy,  where  he  was  successively  made  professor  in  Turin, 
Milan,  and  Florence.  Of  his  numerous  works,  the  most  re- 
markable are  Filosofia  delta  Rimluzione  (1851) ;  Histoire 
des  Revolutions  d' Italic  (4  vols.,  1856-58) ;  Corso  di  Lezio- 
ni  sugli  Scrittori  Politici  Italiani  (1862-63).  D.  July  1, 
1876. 

Ferrari,  Paolo  :  dramatist ;  b.  at  Modena,  Italy,  1822. 
His  first  comedy,  Bartolommeo  il  Calzalajo,  was  produced 
in  1847.  In  1852  he  wrote  his  masterpiece,  Ooldoni  e  le  sue 
sedici  commedie,  which  achieved  complete  success,  and  was 
followed  by  Parini  e  la  Satira  (1857).  Both  these  works 
are  amon^  the  best  of  modem  Italian  comedies.  A  collec- 
tion of  his  Opere  drammatiche  was  published  in  Milan  in 
fourteen  volumes  1877-«0.  He  was  made  Professor  of  His- 
tory at  Modena  in  1860,  and  later  in  the  academy  at  Milan. 
D.  at  Milan,  Mar.  10, 1889. 

Ferrelra,  Antonio  :  poet ;  b.  at  Lisbon,  Portugal,  1528 ; 
studied  law  at  Coimbra,  but  took  more  interest  in  literature, 
and  especially  the  works  of  the  classic  poets,  whom  he  strove 
to  imiute  in  the  Portuguese  tongue.  With  his  model,  Sd 
de  Miranda,  he  was  the  founder  of  the  patriotic  classical 
school  of  Portuguese  poetry.  He  is  the  author  of  many 
sonnets,  odes,  epigrams,  and  a  tragedy  of  Inez  de  Castro ; 
but  the  best  of  his  works  are  probably  his  epistles.  D.  of 
the  plague  in  1569.  Nothing  of  his  was  printed  in  his  life- 
time, but  his  son  Miguel  published  a  collection  of  his  poems 
onder  the  title  Poemas  lusitanos  in  1598. 


Ferrer,  Rafael  :  Spanish  Jesuit  missionary ;  b.  in  Va- 
lencia, 1570.  He  was  sent  to  Peru,  was  one  of  the  founder? 
of  the  Jesuit  convent  at  Quito  1593,  and  subsequently  la- 
bored among  the  Yumbos  Indians.  In  1601  he  penetrated 
to  the  territory  of  the  savage  Cofanis,  in  the  forest  E.  of 
the  Andes,  and  established  them  in  mission  villages.  From 
1605  to  1607  he  was  employed,  by  order  of  theViceroy  of 
Peru,  in  exploring  the  Napo.  Returning  to  his  Cofani  mis- 
sions, he  was  murdered  at  San  Jos6  by  an  Indian  whom  he 
had  forced  to  renounce  polygamy  (1611).  H.  H.  S. 

Ferret  [from  0.  Fr. /ure/ <  Mediaev.  Jj&t  furetus,  dimin. 
of  furo,  ferret;  deriv.  of  Lat.  fur,  thief,  because  of  ii< 
craftiness] :  a  carnivorous  mammal  (Putorius  furo)  of  the 
weasel  family,  so  closely  allied  to  the  Euro|)ean  poKat 
(Putorius  fatidus)  that  many  regard  it  as  merely  a  delicatt' 
albino  vanety  of  the  latter.  It  breeds  freely  with  the  p*. It- 
cat,  has  red  eyes,  a  white  or  yellowish  fur,  and  is  so  tendiT 
that  the  winters  of  England  are  too  severe  for  it  unless  it  is 
well  housed.  It  is  half^^omesticated  in  JIurope,  but  is  pr<»l.- 
ably  of  African  origin.  It  is  much  employed  in  hunting 
rabbits  and  rats,  but  often  has  to  be  muzzled,  as  otherwL^ 
it  will  suck  its  victim's  blood  and  leave  the  body  in  the  bur- 
row. It  is  fierce  and  treacherous,  sometimes  severely  biting 
the  hand  of  its  master. 

Ferric  Oxide :  See  Iron. 

Ferrlcy'anldes  [Mod.  Lat.  ferri-,  a  compounding  form 
of  ferrum,  iron  +  Eng.  cyanide.  See  Cyanide]  :  a  class  of 
chemical  compounds  formed  by  the  action  of  oxidizing 
agents  upon  ferrocyanides,  from  which  an  atom  of  the  mt-tal 
is  extracted.  For  example,  the  potassium  ferrocyaniiir- 
(yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  4KCy.FeCy»)  is  changed  bv  the 
action  of  chlorine  into  potassium  ferricyanide  (red  pru^ia'e 
of  potash,  6KCy.FetCye).  The  most  important  of  these  salt- 
are  the  pot€issio-ferrous  ferricyanide  (soluble  Prussian  bluei 
and  TumbuU's  blue  (ferrous  ferricyanide).  Potassium  ferri- 
cyanide is  a  delicate  test  for  ferrous  salts,  and  is  invaluable 
in  the  laboratory.  The  ferricyanides  may  be  regarded  as 
compounds  of  ferric  cyanide  (Fe«Cye)  with  some  other 
cyanide. 

Ferrler,  f er'ri-cr,  David,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  R,  C.  P. : 

neurologist ;  b.  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1843 ;  educated  aX 
the  University  of  Aberdeen,  graduating  as  master  of  arts  in 
1863,  with  double  first-class  honors  in  classics  and  philos<ipli  v. 
In  the  same  year  he  gained  the  Ferguson  scholanship  in 
classics  and  philosophy,  open  for  competition  to  graduate  <^f 
the  four  Scotch  imiversities.  In  1854  he  entered  the  Univer- 
sity of  Heidelberg,  where  he  prosecuted  Dsycholoeical  sludii-s 
and  began  the  stud^  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and  chemi^inr; 
in  1865  he  began  his  medical  stuai^  proper  at  the  Uuiver- 
sity  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  gained  most  of  the  universiiv 
medals  in  his  various  classes,  and  where  he  graduated  >L  B. 
in  1868,  with  first-class  honors.  He  continued  at  the  uni- 
versity as  assistant  to  Dr.  Laycock,  Professor  of  the  Pra^^ 
tice  of  Physic,  until  1869,  when  he  became  assistant  to  a 
practitioner  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  where  he  remained  for  a 
year,  meanwhile  prosecuting  his  researches  on  the  com|>ara- 
tive  anatomy  ana  histology  of  the  brain.  In  1876  he  gnwi- 
uated  as  M.  D.,  and  was  awarded  the  gold  medal  for  hi* 
thesis  entitled  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Corpora  Qua- 
drigeminn.  In  the  same  year  Dr.  Ferrier  removed  to  London, 
ana  in  1871  was  appointed  Demonstrator  of  Physiology  in 
King's  College.  In  1872  he  was  appointed  Pixjfessof  of 
Forensic  Meaicine  in  the  same  institution,  succeeding  Dr. 
Grey,  whom  he  aided  in  the  preparation  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  editions  of  his  Principles  of  Forensic  Medicine.  This 
position  he  retained  until  1889.  He  was  appoint^  junior 
physician  to  the  West  London  Hospital  in  1872,  assistjkot 
physician  to  King's  College  Hospital  in  1874,  and  full  phv- 
sician  in  1880.  He  was  assistant  physician  to  the  Hospitkl 
for  Epilepsy  and  Paralysis,  Regent's  Park,  from  1877  tiii 
1880,  when  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  National 
Hospital  for  the  Paralyzed  and  Epileptic.  Besides  numen^ut 
papers  on  questions  touching  cerebro-spinal  disease,  I>t. 
Ferrier  has  published  The  Functions  of  the  Brain  (1^76 
and  1884)  and  The  Localization  of  Cerebral  Disease  (Gul- 
stonian  Lectures,  1878).  He  was  one  of  the  founders  luivl 
remains  an  editor  of  Brain ':  a  Journal  of  Neurology, 

Ferrier,  James  FaEnERiCK:  moral  philosopher;  b.  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  June  16, 1808 ;  son-in-law  and  nephem 
of  Prof.  John  Wilson ;  graduated  at  Magdalen  College,  i>x- 
ford,  in  1831 ;  became  Professor  of  History  at  Edinburgh 
University  in  1842,  and  of  Moral  Philosophy  and  PoIitie«a 


336 


FERTILISATION  OP  PLANTS 


FERTILIZERS 


Fertilization  of  Plants :  the  process  by  which  the  con- 
tents of  two  sexual  cells  are  blended  to  form  the  starting- 
point  in  a  new  development.  In  flowering  as  well  as  flower- 
less  plants  the  mechanism  of  reproduction  is  so  complicated 
that  some  knowledge  of  vegetable  physiology  is  necessary 
to  its  comprehension.  See  Flower  and  Physiology,  Vege- 
table. 

Fertilizers  [from  Lat.  ferti'lia,  fertile,  deriv.  of  ferre^ 
bear]:  substances  which  enrich  the  soil  and  promote  the 
growth  of  plants.  Agriculturists  distinguish  usually  be- 
tween home-made  and  artificial  mineral  or  commercial  fer- 
tilizers. The  former  consist  mainly  of  the  various  refuse 
matters,  animal  and  vegetable,  incidental  to  the  particular 
farm  operations  carried  on.  The  latter  include  a  large  num- 
ber of  articles  which  are  obtained  elsewhere  than  from  the 
farm.  The  use  of  animal  secretions  of  every  description, 
and  of  all  kinds  of  vegetable  refuse  matter  in  the  form  of 
barnyard  manure  and  Farm  composts,  has  been  known  in  ag- 
riculture from  time  immemorial,  while  the  application  of  the 
commercial  fertilizers  can  scarcely  be  datou  further  back 
than  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Lime,  salt,  saltpeter,  oyster-shells,  gyp- 
sum, and  ground  bones  are  among  the  first  more  prominently 
mentioned  commercial  fertilizing  substances.  Tne  consump- 
tion, however,  of  these  and  similar  articles  remained  quite 
limited  until  Prof.  Justus  von  Liebig  made  his  famous  ex- 
position of  the  relation^  which  exist  between  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  soil  and  the  growth  of  plants. 

The  extensive  use  of  commercial  or  artificial  fertilizers  is 
one  of  the  most  important  features  in  the  present  manage- 
ment of  farms.  Tneir  merits  are  so  generally  recognized 
that  a  rational  and  thorough  system  of  agriculture  is 
thought  impracticable  without  their  assistance,  particularly 
when  it  is  proposed  to  apply  them  for  the  purpose  of  ren- 
dering the  stable  manure  a  complete  fertilizer  for  the  va- 
rious crops  under  cultivation.  The  successful  introduction 
of  these  fertilizers  furnishes  one  of  the  most  striking  illus- 
trations of  the  influence  and  the  value  which  exact  modes 
of  inquiry  with  well-deflned  questions  have  over  mere  ex- 
perimentmg  without  a  previous  correct  appreciation  of  the 
agencies  and  the  principles  involved  in  the  operation. 

Agriculture,  althougn  one  of  the  oldest  industries,  was, 
comparatively  speaking,  long  deficient  in  rational  explana- 
tions of  many  of  its  modes  of  operation.  Stable  manure, 
ashes  of  plants,  and  various  other  means,  as  fallow  and  rota- 
tion of  crops,  irrigation,  and  drainage,  etc.,  had  been  em- 
ployed for  ages  in  the  interest,  of  a  successful  fertilization 
of  cultivated  lands,  yet  no  satisfactorv  explanation  regard- 
ing their  respective  action  was  oflfered  until  quite  recently 
— a  fact  which  readily  accounts  for  their  repeated  failures 
in  former  ages.  The  state  of  the  natural  and  the  physical 
sciences  previous  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury renaered  in  many  instances  a  correct  exposition  of  the 
processes  involved  impossible.  To  enter  with  any  reason- 
able prospect  of  success  upon  the  discussion  of  so  intricate 
questions  as  the  relation  of  animal  secretions  to  plant-life 
required  not  only  a  familiarity  with  the  composition  of  the 
air,  the  water,  and  the  soil,  and  the  various  reactions  of 
these  agencies  upon  each  other  and  on  plant-life  under  the 
influence  of  light  and  heat,  but  also  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  various  constituents  of  plants  and  animals,  their  re- 
spective organizations,  and  the  functions  of  their  assimila- 
tive, respiratory,  and  excretory  organs.  Without  any  knowl- 
edge of  the  nature  of  the  previously  mentioned  important 
physiological  processes  peculiar  to  animal  and  vegetable 
life,  not  even  an  approximately  correct  appreciation  could 
be  entertained  regarding  the  mutual  dependency  of  plants 
and  animals  in  the  economy  of  farming.  Modern  agricul- 
ture rests  its  claim  of  real  progress,  as  compared  with  pre- 
vious centuries,  less  on  the  introduction  of  new  means  for 
the  maintenance  of  an  increased  production  of  cultivated 
lands  than  on  a  more  efficient  because  more  rational  use  of 
the  best  features  of  well-known  modes  of  cultivation.  It 
ascribes  the  present  advanced  position,  and  its  claims  of  be- 
ing a  scientific  art,  to  the  accumulated  results  of  the  sc*ien- 
tiflc  n^searches  of  many  of  the  most  illustrious  scientists  of 
the  eighteenth  century  in  every  branch  of  the  natural  and 

ehysical  sciences,  and  recognizes  in  Lavoisier,  Sir  Humphry 
>avy,  and  Liebig  the  foremost  and  most  influential  minds 
during  its  various  stages  of  progress.    One  of  the  most  im- 

Sortant  services  which  the  experimental  sciences  have  ren- 
ered  to  practical  agriculture  consists  in  the  elucidation  of 
the  fact  that  it  is  essential  to  a  successful  cultivation  of  the 


various  crops  to  restore  without  delay  to  the  soil  those  of  itb 
constituents  which  the  crops  have  abstracted. 

Not  long  before  the  midale  of  the  nineteenth  century  thv 
mineral  constituents  of  plants  were  looked  upon  as  U'ini: 
merely  of  incidental  occurrence,  and  without  any  essentiiil 
bearing  upon  their  development :  these  views  have  been  en- 
tirely changed  in  consequence  of  careful  analytical  inves- 
tigations.    In  comparing  the  ash-constituents  of  diffen-nt 
plants  it  was  noticed  soon  that  certain  miheral  elements 
were  present  in  a  more  or  less  conspicuous  proportion  in 
every  plant.    The  general  occurrence  of  these  subi»tanr4>^ 
led  ultimatelv  to  the  quite  natural  assumption  that  th*ir 
presence  might  be  necessary  for  the  performance  of  S'jnu- 
physiological  process  of  vegetable  life.    These  important  re- 
lations were  m  their  general  outlines  for  the  first  tim<' 
pointed  out  in  the  year  1840  by  Justus  von  Liebig  in  hj^ 
work  on  Oraanic  Chemiairy  in  its  Application  to  AgricnJ' 
ture  and  Physiology,    Subseouent  additional  actual  exfMri- 
ments,  instituted  under  well-aeflned  circumstances  for  WA- 
ing  his  views,  not  only  conflrmed  their  correctness  in  lh«ir 
main  features,  but  furnished  much  additional  infonnatiio 
in  regard  to  the  requirements  for  a  successful  cultivation  ^f 
plants.    It  has  been  learned,  also,  that  of  all  the  8ubstan<i*> 
which  enter  into  the  composition  of  plants,  only  potass»ium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  sulphuric  acid,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  carbonic  acid,  besides  some  nitrogen  containing  com- 
pounds, as  ammonia  or  nitric  acid,  and  water,  are  indis|)eiL«- 
able  for  their  growth;  while  the  functions  of  a  few  othtr 
elements  (^uite  frequently  noticed  in  plants,  as  sodium,  siJh^ 
ium,  chlorine,  etc.,  remain  still  less  explained.    As  soil  aud 
air  were  thus  proved  to  be  equally  important  contributor* 
of  the  essential  articles  of  plant-food — the  former  f  urn  idl- 
ing the  mineral  constituents  of  plants,  the  latter  mainl} 
their  organic  portion — it  became  evident  that  the  atirn»^- 
pheric  resource  of  plant-food  could  only  serve  its  puriN^M- 
in  the  same  degree  as  the  soil-constituents  present  would  In- 
able  to  support  them  in  the  production  of  vegetable  mattor. 
To  store  tne  farm-lands  with  the  largest  possible  amount  A 
available  essential  mineral  constituents  of  plants  in  partic- 
ular has  thus  become  the  most  important  point  of  oon^^i der- 
ation in  practical  agriculture.    The  intelligent  farmer  rec<  *^- 
nizes  this  principle  in  the  selection  of  his  modes  of  opera- 
tion.   An  early  experience  has  taught  him  that  the  soil  he 
cultivates  differs  more  or  less,  as  a  general  rule,  in  its  ph>>- 
ical    condition  and  its  chemical  composition.      Chemist -< 
have  proved  to  him  that  any  improvement  in  the  form^-r 
direction  tends  to  render  the  natural  and  original  resoun-^*^ 
of  the  soil  treated  sooner  and  in  a  larger  degree  avaiUbif. 
and  thus  hastens  on  its  flnal  sterility  in  consequence  of  th<* 
production  of  larger  crops.    Superior  mechanical  treatmt-nt 
of  the  soil  before  seeding — rotation  of  crops,  fallow,  irriga- 
tion, and  drainage — is  ror  this  reason  resorted  to  mainlr 
for  the  purpose  of  turning  the  natural  resources  of  the  'i^  \\ 
to  better  account,  either  in  consequence  of  a  more  uniform 
distribution  of  its  plant-food  or  at  the  expense  of  time: 
while  a  continued  unimpaired  production  is  secured  by  rv'- 
tuming  in  the  form  of  some  suitable  fertilizer  the  soiIhn  .q- 
stituents  which  the  removed  crops  have  abstracted.    Thr 
selection  of  a  fertilizer  is  for  economical  reasons  always 
made  with  reference  to  the  nature  and  the  amount  of  avA£]- 
able  plant-food  in  the  soil  under  cultivation,  and  to  the 
special  requirements  of  the  crops  to  be  raised.    Moel  home- 
made fertilizers  are  of  a  compound  nature,  while  the  o  'm- 
mercial  or  artiflcial  fertilizers  supply  usually  but  one.  twu.  or 
three  articles ;  they  are  for  this  reason  frequently  called  •*  si»- 
cial  fertilizers."    t^table  manure,  althougn  the  most  coni[4»  x 
of  home-made  fertilizers,  can  not  be  considered  a  ei>nipl«te 
one  as  long  as  farmers  sell  a  part  of  their  produce.    The  i\»irt- 
mercial  fertilizers  furnish  excellent  means  to  eorre^t  th.- 
composition  of  the  stable  manure  obtained  under  any  sy«- 
tern  of  agricultural  industry,  and  to  make  it  a  complete  U  r- 
tilizer  for  the  crops  under  cultivation.    Although  tne  st»l  •< 
manure  represents  still  by  far  the  largest  bulk  of  the  fertil- 
izers used  m  general  mixed  farm-management,  the  denmc'l 
for  commercial  fertilizers  is  already  so  g:reat  that  their  nmn- 
ufacturo  ranks  among  the  most  extensive  branches  of  cheir> 
ical  industry.    Their  importance  can  not  l)e  oven^stima^^-*! 
in  regard  to'  the  maintenance  of  the  fertility  of  fann-lar.«i<^ 
as  Ion||f  as  farmers  still  allow  a  fair  portion  of  their  h(.»!i.i 
fertilizing  material  to  waste,  and  as  long  as  the  sewagt*  uu*  ^ 
tion  of  the  centers  of  social  life  remains  practically  unsolvt-L 
Bones,  mineral  phosphates  (see  Apatite),  and  *superph(««-> 
phates — the  latter  frequently  mixed  with  nitrogenous  ani- 
mal matter,  as  fish,  blood,  meat,  etc.,  or  ammonia  com[)Ou.Du> 


338 


FKTIALS 


FEUDAL  SYSTEM.  THE 


f Ten  in  its  rrducwi  form,  an  exo«»edinjcly  valuable  trpa«are- 
houAc  of  the  forms  of  Latin  wonls  and  of  R4>man  antiqui> 
til**  and  mirtboloi^rT.  In  the  eighth  century,  however, 
pAixrs  I)utx>Ni'!»  \q,  r.)  matle  a  me«^»r  abridgement  of 
Fcwtuji's  work,  ailapted  to  the  want«  of  his  own  time,  and 
thus  no  doubt  caused  the  discymtinuance,  and  finally  the 
dii«{»)iearaiKv.  of  the  latter.  One  manuM*npt  onlv  of  the 
eleventh  ot-ntury,  now  preserved  at  NapU-j*.  jmrv'ive<l,  but  in 
a  very  im|»erfeft  condition,  as  it  U^^n  with  the  mid<ne  of 
the  loti«*r  Jf,  and  part  of  the  remainder  was  deface<i  by 
flrp.  The  lalton  of  many  K'holan*  have  lieen  bestowed  on 
the  re<<toration  of  thu«  im^iortant  work,  from  some  slij^ht 
fnMcnientA  of  the  oriinnal  tn-atise  of  FlHt»cu8,  from  the  sur- 
rivinif  .MS,  of  F<'»tuH,  and  the  eomiMMid  of  Paulua.  The  re- 
•ults  are  i>rrH«»ntt»<l  in  their  U»j<t  and  most  complete  form  by 
K.  O.  Mnller  (U»ipzi(f,  18^9),  who  has  printed  the  several 
works  in  hciiarate  columns.  Part  I.,  fdvin>;  the  text  of  a  new 
edition  by  E.  Thewrewk  de  Pon<»r,  ap|»eare<l  in  Budapest, 
IMHtt.  Revi^^l  by  M.  Waeren. 

Fetlala,  or  FeclalR  fin  I^t.  fftiaUn.  Etymolo^  un- 
known]: a  Uxly  of  uncicnt  Roman  pric-^t**  who  ha*l  c)iarjfe 
of  ('ertain  intcnmtii>nal  alTnir<.  m-tiiif?  a**  herald^  in  the  an- 
nouncement of  war  to  a  fon*ij;n  Mate,  and  pn'Midin>j  over 
the  m>U>mniti('s  attending;  the  return  of  iH»a<"e.  They  were 
pn>l>ably  twenty  in  numlier,  were  anciently  citizens  of  hi^h 
oirth,  were  ch*w»»n  for  life,  and  were  cuIUhI  ptUrf*  ptUrati. 
Their  duties  were  {)erforme»«l  with  much  ceremony.  Their 
rite^  and  reflations  c«)nstitut«d  a  c<Mle  known  a^  the  Jut 

frtuilf. 

Fetich :  See  FcTiSR. 

Fet'ld  Onmt :  in  pharmacy  and  me<licine.  certain  gnni- 
re»ins  which  are  the  ooncn*te  natural  juic»es  of  umbellifer- 
«)u^  plants.  They  have  a  strong?,  unpleasant,  allia4*eous  otlor, 
whence  the  name.  They  are  anti>|)asmiKlics  and  exj)ect<v 
rants.  A!twifu*tida,  ammoniac,  fn^tmnum.  and  tsa^(ienum 
an*  the  best  known. 

Fflia.  fdtees,  FaAXVX)i»  Joseph:  writer  on  music  and 
bi«»;;raj»lier ;  b.  at  Mi>ns,  [)«>li:ium.  Mar.  *i5,  17H4:  studied 
at  tlie  ('on**rralory  of  Paris  in  IH^K);  <iricanist  and  Pro- 
fi-..^.r  of  Sin^njc  at  [>ouai  in  IK18;  <lirector  of  the  con- 
•MTxatory  at  Bru?%seU  in  1S3;J:  meinU>r  of  the  Acailemy  of 
Bel^num  in  IH-W;  mu*«icAlexe<'utorof  MeyerUnT,  pnslucin^ 
hi*  Afrirtiin^  in  1H64;  oftieer  of  the  I^ifion  «>f  llomir  in 
1H<M  :  grand  oflleer  of  the  <h>ler  of  I^»j)<»ld  1M«9.  He  pub- 
li««lu«*l  treati^*^  on  music,  Hiogntphu  unii'Trwlh  HeA  mnjti- 
riViM  (Tniver^l  Hio^'mphy  of  MuMriunH,  H  voK,  l8iU  M; 
t^i  e<L  IH6H-70)  aiif)  Utntoirt  g^nenile  de  la  tnttMwue  ((ten- 
eral  l!i*t<iry  «»f  Mu^ie.  H  voU.),  Founde<l  and  wlitetl  the 
h^'t'He  J/ujtiraU.     I),  in  Brussels  Mar.  27,  IH71. 

Petiah,  feeti«»h  [via  Fr.  from  Portutf.  feiti^o^  artificial, 
applied  by  the  Portiijf.  in  Africa  to  native  objects  of  wor- 
•liip  <  I>At. //w/iriiM,  deriv.  of/(firrrr]:  anobj^^'t  wt>rHhifMHl 
b)  the  dei^raiUsl  Irilies  <if  SeiieiTHl  and  ('oiiiTo.  A  fetich  is 
ii«>(  an  idol,  »nd  in  not  profierlv  a  hviuImiI.  but  is  lo*)ked 
u{Min  as  the  actual  and  vi^ibl**  ()weliiru(-place  of  a  preter- 
nattiml  j¥»wer.  it  may  l»e  thu-*  s<nne  flxwl  i»hje<«t  of  nature. 
a*(  *onie  Itifty  mfHintain.  a  jfntve,  or  a  tre*' :  it  may  be  an 
aiiuiiaJ.  a-»  a  i^nake,  a  snail,  a  cns.'iMlilc,  and  often  a  she<'p  or 
a  to*«t  :  or  it  m«y  Is?  uny  i»bjrct  on  which  the  whim  or  the 
fancv  hns  fittNl.  as  the  U'ak  of  a  binl.  the  fin  of  a  fi'^h,  the 
h4Mif  of  a  i|ua'lni|Ksl.  «  Mone,  a  binck,  a  feather,  a  stick, 
a  rmil.  «>r  niiiio^t  an>thiiii;  el^  that  can  be  imiiitMl.  One 
thin^  «itl  du  atw'Ut  a-*  well  a*«aiinther  for  a  fetich,  pntvide*! 
ihr-  •or^hijMT  can  l*«-lic\e  that  hi^  ^A  re^id«*H  therein;  and 
thi*  he  is  t'HAiU  lc*l  to  ilo  in  refen'tice  to  anytiiini;  which 
pli-jiM-%  or  i«  u'M'ful  to  him.  A  feti-^h  i«*  oft««n  worn  at»out 
ihi*  |ifr^»n  or  huiitf  up  in  the  hut  a*  a  tali-innn.  and  i«  rm- 
pM»\f«i  in  the  ni'H.t  di-^'u-^t  irij:  ntt-*of '»ii|>»*p*tiiinii  Atid  wit^h- 
«r»ft.  Kcti-.}i.«.m  -li..w^  thi' nli^'i«Mi%  iii«»tinc(  dc^rnde*!  into 
U-  iowr*t  fnrm*.     .Si<r  Ammi<im.  J.  H.  SfchDIL 

Fetlock  (M.  Kiik'.  ^'//'>i\  ittl,.k^  fn^m  Scand.,  but  ety- 
m*']  ►iTT  un^ffiaiM,  The  miiind  rh-iTicnt  is  tHiiial  to  Knjf. 
l*t* k  Mf  hftin  :  ii«l.  /o4«-r.  ami  the  tir*t  pnibnhiy  e«{uai  to 
Kjijf.  f<*<*t  icf.  |i  f ).  fft,  a  •tip  ):  the  |N»)rit  <»n  a  horM»'s  lcij 
Im  *.i'h!  the  |>A*trni-j"int.  The  f«tl«K'k  l«  c»i\ern«l  by  a  tuft 
of  \*'t\^  h^ir. 

Fead  :  a  1*  cal  trnn  UM«d  t«»  de'Jtnmte  laml  held  of  a 
MjjwTi  »r.  on  i-»»i.«i.'  "U  »tf  fernlenniT  hini  mt*  h^i-.  The  trnn 
i«  •.[>|«M«<«1  til  iii'miium.  \\\e  tiii^nnW  cr  ultimate  prt)perty, 
»hi'  'i  ciinlirmeii  to  re*i<ie  in  the  »ui»*ritkr. 

Fea4alUa:  Si^  KTHMotiMn  and  Kei  ual  S\«irKa. 


i 

i 


Feudal  Sjrstcm.  Tke  [feudal  is  frr>ro  Mnii^ v.  I^*  «.», 
da'lU  (cf.  Fr.  feodoI\  deriv.  of  feudum,  fn^mu.  H  *.. -. 
fihu,  fehu  :  Goth,  fnthu^  cattle  m<mey.  Ser  Kiorran*  i«J 
Fkk]  :  a  form  of  WK*iety.  prevalentin  Kurt»fw  *iu-  ':  •  h 
Middle  Af^oa.  In  the  Roman  empire,  as  in  ai:  •  .^ 
stateA  when»  the  central  |K>wer  has  its  due  drtfi>^  «  f  *r-r  ,,■  ^ 
the  individual  was  places!  directlv  under  the^pnn..  -  •,  ^ 
trate,  and  all  authority  of  sulNmlinate  o(n<vr*  wa*  •  t  -| 
in  his  name.  This  de|MmdentM*  of  the  fr\t>nian  in  t*  • 
way  on  the  head  of  the  stale  c^mtinued  m  th*-u-- 
kin^loms,  after  they  su|>erseiled  the  Roman  (••««r 
len^rth  of  time.  In  the  tenth  century.  ht»vri*r.  a  t^m  ^ 
of  institutions  bi*^n  to  work,  r(N>tinf(  tmt  and  kma^  «  ^ 
the  institutitms  of  the  state  pr«>f)er.  Tf>  tlwra  i«c'i*'  i\ 
name  i.A  feudal imn,  feudality,  or  (h*  feudal  m^mU^  .■«< 
develope<l  themselvc»s,  without  almofutely  *U-<r*  *  •;  J 
earlier  institutions,  in  France,  England.  <«rrmai.%  ^-«^ 
Italy,  and  in  the  neij^hUirini;  lands  of  Ilunjinkrv.  V  a4 
and  Denmark.  They  ap^iearvd  al«s>  in  oth^rf*"*  .'  t^ 
rope,  and  out  of  Europe  m  the  Christian  kin^-^i  -m  f  J<«^ 
salem.  If  trace^l  back,  the v  must  l>e  brtmirht  ir.t..  -^ 
ticm  with  the  Germanic  element  which  diffu«^i  .*«  ' 
invasion  over  a  large  part  of  Europe,  while  jri  rh««*« 
pn»{)erly  speaking,  no  feudalism  among  thr  in«ai>-x 
a  mistaken  notion  that  the  in  vailing  anni*-«  o  r.«--' 
Imnds  under  chieftains  to  whom  the  confjuennc  ^  t* 
lands  for  their  services,  and  who  in  turn  ga«r  U:»i«  * 
eomiiatus  or  retainers.  Feudaliimi  was  a  Gmiiar  j- 
but  had  no  such  antique  and  tangible  «hanr.  It  ifrr*  , 
little  and  little,  out  of  institutions  whu-n  werr  r;»: 
the  Carolingian  perio<l,  no  «me  of  which  i*  rtna,^?.  ' 
U)  explain  feudalism,  and  which  in  (>cmbinar;**n  * 
haveonmgbt  it  aUmt  but  for  commrrent  hi*i«  r*  a.    i 

FeudaliMn  contn»lle«l  8<K*iety  and  gi»vfmmf  ni  f  r  • 
centuries  and  bepin  t4)  grow'  weak  at  thr  tian.^  t  r 
the  countries  of  Eunuie  Wtnui  to  tie  natifiiAiifv^j .  t  ■: 
at  about  the  end  of  tne  fourteenth  n-nturv.     It  wa«      ^ 


ever,  not  the  sole,  but  only  the  c^mtrolUng.  (Hi««r  •  '  ••  -j 
The  Church,  the  suzerains,  the  towns,  were  at  rnajt    '•  *^ 

4 


although  they  put  on  some  of  its  forms. 

The  vfoni  'feudum  in  Meilia*%-al  Ijatin.  from  «K. 
is  deriveil,  did  not  come  into  use  until  aU>ut  iN   -  i 

tury,  when  it  began  to  take  the  plater  «f  Arf»*«  .  .  •:] 
denoted  a  property  given  for  use  on  certain  i .  :  ■  | 
ownership  of  which  did  not  g<»  o\rr  with  M.#  ---  i 
Feudum  and  aiif*dium  include*!  the  two  trr  ir-^  *  ■  a  ^ 
pn»|K»rty  was  held  in  inde[M>ndent   richt — m  (•■»  -  \ 

we  say — and  by  which  it  was  held  on  ii»odit..  r.  .  '  ,-  *  i 
ing  a  ser^'ice  to  the  f<»rmer  owner. 

But  what  was  the  feudal  syMern  f     It  mai  Iw  •# 
that  (><)litical  form  in  which  then*  was  a  «t  a.r. 
holding   land  <»f  one   another  on  o^ndithn  •  f  |«  ' 
certain  service's,  beginnini;  with  the  ***rf*  a'ld  .  •  -    i 
men.  and  ascviKling  thn»ugh  mi/i/<ji.  c^r  kr.i«r'  '• 
riere-vaxviN  and  imnuiliate  va*4Mil»  i>f  the  •ci.i  r».  ► 

member  in  the  chain,  from  the  milit4*«  ut*waj-l.  «■>» 
to  his  imme<liateMi|M*rior.  hehl  land  fn»m  h.m.  t.«« 
of  allecianct*  to  him,  and  liei*aine  hi*  man.  I  ^-  «a; 
then,  hail,  when  the  system  was  pun*.  n<>  ilir*-«  t  -  • 
with  any  but  the  great  \a»Mils  and  th«i.  wr- 
miirht  bj\  under  them,  were  loril«  in  th*tr  d  *•*-  •■ 
leptl  fiction  was  that  the  land  was  oru  iia:  %  .-  * 
of  the  suzerain  (that  is,  all  the  laml  a  hi'  h  w&*  ;  <  a 
of  which  then*  waj*  much  in  (tennany.  but  >n  >  rmt 
little);  that  alleiriance  and  crrtain  i*ni'^*»  fl»F«i  ►  « 
were  due  to  hini  ;  ami  that  f<»r  nej^le«t  |.»  |w«^  -^ 
si»rvices  the  litmU  an<l  all  ntrhtu  gmog  w  ;'h  ♦■  ^  -  .^ 
furfeitetl.  With  the  land*,  down  to  thr  h  ..  r*  *  ■ 
fee**,  ^uri^-lictiMn  wa*  t^onnecte*!.  as  wi  lias  ..  j  -•  a.'  r 
certain  limits,  military  c<»mmanil  n\rr  ihr  t*'  •■ 
the  ban>ny.  and,  to  a  inmsidrrable  ritrnt.  tim  r-.^fc* 
mg  money,  to(f»'ther  with  that  i»f  gi*u.ir  » 'lar^rr*  ! 
nearly  all  •mvereign  |M»wers  pa<wcil  t>trr  fr*  ,  i^ 
ereigri — •!»*>  i»<)W  muM  lie  calle<l  a  •^:#natifc.  t.  «- 
I  aliened  (>4p*i(ii»n — to  hi«  vas*«N  ;  ■«»  thai  •■  :•<»  «« 
teirrntt-^l,  a^  much  as  it  woultl  l»r  if  r'trr*  «»«.-•» 
the  I*.  S.  Uiui  the  right  of  bottling  c«mr?«  .  f  ■  ••  " 
|ui**«ing  la»-«.  Thi*  it  is  that  rmnM  tKr>  ■>  ^  i 
|MMulittrit\  of  the  «}«tem.  and  «>l«*tru»  t*«|  t  r  *m  r-*;  •] 
uiiifonii  «le>eli>pinent,  all  natiuital  exi«trn.<r  a.  ^*  '  | 
thi*  di*«unite<)  condition  tlirnf  irrrw  up  rf»j  ^^^  j 

of  cuMomn:  there  was    for  a  Umg   tin.r   i».>    c*"^^"*. 
r\ery  feudal   otiini^tion   «((mm)  <ia    it»   ••«&   f*a«      ^  | 
^ubj^-^-t   to  (Ntni|tact    lH*tween  the  siurrain 


340 


FErDAL  SYSTEM,  THE 


br*«n  fc^ren  U^  him  for  his*  u»p.  If  an  inmato  of  his  sonior's 
dwellini^.  he  w»"<  Umml  to  serrice^  ?uch  aj«  militHry  <Juty. 
ffoinff  «»o  me^^mffesk  pPPT»»»nc<»  at  hi»  cmxrX**  ipiactfn),  f4>llow- 
inir  lu  hU  train.  In  a  capitulanr  of  a.  D.  SM  it  i>  said  of 
Murh  Tawal.4  of  the  kint;  that  if  thev  have  tM>ni*fireN  ami 
vr.<wa14  on  them,  they  f*\\ti\\  not  keep  tlu*^«  suUtrdmate  vas- 
«a15  with  thvm.  but  '*r«hHli  allow  thi'm  to  t^i  with  the  count 
l<»  wh<»^MjiMri<*t  Ihoy  Ik'Iohjj/'  Fn»m  this  it  aftttears  that 
alrea<ly  ra»«aU  hatl  vav*4tU;  that  Mome  vasnaLs  had  no  t>en(^ 
fli-e^;  and  ai»|>arenlly.  al"*o.  that  the  old-reieive<l  juriMlic- 
tion  and  militanr  |»ower  of  the  t-^mnt  in  his  mmnly  (pm^us) 
wan  b«*fonning  to  be  weakontni,  f«jr  it  wa*  necejvNin'  to  jfive 
ordem  that  Hut^h  raxNilH  •should  follow  the  count  to  his  county 
and  ui*on  military  exfMMlitit^ns. 

At  flnrt  the  tie  belw^^n  a  |»erson  other  than  the  sovereiffn 
and  hi<  man  wai«  pn»tmblj  wi^aker  than  that  l>etween  the 
ma«rnat4>A  and  the  king.  In  the  <li>onlen*  after  Charle- 
mairne\  ileath.  and  in  the  time  of  hij«  ^franil'«<m8,  the  ^rreat 

Iieo|>le  MNhiced  ea<'h  <»tht>r'!<  vns^^U  awny,  !m>  that  thin  liad  to 
le  expn*^ly  i»n>hibit«Ml.  The  va««^l  h1m> could  not  leave  his 
senior  t>r  loni  ex«f|»t  f»»r  reasimj*  whi<*h  invt»lvcMl  a  crime  on 
the  senior's  f»art,  uuIcms,  indee*).  the  latter  fr«dy  diMnij<!*ed 
him.  Such  crimen  an  mentioned  in  a  cafiitulary  of  Aix-la- 
ChajN'Mf  (A.  D.  H|«)  Hre  ait4'm|>t^  on  the  MMjior';*  fiart  to  en- 
>»lave  the  vaNMjU,  !*••<  I  action  of  hi**  wife  by  the  "(enior,  plots 
a4niin*it  hijt  life,  running  ufxm  him  with  a  drawn  swonL, 
in'j;lwlin(c  l4»  prote<'l  him  if  thi*  wcn»  in  the  ^t'uiors  iwwer. 
With  this  may  l>e  coni{»are«l  the  feudal  crime  of  ftlonv, 
which  i*»  tfentrally  committe«l  by  the  vassal  a^innt  his  lonl, 
but  may  also  l>e  iH)mmittcd  by  the  lord  himM'lf  apiinst  his 


."*  wi 


II  came  to  iiass  in  the  course  of  time  that  vassals  held 
benefices  and  i>cnertcmrit*^  btn-ame  vaxvds — that  b*,  that  no 
persiHi  C4>uld  Mand  in  the  one  n'lation  without  its  involving 
the  other.  Wnitz  '^y*  {Deutjwh.  ytrffiMt$4H4;<*<;fArh^  iv.  216) 
that  **  no  *»ne  c<»uld  p'l  a  b^'iictice  without  uiiulin^  hims4»lf 
by  com  mem  lilt  ion  mori*  cl<t^*Iy  t«»  the  grantor  of  the  land — 
more  cl«>-»ely  than  woultl  take  place  bv  the  fact  of  liaviii^ an- 
other's lami  put  for  um'  into  hi>«  Imnds."  Koth.  in  his  Hme- 
Hrttiitr^Mrn,  says  mon*  !*affl>  that  thi?»  union  of  the  two  n'la- 
tions  WHS  usap^  only  ft»r  "Mime  tune,  and  not  universal  «'U«*- 
tora.  When  the  cu'^tom  wa«»  UNoining  univernal  a  cU'*?*  of 
landholders  was  fn^iwinji;  up  who  hcM  e»*tatc^  by  a  tie  of  jmt- 
sonal  t>bli);ation  to  a  <»u{icrior;  and  thi^  cla^s,  owinj;  to  the 
rants  trat^M  of  land  which  the  Frank  kinir^  could  di>«|MM4>  of, 
erabnM*e«l  a  lanfi*  jmrt  of  the  Iea<hn)C  f>enH»ns,  i*s()ecially  in 
the  We34  Frank  km^lom. 

U.  JmmuHttu  irmnnttif)  i»r  exemption^  %pt>Utical  nrivihiji', 
was  the  thini  constituent  element  of  the  feudal  sy>tem. 
The  tirtt  form  under  whidi  thi<«  element  ap|>ear^  i<t  immunity 
fn>m  taxe^  or  bunlens  on  the  land.  When  the  kin;;  jrave 
Iwneftif*  he  traiinferrwl  that  which  U*fore  Udonjje*!  to  the 
tiAT,  and  which  wa^  exempt  from  taxe*.  It  was  a  (fn*at 
thinj(  for  a  |M*rM>n  t«)  oliUun  thi«i  axemption.  The  flrtt  ex- 
rmption^  that  are  known  are  all  jTraiil***!  to  convents  i»r  to 
other  «tNMr*ia-ti»al  foumlation**,  tlie  prt»i»erty  of  which  wn> 
rntjrvly  dernwi  at  ftr*t  fn»m  jrifts  of  InntK  Orii^inally.  this 
jrrant  of  immunity  c<uilti  only  pn^iMii  fn»m  the  kinjf,  yet 
d»«»iiments  i.H^ue<l  to  "kui'h  cor|>orati«»ns  b\  noMcM  wh«»  were 
^av^aN  «>f  kiritr*  I'oiifer  it.  in  the  ex|M*«<tation.  iterhafMs  that  a 
c«ititirniAtif»n  of  the^tep  wxruld  U* otitaiti«<il  from  the  »iipn'me 
authority.  There  <*e«*m"»  al^>  to  have  lnt*n  a  ♦<|»«»<"iJtl  anxiety 
on  the  fian  «>f  (*onvi*nt«  thai  a  puMicofllci^r  should  not  enter 
within  ihrir  prfitit^-*  and  diMurb  their  vni-re^l  (pitet.  How- 
ever little  of  iiiu*  h  thi-*  caii"M*  iimi  have  efTi'<-t«il,  the  iminii* 
n.tt  naturaiU  t^^^k  the  '^haiN*  under  I'epin  and  the  next  !m>v- 
ertM,rt»*  tlitt  no  pubih  ollici-r  '»JeMiid  eiii«*rthe  coiirl  or  lands 
of  !n»  (Miiidat  toll,  eit  hrr  to  |e\^  im  BiN--iii(«n4'V  ( f  rr^/irt.  or  to 
ihrtmiid  ((umrtr-r*  and  ltM|^»iii_'.  <»r  lt»  tak**  h***!  in  tit**,  or  to 
h''"l  the  |MN»]iir  of  th»*  foiHi  LitM»n  to  jij^ftf'r,  or  to  M'K  lip 
ji4'li<  .a\  pti"  t^-dtiij^  tlun-.  Th" 'M'  di*!**  ii-»«!ioii«  from  what 
wa-*  'I'le  1*1  the  »!.♦•«•  w«  n-  n  >t  Cf-tht**!  nil  at  onre.  but  one  at 
a  time;  atiil.  on  the  oitu  r  hnU'l.  thin*  wen*  i-a*****  when'  the 
puti  !■•  otbi  er  mik'ljt  eijter  iiM-  n-ii.:i«m^  pr*-*  iiirt*,  TIicm* 
pm.M  i^**  *  wi  rv  t  .i^tTJ)  e*iv«-t.-<|.  ntnl  m  n  ;:rtnl  to  n«»tliini:  m 
thr  ni.'.i  1 1  a'  tfii*  •«  <(•»  "->  in  tilt  f'>rj»d  tl^M  iintt'nt*^  e\i*i  iu» 
in  n^'tF'l  to  tli*-^'  i;r.tii'-  <•(  uuinumiit*^.  Tln-x  were  pn>- 
U»  t.-fl  \i\  hi.i-*  \vr\  «itii-  l»  raiut  in  mnount.  Hut  a-*  free 
m**n  fottiiii' ii'if  d  tf.i  ni<M  lit «  to  thi*  K  hunh  c<inM>rntio[i«  t«) 
Ifel  nil  tif  piil<iit  ••rth"!  in  w^^r.  an  e*lii-t  of  hv.'i  jjite*  the 
«  oiirtt*  t ►.«'  r.^'I't  t..  «i'-.t frtin  on  tf.i  m.  "  iiot  »  ith-infphni,'  the 
liiiM.'i'iiH  "  In  •!  n,e  !»*«•*  thi*  pfMlitCc  ^A"  k'l^'U  for 
htiU-td  or  iri<i>Md  land*  Mil),  fjoi  fi.r  |  low,  i-a-stunr,  tir 
w.^wl  latHim,  at  least    ^»   far   tiMt    bre»*  Ii»-»   of   tt   should   m»l 


■1 

-   .1 

•       1 

■    4 

••i 

:      I 

.  ■  I 
-■i 


have  the  same  penalty  outside  of  the  oKirt  ami  bu  1 : 
within. 

This  privilege  eriilentlr  could  amount,  if  lir«*t,w,» 
hohier^  of  benefices  (or  fief*,  as  wp  m»w  ma*  <  aj.  t.'   ■ 
an  overthrow  of  dinn't   piibhe   power,  atnl   wa*  ««■ 
Worth  the  elTorla  of  the  !*e<'ular  pntpnfior%  i    ^-    • 
them-wdves.     When  ami  by  what  «aep*»  the)  1 4.* »••,.» 
not  so  clearly  apfs'-ar  as  in  the  c«!*e  **t  e^»n«-*   •  ai  • 
Church  foundations.     But  such  a  pnvil*  ire  ti.(.j  it../. 
fintxl  to  eccleiiia.Mica,  and  in  the  umpiitt   tini««  ..- 
p-andstina  of   Charleinafnie   and   afterwanl.  pu*    ■ 
t)ecaine  weak,  while  at  an  equal  |»a<^  the  f»iiw.T  .if  ••• 
holding;   jfrant«»es*   t>ecame    jfri-at.      The    mt:*. -r    f-»* 
prieton»  (X)uld  not  stand  alone  in  th4»4*  tinH"*,  b-.*.  ' 
necessary,   in  order  to  protect   them'^l*e«.   t.*   % 
society  where  they  c<mlu  find  pnile*iion.  aini  «•'  i> 
their   lands  to  a  c<mnt  or  other  irn-at   f»er«  n    if    * 
them  l)ack  as  his  men  owing  alletrian<v  and  «<•••": 
|K)rt.      The  counts  would  naturally  l»e  larve    U- 
within  the  county,  and  if  their  function*,  at    tt.-.r 
pansed  out  of  the  family,  the  Hon  would  naiurm>  «    w 
nave  the  same  auth(»rit\  in  his  pstatt^  which  hi*  fa** 
in  the  iH>unty  or  distnct.    The^  are  ^«nf  tif  ?**   - 
which  bnmu:ht  it  aUmt  that  multitude:!*  of  m*  n.  «-«• 
cal  and  civil,  in  priK'e^  of  lime  ifot  exem|»ti.  ti*  fr  - 
authority — that  is,  as  far  as  ju.stii'e,  |Hili<v.  m.i. ?ar«  ti- 
were  concemt*<l — bnike  up  society  into  fraKrifnt^^  a 
nationali^eil  a  irreat  |wrt  of  Kuro|«>. 

These  thrtH*  caus*»>.  then.  w*»rkinif  t«v»**hrr.  pn«i  j- 
feudal  sy*<tem.     Public  projK»rty,  hv  lhedi*tr.»    •     • 
in  thv  way  of  beneficiary  gifts,  which  were  f::.»    i 
hennlitarv'  right,  create*!  great  proprietors     Va<w«.*, 
necte<l  the^e  proprietors  by  a  |ier«iiuKl  tie  with  •  n«-  ■. 
and  at  length  (mly  with  one  another,  the  hiirh  Ta^^a  * 
having  imnieiliate  relatitms  to  the  sovereiim.     l-'m* 
munity  distribut^nl  in  prttceiw  of  time  the  pnm   \^. 
of  the  state  to  the  vaasals  of  the  suzerain  or  t*'  t.>  -  - 
alK).     In  this  course  of  things  different   f«rt«     t 
moveil  forwanl  inde[M*ndenlly.     In  France,  «t)«r«  •. 
very  little  alhslial  profM'rtv,  the  maxim  of   f« '.  ta 
*•  Nulle  terre  sans  m»igneur. '     In  (temianji  lh«  **   w» 

'  small   free  i>r»»prietors  who  st<»<wl  their  gT>K;r  I   at* 
mars<-h,  ami  many  largi*  pr»n»rietors  w  h^v^  al-  -i*  %.<  -• . 
out  their  fiefs,  were  very  wide  tcmtonr^     \^  r.«-t  H 
Lion  was  fleprive<l  of  both  his  >axttn  and    Ha^ar^a.' 
d<»mj*.  in   11H4K  for  hi!»  want  of  fi<lelit;i  t«»   F'*"«i#r-    a 
rikxt^qi,  be  had  still  in  his  hamU  the  exltn*Mr  llf^:'.*« 
toriex,  which  when  divide<l  up  ma^le  ac^rrmi  in.|*  rx^ 

'  man  princi^talitiett. 

)      In  another  fiarticular.  which  was  of  m>  ii;  •  r-«  it  ra 
ment,  the  count riej*  ilifTenti.     In  Franer  aii  u*«  *•■. 
ing>  l>ecame  here<litanr  at  an  earl\  4la«.     It  m%*  .  . 
in  (ieniiHiH  and  in  Italv.     In  (irrtiiait^  tlnrt    t.  •■•    *.. 
ackru'wItHl^iueiit  «>f  the  right  of  iht    criai  \a^«>*.*    i 
mil  their  iinfierial  fiefs  to  their  i-liiMr>-n  uri:i.   xt.w    ^ 
llenr>'  II.  silently  acknowle^lptl  it  in  evrri  k-i   «t 
but  one  (UMI2-24).     Hut  Mill,  the  pnm^r*  f>  Ca  •  «^ 
to  <li*|Hi*«*  of  th«'  fiefs  on  the  di*ath  ttf  am*  n  -w^^^  . 
pleaMti.  until  I'oiirail  If.  (l(i:M~^Cl«i  ga«r  it  t«>  \m    .- 
— without   any  |Misitive   law.  a«  it   wouid   a(>}««r- 
same  u<«agi'  inu*<>t  pn*\ail   ti>wartl  thmi  ai^'.  axj>.  **   _< 
up  a  claK<*of  friends  t«>  the  im|«*nal  |io« rr  am  <i«:  *  *« 
nf>bilitv.     in    Italy  things  werr  e^rn  wi-r»»   f..r  *•- 
va»»^srtl'« — tile  $yihiiAj»fm  an  the>  Were  twlU^J— u*  *       x 
em|»eror  b\  hi«  con«>t  it  ut  ton,  gn  en  out  U  f ■  r»   V  .aa    , 
\ti  the  VtthaH'**irs  the  n>;lit  «if  tnht  ntaiM^    tri  t* 
trial*  by  their  |*i*rN  *»f  ap|*«*al  to  the  rnij*  r*  e   t  ■    - 
the  coiint«  |ialiitine.  ami  i»f  •rt*uni]i  ■CAit'«-*    t  ■-•         *t 
of  tlef«.  int«»  lea'**'hold  or  ct»p\hol«l  pn  f»rti»-fc— «  —  .  ^ 

'  whirh  he  nmdi'  fnemN  of  the  Mtiailrr  m  b-**^  «i*1  •  • 
arbitrary  |»ower  fn>m  the  larger. 

Fiudali'«m   grew  up  and  *prvail  in  lh»    «i:iT»r*-*    : 
Kun>|N*   amid    !*o   many   dint-rent    tnfiuftn*^.   fa*    - 
ctMintinu'img.  that  \if  minor  dMfr»tti*'«  in  ttwm  9*»-i 
trh*«  wen*  count  li"*.     Thii*  in    Fr»n»**  tfw    i,«  r«  ■     «, 
cialU  tlir  hi>iiie  of  4'uMoniarT  law  i^m/HM««    •  *.    •   •• 
n  taiiie«l  innuenei-«  fn>ni  tin*   Itoman  tirri*-^       ir.  (jv 
ibike  of  Norniamlv.  a  ^afwal  of  tlir    Frrm  h  «  afw«« 
Fn-n*  h  i»»**'M'^'*it»n*,  i*  «upr<'me  ruler  umlrr  t»   •&  i«  •%   • 
thf  land  and  land  I*  nun's  int4i  thr  f«4-ni«  ••;   f.  ^^^ 
i'nden\t.rs  to  miticHte  the  di*inte(jr»tiri/  t«ntS''*  -■* 
"Wtein  anil  to  uphold  the  mal  (Mvwrr  t'%  tn\m*     »  ^g  . 
or  lf««%  drawn  frttui  the  NaxOD  institution,     la   ••«-r 
ele4'te«l  eni^>en*r.  an  intimate  r^ttmn-thm  villi   t.  v    ■ 


'.i 


^   I 


i    -I 


-   '4 


-i 


.1 


■3} 


342 


FEUERBACH 


FEUILLANTS 


learning  the  new  iteienee.  From  this  starting-point  it  was 
propagated  through  Europe.  The  courts  of  tne  suzerains 
inaae  use  of  it,  and  with  tne  more  effect  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  appeals  to  their  courts,  which  had  in  France  at  least 
been  long  disused,  were  revived.  In  this  way  a  code  which 
was  favorable  to  the  growth  of  a  central  power  began  to 
prevail  over  one  unsuited  to  the  times,  and  the  kings  began 
«new  to  be  regarded  as  centers  of  justice.  In  the  next  place, 
the  growth  of  towns  all  over  Europe  in  and  after  the  cru- 
sades was  a  source  of  changes  in  the  political  system.  The 
towns  acquired  privileges  by  especial  charters  granted  by 
their  feudal  lords,  whose  resources  might  in  this  way  be  in- 
creased. As  they  grew  they  became  a  new  power,  which, 
like  the  suzerain*s,  was  naturally  opi>osed  to  the  feudal 
power.  The  kings  aided  them  because  both  were  enemies  of 
the  feudal  nobility,  and  they  in  turn  helped  the  kings.  Their 
self-government,  capital,  and  common  interests  made  the 
towns,  though  isolated,  aware  of  their  strength ;  they  were 
able  to  send  deputies  to  the  estates-general,  parliaments,  or 
cortes  through  which  nations  expressed  their  national  feel- 
ing; they  could  give  assistance  to  the  kings  in  struggles 
against  the  feudal  element  by  their  men  and  money.  Louis 
IX.,  who  died  in  1270,  the  best  sovereign  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
in  his  testament  exhorted  his  son  to  be  mindful  of  the  in- 
terests of  the  '*  good  towns,"  as  if  there  were  a  natural  'alli- 
ance between  them  and  the  sovereign. 

Again,  the  new  modes  of  warfare  had  advantages  over  the 
feudal  military  svstem,  which  was  heavy  in  its  movements 
and  unreliable.  Its  great  strength  lay  in  its  mail-clad  horse- 
men. The  use  of  cross-bowmen,  gunpowder,  guns,  and  can- 
non, and  of  a  population  in  the  towns  or  of  freemen  in  the 
country  who  could  serve  as  hired  soldiers,  changed  the  face 
of  war.  The  battle  of  Crecy,  gained  by  Edward  III.  of  Eng- 
land in  1346,  was  due  to  two  causes — that  a  yeomanry  had 
^p^wn  up  in  England  earlier  than  in  France,  and  that  these 
intrepid  freemen  were  skilled  at  the  cross-bow.  The  battle 
of  Agincourt  (1415)  was  won  by  bill  and  bow,  the  French 
chivalry  literally  sticking  fast  in  the  mud.  to  be  shot  down 
by  the  English  archers.  The  victories  of  Granson  and  Mur- 
ten  or  Morat  (1476)  were  won  by  free  Switzerland  over  the 
troops  of  the  most  feudal  of  princes,  Charles  the  Bold.  What 
is  remarkable  here  is  that  the  superiority  as  it  respects  arms 
lay  on  the  Duke  of  Burgundy's  side,  so  that  guns  alone  were 
not  the  cause  of  the  fall  of  the  feudal  military  svstem.  But 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  use  of  weapons  capable  of  produc- 
ing an  effect  at  a  distance  gave  to  foot-troops,  and  to  those 
who  were  cheaply  equipped,  a  greater  advantage  over  the 
heavy  moving  horsemen  and  the  undisciplined  infantry  of 
feudalism,  and  thus  helped  the  soverei^is  and  others  who 
soonest  availed  themselves  of  the  new  instruments  of  war. 

Underlying  and  acting  with  the  other  causes  of  the  down- 
fall of  feudalism  were  the  more  general  ones  which  indi- 
cated the  progress  of  society.  Intellip^ence  was  spreading  in 
the  middle  class,  but  not  so  much  in  the  higher.  There 
were  men  in  many  towns  who  had  traveled  into  the  East 
and  seen  the  institutions  of  the  nations  in  remote  parts  ; 
there  were  professional  men  who  were  cultivated  in  law  or 
in  medicine  at  the  universities ;  ther^  were  great  merchants 
whose  views  were  enlarged  by  the  intercourse  which  they 
kept  up  with  the  world ;  the  arts  were  beginning  to  refine 
the  dwellers  in  the  towns ;  church  architecture  was  already 
in  its  glory.  It  was  impossible  that  capital,  intelligence, 
the  means  of  9loser  intercourse,  should  not  have  an  effect 
in  modifying  political  forms  which  had  given  power  to 
soldiers  and  land-owners  less  intelligent  and  with  less  avail- 
able capital.  The  feudal  lonls  themselves  in  manv  places 
entered  the  town  and  became  burghers,  thus  confessing  that 
the  center  of  scx'ial  life  was  altered. 

The  feudal  peri(jd,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  passed  away,  leaving  a  multitude  of 
influences  which  will  never  die  out  of  civilization.  It  must 
not  be  despised — it  ouj^ht  to  be  justly  dealt  with — blamed 
and  admired  on  gixwl  grounds.  But  it  is  becoming  in  the 
rapid  progress  of  s<K*iety  more  and  more  strange.  Many  of 
the  institutions  which  sj>rang  up  in  that  institutional  era 
need  to  be  explained,  »us  Roman  and  (xreok  usages  are  ex- 
plained. The  study  of  an  age  now  ancient  alone  can  make 
intelligible  the  origins  of  many  customs  and  laws  that  are 
still  vigorous.  T.  D.  Woolsky. 

Fenerbach,  foiVr-biiaA-h,  Ludwio  Andreas :  philosopher; 
b.  at  Landshut,  Silesia,  July  28.  1804  ;  son  of  Faul  Johann 
Anselm  von  Feuerbach,  the  jurist ;  in  1822  went  to  Ileiilcl- 
l)erg  to  study  theology,  but   removed   in    1824  to  Berlin, 


where,  under  Hegel's  auspices,  he  devoted  himself  exdu- 
sively  to  the  study  of  philosophy.  From  1828  to  IKi-j  h^ 
lectured  at  the  University  of  Erlangen.  but  his  public  <l«*riih! 
of  immortality  made  his  promotion  impossible,  and  ht-  n- 
tired  to  Ansbach,  then  to  the  castle  of  Brucklierg.  Tin 
failure  in  1860  of  a  manufactory  from  which  his  wife  lia*] 
drawn  her  income  led  to  his  going  to  Rochenberg,  ihar 
Nuremberg.  Meanwhile  he  developed  a  great  activit}  m 
literature,  and  wrote  in  German,  besides  numerous  njin«r 
essays  inperiodicals.  Thoughts  on  Death  and  Immorfal't, 
(1830) ;  Hiatory  of  Modem  Philosophy  from  Ba^on  to  Sm- 
fwza  (1833) ;  Criticism  of  the  Philosophy  of  Leihfiiiz  {Xx^l  ; 
Pierre  Bayle  (1838);  Philosophy  and  Christianity  {IM,^. 
The  Essence  of  Christianity  (1841 ;  4th  ed.  1883 ;  Eng.  tnn<. 
by  Marian  Evans  (George  Eliot),  London,  1864 ;  2d  ed,  is**! ; 
Principles  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Future  (1843);  and  7A/ 
Essence  of  Religion  (1845).  D.  at  Rochenberg,  Sept.  i:;. 
1872.  A  national  subscription  was  raised  for  him  snnrt.^ 
before  he  died. 

Ludwig  Feuerbach  is  the  representative  of  the  m<>«lrrr< 
atheism  in  its  German  form.  Uis  polemic  is  often  Im •!<.!•  r- 
ous  and  uncouth,  but  his  positive  views  are  entirely  fn>e  fr-ii. 
that  coarse  or  supercilious  materialism  which  ch'aractcn/i-^ 
the  English  and  French  atheism.  He  dissolves  the  i4l«:a  of 
God  into  that  of  nature  ;  construes  religion  as  the  pnxii."' 
of  a  merely  psychological  process — natural,  perha|>s  n*-^-*-^ 
8ar>',  at  one  stage  of  human  development,  ridiculous  ami  ;i>- 
jurious  at  another.  His  views  on  this  last  point  cinith.i 
manv  deep  and  striking  psychological  ideas,  and  it  is  n  ( 
until  he  approaches  C'hnstianity,  and  begins  to  constnjt  r- 
doctrines  too  as  resulting  from  the  weakness  and  eonfu'^w  \. 
of  the  human  spirit,  that  he  becomes  crude,  and  somitin  '-^ 
even  puerile.  See  his  Life  by  C.  N.  Starcke  (Stuttpiri 
1885). 

Fenerbaeb,  Paul  Johann  Anselm,  von :  jurist  an«l  n- 
former  of  criminal  law ;  b.  at  Jena,  Germany,  Nov,  14,  ITT'i 
educated  at  the  g}'mnasium  at  Frankfort-on-Main  ainl  »' 
the  University  oi  Jena,  where  he  studied  first  phili—  j  !.• 
and  then  law.    His  Critique  of  Natural  Law  {Kntik  '•• 
natHrlichen  Pechts,  1796)  and  his  Anti-IJobbej*  (1T!»N'  .»: 
once  gave  him  prominence  as  a  juristic  thinker,  and  wnn  h 
favorable  reception  for  the  course  of  lectures  which  h»-  n  » 
began  to  deliver  on  criminal  jurisprudence.    The  vit'w^  ^  i 
forth  in  these  lectures  and  elaborated  in  his  Lehrhvct*  •'■'  ■ 
gemeinen,  in  Deutschland geltenden peinlichen  Rechts  { iMii 
14th  ed.  1847)  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  new  Kht-»1  ••' 
jurists  called  Rigorists,  who  maintained  that  the  drc-i^;  v- 
of  judges  should  be  strictly  subordinate  to  the  text  of  ■' 
penal  law  and  never  rendered  at  discretion.    In  the  />* 
ouch  he  was  also  the  first  to  systematically  develop  tli.   u 
timidation  theory  of  punishment,  which  he  had  ppj'vi<n.-  •. 
advanced  in  his  work  on  the  Crime  of  High  Treason  1 1 7:*^ 
The  effect  of  Feuerbach 's  works  was  not  only  to  arou^  .. 
strong  feeling  against  vindictive  punishments,  but  nit  in.  a* 
to  effect  a  reform  of  the  entire  system  of  criminal  jurj-i  r  ■ 
dence.    In  1801  he  was  made  a  professor  at  Jena,  but  lu    .' 
following  year  accepted  a  call  to  Kiel.    In  1805  he  filK-; 
office  in  the  department  of  justice  and  police  at   >lur.- 
and  in  1808  was  appointed  privy  councilor.     Having:  \* 
tracted  the  favorable  notice  oi  the  Bavarian  Govemnit'ist  • 
his  Critioue  of  Kleinschrod^s  Project  of  CriminaJ  Lau  f  - 
Bavaria,  ne  was  commissioned  to  plan  a  new  criminal  <  ««!• 
which  was  promulgated  in  1813,  and  subsequently  taker.  &- 
a  model  for  the  reformation  of  the  penal  codes  of  s«-\»  •  . 
other  countries.     He  published  MerktrHrdige  Krirtn*,r  - 
rechtsfdlle    (1808-11),  and    Betrachtungen   iiber    dit     '. 
schu'omengerichte  (1813),  pointing  out  in  the  latter  ^•••- 
the  defects  of  the  jury  system.    He  wrote  a  nunilier  of  |  a'  r 
otic  pamphlets  in  the  war  of  liberation  1813-14,  and  ir.  ♦  • 
latter  year  was  appointed  second  president  of  the  c<»uri     ' 
appeal  at  Bamberg.    In  1817  he  became  first  presi«l»'!  *  • 
the  court  of  appeal  at  Anspach.    In  1832  he  publi>htN;  :   - 
Crime  against  a  Soul,  presenting  the  first  careful  ana'   -  ^ 
of  the  remarkable  case  of  Kaspar  Hai'ser  {q.  rX      l> 
Frankfort-on-Main,  May  29.  1833,  just  after  having  t».!i'. 
collection  of  his  Kleine  Schriften.    See  Leben  nnd  M  . 
Ansi'lm  von  Feuerbarhs,  by  his  son  Ludwig,  the  nott.sl   j 
losopher  (2  vols.,  1852).  F.  M.  C\.li  h 

Fenlllants,  fo'vaan   Fso  called  from  FeuHlanA.  a  ^  •/  ij 
near  Toulouse  where  their  first  abl)ey  was  situat<>«:l  :  • 
menil>ers  of  certain  conerregations  of' reforme«i  Ci-t-'^ 
monks  and  nuns,    Jean  ue  la  Barriere,  ablmt  of  Fem 
(d.  1600),  began  the  reform  in  1567.    The  reform  m  .^^    -  . 


344 


FEVER 


FEZ 


intermittent  fever,  in  which  the  fever  returns  every  day,  is 
called  quotidian  ;  if  it  return  on  the  third,  fifth,  or  seventh 
day,  and  so  on,  it  is  called  tertian ;  if  on  every  fourth  day 
(1,  4,  7, 10,  etc.),  it  is  called  quartan,  A  fever  lasting  with 
certain  well-marked  symptoms  for  several  days,  then  dis- 
appearing and  returning  after  a  few  days*  intermission,  is 
called  relapsing  fever. 

To  understand  fully  what  occurs  in  fever,  conditions 
would  have  to  be  fulfilled  which  are  either  totally  hidden 
or  obscure,  or  the  realization  of  which  is  surrounded  by 
such  difficulties  that  they  have  become  only  partially  solved. 
Granted  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  anatomical  structure 
of  the  organs  and  the  systems  of  the  body  in  perfect  health ; 
of  their  chemical  composition:  their  relative  and  total 
weight ;  of  the  quantity  and  quality  of  secretions  and  ex- 
cretions; and  testing  the  same  individual  just  emerging 
from  a  fever  in  all  these  respects — the  ultimate  changes 
wrought  by  fever  would  be  apparent. 

To  understand  how  these  changes  have  been  produced  it 
would  be  necessary  to  know  the  quantity  and  chemical  con- 
stitution of  solid  and  liquid  food  consumed  during  the 
fever,  the  alternation  of  the  circulation,  the  air  inspired 
and  expired,  the  quantity  of  force  expended  by  voluntary 
and  involuntary  motion,  the  quantity  and  chemical  compo- 
sition of  all  secretions  and  excretions,  and  finally,  the 
amount  of  animal  heat  generated  during  the  fever.  More- 
over, to  guard  against  any  error  vitiating  the  value  of  these 
facts,  it  would  be  necessary  to  eliminate  all  the  influences 
of  local  diseases,  producing  the  fever  or  being  produced  by 
it.  Moreover,  all  the  above  occurrences  woula  have  to  be 
gathered,  not  as  a  whole,  but  in  parts,  in  regular  intervals, 
some  of  them  if  not  hourly  at  least  twice  a  day,  as  it  is 
known  that  periodical  fluctuations  take  place  in  the  physio- 
logical state  during  the  night  and  day.  Of  all  these  matters 
only  a  very  small  part  has  been  studied  with  such  frec^uency 
and  thoroughness  that  results  have  been  gained  which  are 
beyond  doubt. 

Instead  of  philosophical  speculations  and  the  coining  of  a 
more  or  less  ingenious  hypothesis,  a  true  scientific  method 
of  observation  and  experiment  rules  the  science  of  pathol- 
ogy ;  and  if  no  great  advances  have  been  made  in  clearing  up 
the  pathology  of  fever,  it  is  not  altogether  because  the  ways 
are  unknown,  but  because  the  means  and  time  to  unravel  the 
complex  maze  of  the  febrile  process  are  not  furnished  even  to 
scientific  institutions,  not  to  speak  of  single  individuals. 

What  is  known  with  some  degree  of  certainty  is  this :  that 
the  waste  of  organic  material  is  not  merely  owing  to  a  di- 
minished supply  of  food  or  to  an  imperfect  assimilation,  but 
that  of  all  organic  substances  the  albumen  of  the  body  is 
disproportionatelv  consumed.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  more  than  double  the  quantity  of  urea  is  eliminated 
than  is  normal.  The  quantity  of  urea  can  not  be  increased 
unless  a  corresponding  decomposition  of  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances by  oxidation  takes  place.  Further,  more  carbonic 
acid  gas  is  given  ofif,  partly  by  breathing,  partly  by  insensi- 
ble loss,  than  under  the  same  conditions  in  a  state  of  health. 
The  same  is  true  of  water.  But  neither  of  these  substances 
is  lost  in  so  ^eat  a  proportion  as  urea.  The  coloring-mat- 
ter of  the  urme  is  increased  in  Quantity,  indicating  disinte- 
gration of  the  red  blood-corpuscles  and* of  the  muscles.  The 
urine,  too,  contains  a  much  greater  proportion  of  salts  of 
potash — another  evidence  of  the  waste  of  red  blood-corpuscles 
and  muscles.  The  changes  which  have  been  alluded  to  can 
not  occur  except  by  increased  oxidation,  and  as  oxidation 
is  a  source  of  heat  during  fever  more  heat  is  produced. 
This  increase  of  heat  in  the  body  takes  place  even  during 
the  cold  stage,  and  although  the  outer  parts  are  colder  than 
they  are  normally,  yet  within  the  cavities  of  the  body  by 
use  of  the  thermometer  an  increase  of  heat  is  demonstrated. 

The  incretise  of  heat-production  in  fever  is  compensated 
to  a  certain  extent  by  conduction,  ra<liation,  and  evapora- 
tion from  the  surface,  or  by  all  three  combined ;  but  the  won- 
derful regulation  by  which  the  body  in  the  physiological 
state  keeps  its  temperature  at  about  37'  C.  (98*6"  F.),  con- 
tracting the  blood-vessels  of  the  skin  if  the  surrounding 
medium  is  cold,  and  causing  evaporation  by  sweat  if  the  sur- 
rounding medium  is  hot,  is  materially  perverted  in  fever. 

Limited  and  fragmentary  as  is  the  Knowledge  of  pathol- 
ogy of  fever,  even  less  is  Itnown  of  its  ()rig:in.  It  appears 
clear  that  irritaticm  of  the  peripheral  nerves,  as  of  the  mtes- 
tines  or  of  the  skin,  may  produce  impressions  upon  certain 
parts  of  the  brain  which  result  in  changes  in  the  bodily 
temperatures,  and  it  seems  to  be  proved  that  irritation  or  in- 
jury of  a  definite  region  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  cortex 


of  the  brain  has  a  decided  effect  upon  the  process  of  b<'&t- 

E reduction,  while  psychological  processes  undoubtedly  in- 
uence  it.  Fever  can  also  be  prmuced  experimentally  h\ 
injecting  septic  substances  into  the  blood,  and  ^e<t)ndHn 
fevers  are  probably  generated  in  a  similar  manner,  the  orig- 
inal disease  producing  some  substance  which  contaminatt^ 
the  blood. 

Pathologists  of  the  humoral  school  believed  that  organic 
and  chemical  changes  in  the  blood  are  sufficient  so  to  a]t»r 
the  whole  process  of  nutrition  and  assimilation  that  a  pn- 
eral  disease,  called  fever,  would  result  According  to  th^ir 
views,  the  nervous  system  would  V)e  a  mere  registering  apj>a- 
ratus  for  changes  of  psychological  conditions  without  on^'i- 
nating  or  influencing  them.  The  more  recent  opinion  i< 
that  changes  of  temperature  are  brought  about  largely  ]*y 
the  influence  exerted  upon  portions  of  the  nervous  sy>t''iii 
by  some  irritant — irritants  usually  reaching  these  poiuti;  liv 
way  of  the  blood.  Ijike  other  functions,  that  of  the  yn*- 
duction  of  heat  is  under  regulation  by  the  brain  ami  it.« 
nervous  prolongations.  The  most  important  varieties  i>f 
fever  are  describsd  under  their  several  titles. 

Revised  by  Charles  W.  Di'lles, 

Fever  Bnsh :  a  handsome  shrub  {Benzoin  odoriferum.  «>r 
Lindera  benzoin)  ot  the  family  Lauracece ;  common  in  ih-- 
Northern  U.  S.  Decoctions  of  its  bark  and  leaves  have  U.-*  n 
used  for  aromatic  and  stimulant  drinks  in  low  fevers.  Ii> 
red  spicy  berries  have  afforded  a  poor  substitute  for  alLs]'!***. 
It  is  also  called  spice  bush  and  benjamin-tree. 

Feverfew  [M.  Eng.  fafvrfew  <  0.  Eng.  feferfuge,  f^ur- 
fugia  <  Lat.  fehrifugia^  the  centaury,  \iieT.,9k  febrifuge]:  a 
large  perennial  herb  {Pyrethrum  parfhenium)  of  the  faniih 
Compositcp,  resembling  chamomile,  and  a  native  of  KuPf**. 
spanngly  naturalized  in  the  U.  S.  There  are  some  fine  <  ul- 
tivatea  varieties,  which  are  prized  in  the  flower-gardeiL  h 
was  formerly  much  used  as  a  deobstruent,  tonic,  and  febri- 
fuge. A  related  species  yields  the  so-called  Persian  in.-<-<  t- 
powder. 

Feverwort,  Wild  Ipecac.  Horse  Gentian,  or  Tinker'^ 
Weed;  a  coarse  perennial  herb  of  the  U.  S.,  the  TViW-^"* 
perfoliatum  of  the  family  Caprifoliaee€B,  Its  root  i*  u-«'i 
as  a  cathartic  and  emetic.  It  is  mild  and  usually  saft-.  A 
smaller  species,  Triosteum  angustifolium,  grows  in  rh^* 
Southern  U.  S. 

Few,  William:  U.  S.  Senator;  b.  in  Baltimore  co..  Ml., 
June  8,  1748;  removed  in  1758  to  Orange  co.,  N.  C,  and  t^ 
Georgia  in  1776.  He  was  chosen  to  the  State  conventi4»n  \v 
form  a  constitution,  as  also  to  the  assemblv,  and  made  or.r 
of  the  council.  With  the  rank  of  colonel  fie  served  in  th* 
war  of  the  Revolution ;  in  1778  he  became  surveyor-gt-nernL 
and  also  presiding  judge  of  the  Richmond  Count  v  cc>urt. 
From  Jan.,  1780,  to  1783  he  was  delegate  to  the  old  ( or- 
gress,  and  also  in  1786;  a  member  of  the  national  tHm^-tif.- 
tional  convention  in  1787,  and  of  those  of  the  Stale  '»r 
Georgia  in  1796  and  1798 ;  U.  S.  Senator  from  Georgia  17*^'.*- 
93,  and  then  three  years  on  the  bench.  He  remove*!  to  >%•▼ 
York  in  1799,  and  was  afterward  in  the  State  Legislaturj. 
commissioner  of  loans,  and  mayor  of  the  city.  D.  at  Fi^*.- 
kill,  N.  Y.,  July  16, 1828. 

Feyen,  fo'i-tfan,  Eug&ng:  genre-painter;  b.  at  Bey-i^iir- 

Seille,  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  France,  Nov.  13,  1815.  P\ipil  *' 
Paul  Delaroche;  second-class  medal,  Salon,  1880:  thirrj- 
class,  Paris  Exposition,  1889;  Legion  of  Honor  1881.  H  - 
pictures  of  fisher-folk  are  meritorious,  notable  for  <lpli.H:.' 
color.    Studio  in  Paris.  W.  A.  ('. 

Feyen-Perrln,  -pffrrfin',  Francois  Nicholas  ArorsiiN 
genre-painter;  b.  at  Bey-sur-Seille,  Meurthe-et-M<»^«  !.♦. 
?>ance,  1829.  Pupil  of  Yvon  and  L6on  Cogniet :  m»'«i.-»  - 
Salons,  1865  and  1874 ;  Legion  of  Honor  1878.  He  p  n^r- 
ally  painted  pictures  of  fisher-life,  and  though  his  pi(T:in-> 
are  not  without  good  technical  qualities,  they  are  wi»jik!i 
sentimental  in  expression.  Return  of  Fisher^girls  at  r-jn- 
ca^e  (1874)  is  in  the  Luxembourg  Gallery,  Paris.  I),  in  Pan^. 
Oct.  14,  1888.  W.  A.  C. 

Fez:  chief  city  of  Morocco  and  residence  of  the  sultarj. 
160  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Tangier,  with  which  it  is  connected  \  i 
only  a  bridle-path  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  1-BJ.  It  i*  .■ 
beautiful  and  picturesque  city  from  without,  but  fi!' '^ 
within.  It  is  the  commercial  center  of  the  country  and  ».. 
jacent  desert,  and  has  important  manufactures  of  silk,  w<*  . 
and  leather.  There  are  sulphur  baths  in  the  vicinity.  1* 
was  built  probably  in  793,  and  was  long  the  capital  of  t'- 
Mohammedan  states  of  West  Africa.    The  Moors  consid*.  r.  i-. 


346 


FIBER 


single  cells  of  brilliant  luster  and  a  yellowish-bro¥ni  color. 
It  can  not  be  spun  except  when  mixed  with  cotton  or  other 
fibers,  which  it  can  in  no  way  improve. 

Vegetable  Silk. — Under  this  name  are  grouped  the  fibers 
which  grow  on  the  seeds  of  many  milkweeds  {Aaclepia- 
dtieeoe  and  the  like).  The  remarkable  fineness  and  luster  of 
these  fibers  have  led  to  many  futile  attempts  to  employ 
them,  either  alone  or  with  cotton.  The  fiber  is  so  weak 
and  brittle  that  it  would  be  useless  for  weaving  even  if  it 
could  be  spun.  A  species  of  Beaumoniia  in  India  yields  a 
vegetable  silk  of  greater  strength  and  almost  pure  white- 
ness.   It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  flowers. 

Fibro -vascular  Bufidles  of  Monoeotyledonous  Plants. — 
New  Zecdand  Flax. — This  fiber  is  obtained  from  Phormium 
tenaXf  now  extensively  cultivate  in  New  South  Wales. 
The  leaves  yield  22  per  cent,  of  merchantable  fiber.  The 
fiber  is  yellowish,  and  composed  of  bast-cells  mixed  with 
ducts  and  cambium-cells.  The  bast-cells  are  0'008-0-0189 
mm.  broad,  and  2*7-5'65  mm.  long.  These  form  the  raw 
fiber,  which  often  exceeds  a  meter  in  length.  New  Zealand 
flax  is  fitted  for  cordage  by  its  strength  and  resistance  to 
the  action  of  water  and  the  atmosphere.  According  to  La- 
billardiere,  the  absolute  strengths  of  the  New  Zealand  fiax, 
hemp,  and  flax  are  in  the  ratio  of  60  :  48  :  34*5 ;  silk  =  100. 

AioS  Fiber. — This  is  obtained  from  tropical  species  of 
Aloi.  The  fiber  is  white,  of  brilliant  luster,  and  of  nearly 
the  same  thickness  throughout  its  great  length-  of  20-50 
cm.  It  is  made  up  chiefly  of  bast-cells  l'3-43'72  mm.  long, 
which  do  not  readily  separate  from  the  bundle.  The  fibera 
are  used  in  the  rough  state  for  cordage.  The  finest  aloe 
fibers  are  spun  and  woven  for  fine-  muslins. 

Manilla  Hemp. — This  fiber,  known  also  in  commerce 
under  the  names  plantain  fiber,  Siam  hemp,  Menado  hemp, 
and  white  rope,  is  obtained  from  the  clasping  leaf-stalks  of 
Musa  textilis  of  the  Philippine  islands.  The  fibers  of  other 
species  of  Musa  have  been  employed,  notably  the  plantain 
and  banana.  The  outer  parts  yield  coarse  fibers  7  meters 
long — the  inner,  finer,  about  2  meters.  The  fiber  consists 
chiefly  of  bast-cells  2*7  mm.  long  and  *029  mm.  thick.  Ma- 
nilla hemp  is  used  for  cordage. 

Agave  fiber ^  from  Agave  amerieana,  now  cultivated  in 
many  warm  climates,  is  less  tough  and  flexible  than  Manilla 
hemp.  It  is  extremely  light,  aod  is  capable  of  extensive 
use  in  rigging,  but  it  has  been  more  employed  as  an  addition 
to  bristles  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes.  "  Sisal  hemp  " 
is  the  commercial  name  of  the  fiber  of  Agai^e  rigida. 

Cocoanut  fiber,  from  species  of  CocoSy  a  tropical  palm, 
is  known  in  commerce  under  the  name  coir.  It  consists 
of  the  fibro-vascular  bundles  of  the  husk  of  the  fruit.  It 
is  reddish-brown  in  color,  very  strong,  and  withstands  the 
action  of  water  for  a  long  time.  It  is  regarded  by  Grothe 
as  the  lightest  of  all  fibers  which  can  be  used  for  making 
cordage.  The  raw  fiber  is  15-33  cm.  thick,  and  consists 
of  many  structural  elements.  The  bast-cells  are  the  most  im- 
portant. These  are  from  half  a  millimeter  to  a  millimeter 
in  length,  and  0*016  mm.  broad.  The  walls  are  unequally 
thickened.  Coir  is  one  of  the  most  important  vegetable 
fibers  of  the  tropics.  It  is  used  for  twine,  cordage,  tapestry, 
brushes,  coarse  paint-brushes,  and  even  machine-belting. 

Pineapple  Fiber. — The  fibers  of  the  leaves  of  several 
species  of  Bromelia  are  employed  for  textile  purposes. 
Bromelia  karatas,  of  South  America,  yields  a  whitish,  glis- 
tening fiber  which  resembles  Manilla  hemp,  but  is  coarser, 
weaker,  and  less  flexible.  The  flbers  are  cylindrical  and 
about  a  meter  in  length,  seldom  exceeding  1*2  mm.  in  thick- 
ness. Its  constituents  are  chiefly  thin-walled  bast-cells, 
with  a  few  spiral  vessels.  When  carefully  prepared  the 
finest  fibers  can  be  used  for  delicate  fabrics. 

Basf-fihers  from  Dicotyledonous  Plants. — These  are  the 
inner  layer  of  the  bark.  They  are  long,  flexible  cells,  with 
thick  walls,  aggregated  with  parenchyma  in  bundles  or 
bands  which  are  scp)arated  by  very  narrow  (or  in  some  cases 
wide)  medullary  rays. 

Flax. — This  is  the  bast-fiber  of  species  of  Linum.  chiefly 
L.  usitatissimum,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties.  The 
separation  of  the  biist-ftbers  of  flax,  hemp,  etc.,  from  their 
contiguous  tisv^ues  involves  mechanical  and  chemical  ma- 
nipulations which  are  elsewhere  described  in  detail.  The 
stems  are  first  subjected  in  mass  to  the  action  of  water, 
either  cold  or  warm.  A  kind  of  fermentation  ensues,  after 
which  the  bast-fibers  can  be  separated  from  the  sun'ound- 
ing  tissues  by  mechanical  means.  The  proc^esses  are  known 
as  "  retting  "  and  "  scutching."  The  best  results  have  been 
reached  by  what  is  known  as  warm-water  rotting,  followed 


Fxo.  2.— Bast-oells  of  flax  (170  diam.). 


by  the  use  of  a  heckling  machine,  from  which,  according  to 
the  quality  of  the  flax-plant,  15-20  per  cent,  of  pure  flai 
has  been  obtained.    The  length  of  fiax  fibers  thus  separated 
varies  from  a  fifth  of  a  meter  to  a  meter  and  two-fift  li> ; 
their  width  varies  from  0*045-0*620  mm.    The  fibers  arc 
made  up  of  regular  cylindrical  cells  which  taper  toward 
the  ends.    The  caliber  of  the  cells  is  very  minut<».  and  is 
often  reduced  so  that  it  appears  a  mere  dark  line.     Th«' 
cells  are  2-4  cm.  long  and  from  0*015-0*017  mm.  broinl. 
Here  and  there   minute  canals  are  to  be  detec*te<l  in  the 
walls,  and  by  crushing  the  cell-wall  exhibits  spiral  mark- 
ings.    The  micro- 
scopic   appearance 
of  fresh  fiax  bast- 
cells    differs    from 
that    presented   by 
manufactured  fiber. 
The  thickening  lay- 
ers of  the  cell-wall 
are    more    or    less 
broken,  and  the  cells 
are    covered    with 
dark     lines    which 
are  nearly  parallel 
to  each  other,  and 
generally  run  in  the 
direction     of     the 
len^h  of  the  cell. 
This  appearance  is 
seen  under  a  mag- 
nifying   power    of 
200-300  diameters. 

The  best  fiax  fiber  is  whitish,  and  this  absence  of  coli)r  i? 
secured  by  the'best  methods  of  preparation.  Much  i»f  th^ 
Belgian  fiax  is  steel-gray,  and  that  of  Egypt  is  grayish  yel- 
low. Flax  has  a  delicate  silky  luster,  Ihe  total  abj^ne 
of  any  luster  is  an  indication  that  the  bast-cells  have  nnt 
been  wholly  freed  from  surrounding  tissues.  Irish,  Belgian, 
and  Italian  fiax  is  regarded  finest.  The  Irish  fiber  is  wrs 
fine,  soft  to  the  touch,  and  strong.  Many  Belgian  varit-n--'^ 
are  nearly  as  fine  as  the  Irish,  and  exceed  it  in  length.  The 
longest  fiber  comes  from  Egypt.  It  is  coarse  ana  hanl  u* 
bleach,  but  very  strong.  The  use  of  flax  in  the  manufacture 
of  linen  threaa  and  linen  fabrics  can  be  traced  further  bark 
than  that  of  any  other  textile  vegetable  flber.  It  is  >pi.u 
before  bleaching. 

Hemp. — This  flber  consists  of  the  bast-cells  of  Can  «'/'»> 
saliva^  a  plant  of  the  nettle  family.  Hemp  fiber  is  gvrur- 
ally  longer  than  flax  flber,  sometimes  reaching  a  length  of 
1  or  2  meters,  or 
even  more.  Whit- 
ish and  grayish 
fibers  are  best, 
the  greenish  come 
next,  and  lastly 
come  the  yellow- 
ish. Hemp  fiber, 
even  when  finest, 
contains  a  mixture 
of  parenchyma 
with  the  bast-cells. 
The  latter  are  not 
so  regular  as  those 
of  fiax.  The  walls 
are  not  always 
equally  thick,  but 
they  are  in  gener- 
al strongly  thick- 
ened, and  exhibit 
the  canals  which 

have  been  described  under  Flax.    The  air-space  in  the  ** 
equals  one-third  of  the  whole  breadth  of  the  cell.     Wie^'i.-' 
has  shown  that  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  cupric  t>x:  :• 
serves  for  the  discrimination  of  hemp  from  flax.    Undc  r  t  : 
influence  of  this  agent  the  inner  layer  separates  and  bei-^'fi  -.^ 
much  crumpled,  while  the  outer  portion  of  the  cell- wall  i«.  - 
comes  swollen  and  exhibits  a  flne  parallel  marking.     Fl.i\ 
and  cotton  l)ecome  blue  by  the  action  of  iodine  solut'  ;. 
and  sulphuric  acid,  but  hemp  turns  somewhat   gret^ni-!. 
The  finest  hemp  is  Bolo^ese,  but  by  far  the  largest  am*  w.r 
comes  from  Russia.    It  is  not  so  fine  as  the  hemp  from  Prus- 
sia or  Austria.    The  hemp  produced  near  Strassburg  is  u^  : 
for  spinning.    Hemp  is  chiefiy  used  for  fine  and  coarse  in  .pi 
age. 


Fio.  8.— Bast-cells  of  hemp  ( 173  diam.  i 


r. 


348 


FIBRIN 


PICHTE 


Yellow  to  brown:  raw  jute;  raw  esparto;  bromelia;  alog 
and  Xew  Zealand  flax. 

B.  Ammoniaeal  solution  of  cupric  oxide,  1.  Dissolves  the 
cellulose:  cotton,  the  cuticufar  layer  remaining;  cotton ized 
china-grass  and  ramie;  raw  flax;  hemp;  sunn.  2.  Colors 
the  fiber  blue,  and  causes  it  to  swell  up :  raw  jute ;  New  Zea- 
land flax ;  aloe ;  bromelia.  3.  Simply  colors  the  fibers :  veg- 
etable silk,  blue ;  esparto,  green. 

C.  Sulphate  of  aniline.  Almost  without  effect  on  cotton, 
raw  and  cottonized  china-grass  and  ramie;  raw  flax  and 
New  Zealand  flax.  Produces  change  of  color  in  raw  jute 
(gold  yellow),  raw  hemp  (light  yellow),  esparto  (bright  yellow), 
aloe  and  bromelia  (js^old  yellow). 

Microscopical  Discrimination  of  Fibers  as  used, — Fibers 
of  a  single  cell :  cotton,  vegetable  silk,  bombax  wool  (plant- 
hairs),  cottonized  ramie  and  china-grass  (isolated  bast-cells). 
Groups  of  cells  chiefly  bast :  raw  jute,  flax,  alo6.  Groups  of 
cells  chiefly  bast,  with  traces  of  parenchyma  of  the  bast : 
raw  sida,  abelmoschus,  and  hemp.  Groups  of  bast-cells 
mixed  with  ducts ;  New  Zealand  flax,  Manilla  hemp,  es- 
parto, coir.  E.  M.  SCHAEFFER. 

Fi'brln  [from  YT.fihrine^  deriv.  of  fibre  <  Lat. ^&ra,  fiber] : 
an  organic  substance  formed  from  the  blood  and  lymph. 
From  the  former  it  is  obtained  in  the  proportion  of  two  or 
three  parts  per  thousand ;  in  the  latter  m  smaller  quantity. 
Fibrin  itself  does  not  exist  in  the  blood,  but  certain  elements 
which  together  make  fibrin  do.  These  "  fibrin  factors  "  are 
increased  in  infiammatory  conditions,  and  therefore  the 
blood  clots  easily — a  blooa  clot  being  largely  fibrin.  (See 
Coagulation.)  In  wasting  conditions  fibrin  factors  are  de- 
creased, and  clotting  is  slow. 

Fibrin  may  be  extracted  from  freshly  drawn  blood  by 
whipping  it  with  a  bundle  of  twigs,  to  which,  as  it  coagu- 
lates, it  adheres.  After  washing,  the  coagulum  presents  a 
white,  tough  appearance,  and  upon  placing  it  under  the 
microscope  it  is  found  to  consist  of  colorless  and  elastic  fila- 
ments of  considerable  length,  crossing  eac?h  other  in  every 
direction,  so  as  to  form  an  irregular  network.  Within  a  few 
minutes  after  blood  has  been  taken  from  the  body  it  com- 
mences to  lose  its  fluid  condition,  gradually  becoming  more 
and  more  solid  until  it«  coagulation  is  complete.  It  is  then 
said  t-o  be  clotted.  The  blood  clots  in  the  interior  of  the 
body  after  death ;  also  during  life  when  effused  into  the  tis- 
sues, and  also  in  a  blood-vessel  itself  when  a  ligature  is  placed 
around  it.  This  change  depends  wholly  upon  the  presence 
of  fibrin,  for  after  its  withdrawal  the  blood  remams  fluid 
indefinitely.  With  regard  to  the  exact  nature  of  coagulation 
there  are  many  theories,  but  nothing  is  definitely  known. 

This  clotting  of  the  blood  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in 
the  preservation  of  life.  When  a  blood-vessel  is  wounded 
or  cut  across,  the  fibrin  of  the  blood  which  is  poured  out 
coagulates  upon  the  edges  of  the  vessel,  forming  a  plug,  so 
that  no  more  blood  can  escape.  If  it  were  not  for  this  spon- 
taneous coagulation,  it  would  be  impossible  ever  to  arrest 
hapmorrhage.    See  Blood.     Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Fibrons  Tissues :  a  name  applied  to  a  group  of  the  con- 
nective tissues,  and  of  great  importance  as  structural  ele- 
ments. They  are  generally  assigned  to  two  groups — the 
white  and  the  yellow  fibrous  tissues,  the  former  found  in 
tendons,  f asciie,  and  other  unyielding  parts,  the  latter  elastic 
and  found  in  many  or^ns,  notably  in  the  middle  coat  of 
the  arteries.  Fibrous  tissues,  though  so  important  to  ani- 
mal life,  always  play  a  merely  mechanical  part.  Sparingly 
supplied  with  blood-vessels  and  nerves,  they  are  not  highly 
vitalized  and  have  no  active  functions.  They  are  composed 
of  an  albuminoid  substance,  which  is  changed  into  gelatin 
by  boiling.  Microscopically,  fibrous  tissue  consists  of  a 
more  or  less  dense  or  loose  mesh  of  fibers  with  here  and 
there  a  cell,  the  latter  being  of  various  shapes,  sometimes 
round,  again  spindle-shaped,  or  in  other  cases  star-shaped 
or  stellate.  White  fibrous  tissue  exists  also  in  many  neo- 
plasms, constituting  fibromata  or  fibroid  tumors. 

Revised  by  Willlam  Pepper. 

FIbro-Tascalar  Bandies :  See  Fiber. 

FiVala  [=Lat.^'frM/a, clasp, bucklcfor  *fimbula,*fi(jui'- 
hula^  deriv.  oifigere^  fix,  fasten] :  in  the  vertebrate  skeleton, 
the  outer  of  the  two  bones  of  the  leg  between  the  knee  and 
the  ankle,  the  inner  bone  being  the  tibia.  In  man  the  fib- 
ula is  much  smaller  than  the  tibia,  and  does  not  (juite  reach 
the  knee-joint.  Its  upper  extremity  is  the  styloid  process; 
its  lower,  the  outer  malleolus.  It  is  developed  from  three 
centers,  and  is  regarded  a£  the  homologue  of  the  radius  in 
the  upper  extremity. 


Flehet,  fe^'sha',  Guillaume  :  educator ;  b.  at  Aunay,  near 
Paris,  France,  early  in  the  fifteenth  century ;  was  in  1467 
rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  teaching  at  the  same  time 
rhetoric,  theology,  and  philosophy,  lie  was  emploved  bj 
Louis  XI.  in  making  peace  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  anil 
was  the  patron  by  whose  influence  the  first  printing'-pr\5« 
was  brought  from  Grermany  and  set  up  in  the  Sorbonne  at 
Paris.  *  Among  the  flrst  books  printea  in  France  were  bis 
Rhetoricorum  Lihri  tres  (probaoly  1470)  and  Episfola^,  in 
Parisionim  Sorbona  (1471).  Ficnet  afterward  neld  ciffitT 
at  the  papal  court  of  Sixtus  IV.  The  date  of  his  deat  b  i» 
unknown. 

Flehte,  fieh't<e,  Immanuel  Hermann,  von :  son  of  the  gnat 
Fichte;  b.  at  Jena,  July  18, 1797,  and  educated  at  Bc^rliii, 
where  he  studied  philologv.  He  was  early  attracted  to  phi- 
losophy, however,  especially  by  the  ideas  of  his  father,  and 
maae  a  comprehensive  study  of  its  history.  He  ah«o  heard 
Hegel's  lectures,  but  he  is  said  to  have  felt  rather  disgusted 
at  them,  and  in  his  own  philosophical  writing  the  oppf>^i- 
tion  to  Hegel  is  often  sharp  and  pointed.  He  8{)ent  the 
earlier  part  of  his  life  as  a  teacher.  In  1836  he  was  af*- 
pointed  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  the  University  of  Bonn, 
and  from  1842  to  1863  occupiea  the  same  office  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen.  In  1863  he  retired  to  private  life  in 
Stuttgart.  His  literary  activity  was  very  comprehensive 
and  very  prolific.  The  most  important  of  his  works  are 
System  der  Ethik  (1850-53);  Anthropologies  neiibegrundti 
auf  naturwissenschaftlichen  Wege  (1860);  and  Pssychologif 
als  Lehre  vom  beumssten  Oeiste  des  Jfenschen  (1864).  One  <  *f 
the  most  interesting  of  his  many  essays  and  speeches  is  that 
with  which  he  opened  a  meeting  of  philosophers  at  Gotha  in 
1847,  On  the  Philosophy  of  the  Future,  He  also  wrote  on 
politics,  Grundzuge  zur  Enfwickelung  der  kunftigen  drttt- 
sch^n  Reichsverfassung  (1848),  and  on  theology,  ]6ie  specu- 
lative Theologie  (1846).  I.  H.  v.  Fichte  taught  that  the  world 
was  created  by  God ;  he  became  a  convert  to  Spirituali:km. 
In  1867  he  was  ennobled.    D.  in  Stuttgart,  Aug.  8, 1879. 

Fichte,  JoHANN  Gottlieb  :  the  second  of  the  four  great^^ 
philosophers  of  Germany ;  b.  at  Rammenau,  in  Upper  Lu> 
satia.  May  19,  1762.  He  was  of  Swedish  descent,  and  his 
father  was  a  ribbon-weaver.  In  his  earliest  youth  he  ex- 
hibited the  moral  characteristics  that  appeared  subsequent! ▼ 
in  the  stern  outlines  of  his  philosophic  system.  \^  rien  he 
was  in  his  ninth  year  his  excellent  memory  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  Baron  von  Miltitz,  who  interesteti  hims«^lf  in 
his  education,  and  placed  him  successivelv  in  the  family  of  a 
clergyman  at  Niederau,  at  the  town-school  of  Meissen,  and  at 
the  Princes'  School  of  Pforta  (1774-80).  At  the  latter  plat-^ 
he  became  acquainted  with  the  writing  of  Goethe,  Wielamt 
and  Lessing.  The  latter  writer  exercised  an  overpowerin*: 
infiuence  on  his  mode  of  thinking  and  his  literary  style.  H»" 
studied  theology  at  Jena  and  Leipzig,  and  be^an  to"  gnipr»> 
with  the  problems  that  form  the  center  of  his  phiI<)Si»[tnic 
system — those  of  free  will  and  necessity.  At  tnis  tinit*  he 
studied  the  systems  of  Spinoza  and  Wolff,  and  adoptixl  a 
fatalistic  view  of  life.  While  acting  SiS  family  tutor  m 
Zurich  (1790)  he  made  the  acauaintance  of  Johcinna  Halm, 
niece  of  the  poet  Klopstock,  whom  he  subsequent Iv  marrie«L 
Returning  to  Leipzig  in  1790,  he  began  the  study  ot  the  Kan- 
tian critiques,  which  had  been  published,  the  critique  of  Purt 
Reasoth  in  1781,  of  Practical  Reason  in  1788,  and  that  of  the 
Judgment  in  1790.  He  now  found  a  new  world,  and  bepin 
to  live  a  higher  life.  He  saw  free  will  to  be  the  highest  prin- 
ciple, and  his  fatalistic  theories  crumbled  away  at  once.  He 
visited  Kant,  and  presented  as  his  letter  of  introduction  thf 
manuscript  of  a  Critique  of  all  Revelation^  a  work  ci>m{i»t?*Hi 
in  five  days.  It  won  him  Kant's  respect  and  esteem,  and  <^n 
its  anonymous  publication  was  taken  for  an  original  work 
of  Kant  by  the  pnilosophic  public.  Fichte.  being  annonnced 
as  its  author,  found  himself  at  once  in  the  foremost  rank  of 
philosophers.  After  his  marria^  in  1793  he  publislied  a 
work  in  which  he  attempted  to  ]ustifv  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  by  this  brought  upon  himseli  the  suspicion  of  xhv 
German  governments.  Nevertheless,  in  1794  he  was  calKxi 
to  the  chair  of  Philosophy  in  Jena,  to  succeed  Reinhold.  and 
there  came  into  personal  contact  with  Goethe,  Schiller.  W in- 
land. Herder,  Humboldt,  and  Jacobi,  and  carried  on  an  ex- 
tensive correspondence  with  Reinhold,  Schelling,  Tie^^k, 
Novalis,  and  the  Schlegels.  Fichte  here  elaborated  the  great 
central  work  of  his  system,  in  which  he  attempted  to  detnoa- 
strate  the  basis  of  the  Kantian  system  by  an  Analysis  o^ 
Consciousness.  Kant  had  borrowed  his  categories  from  th» 
trailitions  of  formal  logic,  and  thus,  while  he  combated  «log- 


350 


KICK 


FICTION 


infl^  them  with  a  more  or  less  complete  commentary.  Be- 
sides these,  he  made  trai^slations  of  many  of  the  works  of 
Proclus,  Jamblichus,  Porphyry,  Dionysius  Areopagita, 
Hermes  Trismegistus,  Alcmous,  Speusippus,  and  Xenoc- 
rates.  His  translations  are  still  of  some  value  in  restoring 
the  original  text,  as  it  seems  that  he  had  before  him  manu- 
scripts now  lost.  His  Latin  is  pure  and  perspicuous.  His 
work  on  the  Platonic  theology  (18  volumes ;  1482)  treats  of 
the  nature  of  the  soul,  of  spirits,  and  of  6o<l.  It  is  espe- 
cially devoted  to  the  proofs  of  immortality  and  the  refuta- 
tion of  the  Averroistic  doctrine  of  the  World-Soul  or 
Mundane  Intelligence,  which  makes  the  latter  to  be  im- 
mortal and  the  particular  soul  to  be  perishable,  being  cog- 
nizant of  universals  only  through  participation  in  the 
higher  intellieence.  The  most  important  feature  of  the 
philosophy  of  Ficino  is  his  claim  to  harmonize  Platonic 
idealism  with  Christrian  doctrine.  This  gave  rise  subse- 
quentlv  to  a  school  of  mystics  which  numbers  Pico  of 
Mirandola,  Reuchlin,  Agrippa  of  Nettesheim,  Patritius, 
Telesius,  Ramus,  and  others.  The  supposed  connection  of 
Neoplatonism  with  Jewish  mysticism  through  the  Cabbala, 
and  the  discovery  of  a  profound  esoteric  doctrine  beneath 
the  letter  of  the  Bible,  stimulated  the  enthusiasm  of  its 
votaries.  Freedom  in  philosophv  begins  with  the  conflict 
of  authorities,  as  Gibbon  remarks.  The  conflict  between 
the  schools  of  Platonism  and  Aristotelianism  at  that  time 
prepared  the  way  for  the  original  thinking  of  the  following 
centuries.  Ficino,  with  Bessarion  before  him  and  Pico 
after  him,  stands  opposed  to  Pomponatius,  the  reviver  of 
Alexandrian  Peripateticism.  The  collected  works  of  Ficino 
(not  including  the  translations  of  Plato  and  Plotinus)  were 
published  at  Basel  in  2  vols.  (1561-76) ;  revised  with  addi- 
tions, 2  vols.,  Paris  (1641).  Cf.  J.  A.  Symonds,  The  Renais- 
sance in  Italy  (u.,  p.  324  ft,).  W.  T.  Harris. 

Revised  by  Alfred  Gudeman. 

FIck,  Adolf  Euoen,  M.  D.  :  physiologist ;  b.  Sept.  3, 1829, 
in  Cassel ;  educated  at  Universities  of  Marburg  and  Berlin ; 
tutor  and  professor  Universitv  of  Zilrich,  1852^^2 ;  Profess- 
or (extraordinary)  of  Physiology  University  of  WUrzburg, 
1862-68,  full  professor  since  1868.  Author  of  Lehrbuch  der 
medizinischen  Physik  (3d  ed.  1885) ;  Anatomie  und  Phyai- 
ologie  der  SimieHwerkzeuge  (1864) ;  Compendium  der  Physi- 
olo^ie  (4th  ed.  1891);  mechanische  Aroeit  und  Warmeen- 
twickelung  hei  der  Muskelthdtigkeit  (1882) ;  has  contributed 
papers  to  the  leading  German  scientiflc  journals. 

FIck,  August  :  philologist ;  b.  at  Petershagen,  near 
Minden,  Germany,  May  5, 1833 ;  studied  philology  at  G6t- 
tingen,  and  remained  there  as  teacher  in  the  gymnasium, 
and  later  as  professor  in  the  universitv,  till  188^,  when  he 
became  professor  in  the  University  of  Breslau.  His  most 
important  work  is  WOrterbiich  der  itidogermanischen  Orund- 
soroche  (1868),  which  whs  republislied  (1870)  as  Vergleichen- 
aes  Worierhich  der  indogermanischen  Sprachen  (4th  ed. 
1891-93).  He  has  also  published  Die  Hotnerischs  Odyssee 
in  ihrer  ursprunglichen  Sprachform  wiederhergesfellt  (1883), 
a  similar  edition  of  the  Iliad  (1885),  and  the  poems  of 
Hesiod  (1887).  His  works,  generally  marked  by  independ- 
ence and  originality,  are  always  rich  in  valuable  suggestion 
even  when  the  main  thesis  fails  to  carry  conviction. 

Fiction  [from  Fr.  fiction  <  Lat.  ficfio^  a  shaping,  mak- 
ing, pretending,  deriv.  of  fifi'gere,  shape,  feign  (whence 
figu'ra)] :  in  law,  in  its  ordinary  meaning,  an  assumption 
that  a  thing  is  true  which  is  either  not  true  or  which  is 
as  probably  false  as  true.  Best,  an  author  on  Presump- 
tions, distinguishes  it  from  a  presumption,  a  mere  rule  of 
law  established  for  the  purpose  of  reaching  a  certain  con- 
clusion, though  it  may  be  arbitrary,  which  is  based  on 
public  convenience  or  on  the  difficulty  of  arriving  at  the 
exact  truth.  Thus  the  rule  that  a  child  under  seven  years 
of  age  can  not  commit  a  felonious  crime  is  a  conclusive 
presumption,  rather  than  a  fiction.  Some  writers — as, 
e.  g.,  Maine  (see  his  work  on  Ancient  Law) — use  the  word 
"  fiction "  in  a  broader  sense,  to  signify  any  assumption 
which  conceals,  or  affects  to  conceal,  the  fact  that  a  rule 
of  law  has  undergone  alteration,  its  letter  remaining  un- 
changed while  its  operation  is  being  modified.  From  this 
point  of  view  fiction  is  a  powerful  agency  in  the  improve- 
ment of  law.  By  means  oi  it  new  views*  more  adapted  to 
the  age  are  introduced  under  color  of  observance  of  ancient 
forms.  The  agencies  causing  the  progress  of  jurisprudence 
are  fiction,  equity,  and  legislation.  Among  these  fiction 
has  played  no  unimportant  part.  In  some  instances  courts 
have  even,  by  means  of  it,  subverted  the  will  of  the  legisla- 


ture. A  striking  instance  of  this  intentional  employment 
of  fiction  is  found  in  the  early  English  statute  of  entail- 
ments. The  history  of  this  subject  is  so  illustrative  that  it 
will  be  stated  with  some  fullness.  It  is  a  well-known  rule 
of  English  common  law  that  a  conveyance  of  land  **to  A 
and  his  heirs'**  gives  him  the  complete  ownership  aini 
power  of  disposal  of  the  property.  If,  however,  the  wnrti* 
"  heirs  of  the  body  "  were  usea,  instead  of  "  heirs,"  the  effiN  t 
would  be  different.  Such  language  points  only  to  descend- 
ants ;  and  as  there  might  be  none,  the  estate  was  deemoil  t<> 
be  a  conditional  one.  If  "heirs  of  the  body  "  should  (t>riir 
into  existence,  the  condition  on  which  the  estate  was  gi^o 
was  deemed  to  be  performed,  and  the  title  of  A  for  cvrtHii. 
purposes  became  absolute.  For  example,  he  could  sc»ll,  ana 
thus  cut  off  all  claim  on  the  part  of  his  descendants,  or  \u 
could  forfeit  the  property  by  his  treason,  or  eneuml>er  it  h\ 
his  voluntary  act.  If  none  of  these  acts  were  done,  ihf 
estate  would  pass  to  surviving  heirs  of  the  body,  and  if 
there  were  no  such  persons,  would  revert  to  the  original 
grantor. 

The  English  landed  proprietors  being  dissatisfied  wit} 
this  result,  through  their  influence  in  Parliament  cause<l  a 
statute  to  be  passed  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  (13  Eiiw.  L. 
c.  1)  which  was  designed  to  prevent  it,  and  to  vot  tl.r 
ownership  in  A  in  the  case  supposed,  and  at  the  same  iiiw*- 
deny  to  him  the  power  to  sell  or  to  encumber  the  pn»{K^rtT 
The  intention  was  that  he  should  use  it  as  owner,  fell  ti>-^. 
mine,  and  do  other  proprietary  acts  while  at  the  same  tini'- 
the  property  should  descend  according  to  the  line  prei<Til««i 
in  the  terms  of  the  ^ift.  From  this  violation  of  a  caniina. 
rule  of  ownership  mischievous  consequences  soon  develo|»^i 
themselves.  Creditors  and  purchases  were  def  randeil ,  U-v-^t^ 
were  deprived  of  their  leases,  for  the  tenant  in  jK*sse*>'.i.r. 
could  make  no  deed,  mortgage,  or  lease  which  should  m/- 
last  his  own  Hfe,  though  he  appeared  to  all  observere  to  U- 
the  owner.  Records  of  title  were  unknown,  so  that  fraii. 
was  easily  practiced  by  one  who  had  all  the  outward  l-a«ij4^ 
of  ownership.  This  state  of  things  was  endured  for  a  l"i  i: 
period,  the  nobility  being  unwilling  to  rei)eal  a  law  whi<  h 
tended  so  stronglv  to  the  preservation  of  tneir  estates. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  tu"- 
hundred  years,  the  courts  allowed  a  fictitious  legal  pn-cwii- 
ing  to  be  gone  through  with,  which  was  declared  t'^  \\n\* 
the  effect  to  destroy  the  entailment,  and  to  enable  A  in  th 
case  supposed  to  become  absolute  owner.  It  was  a  i»i:r^ 
fiction,  called  a  "common  recovery,"  and  so  underst(MMi  \  \ 
all  parties  to  it.  It  was  a  fictitious  lawsuit  with  regular  an<i 
formal  parties,  and  its  effect  was  to  destroy  the  entaihiu  i.t. 
and  vest  an  absolute  title  in  the  first  f)erson  named  in  th'- 
entailment  (A).  The  rule  soon  became  so  perfectly  settl»-i 
that  it  was  impossible  for  a  conveyancer  to  frame  a  r^-trtilflJ' 
entailment  without  having  it  subject  to  this  mode  of  diM-n- 
cumbering  the  title,  so  that  a  "common  recovery"  Ijecarrr 
a  mere  mode  of  conveyance.  In  later  times  the  fiction  haa 
become  so  transparent  and  so  cumbrous  that  the  Parliam*  n: 
substituted  in  its  place  a  mere  deed  of  conveyance,  know* 
as  a  "  disentailing  deed  "  (3  and  4  William  IV.,  c.  74).  TK- 
case  is  of  interest  and  value  as  showing  how  the  fiiti*  i. 
after  being  allowed  for  a  time,  is  ultimately  recognizeti  as  a 
change  or  modification  of  law,  and  tends  to  assume  the  foni. 
of  a  precise  provisicm  by  means  of  a  statute. 

There  are  many  fictions  of  law  regularlv  resorted  to,  an  \ 
having  a  powerful  influence  on  the  administration  of  ju>- 
tice.     It  is  a  cardinal  maxim  that  a  legal  fiction  mu>t  U 
consistent  with  equity.     This  doctrine  has  not  been   uni- 
versally followed,  particularly  in  the  so-called  doctrine  of 
"relation."      The  meaning  of  that  doctrine,  so  far  a<  r; 
refers  to  time,  is  that  in  some  cases,  when  an  act  i>  ilori  • 
on  a  particular  day,  it  shall  be  considered  for  legal  pur- 
poses as  being  done  on  some  earlier  day.    The  act  is  1 1.»  r 
said  to  "relate  back"  to  that  prior  day.    One  misi*hifv<-:* 
consequence  of  this  rule  was  that  if  a  law  was  pas.«^sl  dur- 
ing a  session  of  Parliament,  it  "related  back"  to  the  tir^t 
day  of  the  session,  although  weeks  or  months  might  h;*^  • 
elapsed.    By  this  vicious  retrospection  an  act  which  *.»- 
perfectly  lawful  when  committed  might  be  tre«U*d  ai'*  a 
crime.    This  result  was  done  away  with  by  the  ^tatuti  <  ' 
33  George  III.,  c.  13,  which  enacted  that  the  tune  when  an  i.  • 
receives  the  royal  assent  shall  be  the  date  of  its  commi:- .  > 
ment,  unless  some  other  provision  is  made  by  law.     1':  < 
same  rule  prevails  in  the  U.  S.    The  doctrine  of  **  relat  ii»ii  " 
is  resorted  to  in  l)ankniptcy,  referring  the  effect  of  tho  .:. 
cree  back  to  some  date  earlier  than  that  of  the  com  met)    ~ 
ment  of  the  proceedings.     It  is  also  used  in  many  <>:  1 1 " 


352 


FIELD 


FIELDING 


suit  was  contained  in  two  codes  of  procedure,  the  one  civil 
and  the  other  criminal.  The  code  of  civil  procedure  was 
in  great  part  adopted  by  the  State  of  New  York,  and  has 
since  been  adopted  by  twenty-seven  States  and  Territories. 
It  is  the  basis  of  the  legal  reform  established  by  the  Judica- 
ture Acts  in  England,  and  of  the  practice  in  several  of  the 
British  colonies,  including  India.  After  the  completion  of 
these  codes  he  was  in  1857  placed  by  the  State  of  New  York 
at  the  head  of  a  new  commission  to  undertake  a  codification 
of  the  whole  body  of  the  law.  This  was  a  work  of  years,  but 
in  1865  the  commission  reported  a  civil  code,  a  penal  code, 
and  a  political  code.  These  five  codes,  which  were  mainly 
the  work  of  Mr.  Field,  covered  the  whole  province  of  law 
in  the  U.  S.,  both  common  and  statute,  ana  were  designed 
to  supersede  the  unwritten  or  common  law — the  object  be- 
ing to  give  the  people  in  this  compact  form  the  whole  of  the 
laws  by  which  tney  were  governed.  This  body  of  law  has 
been  adopted  in  full  and  intact  only  by  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia and  the  States  of  North  and  South  Dakota.  In  1867 
he  brought  before  the  British  Association  for  Social  Sci- 
ence a  proposition  to  frame  an  international  code.  This 
led  to  the  preparation  by  him  of  what  was  really  a  complete 
work  on  international  law,  though  modestly  entitled  Out- 
lines  of  cm  International  Code,  one  feature  of  which  was 
the  introduction  of  the  principle  of  arbitration  to  settle  dis- 
putes between  nations.  This  work  has  attracted  great  at- 
tention in  Europe,  and  been  translated  into  French  and 
Italian.  The  code  of  criminal  procedure  and  the  penal  code 
have  become  a  part  of  the  law  of  New  York,  ana  the  civil 
code  has  been  twice  passed  by  the  Legislature,  but  has  been 
defeated  by  the  Governor. 

Mr.  Field  was  one  of  the  founders  of  an  international  as- 
sociation formed  in  1873  for  the  purpose  of  reforming  and 
codifying  the  laws  of  nations,  the  special  object  being  the 
substitution  of  arbitration  for  war  in  the  settlement  of  dis- 
putes between  nations.  He  was  a  member  of  the  peace  con- 
ference at  Washington  in  1861,  and  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  U.  S.  in  1877.  In  1890  he  presided  at  the 
great  peace  convention  in  London.  He  has  published  The 
Electoral  Votes  of  1H70  (New  York,  1877),  and  Speeches  and 
Arguments  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
and  Miscellaneous  Papers  (New  York,  1884). 

Field,  Eugene:  journalist  and  poet;  b.  in  St. Louis.  Mo., 
Sept.  2,  1860.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Mis- 
souri ;  was  connected  with  dififerent  newspapers  in  Misstiuri 
and  Colorado  from  1873  to  1883,  and  in  the  latter  year  became 
a  member  of  the  staff  of  the  Chicago  Daily  News.  Among 
his  publications  are  A  Little  Book  of  Western  Verse  (1889) ; 
A  LittU  Book  of  Profitable  Tales  (1889) ;  With  Trumpet  and 
Drum  (1892) ;  A  Second  Book  of  Verse  (1893).       H.  A.  B. 

Field,  Frederick,  LL.  D.  (Cambridge,  1875) :  clergyman ; 
b.  in  London,  1801 ;  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1823.  He  edited  the  Greek  text  of  St.  Chrvsos- 
tom's  Homilies  on  St.  Matthew  (3  vols.,  CambridEre,  1&39); 
Interpretation  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  (7  vols.,  1849-62) ;  and 
the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament  according  to  the 
Alexandrian  Codex.  In  1842  ho  was  presented  to  tne  rec- 
tory of  Reepham,  Norfolk;  rtisigned  in  1863,  and  edited 
Origen's  Hexapla  (2  vols.,  1867-74).  He  was  one  of  the 
revisers  of  the  Old  Testament.     D.  at  Norwich,  Apr.  19, 

I8sr,. 

Field,  Henry  Martyn,  D.  D.  :  author ;  a  son  of  Rev.  Da- 
vid D.  Field,  D.  D.;  b.  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  Apr.  3,  1822; 
entered  Williams  College  at  the  age  of  twelve ;  graduated 
at  sixteen ;  studied  theology  three  years  at  East  Windsor, 
Conn.,  and  one  vear  at  New  Haven  ;  at  twenty  took  charge 
of  a  church  in  J^t.  Louis,  Mo.,  where  he  resided  from  1842  to 
1847,  when  he  resigned,  and  spent  the  following  year  in  Eu- 
rope. In  1851  he  was  settled  over  a  Congregational  church 
in  West  Springfield,  Mass.,  where  he  remained  four  years. 
In  1854  he  removed  to  New  York  to  become  one  of  the  edi- 
tors of  The  Evangelist,  a  religious  journal  of  which  he  is 
now  sole  proprietor.  He  is  author  of  a  number  of  volumes 
of  travel,  including  Summer  Pictures :  from  Copenhagen  to 
Venice  (1859) ;  From  the  Lakes  of  Killamey  to  the  Golden 
Horn  (1H76) ;  From  Egi/pt  to  Japan  (1877) ;  Among  the  Holy 
Hills  (1H84);  Old  Spain  and  liew  Spaifi  (1888);  and  Gi- 
braltar (1888).  Some  of  these  have  gone  through  twenty 
editions.  Travels  at  home  furnished  subjects  for  works  en- 
titled Blood  is  Thicker  than  Water  (1886)  and  Bright  Skies 
and  Dark  Shadows  (1890).  Other  works  include  The  Irish 
Confederates  and  the  Rebellion  of  1798  (1851)  and  a  History 
vf  the  AUantic  Telegraph  (1866).' 


Field,  Joseph  M. :  actor  and  dramatist;  b.  in  London. 
England,  in  1810 ;  at  an  early  age  taken  by  his  parents  to 
the  U.  S. ;  was  educated  in  New  York  city,  and  studied  law ; 
then  became  an  actor,  appearing  first  in  1843;  settled  in  M. 
Louis,  and,  besides  writing  local  plays,  established  th**  H*-- 
veille,  a  daily  paper  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  editors.  Hr 
published  The  Drama  in  Pokennlle  and  Other  StorifK,  h^i 
Everpoint  (1847).  Removed  to  Mobile,  Ala.,  and  died  ihtre 
Jan.  30, 1856. 

Field,  Katb  :  journalist ;  daughter  of  Joseph  M.  FivM . 
b.  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  about  1840;  educated  in  Afassachusitis 
and  in  Europe ;  she  was  European  correspondent  of  the  NVw 
York  Tribune  and  other  journals;  has  written  much  for  7V 
Atlantic  Monthly  and  otlier  magazines ;  has  given  lecturer 
and  public  readings,  and  in  1874  made  her  appearance  a'^an 
actress  in  the  character  of  Peg  Wofflneton  at  Booth's  t!ua- 
ter.  New  York.  In  1889  she  established  at  Washin^n^n, 
D.  C,  Kate  Field's  Washi'ngton^  a  weekly  journal.  Anniii: 
her  books  are  Planchette's  Diary  (1868)  and  Ten  Dm/s  ir* 
Spain  (1875).  H.  A.'  B. 

Field,  Richard  Stockton.  LL.D.:  judge;  b.  at  Whitt- 
hill,  N.  J.,  Dec.  81, 1803;  graduated  at  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  in  1821 ;  was  professor  in  the  New  Jersey  Law  School 
1847-^55 ;  for  a  long  time  attorney-general  of  "Xew  Jeiv-y ; 
U.  S.  Senator  in  1862-63,  in  place  of  J.  R.  Thompson,  •It- 
ceased,  and  the  judge  of  the  district  court  of  the  U.  S.  f«.r 
New  Jersey  until  nis  death  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Mav  J.), 
1870.  Published  The  Provincial  Courts  of  New  Jrr>^^*j 
(1849),  and  contributed  to  the  collections  of  the  New  Jtrs*? 
Historical  S<xjiety. 

Field,  Stephen  Johnson:  judge;  son  of  Rev.  David  U 
Field;  b.  at  Haddam,  Conn.,  Nov.  4,  1816;  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in  1837;  studied  law  with  his  br(»th»-r. 
David  Dudley  Field,  in  New  York,  and  on  his  admission  t" 
the  bar  became  his  partner ;  went  to  California  in  1849 :  in 
Jan.,  1850,  was  elected  first  alcalde  of  MarysviUe,  and  in  i  u- 
tober  was  elected  to  the  Legislature,  and  ser^'ed  one  S4*>>i*  n : 
in  1857  was  elected  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  t  ha- 
state, and  in  1859  became  chief  justice;  in  1863  wa^  tky- 
pointed  by  President  Lincoln  an  asscx^iate  justice  of  thf 
Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S. :  in  1869  was  appointed  Pn*- 
fessor  of  Law  in  the  University  of  California.  In  1878  \w 
was  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  California  one  of  a  c*'ni- 
mission  to  examine  the  codes  of  the  State,  and  to  pn^j^an? 
amendments  to  the  same  for  the  consideration  of  the  l^ir.;^ 
lature.  In  1877  he  was  a  member  of  the  Presidextial 
Electoral  Commission  {q.  t*.),  and  voted  with  the  sevm  in 
favor  of  Mr.  Tilden  against  the  eight  in  favor  of  Mr.  Hny*-*. 
In  1880  he  was  nominated  in  the  national  Democratic  «^'n- 
vention  as  a  candidate  for  President  of  the  U,  S.,  antl  re- 
ceived sixty-five  votes  on  the  first  ballot. 

Fieldfare:  the  English  name  for  a  species  of  thniih. 
Turdus pilaris,  found  in  Europe,  and  commonly  occurrii.j 
in  England  as  a  bird  of  passage,  although  it  sonuniu^ 
breeds  in  the  northern  portions  of  Great  Britain  and  N-:- 
land.  The  fieldfare  is  variegated  in  color,  but  the  gi*ii»-Rii 
hue  of  the  upper  parts  is  chestnut  brown  ;  the  head  L**  ^'niv. 
the  quill  feathers  and  tail  blackish;  the  throat  is  nii«l  -^i 
yellow  streaked  with  black,  the  breast  brown;  the  n^st  «if  lU 
under  parts  white.  F.  A.  LrcA'<. 

Field-glass:  a  form  of  magnifying  apparatus  which  i^ 
essentially  a  telescope  of  low  power.  It  may  have  a  sini:'' 
tube  (like  the  anti(juated  spy-glass),  or  more  frequently  it  i- 
binocular,  resembling  in  form  the  double  opera-glasis.  N^- 
Telescope. 

Fielding,  Anthony  Vandyke  Copley:  landscape-painter 
in  water-colors;  b.  in  England,  1787.  He  was  a  memluT  .  f 
the  British  Society  of  Water-color  Painters,  and  a  cl«\»r 
and  rapid  workman.  A  large  collection  of  his  drawin:r*  i? 
in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  D.  at  Worthing.  Eng- 
land, 1855.  W.  A.  C. 

Fielding,  Henry  :  dramatist  and  novelist ;  b.  at  Shnri- 
ham  Park,  near  Glastonburj',  Somersetshire,  England,  Apr. 
22,  1707.  He  begtm  his  education  at  home  under  the  ca-- 
of  Mr.  Oliver,  the  familv  chaplain,  said  to  have  Ikh^h  \  t>^ 
original  of  Parson  Trulliber  in  Joseph  Andrews.  He  5i\.d- 
ied  at  Eton,  but,  being  destined  by  his  father  for  the  law,  h« 
was.  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  transferred  to  the  rnivei^*:> 
of  Leyden.  He  was  a  diligent  student  for  about  tw- 
years,  when,  owing  to  the  inability  of  his  father  to  pay  hi< 
expenses,  he  was  comiKjlled  to  return  to  London,  whiT»\  «t 
the  age  of  twenty,  he  found  himself  dependent  ii|»<>n   hi- 


354 


PIESOLE 


FIGEAC 


Russia  in  1812;  was  imprisoned  1816-26  for  theft  and 
forgery ;  went  to  Paris  in  1830 ;  invented  the  infernal  ma- 
chine by  which  the  attempt  was  made,  July  28,  1835,  to 
assassinate  Louis  Philippe,  who  escaped  with  a  slight 
wound,  though  sixteen  of  his  attendants  were  killed  or  mor- 
tally woundS,    Fieschi  was  executed  Feb.  16, 1836. 

Fiesole,  Fra  Anoelico,  da :  a  Florentine  painter ;  b.  at 
Vicchio,  1387.  In  early  life  he  entered  the  Church  in  the 
order  of  Dominicans,  and  for  the  remainder  of  his  existence 
may  be  said  to  have  lived  in  a  state  of  ecstasy,  painting  the 
visions  which  came  to  him.  He  was  the  last  of  the  ec- 
static school,  and  the  last  of  the  pure  Giottesques.  He  had 
studied  painting  before  he  entered  the  order,  but  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  work  he  was  so  well  fitted  for  as  that  m 
which  he  could  best  serve  the  Church.  Fra  Angelico  stands 
as  the  type  of  the  purely  religious  painter,  not  merely  in 
his  devotion  to  sacrea  subject,  but  in  the  devotional  man- 
ner of  approaching  his  subject  as  one  in  which  an  a<;t  of 
worship  was  accomplished  and  in  which  divine  assistance 
was  to  be  asked.  His  painting  was  to  him  the  record  of  in- 
spiration, and  he  never  changed  what  he  had  done,  which  in 
part  accounts  for  the  limitations  and  for  some  of  the  love- 
liest qualities  of  what  he  did,  the  purity  of  color,  the  sim- 
plicity and  harmony  of  his  design,  and  for  the  immense 
quantity  of  work  he  left.  The  best  of  it  is  that  at  Rome  in 
tne  chapel  of  S.  Nicholas  of  the  Vatican,  the  vault  of  the 
Duomo  at  Orvieto,  and  the  frescoes  at  S.  Mark's  in  Florence, 
but  all  the  galleries  of  art  in  Europe  have  examples  of  it. 
His  pupil  Benozzo  Gozzoli  was  the  first  in  whom  is  found  the 
evidence  of  unmistakable  reference  to  nature  for  the  facts 
of  his  representations.  The  last  ten  vears  of  Fra  Angelico's 
life  were  spent  in  ^reat  rapture  in  ftome,  where  he  died  in 
1455.  He  was  buried  in  tne  church  of  S.  Maria  sopra  Mi- 
nerva. W.  J.  Stillman. 

Fife  [from  Fr.  fifre,  from  0.  H.  Germ,  pfifa  >  Germ. 
/YWtf,  pipe,  from  Low  Lat.  pi'pa,  deriv.  of  pipa're,  chirp ; 
CI.  Kng.^i»<?,  vi&  Fr.  from  Low  LAt,pi'jwk\ :  a  musical  instru- 
ment chieny  used  with  the  snare-drum  in  martial  music.  It 
is  made  in  one  piece,  without  keys,  has  six  finger-holes,  and 
a  mouthpiece  or  hole  for  blowing  upon  one  side,  as  in  the 
flute.  Its  notes  are  shrill  and  somewhat  luursh.  The  fife  is 
variously  pitched. 

Fife,  or  Fifesliire :  county  of  Scotland ;  forming  a  pen- 
insula between  the  Firth  of  Forth,  the  Firth  of  Tay,  and  the 
North  Sea ;  area,  494  sq.  miles.  It  is  one  of  the  most  thickly 
peopled  and  best-cultivated  counties  of  Scotland.  Prin- 
cipal towns,  Cupar,  Dunfermline,  St.  Andrews,  Dysart,  and 
Kirkcaldy.    Pop.  (1891)  187,320. 

Fife,  Alexandeb  William  George  Duff,  Marquis  of 
Macduff  and  Duke  of :  b.  Nov.  10,  1849 ;  educated  at  Eton ; 
Liberal  member  of  Parliament  1874-79 ;  married  July  27, 
1889,  Princess  Louise  Victoria  Alexandra  Dagmar,  eldest 
daughter  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  on  which  occasion  he  was 
created  Duke  of  Fife. — The  Duchess  of  Fife  was  bom  Feb. 
20, 1867.  She  is  president  of  the  Edinburgh  School  of  Medi- 
cine for  Women,  the  first  school  of  the  kind  in  Scotland. 

Fifteentli' :  in  music,  the  interval  of  a  double  octave, 
comprising  a  distance  of  fifteen  grades  of  the  scale,  from 
the  lower  to  the  upper  note ;  also,  the  name  of  a  stop  in 
the  organ,  of  which  each  pipe  is  tuned  two  octaves  above 
the  regular  pitch  as  represented  on  the  keyboard. 

Fifth :  in  music,  an  interval  comprising  five  degrees  of 
the  scale,  or  the  distance,  e.  g.,  from  C  to  G,  D  to  A,  etc. 
Fifths,  according  to  their  position  on  the  scale  or  the  in- 
fiuence  of  accidentals,  are  various  in  their  compass,  embrac- 
ing from  six  to  ei^ht  semitones.  They  are  usually  classi- 
fied as  perfect^  diminished,  and  augmented.  The  perfect 
contains  three  whole  tones  and  one  semitone ;  the  dimin- 
ished, two  whole  tones  and  two  semitones;  and  the  aug- 
mented three  whole  tones  and  two  semitones. 


i 


Perfect. 


Diminished. 


^^ 


T^ 


z^TiX. 


T 


M 


Aujfmented. 


^ 


^ 


In  counterpoint  the  progressions  of  the  fifth  are  regulated 
by  certain  laws,  partly  arising  from  the  harmonious  nature 
and  relations  of  this  chord,  and  partly  in  view  of  the  ease 
with  which  its  use  and  abuse  suggest  themselves  to  the 
minds  of  young  harmonists,  who  are  unaware  of  the  diffi- 
culties of  its  proper  treatment.  The  restrictions,  however, 
imposed  bv  the  old  masters,  have  been  so  far  relaxed  in 
modem  schools  of  music  that  certain  progressions  of  fifths 


are  now  freely  used  which  a  century  ago  would  have  Iwru 
strictly  forbidden.  Revised  by  Dudley  Bi*  k. 

Fiftli-monarchy  Men :  a  small  religious  sect  in  Enj;- 
land  during  Cromwell's  protectorate  and  the  fir^l  r.art  nf 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  They  professed  to  believe  tnat  ihr 
time  was  near  at  hand  when  to  the  four  great  monanhit^ 
of  DanieFs  prophetic  vision  was  to  succeed  the  fifth,  whii  U 
was  to  break  in  pieces  all  others  and  to  "stand  forfu-r/' 
Of  this  Jesus  was  to  be  king,  and  in  their  eagernt^  t<> 
seize  the  fitting  opportunity  to  proclaim  him  thev  oi.n- 
spired  (Apr.  9, 1657)  against  Cromwell ;  and  again  (Jan.  fi. 
1661),  on  the  prospect  of  Charles  II.  being  fully  restored  \o 
power,  they  rose  in  insurrection  and  attempted  to  siu^tmn 
themselves,  under  a  leader  named  Venner,  by  force  of  ann>. 
The  insurrection  was  promptly  suppressed,  and  Venner an] 
several  others  were  executed.  The  Independents,  Bai>ti>!>. 
and  Quakers  formally  disclaimed  all  sympathy  with  tne  iu- 
surgents,  yet  were  made  to  suffer  odium  and  civil  hanl^[ii[< 
in  consequence  of  the  movement.  Two  years  later  annth<  r 
insignificant  rising  occurred,  in  consequence  of  which  six 
persons  are  said  to  have  been  executed.  The  sect  seeni^  t.» 
nave  had  no  connection  with  Anabaptists  on  the  Continent, 
but  to  have  derived  encouragement — however  unwarrant- 
ably— from  the  views  of  some  eminent  men. 

Fiftli  Nerye :  See  Facial  Nerves  and  Trigemixui^. 

Fig  [M.  Eng.  fi{f,  from  0.  Fr.  ^ue  >  Fr.  fiouf :  Ii/jl. 
flco  <  ljai,fi'(m8]:  the  fruit  of  Ftcvs  carica^  a  decidun„.s 
tree  of  the  Artocarpem  or  breadfruit  family,  15  to  20  ftrt 
high,  with  rough  and  deeply  lobed  leaves,  a  native  of  A^ta 
from  Syria  to  the  Caucasus  and  Kurdistan ;  also,  the  in  >• 
itself  (see  Ficus),  which  often  lives  to  a  great  age.    Id  th<> 
Scriptures  the  fig-tree  is  often  mention^,  along  with  tht^ 
vine,  as  a  symbol  of  peace  and  plenty.    Although  unkiio^^d 
in  Greece  during  the  Homeric  age,  it  was  common  in  t(  r 
time  of  Plato ;  it  was  early  introduced  into  Italy,  and  th^ntt 
in  Spain  and  Gaul.     Charlemagne  ordered  its  cultivati-n 
in  Central  Europe,  and  it  is  now  cultivated  in  mcvst  warn, 
temperate  climates.    That  it  has  succeeded  even  in  EngUij<: 
appears  from  the  mention  of  the  historian  Matthew  Pan> 
that  the  year  1257  was  so  inclement  that  figs,  cherries,  an: 
plums  totally  failed  to  ripen.    Figs  can  be  well  ripened,  ani 
can  be   raised   for  preservation   in   the  dried  state,  >'tiU 
where  the  summer  and  autumn  are  warm  and  dry.    In  tl.*- 
Eastern  U.  S.  the  main  obstacle  to  their  cultivation  i^  tb>> 
cold  of  winter,  which  frequently  injures  unprotected  tr»«»':s 
even  in  Florida.    Fi^  are  cultivated  to  some  extent  h»  far 
north  as  North  Carolina,  and  the  culture  promises  satiof-it- 
tory  results.    On  the  Pacific  coast  they  find  a  more  <t.ro- 
nial  climate.     The  fig-tree  bears  two  crops  in  a  t>eHN'n-> 
an  earlier  one  from  the  axils  of  leaves  of  the  precK>in:j 
growth  *,  a  later  and  long-continued  one  from  the  axiN  •  f 
the  leaves  of  the  season.    The  fig  is  popularly  said  to  fp.ri 
without  flowering.      This  comes  from  the  nature  of  t^  - 
particular  fruit — a  hollow,  pear-shaped  receptacle,  near.) 
closed  or  barely  pervious  at  the  broad  apex,  lined  throui;hi  i:i 
the  interior  witn  innumerable  small  flowers,  male  ami  f«'- 
male.     The  so-called  seeds  are  the  ripened  achenia  (i.  (• 
seed-like  fruits)  of  th»  latter;  the   luscious  pulp   maitiir 
belongs  to  the!  ripened  and  soft-ened  receptacle  or  b«>ll(.v 
flower-stalk.    A  good  idea  of  the  botanical  nature  of  a  :.«* 
is  got  by  comparing  it  with  Dorstetiia,  of  the  same  naiunu 
family;  in  this  the  flowers  occupy  the  upper  surfai^M*!  a 
plate  or  saucer-shaped  common  receptacle.    By  imagir.rij 
this  saucer  to  deepen  into  a  cup,  ana  the  cup  to  pa^s^  in'  • 
the  form  of  a  jug  by  a  contraction  of  the  summit,  it.t 
whole  peculiarity  of  the  fig-fruit  will  be  apparent.     I* 
ripening,  the  acrid  milky  sap  characteristic  of  the  family  i^ 
replacea  by  saccharine  matter,  chiefly  gnnpe-sugar,  « t/.-  [ 
serves  to  preserve  them.      Fresh  figs,  most  agre^'able  ••• 
many,  are  too  sweet  and  cloying  for  other  palates,  l)eini:  >i'— 
titute  of  acidulous  flavor.    In  the  fresh  state,  and  still  ni«»r»" 
in  the  dried,  figs  form  an  important  article  of  foo<l  in  t  f  • 
Levant,  etc.    Smyrna  is  the  principal  mart  whence  dri'^ 
figs  are  exported  to  Northern  Europe  and  America.     I>ri-i 
figs  are  said  by  the  dealers  to  be  natural  when  not  «•'  f  - 
pressed  in  the  packing,  but  retaining  their  originfti  >'•-!  ' 
or  pulled  when  after  drying  they  are  made  supple  by  kn* .» . 
ing,  and  then  packed  bv  pressure  int<»  drums  or  b<>\— 
Eieme  figs  are  merely  tfiose  of  superior  quality,  so  eai.*  j 
fi*om  a  Turkish  word  meaning  "  hand-pick«I." 

Figeae,  fe'czhiJak' :  town  of  France;  department  of  Ixt 
on  the  Sell6 ;  32  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Cahors  (see  map  of    It^l  ^ . 
ref.  8-E).    It  is  a  quaint  old  city,  situated  in  a  aeep  vail*  ^ 


356 


FIGURES 


FILE 


a  will  or  of  an  advertisement.  The  rhetorical  figure  rests 
upon  an  ideal  or  an  idealized  relation  between  the  subject 
and  predicate.  The  mind  makes  it,  and  can  unmake  it ;  it 
can  exist  to  one  mind,  and  be  denied  by  another ;  it  may 
be  conceded  by  the  mind  at  one  time  and  in  one  state,  and 
denied  at  another  time.  "Milton  is  an  eacle"  involves  a 
Metaphor  {q.  v.),  which  is  the  chief  rhetorical  figure.  Some 
of  the  most  confused  and  persistent  logomachies  have  arisen 
from  failing  to  observe  this  distinction.       C.  P.  Keauth. 

Figures :  visible  signs  used  to  represent  numbers.  See 
Numerals. 

Flg^orts :  a  family  of  fiowering  plants  {Scrophulariac€€e) 
with  two-lipped  or  irregular  gamopetalous  corollas,  superior 
two-celled  ovaries,  and  two  or  four  (rarely  five)  stamens  on 
the  corolla-tube.  They  are  mostly  herbaceous  plants,  al- 
though some  are  trees.  There  are  about  2,006  species, 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  world.  Many  species 
are  cultivated  for  their  fine  flowers,  e.  g.  snapdragon  (An- 
tirrhinum\  Mimulus,  Plentstemon,  Dipialia,  Calceolaria^ 
etc.  The  Paulownia-tree  {Paulownia  tmperialis)  of  Japan 
is  planted  in  the  Southern  U.  S.  Charles  B.  Bessey. 

Fiji,  fee'jee,  or  Tlti  Islands  (fonnerly  written  Feejet) : 
a  group  of  islands  constituting  a  British  dependency ;  in 
the  South  Pacific  Ocean ;  between  lat.  IS''  30'  and  20°  30'  S., 
and  Jon.  177"  E.  and  178°  W. ;  numbering  over  200  islands, 
of  which  about  80  are  inhabited.  They  were  discovered  in 
1643  by  the  Dutch  navigator  Tasman,  but  not  f  ulljr  explored 
until  1840,  when  they  were  visited  by  the  American  navi- 
gator Wilkes.  The  two  largest  islands  are  Viti  Levu,  hav- 
ing an  area  of  4,000  sq.  miles,  and  Vanua  Levu,  of  2,400 
sq.  miles;  the  others  are  small.  The  Fiji  islands  are  of 
volcanic  origin;  earthquakes  are  common  and  hurricanes 
periodical.  The  soil,  wnich  consists  of  a  deep-yellow  loam, 
and  is  well  watered,  is  exceedingly  fertile,  and  the  moist 
and  hot  climate  (the  temperature  ranging  from  60°  to  120"^), 
calls  forth  a  most  luxuriant  vegetation,  consisting  of  bread- 
fruit trees,  bananas,  cocoanuts,  sugar-canes,  and  tea-plants ; 
cotton  grows  wild.  The  inhabitants  are  middle-sized,  strong- 
limbed,  short-necked,  with  a  complexion  between  copper- 
color  and  black.  Before  the  introduction  of  Christianity  by 
Wesleyan  missionaries  in  1835  they  were  a  fierce  race  of  can- 
nibals. The  majority  have  become  Christianized,  about  100,- 
000  being  adherents  of  the  Wesleyans  and  more  than  10,000 
of  the  Roman  Catholics.  In  1861  the  king  and  chiefs  of  Viti 
Levu  formally  offered  the  island  to  Great  Britain ;  but  it 
was  not  until  1874  that  the  British  flag  was  hoisted  on  Fiji 
soil.  The  population  of  these  islands  has  greatly  decreased 
since  about  1845,  the  decrease  from  1881  to  1891  being  about 
14,000.  Pop.  (1889)  124,919,  of  whom  110,871  were  Fijis  and 
1,988  Europeans,  the  remainder  being  other  Polynesians, 
half-breeds,  Hindus,  Chinese,  and  others.  In  1891  the  total 
population  was  121,180. 

Filament  [from  Fr.  filament  <  Late  Lat.  filameti'lum^ 
deriv.  of  Late  Lat.  fila're,  spin,  deriv.  of  Lat.  filum,  thread. 
Or  filamen'tum  and  Jila're  may  both  be  derived  by  analogy 
from  Romance  derivatives] :  in  the  descriptive  botany  of 
fiowering  plants,  the  support  or  stalk  of  the  anther  of  the 
stamen ;  "  it  is  to  the  anther  what  the  petiole  is  to  the  blade 
of  the  leaf "  {Gray).  Elsewhere  in  boUny  the  term  has  its 
usual  meaning  of  a  thread ;  thus  the  filament  of  a  mould  is 
a  thread  composed  of  a  cell  or  a  row  of  cells.    See  Flower. 

Filangleri,  fee-laan-jee-are'e,  GaKtano:  author;  b.  at 
Naples,  Italy,  Aug.  18, 1752 ;  entered  the  army  1766 ;  went 
to  the  royal  court  1777;  became  a  member  of  the  supreme 
council  of  the  finances  1787.  He  is  chiefly  reraembere<l  as 
author  of  Scienza  della  legialazione  (1780-88,  unfinished),  a 
noble  treatise  on  the  principles  of  legislation.  D.  at  Vico- 
Equense,  July  21, 1788.— His  son  Carlo  (1783-1867),  Duke  of 
Taormina,  was  a  brave  soldier  under  Napoleon,  governor  of 
Sicily  under  Ferdinand  II.,  and  Prime  Minister  under  Fran- 
cis ll.  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

Filaria:  See  H^matozoa  and  Parasites  (Human). 

Filbert  fformerly  also  Hlbeard  <  M.  Eng.  filherde,  per- 
haps namecl  from  St.  Philibert,  the  forms  with  -d  arising 
from  analogy  with  heard.  Cf.  the  Germ,  name  Bartnuss,  liter., 
beardnut] :  the  nut  of  the  Hazel  (o.  v.).  The  name  is  not 
often  applied  to  the  American  wild  nazel-nuts;  and  in  com- 
merce file  round  varieties  of  P^uropean  hazel-nut*  are  called 
cob-nuts,  the  name  Hlhert  strictly  belonging  to  the  elongated 
sorts,  which  have  also  a  finer-cut  and  more  be^rd-like  enve- 
lope ;  whence  perhaps  the  name.  Filberts  are  chiefly  the 
product  of  Coryhm  avfl/ana,  the  common  hazel  of  Europe 


I'l-x 


!»' 


and  Asia,  which  is  extensively  cultivated.  Barcelona  nut» 
are  a  variety  of  filbert,  kiln-dried  for  better  keeping.  Curtf- 
Itia  columa^  of  Turkey,  produces  large,  oily  nllxrts.  fil- 
berts are  used  as  dessert-nuts.  Large  amounts  of  oil  i  nut- 
oil)  are  also  expressed  from  the  kernels ;  it  is  a  dryiug  ml 
much  used  by  artists  and  makers  of  choice  vamislies.  Uut 
few  filberts  are  grown  in  the  U.  S,  Several  speeie>  arv 
known. 

Fildes,  Samuel  Luke:  genre  and  portrait  painter;  I),  at 
Liverpool,  England.  Oct.  14, 1844.  Pupil  of  South  Ken>iiiu'- 
ton  Art  School  and  Royal  Academy,  London ;  Royal  Acniic- 
mician;  second-class  medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1889.  11^ 
began  his  artistic  career  as  an  illustrator  for  the  Loiiilnn 
Graphic,  Comhill  Magazine,  etc.  Applicants  for  Adnnn- 
Hon  to  a  Casual  TTara  (1874)  is  one  of  his  roost  celebntt^il 
pictures.  His  work  is  technically  of  fair  merit,  but  hf  in- 
clines to  storv-telling  in  his  pictures  at  the  sacrifice  of  truth 
to  nature.  His  portraits  of  women  are  graceful,  but  .S4*iiie- 
what  lacking  in  expression  of  character.    Studio  in  Loniiun. 

William  A.  Corn.v. 

File  [M.  Eng.  file<0.  Eng.  fiol :  O.  H.  Germ,  nhah  > 
Mod.  Germ.  Feile] :  a  tool  used  in  shaping  all  kinds  of  ma- 
terials of  construction.  It  is  a  bar  of  steel,  the  size  ui><l 
shape  of  which  are  determined  by  the  use  for  which  it  i>  in- 
tended. Its  surfaces  are  covered  with  sharp  cutting  hI 
or  teeth,  the  direction  and  numlier  of  the  edges  aixl  t! 
magnitude  and  distribution  of  the  teeth  varying  with  t ft 
nature  of  the  material  to  be  cut  and  the  degree  of  smo- 1  }•• 
ness  of  the  surface  which  the  file  is  required  to  priNJixv. 
Where  the  surface  has  isolated  sharp  teeth  separattni  hv 
comparatively  wide  spaces  the  file  is  called  a  rasp. 

Files  are  used  upon  surfaces  of  all  kinds.  Rasps  are  e>]<*^ 
cially  fitted  for  rapid  work  on  surfaces  of  materials  ba\  w.z 
slight  resisting  power.  They  are  used  by  workers  in  wt**! 
and  leather,  ana  by  the  farrier.  The  enect  of  rubbin«:  tnc 
file  upon  the  surface  of  the  metal,  wood,  ivory,  or  other  ma- 
terial to  be  changed  in  form  or  dimensions,  is  to  abrai*  it, 
cutting  from  it  minute  shavings  or  small  particles,  hikI  n^ 
ducing  the  mass  by  a  gradual  process.  Files  are  thf  rifor^ 
used  only  in  shaping  small  pieces  or  in  "finishing"  surfa-^-* 
which  are  already  of  approximately  correct  figure.  Th*-  Vm 
usually  follows  the  work  of  the  lathe  or  the  pTaner-t(H)l. 

The  forms  given  to  files,  as  well  as  their  snapes  ami  >iz''^ 
are^lmost  numberless.  Those  files  which  have  cutt  i ng  r^  1  -'■  - 
extending  unbroken  from  side  to  side  are  called  •*  fl«»at* '  <  r 
**  single-cut "  file^.  Those  which  have  two  sets  of  su<-h  ♦*<  i.'»  -. 
crossing  each  other  at  an  angle,  are  called  **  doul)l»*-i  ut  ' 
The  effect  of  such  crossing  of  edges  is  to  produce  jKiiiii-  •  r 
teeth,  rather  than  true  cutting  edges. 

The  -coarseness  or  fineness  of  the  file  is  known  l»>  th. 
trade-terms:  1,  rough;  2,  middle-cut;  3,  bfvstard;  4,  st-i*  t:-. 
cut;  5.  smooth;  6,  superfine  or  dead-smooth.  The  set-^  i-i 
grade  is  rarely  found  in  the  market.  The  most  common  jiiv 
the  "  Sheffield  cuts,"  rough,  bastard,  and  smooth.  Tht-^ 
are  shown  in  the  accompanying  sketches.  In  what  are  kn<  ^»  i> 
as  the  Nicholson  or 

"  increment  -  cut  "  DorBLB-ooT. 

files  the  forms  of  the 
teeth  and  the  cut- 
ting edges  are  very 
similar  to  those  of 
ordinary  files  as  just 
described.  These 
are  machine  -  cut 
files,  but  they  differ 
from  other  machine- 
cut  files  bv  being 
cut  with  teeth  slight- 
ly expanding  or  in- 
creasing in  size  and 
space  from  point  to 
heel,  thus  avoiding 
the  great  regularity 
of  teeth  common  to 
ordinary  machine- 
cut  files.  The  irreg- 
ularity spoken  of 
consists  not  only  in 
the  sfiaces  between 
the  teeth,  but  also  in  the  heights  of  the  teeth  themselv«»s. 

The  regularity  of  the  teeth,  so  characteristic  of  ni«xt  r  * 
chine-work,  is  not  easily  obtained  by  the  hand-worker.  « * 
seated  with  his  blank  firmly  held  on  a  stone  block  in  fr  . / 


Bough. 


8eo(Mid-cat 


Middle. 


Smooth. 


Bastard. 


Dead-snicHtCh 


358 


PILE 


FILICAJA 


customary  tS)  shape  the  blanks  by  filing,  but  the  use  of  the 

grindstone  is  now  much  more  usual.  After  grinding,  the 
lanks  are  ereased  and  sent  to  the  file-cutter. 
When  fiie-cuttina  is  perfonned  by  hand,  the  tools  used 
consist  of  peculiarly  shaped  hammers  and  chisels,  an  anvil, 
and  packing  pieces  of  lead  or  pewter.  The  hammers  weigh 
from  1  to  5  or  6  lb.,  the  smaller  sizes  being  used  for  very 
small  and  the  heavier  for  very  large  files.  The^  have  a  sin- 
euLar  form,  such  as  would  be  obtained  by  making  the  head 
first  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  pyramid — the  upper  and 
lower  bases  having  a  breadth  equal  to  about  one-fifth  and 
one-fourth  its  altitude  respectively — and  then  bending  it  to 
an  arc  of  a  radius  equal  to  about  twice  the  altitude.  The 
handle  is  inserted  at  a  point  considerably  nearest  the  smaller 
end.  In  striking  a  blow  the  hammer  is  pulled  toward  the 
workman  as  it  descends,  the  mass  taking  a  direction  approxi- 
mating to  that  of  the  inclination  of  the  chisel.  The  chisel 
is  short  and  light,  nearly  a  triangle  in  form,  with  a  broad, 
straight  edge.  It  is  held  between  the  finger  and  thumb  of 
the  left  hand,  much  as  a  pen  is  held  by  the  right  hand  in 
writing.  The  file-blank  is  placed  upon  the  anvil,  where  it 
is  held  by  a  strap  passing  over  each  end  and  tightened  by 
the  workman,  who  places  his  feet  in  the  "bight"  of  the 
strap  as  a  horseman  places  his  feet  in  his  stirrups.  As  each 
blow  is  struck  the  workman  moves  the  blank  slightly  to 
bring  the  chisel  over  the  proper  place  for  the  next  cut,  the 
strap  being  loosened  at  the  instant  to  allow  the  movement 
to  take  place. 

In  making  small  and  smooth  or  dead-smooth  files,  the 
blows  and  these  nearly  simultaneous  movements  succeed 
each  other  with  surprising  rapidity.  The  sm^lest  files  are 
often  cut  by  women  or  by  boys  and  girls.  The  surface  of 
the  file  being  single  cut,  a  second  set  oi  cuts  is  usually  made 
at  a  large  angle  with  the  first,  the  two  sets  making  angles 
of  about  +  50  and  —  80"  respectively  with  the  middle  Tine 
of  the  file.  Before  making  the  second  cut  the  tops  of  the 
teeth  already  formed  are  smoothed  off  by  lightly  running 
over  them  a  fine  file.  The  blank  is  then  turned  over,  ana 
the  opposite  side  and  the  edges  are  next  cut.  When  a  sur- 
face already  cut  is  placed  downward,  a  strip  of  lead  or  pew- 
ter is  placed  beneath  it,  to  prevent  injury  of  the  teetn  by 
contact  with  the  hard  surface  of  the  anvil.  By  constant 
practice  the  workman  becomes  very  expert,  and  the  rapidity 
and  accuracy  of  his  work  are  quite  wonderful,  and  are  prob- 
ably among  the  finest  illustrations  of  the  degree  of  perfec- 
tion in  workmanship  which  may  be  attained  by  the  hand 
when  guided  by  a  delicate  sense  of  touch. 

After  cutting,  the  files  are  next  hardened,  although  those 
made  for  use  on  wood  and  other  comparatively  soft  sub- 
stances are  frequently  left  unhardened,  and  several  kinds 
which  are  made  of  peculiar  shapes  for  some  purposes,  as  for 
sculptors,  are  made  of  good  iron  and  case-hardened.  The 
files  to  be  hardened  are  first  besmeared  with  a  mixture  of 
salt  and  carbonaceous  materials  which  are  considered  to  be 
best  adapted  to  preserve  the  teeth  from  decarbonization  and 
oxidation,  and  which  at  the  same  time,  by  fusion  upon  the 
surface,  may  indicate  the  proper  heat  at  which  to  temper. 
This  surface-coating  of  comparatively  non-conducting  ma- 
terial also  checks  the  first  sudden  change  of  temperature  on 
immersion  in  the  tempering  liquid,  and  thus  decreases  the 
liability  of  the  file  to  crack.  The  difficulty  which  might  bo 
experienced  from  the  change  of  shape  which  invariably  oc- 
curs to  a  greater  or  less  extent  on  suddenly  cooling  the  file 
is  avoided  oy  giving  the  untempered  file  a  slight  distortion 
in  the  opposite  direction,  so  that  the  subsequent  change  of 
shape  may  leave  it  in  the  desired  form.  In  all  cases  the 
general  shape  of  the  file  is  determined  previous  to  the  oper- 
ation of  hardening. 

When  the  file  has  been  heated  in  the  fire  to  a  temperature 
at  which  the  surface-coating  fuses,  it  is  taken  by  tne  tang 
and  suddenly  immersed  in  a  tank  of  water,  the  rapidity 
and  particular  direction  of  the  immersion  being  determined 
by  the  size  and  sha{)e  of  the  file.  Withdrawing  it  before  it 
becomes  cold,  the  workman  inserts  it  between  the  jaws  of  a 
clamp  or  between  a  pair  of  iron  bars,  where  he  corrects  by 
force  any  slight  defect  in  form,  while  pouring  water  over  it 
to  cool  it  thoroughly.  Tlie  tang  is  next  softened  by  immer- 
sion in  molten  lead ;  the  file  is  then  scrubbed  thoroughly  and 
washed  in  lime-water  to  remove  the  scales  of  salt  mixture.  It 
is  carefully  dried  and  oiled,  and  is  then  ready  for  the  market. 
A  careful  system  of  inspection  is  adopted  by  the  best 
makers,  by  which  all  imperfect  files  are  detected  and  thrown 
out  to  be  sold  as  "  wasters."  Those  files  which  pass  insj)ec- 
tion  are  packed  by  dozens  in  papers. 


The  time  at  which  files  were  first  made  is  unknown.  Th*- 
manufacture  of  files  was  introduced  into  North  Amern-ji 
very  soon  after  its  settlement.  File-cutters  settled  in  P»  nn- 
sylvania  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  tirrD 
of  Broad  meadow  &  Co.  began  file-making  in  "Pittsburp  :i] 
1820,  and  there  are  now  a  considerable  number  of  £.tf- 
manufacturers  in  the  U.  S. 

File-cutiing  mctchinery'was  probably  first  proposed  nearlv 
two  centuries  ago.  A  Parisian  mechanic,  Uuverger.  pre- 
sented a  file-cutting  machine  to  the  Acaderoie  des  Sciii.  -« 
in  the  year  1699,  and  a  description  of  this  apparatus  nr  • 
peared  in  the  Journal  des  Savants  in  1702.  Tniout  in  i  i^ 
Traite  de  THoroloffie,  published  at  Paris  in  1740,  dest  riUs 
another  machine.  Still  later.  Raoul,  another  French  nit- 
chanic,  made  files  b3r  machinery,  and  obtained  a  report  u;  '-r. 
them  from  a  committee  of  the  Lycee  des  Arts  in  whitU  it 
was  stated  that  they  were  equal  to  the  best  English  han  i- 
made  files.  In  1812  Morris  B.  Belknap,  of  Greenfield,  Ma>-^. 
patented  a  file-cutting  machine,  and  William  T.  James. « I 
IS  said  to  have  worked  at  Union  Village,  patented  ancti.-r. 
In  1836  Capt.  John  Ericsson,  then  in  England,  patentee)  « 
file-cutting  machine,  which  is  described  in  HolzapffeFs  work 
on  Mechcmical  Manipulation,  where  it  is  stated  that  <»i>r 
machine  could  do  the  work  of  ten  men.  In  1847  an  i^j^ 
nious  machine  was  invented  by  George  Winslow,  of  R»>i'  a, 
and  was  described  in  Appletons'  Dictionary  of  Jfechnr,".*. 
Still  later,  a  machine  was  invente<l  by  M.  fiemot,  of  Par5. 
and  was  described  in  detail  by  Byrne.  This  machine  vii< 
used  to  some  extent  with  success  in  France  and  Bel^um.  arl 
subsequent  to  1860  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  a'i: 
the  U.  S.  In  this  machine  the  chisel  is  driven  by  a  carc  l« 
the  file-blank  moves  along  beneath  it,  and  the  diserenct-  id 
height  of  teeth  which  is  given  by  the  hand-process  in  jv4^^ 
ing  from  the  end  to  the  middle  of  the  file,  and  the  revere, 
is  thus  imitated.  Considerable  sums  of  money  were  ti* 
pended  in  the  effort  to  make  this  process  a  success  in  Bir- 
mingham, but  in  vain.  File  makmg  by  machiner}-  i>  &l 
important  industry  in  the  U.  S.,  some  of  the  plant.<  baT-.r.^ 
facilities  for  producing  from  30,000  to  40,000  per  day  ea/  L. 
and  for  sup]>lying  over  3,000  varieties.  This  is  done  5^- 
cheaply  that  it  no  loneer  pays  to  recut  worn  files,  a  pnxt-^^ 
in  common  use  when  all  files  were  made  by  hand. 

R.  H.  TeuRSTo.N. 

Filellsh :  a  fish  of  the  family  Balistidm  and  the  onl-r 
Pledognathi,  The  filefishes  have  a  conical  muzzle,  termini' • 
ing  in  a  mouth  furnished  with  teeth  in  both  jaws.  In  bn*- 
istes  proper  (see  Balistid^e)  there  are  eight  teeth  in  a  5u\f:> 
row  in  each  jaw ;  their  bodies  are  covered  with  hard  rh<i-j- 
boidal  scales,  having  the  appearance  of  the  teeth  of  a  file . 
and  they  are  furnished  witn  spines  in  relation  with  the  iior- 
sal  and  other  fins.  The  filefisnes  are  brilliantly  colore<l  a',  i 
abound  in  warm  seas:  several  species  occur  on  the  AtUrr « 
coasts  of  the  U.  S.  The  species  represent  several  very  c:^ 
tinct  types  of  structure,  varying  in  the  development  of  thr 
spinous  dorsal  fin,  the  position  of  that  fin  (wnich  in  >< ;:.( 
species  is  very  far  forward),  the  character  of  the  scales,  etc. 

Revised  by  F.  A,  Li«  an 

Filelfo :  See  Philelpho. 

Filibuster  [from  Span,  filibustero,  flihustero^  from  Ft. 
flibustier,  fribustier  (with  silent  «),  from  Dutch  vrijbf>t*>^^ 
(whence  also  Eng.  freebooter);  vrif  free  +  Imit,  booty,  plun- 
der] :  a  buccaneer  or  pirate.  In  1849  and  IfliSl  the  nAn:*- 
was  applied  by  the  Cuoans  to  Narciso  Lopez  and  his  fol.xw 
ers,  ana  from  that  time  it  became  a  common  name  in  tii- 
U.  S.  for  the  military  adventurers  who  have  fitted  up  eni'- 
ditions  from  that  country  against  the  Spanish-Ameri' :ir 
states.  The  most  famous  of  the  filibusters  nave  been  Ia'I*  i, 
above  mentioned,  and  William  Walker,  who  invaded  S*-»n-rs. 
Mexico,  in  1853,  and  afterward  three  times  atteroptt^i  !. 
make  himself  master  of  Nicaragua :  1855-57,  in  1857,  and  it 
1860.    See  Lopez,  Narciso,  and  Walker,  William. 

Filici^a,  fee-lee-kaa'y&,  Vincknzo,  da :  Italian  jxv>t :  b 
at  Florence  of  a  noble  family,  Dec.  30, 1642.  Even  m  v^.m/I. 
his  ardent  temperament  was  controlled  bya  clear  judgnntTt 
and  high  principles,  and  he  returned  to  Florence,  aftor  i  :- 
student-life  at  Pisa,  with  the  character  of  an  accompli^n-  : 
scholar  and  an  earnest,  upright  man.  Eminent  as  a  jun^*. 
and  even  consulted  as  a  theologian,  he  occupied  every  lei>im 
hour  with  poetry,  and  when  at  the  age  of  thirty-one  he  niar- 
ried  into  the  great  Capponi  family  and  was  made  sens'-  r 
by  the  ^rand  duke,  he  was  already  known  in  Italy  as  a  p  -e* 
01  distinguished  genius.  His  noble  canzone  addressoil  J  • 
John  Sobieski  on  occasion  of  the  raising  of  the  siep  •<! 


360 


FILMER 


PIN 


ticket  with  Gen.  Taylor.  On  the  death  of  the  latter,  July 
9,  1850,  Mr.  Fillmore  became  President.  The  great  events  of 
his  administration  were  the  passage  of  the  Compromise  Acts 
of  1850  and  the  Japan  expedition  of  1852.  Mr.  Fillmore  was 
in  Europe  1855-56,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  the  candidate 
of  the  American  party  for  the  Presidency,  lie  did  not 
again  enter  public  life.    D.  Mar.  8, 1874. 

Filmer,  Sir  Robert  :  political  writer ;  b.  at  East  Sutton, 
Kent,  England,  toward  tne  end  of  the  sixteenth  century ; 
educated  at  Cambridge ;  d.  about  1653.  He  was  the  most 
prominent  of  the  early  expounders  of  the  Divine  Right 
Theory  (q,  v.),  which  he  presented  in  its  most  extreme  form, 
asserting  the  absolute  freedom  of  the  king  from  human 
control.  The  Patriarcha^  published  after  his  death  (1680), 
contains  the  most  complete  exposition  of  his  views,  and  was 
answered  by  Locke  in  nis  Treatise  on  Government  Filmer 
also  wrote  The  Anarchy  of  a  Mixed  and  Limited  Monarchy 
(1646) ;  The  Power  of  Kings  and  in  Particular  of  the 
King  of  England  (1648) ;  and  Observations  upon  Mr. 
Ilobbes's  Leviathan,  Mr,  Milton  against  Salmasius,  and  H. 
Grotius  De  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis,  concerning  the  Originall 
of  Got^mment  (1652). 

Filoplames  [from  Lat.  ^/um,  thread  +  j>/uma.  feather] : 
See  Feathers. 

Filter :  See  Water. 

Filth  Diseases :  a  term  introduced  by  Mr.,  now  Sir,  John 
Simon,  in  his  report  as  medical  officer  of  the  Privy  Council 
and  Local  Government  Board  of  Great  Britain,  made  in  1874, 
to  include  certain  forms  of  disease  upon  whose  prevalence 
and  spread  in  a  community  he  supposed  the  presence  of 
putrescent  refuse  matter,  solid  and  nuid,  to  exert  a  great 
influence.  Among  these  diseases  he  included  typhoid  &ver, 
cholera,  dysentery,  and  various  forms  of  diarrhceal  disease, 
and  also  referred  to  septic  diseases,  such  as  er>'sipelas,  pye- 
mia, puerperal  fever,  and  septiciemia,  as  spreaa  by  the  same 
cause.  By  **  filth  **  in  this  connection  is  meant  more  es(>e- 
cially  human  excrement  and  putrefiable  garbage  and  refuse 
accumulated  in,  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of,  human  hab- 
itations, either  lying  on  the  surface  or  stored  in  dust-bins, 
cesspools,  privy  vaults,  obstructe<l  or  badly  graded  sewers, 
and  the  like.  From  such  accumulations  Mr.  Simon  held 
that  "  two  chief  sorts  of  danger  to  life  arise :  one,  that  vola- 
tile effluvia  from  the  refuse  pollute  the  surrounding  air  and 
everything  which  it  contains;  the  other  that  the  liquid 
parts  of  the  refuse  pass  by  soakage  or  leakage  into  the  sur- 
rounding soil,  to  mingle  there  of  course  in  whatever  water 
the  soil  yields,  and  in  certain  cases  thus  to  occasion  the 
deadliest  pollution  of  wells  and  springs."  It  is  doubtful 
whether  Mr.  Simon  supposed  that  either  the  filth  itself  or 
the  ordinary  volatile  products  of  putrefaction  were  the  ac- 
tive causes  of  the  specific  infectious  diseases  to  which  he  re- 
ferred, but  such  has  no  doubt  been  the  opinion  of  many 
persons  who  accepted  his  teachings,  and  it  is  a  very  com- 
mon idea  that  accumulations  of  filth  are  in  themselves  suf- 
ficient to  generate  epidemic  diseases,  and  that  not  only 
typhoid  fever,  but  also  diphtheria,  yellow  fever,  and  even 
scarlet  fever,  may  thus  arise  de  novo.  Discoveries  in  bacte- 
riology and  the  application  of  exact  methods  of  research 
have  shown  that  the  importance  of  filth  as  a  causal  factor 
in  the  production  of  disease  consists  mainly  in  two  facts — 
first,  that  it  furnishes  a  good  medium  for  the  growth  and 
multiplication  of  certain  forms  of  pathogenic  bacteria  when 
these  gain  access  to  it;  and,  second,  that  sooner  or  later 
such  bacteria  are  very  likely  to  find  their  way  into  it. 

Of  the  micro-organisms  which  produce '  disease,  some, 
such  as  the  bacillus  of  typhoid,  can  grow  and  multiply  in 
dead  organic  matter  at  oniinarv  tem|)eratures,  and  a  few  of 
them  may  thus  in  the  course  o^  a  few  days  make  all  parts 
of  a  foul  solution  dangerous,  while  others,  such  as  the  bacil- 
lus of  tubercle,  require  temm*ratures  near  that  of  the  living 
body  for  development,  ana  hence  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances do  not  make  accumulations  of  filth  infectious.  Al- 
though smallpox,  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  measles,  and 
typhus  may  be  conveyeil  by  foul  clothing  or  betiding,  yet 
their  spread  is  usually  in  no  way  connected  with  accumu- 
lations of  filth,  nor  art*  they  gonerated  de  novo  by  such  ac- 
cumulations. Typh()i<l  fever  is  the  typi<'al  filth  disease,  in 
the  sense  that  it  is  mainlv  transmitted  through  human  ex- 
creta, yet  there  is  no  evidence  that  a  cesspool  or  water-sup- 
ply can  become  the  cause  of  this  disease  in  any  other  way 
Ihan  by  having  the  s|)ecific  bacillus  of  typhoid  added  to  it. 
It  is  possible  that  a  common  ami  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances harmless  form  of  bacillus  may,  in  the  course  of  time 


and  under  special  conditions  of  food  and  temperature,  l)f  s<> 
changed  in  nature  and  functions  as  to  be  capable  of  j»ri>- 
ducing  a  transmissible  disease,  but  it  is  very  improUMe 
that  such  a  change  ^ves  rise  to  the  ordinary  lorms  of  yjie- 
cific  disease  as  seen  m  practice. 

The  idea  that  specific  disease  of  any  kind  is  produced  hy 
gases  or  volatile  products  of  any  kind  given  off  by  dtv-om- 
{losing  filth  is  now  generally  abandoned,  and  it  Is  kiicwn 
that  the  micro-organisms  which  cause  such  diseases  do  ri«  t 
pass  into  the  air  from  the  surface  of  fluids  or  from  ni<M 
surfaces  by  simple  evaporation.  They  are  carried  int<»  tl.r- 
air  by  sprav  or  dust,  out  not  otherwise.  Whether  }el.ow 
fever  is  a  filth  disease,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term',  i^  at^ 
yet  uncertain,  but  it  is  prudent  to  act  on  the  supixt^in.  n 
that  its  specific  germ  may  be  preserved  in,  and  have  its  |x)w. 
ers  for  evil  intensified  by,  accumulations  of  human  eicrt-tA 
and  by  water  polluted  with  such  excreta. 

The  various  forms  of  septic  disease,  including  puerpi  nil 
fever  and  .those  produced  by  pyogenic  organisms,  are  cft.Ti 
due  to  want  of  cleanliness  of  the  person,  of  clothing,  of  in- 
struments, etc.,  and  such  want  of  cleanliness  is  apt  to  ixt  i.r 
in  connection  with  or  to  be  produced  by  the  presenile  of  He- 
cumulations  of  filth,  and  in  this  sense  they  may  perha[>.»  W 
called  filth  diseases.  The  name  ''fingei^nail  fever,"  whi«h 
has  been  applied  to  puerperal  fever,  is  a  very  sugge>ti>e 
one. 

Filth  diseases  are  to  be  prevented,  as  Simon  remark*. 
by  preventing  accumulations  of  filth  rather  than  by  trw;.^ 
to  disinfect  such  accumulations,  and  one  of  the  most  imi^.r- 
tant  means  of  doing  this  tof  &  city  is  a  proper  sy^tc^)  of 
sewerage,  which  involves  a  good  general  water-supi>ly  avA 
the  regulation  of  the  drainage  systems  in  individual  Yun.-*^ 
to  insure  proper  connections  and.  prompt  disposal  of  li<|>iiti 
wastes.  J.  S.  BiLLi>'t.>i, 

Fi'Iam  A'qan  [Lat.,  liter.,  a  thread  of  water;  ft  I*>m, 
thread -f  a'^tME,  gen.  of  a'^ua,  water] :  in  law.  an  imajrinn'r 
line  passing  alon^  the  middle  of  a  river  and  dividiii;:  rh'<^' 
soil  underneath  into  two  equal  portions.  In  navi^^ilic 
streams  above  the  point  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  fltms  ax.,] 
in  all  streams  which  are  not  navieable,  the  filum  aqu<r  iit« 
ignates  the  boundary  to  which  the  lands  of  owners  Hl^nc 
the  river  extend.  If  a  grant  be  made  of  land  adjaf*ent  t<>  a 
river,  it  includes  the  soil  to  the  center  of  the  stream,  un  •  >5 
the  terms  of  the  grant  clearly  indicate  a  contrary  intent i<  tl 
If  an  island  forms  in  the  river  so  as  to  be  divided  by  thf 
filum  agucp,  the  parts  thus  separated  belong  respectiv»'ly  u-> 
the  opposite  proprietors.  If  there  be  a  cri^nal  dejK^Mt  •  n 
of  eartti  upon  one  bank,  and  none  or  little  upon  the  (»tiH  r. 
the  thread  of  the  stream  will  constantly  vary,  so  as  to  al- 
ways be  midway  between  the  banks.  But  if  a  large  pc»rti«'ii 
of  land  be  detached  from  one  side  and  carried  to  the  ot  it  r. 
the  thread  remains  as  before,  so  that  the  estate  of  en<  h 
owner  may  extend  to  the  same  limits  as  previously.  If  a 
single  person  owns  the  land  on  both  side^^  of  a  stream.  i>f 
course  the  entire  bed  is  also  his  sole  property. 

The  filum  agues  in  all  cases  only  denotes  the  owner- 1  ir- 
of  land  forming  the  bed  of  a  river  or  rising  above  the  *':r- 
face,  but  does  not  indicate  any  exclusive  proprietarj-  hlJ  t 
in  the  water  which  is  thus  supposed  to  be  divideil.'  \\i,- h 
riparian  owner  along  the  whole  course  of  the  stream  ha-  a 
right  to  have  the  water  flow  in  its  accustomed  manner  a:. : 
volume,  and  no  one  of  the  owners  is  justifled  in  divrrtir  j 
the  stream  to  his  own  uses,  or  in  so  materially  dimini^l  r:.' 
the  water-supf)ly  which  it  affords  as  to  occasion  unrfa-**  ■: 
able  injury  to  the  others.  But  any  use  of  the  water,  a?  f  ' 
purposes  of  irrigation,  etc.,  which  does  not  sensibly  ini|^:r 
the  rights  of  such  other  persons,  is  allowable. 

In  the  case  of  public  rivers,  or  those  in  which  therp  1*5  « 
flow  of  tide  water,  the  soil  underneath  does  not  belonc  r.-- 
adjoining  owners,  but  to  the  sovereign  or  stat«,  so  that  rJc 
doctrine  of  the  filum  agu4B  has  in  general  no  applica'i'  n. 
It  may,  however,  denote  the  boundary-line  between  two  dif- 
ferent States  or  two  different  counties.  In  some  jiarts  » * 
the  U.  S.  the  doctrine  is  maintained  that  though  then*  i^  n- 
tide,  the  bed  of  a  stream  which  is  in  fact  navigable  NI<'!  c^ 
to  the  State,  and  not  to  the  riparian  owners;.  See  Kivi  k.* 
and  Navioable  Streaks.  Oeoroe  (''uA>r- 

Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwnan. 

Fin  [M.  Eng.  fin^  finne  <0.  Eng../!nn  :  Germ.  F*f*^*f  ^ 
Teuton,  finna  ihAt.  pinna,  fin,  wing]  :  the  principal  origin  ^  f 
locomotion  in  fishes.    A  fin  consists  of  a  membrai]ou>  ixjv.'  - 
sion  of  the  body,  supported  by  bony  spines  or  cartilairir.'':' 
rays.    Fins  may  be  either  median  or  paired,  accondiiig  &- 


362 


FINANCE 


These  spheres  of  public  expenditure  in  the  U.  S.,  the  local, 
State,  and  Federal,  do  not  And  their  exact  counterpart  in 
other  countries.  However,  the  expenditure  on  the  one  hand 
of  a  nation  and  on  the  other  hand  of  a  city  are  in  general 
alike  in  character  the  world  over,  the  former  affecting  the 
widest,  the  latter  the  narrowest  public  interests. 

Btidget — A  budget  is  an  official  forecast  of  public  expend- 
iture and  revenue,  on  which  the  money-raising  and  money- 
spending  laws  are  based — official,  in  the  sense  that  it  is  made 
by  a  government  official,  the  head  of  the  government  finances. 
A  forecast  of  the  public  revenue  and  expenditure  must  be 
based  on  the  experience  of  the  past,  ana  presupposes  a  re- 
view of  the  financial  measures  oi  the  preceding  fiscal  years. 
Under  constitutional  governments  the  budget  is  of  the  great- 
est importance  in  the  diets  and  the  other  representative 
bodies,  where  it  is  discussed  and  criticised  by  the  legislators 
who  control  the  appropriation  of  public  money  ana  devise 
means  of  raising  public  revenue.  The  leading  example  of 
budget  legislation  is  found  in  Great  Britain.  The  British 
Parliament  controls  all  fiscal  measures  of  the  Government, 
but  never  originates  them.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
the  head  of  the  Government  finances,  offers  to  the  House  of 
Commons  his  budget  or  estimates  for  the  ensuing  fiscal  year, 
in  the  shape  of  a  full  statement  of  the  amount  of  money  re- 
quired by  the  Government,  and  of  his  plans  for  meeting  that 
expenditure.  The  spending  and  raising  bills  are  discu^ed  in 
committee  of  the  whole,  the  Chancellor  defending  the  pro- 
posed measures  by  reference  to  the  experience  of  former 
years ;  the  bills  may  be  slightly  amended,  and  after  their  pas- 
sage in  the  House  of  Commons  generally  receive  the  approval 
of  the  House  of  Lords,  which  can  only  reject  or  accept  them. 

In  the  case  of  the  U.  S.  Congress,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  a  member  of  the  cabinet,  and  head  of  the  Federal 
finances  like  the  British  Chancellor  of  the  Exche(^uer,  sends 
his  estimates  to  the  Federal  Congress.  They  are  introduced 
in  December,  from  six  to  seven  months  before  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  fiscal  year  on  July  1.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  though  responsible  for  the  carrying  out  of  the 
fiscal  laws  passed  by  the  Congress,  has  but  a  small  share  in 
shaping  those  laws.  He  may  be  called  upon  to  testify  as  to 
some  item  in  his  estimates  before  a  committee  of  either 
house,  but  the  financial  policy  of  the  Government  is  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  Congress  and  of  its  committees.  The 
monev-spending  and  money-raising  bills  are  framed  by  the 
committees  irrespective  of  the  Secretary's  wishes,  the  com- 
mittees, moreover,  acting  inde{)endently  of  each  other. 
Mone^-raisin^  bills  must,  and  money-spending  bills  usually 
do,  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  After  pass- 
ing this  lower  house  the  bills  are  sent  to  the  Senate  for  ap- 
proval There  they  are  handled  by  similar  committees,  and 
are  generally  amended  and  returned  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives for  reconsideration.  Finally,  the  bills  pass  botli 
houses  in  the  same  form  through  the  intervention  of  a  so- 
called  "  conference  committee,"  if  they  are  otherwise  unable 
to  agree,  and  if  approved  by  the  President,  become  laws. 
The  fiscal  legislation  of  the  States  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
Federal  Government.  In  the  lesser  political  units  it  lies 
more  in  the  hands  of  the  heads  of  counties,  townships, 
etc.,  to  frame  the  local  fiscal  laws  under  the  supervision 
of  the  people's  representatives,  as,  for  instance,  of  the 
common  council  and  board  of  aldermen  in  the  case  of  cities. 

In  the  finances  of  the  U.  S.,  Federal,  State,  and  local  alike, 
the  carrying  out  of  fiscal  measures  is  in  the  hands  of  three 
distinct  departments :  The  director's  department,  compris- 
ing the  Federal  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  his  assistants, 
the  State  and  city  comptroller,  etc.  These  officials  execute 
the  fiscal  laws,  and  draw  warrants  for  the  imyment  of  public 
expenditure  which  are  honored  by  the  caaniers  department, 
the  treasurer,  or  chamberlain,  who  have  direct  charge  of  the 
public  funds.  The  auditor's  department  verifies  the  war- 
rants and  claims,  in  a  word,  the  public  accounts.  The  ac- 
counts of  the  States  and  lesser  units  are  complicated  by  the 
system  of  so-called  funds.  These  are  divideti  into  invest- 
ment funds  and  account  funds.  Investment  funds  are  ac- 
cumulations of  money  in  the  State  or  local  treasuries,  in- 
vested productively  in  bond  and  mortgage  or  otherwise,  the 
interest  being  generally'  devoted  to  some  special  object.  The 
school  funds  in  various  States  are  a  leading  example. 
Account  funds  are  merely  the  names  given  to  various  ac- 
counts or  divisions  in  government  bookkeeping.  The  levee 
fund  or  the  street  fund  is  thus  credited  with  the  amounts 
appropriated  for  that  particular  purpose  and  debited  with 
tne  amounts  spent  on  those  objects,  and  so  with  other  ac- 
count funds.    The  general  fund  has  grown  to  be  the  most 


important,  and  includes  all  the  items  not  embraced  by  thf> 
others.  A  further  complication  in  the  State  and  local  puhlir 
accounts  in  the  U.  S.  arises  from  the  fact  that  large  trans- 
fers are  frequently  made  in  them  from  one  acoount  fund  t4» 
another,  and  from  an  account  fund  to  an  investment  fuinl. 
or  vice  versa,  to  supply  a  deficiency  in  one  or  the  other. 

PtJBLic  Revenue. — The  expenditure  of  governments  i<* 
met  b^  their  revenue.  The  sources  of  pubUc  revenue  art 
domains,  business  enterprises,  dues,  taxes,  and  loans,  the  firM 
four  comprising  the  oniinary,  the  last  the  leading  item  nf 
extraordinary  public  revenue. 

Domains, — These  are  the  public  lands  owned  and  mana^ 
by  the  various  governments.  The  net  receipts  from  lhi> 
source,  if  they  exist,  figure  among  the  receipts  of  the  govern- 
ments. In  European  countries  the  domains  consist  lar;;*  U 
of  forest  lands ;  these  are  rented  at  such  rates,  or  their  prrxf- 
ucts  are  sold  at  such  prices,  that  they  net  the  national  or  hn  a; 
treasuries  considerable  sums :  in  Bavaria,  for  instance.  11  \^-t 
cent,  of  the  total  ordinary  revenue;  in  Prussia,  5  per  tHji. 
Other  than  fiscal  motives  may  lead  to  the  retention  of  pv- 
emment  domains,  such  as  the  desire  to  preserve  the  foTvA\ 
or  the  desire  to  encoura^  agricultural  settlers.  The  lan»r 
outweighs  the  fiscal  motive  in  the  U.  S.,  and  in  eon5e>qut«n<'»- 
the  immense  tracts  of  Government  lands  have  never  |in»vi-.i 
a  remunerative  investment.  From  1784  to  1883  the  Fe<ltral 
Government  spent  $352,000,000  on  the  purchase,  survey,  ami 
administration  of  the  public  lands ;  during  the  same  ihtih) 
the  receipts  from  the  sale  of  land  aggregated  $234,000.(Mn». 
Hence  the  Goveniment  has  done  a  losing  business  with  iT» 
land.  Instead  of  disposing  of  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  recoN^r 
the  amount  it  cost  to  acc^uire  and  manage  it,  the  Govern- 
ment has  pursued  the  policy  of  disposing  of  itfi  land  at  su'  h 
low  figures  that  the  investment  has  proved  unremunemtiM. 
The  desire  to  encourage  the  settlement  of  the  West  has  \n^  i> 
uppermost  in  Federal  land  legislation.  The  pre-empt ir-i). 
homestead,  and  bounty  laws  hi^  disposed  of  337,000,0(N)  >  * 
acres  up  to  1883  ;  grants  of  land  in  aid  of  road,  canal,  aii*^ 
railway  construction,  and  grants  to  the  individual  Statt--'  ii 
aid  of  schools  and  coUe^,  took  in  addition  234.000.0(N>  '  f 
acres.  The  public  domain  originally  containe<l  1, 849.000.1  >•*» 
of  acres,  of  which  it  is  estimated  620,000,000  hati  been  (i im- 
posed of  prior  to  1883,  at  an  average  price  of  38^  cents  j^r 
acre.  In  the  finances  of  the  States  and  lesser  uxiit«  in  ih' 
U.  S..  public  land  is  similarly  unremunerative,  and  thouiri 
some  cities  own  considerable  amounts  of  real  estate,  the  rc'\  t  - 
nue  derived  from  leasing  or  selling  it  is  never  lanre.  Th- 
is not  so  much  due  to  the  influence  of  other  than  ascal  u^t*- 
tives,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Federal  Government,  but  owjll- 
to  careless  management,  the  land  being  leased  at  low  figun.^ 
and  for  long  terms  of  years. 

Oovemment  Bumness  Enterpriser, — The  second  class*  if 
government  revenue,  that  from  business  enterprises,  is  t^e^i 
represented  by  the  operations  of  the  post-office,  which  in  al. 
civilized  countries  is  now  a  government  monoix)ly.  Tb» 
penny  post  reform  of  Rowland  HiU  in  Great  Britain'  bep  li- 
ning with  the  year  1840,  was  decisive  in  its  influence  on  if « 
postal  policy  of  various  nations.  In  accordance  with  Hill- 
recommendation  the  hitherto  exorbitant  charges  for  trans- 
porting letters  were  lowered  to  a  uniform  rate  of  one  \^ut,\ 
per  letter  for  all  distances  within  the  United  Kingdom.  A* 
a  result  of  this  change,  the  business  transacted  bv  the  p<>^t- 
office  increased  enormously,  but  the  net  revenue  tell  off  an-: 
did  not  reach  the  figure  at  which  it  stood  prior  to  the  re- 
form until  1872.  The  postal  reform  of  Great  Britain  h/L* 
been  copied  in  turn  by  every  civilized  nation.  In  the  T.  •*. 
the  policy  of  cheapening  postal  charges  outweighs  the  fi--  i 
consideration  of  deriving  a  net  revenue  from  the  post-<-»t!i'  »• 
Prior  to  1841  the  gross  revenue  exceeded  the  expenses  oi  \  '• 
post-office,  but  since  1852  the  annual  expenditure  ha*^  •  \- 
ceeded  the  annual  revenue.  These  ever-recurring  deii«  i- 
have  been  due  to  the  cheapening  of  |K)sta]  rates  and  t'*  r^  > 
necessity  of  supplying  an  enormous  and  thinly  populai»*i 
territory  with  postal  facilities. 

During  the  nscal  year  1891  the  gross  revenue  of  the  F«  ; 
eral  post-office  amounted  to  $65,908,909;  the  total  exj^eni:- 
ture  during  the  same  year  amounted  to  $72,069,115.  re^  .  *- 
ing  in  a  deficit  of  $6,160,205.  While  the  post-office*  in  ti.^ 
New  England  and  Middle  States  netted  the  Govern iiu:/ 
$6,000,000,  those  in  the  other  sections  of  the  country  tliit  a 
losing  business  to  the  extent  of  $12,000,000.  The  post-<ifti\-* 
of  other  countries,  which  are  more  favorably  situateil  ai  . 
which  have  pursued  a  less  radical  policy  in  fixing  \n\<A. 
rates,  have  fared  better  and  net  the  governments  largi*M::i.- 
The  policy  of  deficit  financiering  in  the  post-office  is  unju< 


364 


FINANCE 


whether  owners  or  renters,  and  is  proportionate  to  the 
amount  of  house  rent  paid.  It  is  a  tax  on  one  line  of  con- 
sumption, and  has  been  adopted  by  German  cities  in  their 
systems  of  taxation,  Berlin  raising  two-fifths  of  its  ordinary 
municipal  revenue  in  that  way.  Its  advantages  lie  in  the 
facts  that  it  is  easily  assessed  and  collected,  and  that  it  is  a 
tax  on  a  person,  directed  at  the  householder  as  a  member  of 
the  community,  and  not  at  his  real  property,  a  thing ;  its 
disadvantage  hes  in  the  difSculty  of  so  framing  the  tax  as 
not  to  unfairly  burden  the  poorer  classes,  to  whom  the 
relative  amount  paid  for  house  rent  means  much  more  than 
it  does  to  the  well-to-do  classes.  Instead  of  levying  a  tax 
on  householders  in  proportion  to  the  rent  they  pay,  the  tax 
may  be  based  on  some  other  criterion.  For  instance,  the 
French  door  and  window  tax  {contribution  des  portea  et  des 
feniires)  taxes  householders  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
doors  and  windows  their  house  contains.  The  use  of  some 
such  external  criterion  avoids  the  necessity  of  inquisitorial 
methods  in  getting  at  the  exact  amount  of  house  rent  in 
each  case. 

Taxes  on  consumption  levied  on  the  dealer,  with  the  in- 
tention of  having  him' make  good  his  loss  in  the  price  he 
charges  the  consumers,  are  of  wide  apolication  in  tne  U.  S. 
So-called  licenses  are  included  under  this  head.  A  license, 
as  the  name  indicates,  involves  a  permit  to  carry  on  a  cer- 
tain trade  or  profession.  When  pedlers  are  required  by  law 
to  take  out  a  licende  to  enable  them  to  carry  on  their  trade, 
it  is  done  partly  to  keep  this  class  of  itinerant  merchants 
under  surveillance,  to  know  their  whereabouts  and  doings, 
and  incidentallv  to  limit  their  number ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  partly  done  as  a  means  of  revenue.  The  system 
of  trade  licenses  has  been  adopted  throughout  the  States  of 
the  Union,  particularly  in  the  Southern  States,  where  license 
taxes,  occupation  taxes,  business  taxes,  and  privilege  taxes 
net  the  State  governments  a  large  part  of  their  ordinary 
revenue,  in  Mississippi  14  per  cent.,  in  Texas  33  per  cent. 
In  the  North  retail  dealers  m  liquors  and  beers  are  partic- 
ularly affected  by  the  system  of  licenses.  The  cities  derive 
large  sums  from  this  tax  on  consumption.  New  York,  for 
instance,  $1,500,000;  but  the  municipal  treasury  is  not  bene- 
fited by  this  large  revenue  from  liquor  licenses,  for  on  some 
theory  of  retribution  the  law  provides  that  this  revenue 
shall  be  distributed  among  the  benevolent  and  charitable 
institutions  of  the  city.  All  such  license  taxes  have  certain 
fiscal  advantages  in  being  easy  to  collect.  However,  in  the 
U.  S.  their  extension  has  been  much  hindered  by  tlie  judi- 
cial interpretation  of  the  Federal  Constitution.  In  the  first 
place  it  has  been  held  that  a  license  tax  required  for  the 
sale  of  goods  is  in  effect  a  tax  upon  the  goods  themselves. 
From  this  decision  the  step  was  easy  to  the  one  which  held 
certain  State  license  taxes  unconstitutional,  because  they  in- 
fringed upon  the  right  of  the  Federal  Congress  to  regulate 
commerce  between  the  States.  The  trend  of  the  decisions 
on  this  question  has  been  toward  a  strict  construction  of  the 
constitution,  and  the  latter's  interpretation  now  limits  the 
levying  of  State  and  local  licenses  to  businesses  strictly 
within  the  State — that  is,  domestic  in  character. 

Next  to  taxes  on  consumption  levied  on  the  dealer  come 
those  levied  on  the  transporter — namely,  import,  export,  and 
transit  duties.  This  form  of  indirect  taxation  is  the  favor- 
ite form  of  national  and  Federal  revenue,  owing  to  the  ease 
of  collection  and  owing  to  the  industrial  advantages  which 
are  claimed  for  protective  custom  duties  in  fostering  do- 
mestic industries.  In  fact,  customs  duties  are  looked  upon 
in  most  cases  not  as  purely  questions  of  fiscal  legislation,  in 
which  case  we  could  truly  speak  of  a  "  tariff  for  revenue 
only,"  but  as  questions  of  industrial  legislation.  (See  Tar- 
iff.) The  amounts  raised  in  this  way  by  the  nations  of  the 
world  are  considerable,  as  is  seen  from  the  following  table, 
which  gives  the  percentage  of  the  total  ordinary  revenue  of 
the  various  nations  derived  from  taxing:  imports  and  ex- 
ports (1890-91) : 


Per  cent. 

Peru 73 

Mexico 68 

Argentine  Republic 65 

United  States 56 

Brazil 55 

Norway 46 

Switzerland 43 


Per  cent 

Portugal 42 

Sweden 39 

Germany 31 

Great  Britain 27 

Italy 15 

Russia 12 

France 10 


Import  duties,  however,  are  not  levied  at  a  nation*s  fron- 
tier alone.  In  many  countries,  notably  in  France,  such  taxes 
on  consumption  are  levied  at  the  gates  of  the  cities.    The 


octroi  of  French  towns  ori^nated  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
still  taxes  the  importation  into  the  towns  of  liquors,  wint'*. 
and  food  products,  fuel,  and  building  material.  In  thi^  *a; 
$27,000,000,  more  than  half  the  orainarv  city  revenue  of 
Paris,  were  raised  in  1887.  The  constitutional  law  a!)ii 
economic  development  of  the  U.  S.  prevent  the  introducti«»D 
of  State  or  municipal  customs  duties. 

Finally,  taxes  on  consumption  may  be  levied  on  the  ym  - 
ducer,  with  the  intention  of  having  him  reimburse  hiiu^-  'A 
at  the  consumer's  expense.  Such  a  tax  is  based  unon  ^4>fll• 
external  criterion,  such  as  the  amount  of  invested  c«]»ii<u. 
horse-power,  size  and  character  of  machinery,  of  ImU-t^, 
size  or  factory  or  storehouse,  or  on  some  similar  feature,  li 
the  U.  S.  the  so-called  interned  revenue  ayatem  involv.^ 
such  taxes  on  consumption  levied  on  the  producer.  In  »'\- 
tent  it  has  been  the  most  variable  form  of  Government  xv\t- 
nue.  Beginning  in  1789,  it  yielded  but  a  small  sum  annu- 
ally before  the  war  of  1812,  when  the  amount  rose  to  hIh^m 
$5,000,000.  During  the  following  years  of  peace  thi*  »r- 
temal  revenue  fell  off,  and  disappeared  in  1848.  During 
the  civil  war  (1861-65),  the  internal  revenue  system  y^n- 
again  introduced,  and  has  yielded  large  sums  ever  simi:. 
During  and  immediately  after  the  war  it  amounted  to  a 
general  tax  on  industry,  the  tax  being  directed  at  alm.M 
every  kind  of  industry.  When  the  necessity  for  an  enor- 
mous Federal  revenue  declined,  specific  lines  of  indu-tr^ 
were  successively  released  from  the  tax,  so  that  nowaiiav> 
the  production  of  spirits,  fermented  liouors,  and  tol«U'<ti  an- 
practically  the  only  lines  of  industry  affected.  This*  i>  ch-^r 
from  the  following  table,  which  gives  the  highest  aniounl 
paid  by  the  following  industries  in  any  one  of  the  ycan^ 
since  1862  (in  millions  of  dollars) : 

Banks 4*9  (1865) 

General  industry 236     (18(56) 

Adhesive  stamps 16     (187*2) 

Tobacco 47     (18H2) 

Spirits 83      (1891) 

Fermented  liquors 28     (1891) 

The  receipts  of  the  Federal  Government  under  the  inWr 
nal  revenue  system  during  the  fiscal  year  1891  were  tts  fol- 
lows (in  millions  of  dollars) : 

Tax  on  spirits 83-3 

Fermented  liquors 28*5 

Tobacco 32-7 

Oleomargarine 1 


Total 


146 


The  taxation  of  the  consumption  of  liquor,  beer,  ar! 
tobacco  is  a  favorite  financial  expedient  of  modem  natiinis; 
in  fact,  no  tax  is  more  easily  collected  and  meets  with  It>" 
opposition,  notwithstanding  the  attempts  to  evade  the  law,  a<- 
in  the  case  of  illicit  distilling.  In  general,  the  smokers  au-i 
drinkers  in  the  world  bear  the  heavy  taxation  to  whi«  h 
they  are  subjected  without  murmuring.  In  Great  Briur. 
$201,000,000,  almost  half  the  national  revenue,  are  dt  r.vtii 
from  taxing  the  importation  ($69,000,000)  and  sale  {^V^.^ 
(X)0,(XK))  of  tobacco  and  intoxicants. 

Taxes  on  Mevenue.—A  tax  upon  the  revenue  from  I/irJ  '^ 
the  earliest  and  most  widespread  form  of  taxation  of  iv\'- 
nue,  becaiise    land    is  visible,  tangible,  and    immc>^ul  i 
three  qualities  which  make  it  pre-eminently  servict^ahlt  v 
an  object  of  taxation.    Its  value  can  readily' be  determnn  i. 
and  payment  can  be  enforced  by  attachment    The  etir.  >: 
form  in  which  a  land  tax  appears  is  that  of  a  t4&x  of  a  >p^- 
cific  sum  on  each  acre  of  arable  land  or  other  unit  of  area. 
This  method  is  of  course  grossly  unfair,  in  that  it  does  ii»J 
properly  distinguish  between  lands  which  differ  in  siluati  t 
or  productivity,  and  has  been  generally  outgrown.     A  lai*^ 
method  divides  land  into  various  classes  according  to  pn- 
ductivity,  and  taxes  each  class  uniformly  per  acre,     A  la:. . 
tax  of  this  kind  was  in  vogue  in  the  Southern  coloniv>  <f 
Great  Britain  in  America  before  the  Revolution,  but  i>  n- 
tremely  unfair.    The  next  step  forward  was  taken  in  \&\i\2 
land  according  to  it8  gross  product    This  is  the  prinr  [  ► 
involved  in  all  tithes,  which  are  still  collected  in  ies-^  t:v.. 
ized  countries.    It  is  an  extremely  simple  form  of  taxai:  r.. 
and  amounts  to  taking  from  the  agriculturist  a  certain  £ni« 
tion  of  all  he  raises.    The  serious  objection  to  it  is  iha^  »; 
discriminates  against  enterprising  farmers  and  in  fav.  r .  f 
those  who  dispense  as  much  as  possible  with  the  use  of  cap 
tal,  for  by  the  law  of  diminishing  returns  the  fannors  o  t: 
not  increase  their  gross  product  in  proportion  to  their  ir 
creased  application  of  labor  and  capital.     The  land  Us 


366 


FINANCE 


cult,  for  the  voter,  with  whom  the  initiative  lies,  is  not 
anxious  for  a  change.  Previous  to  1789  each  commonwealth 
was  at  libertv  to  derive  a  revenue  from  customs  duties. 
This  source  of  revenue  was  cut  off  hj  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion. Aside  from  this  direct  constitutional  provision,  the 
Federal  and  State  and  local  taxes  were  left  to  compete  with 
each  other.  The  Federal  Government  secured  the  two  most 
copious  sources  of  revenue — customs  duties  and  internal 
revenue — and  comoelled  the  States  and  lesser  political  units 
to  extend  more  ana  more  their  general  property  tax ;  so  that 
now  opposite  forms  of  taxation  are  represented  on  the  one 
hand  oj  the  Federal  taxation  of  consumption,  and  on  the 
other  by  State  and  local  taxation  of  possession.  Moreover, 
the  interpretation  of  the  Federal  Constitution  by  the  courts 
interferes  greatly  with  the  consistent  carrying  out  of  the 
property-tax  system.  Under  the  clause  of  the  Constitution 
which  gives  Congress  sole  power  to  regulate  commerce  be- 
tween the  States,  or  between  a  State  and  a  foreign  nation, 
larg^  classes  of  personal  property  can  not  be  taxed  by  the 
States  or  locally,  because  sucn  goods  are  being  transported 
from  State  to  State  or  to  some  foreign  country,  or  because 
they  are  still  in  their  original  packages.  The  taxation  of 
corporations  doing  business  in  more  than  one  State,  such  as 
railways,  has  been  made  difficult  by  a  similar  line  of  de- 
cisions. 

The  essential  features  of  the  property  tax  in  the  IT.  S.  are 
as  follows :  All  property  is  avowedly  assessed  at  its  market 
value,  and  is  taxed  at  some  uniform  rate.  Real  estate  in- 
cludes all  immovable,  and  personal  estate  all  other  prop- 
erty. Certain  classes  of  property  are  exempt  from  taxa- 
tion :  1.  State  and  Federal  Government  property,  the  latter 
including  all  public  buildings,  forts,  navy-yards,  and  Gov- 
ernment land,  but  more  particularly  all  U.  S.  bonds  and 
notes.  2.  The  property  oi  religious,  charitable,  and  educa- 
tional institutions,  which  when  used  for  those  purposes  is 
|;enerally  exempt  from  taxation,  on  the  theory  that  such 
institutions  serve  a  public  purpose  and  should  therefore  not 
bear  the  public  buraens.  3.  A  minimum  of  property,  which 
the  law  allows  each  taxpayer  to  withhold  from  taxation; 
this  generally  includes  household  furniture,  tools,  and  grow- 
ing crops,  up  to  a  certain  amount.  The  assessment  or  valu- 
ation of  taxable  property  is  made  hj  the  assessors — officials 
elected  bv  the  people  and  generally  in  the  smallest  politic^il 
units,  if  he  individual  assessment  lists  of  a  township  form 
the  township  assessment  list ;  the  lists  of  the  various  town- 
ships form  tne  county  list,  which  is  controlled  and  corrected 
by  a  county  board  of  review ;  the  lists  of  all  the  counties 
form  the  State  list,  controlled  bv  a  State  board  of  review. 
The  amount  to  be  raised  for  the  St«te  is  divided  among  the 
counties  in  proportion  to  their  corrected  lists ;  each  county 
adds  its  share  of  the  State  tax  to  its  own  county  tax,  and 
divides  the  amount  among  the  townships  in  proportion  to 
their  corrected  lists ;  the  towns  finally  add  to  their  share  of 
county  and  State  taxes  their  town  taxes,  and  divide  the 
amount  among  the  taxpayers  in  proportion  to  their  individ- 
ual assessments. 

The  inherent  difficulty  in  the  property  tax  in  the  U.  S.  has 
reference  to  the  uniform  assessment  of  all  property.  MecU 
estate  can  easily  be  found,  and  can  be  assessed,  if  necessary, 
at  its  true  market  value.  But  personal  property  generally 
escapes  the  assessors*  notice,  or  is  exempt  because  of  con- 
stitutional objections.  Uniform  taxation  of  real  estate  is 
difficult  but  possible;  uniform  taxation  of  personal  prop- 
erty is  impossible.  The  difficulty  of  taxing  personal  prop- 
erty is  particularly  evident  in  the  matter  of  corporation 
taxation.  Corporations  were  at  first  included  under  the 
general  property-tax  system  as  persons,  as  individu^  owners 
of  property.  Corporate  real  estate  is  generally  taxed  wher- 
ever situated,  and  corporate  personal  estate  is  taxed  in  name 
at  least  in  the  taxing  district  where  the  principal  office  of 
the  corporation  lay.  But  the  attempt  to  apply  the  princi- 
ples of  the  property  tax  to  the  taxation  of  corporations  has 
signally  failed.  Little  by  little  possession  is  being  dis- 
carded and  product  or  earnings  accepted  as  a  criterion  on 
which  to  base  the  taxation  of  corporations.  This  movement 
started  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  First 
the  banks,  then  the  insurance,  telegraph,  telephone,  and 
express  companies  were  divorced  from  the  property  tax 
svatem  and  were  taxed  separately,  if  not  on  their  property, 
then  on  their  earning  power.  This  movement  is  best  illus- 
trated in  the  case  of  railway  corporations  in  the  U.  S.  The 
simplest  tax  upon  a  railway  is  based  on  a  valuation  of  its 
property  by  a  local  or  a  State  board  of  assessors.  Another 
method  of  railway  taxation  is  based  upon  an  assessment  of 


the  railway's  capital,  either  at  it«  par  or  at  its  market  value, 
or  the  assessment  may  be  based  upon  the  market  or  ]mT 
value  of  the  aggregate  capital  and  bofuied  indebtfdti^M. 
This  last  method  of  corporate  taxation  is  not  on  a  line  «irh 
the  principles  of  the  general  property  tax,  for  under  that 
system  of  taxation  the  bonded  inaebtedness  would  have  to 
be  deducted  from  the  aggregate  amount  of  property  to  oIh 
tain  the  true  value  of  taxable  property.  In  taxing  a  rail- 
way on  the  amount  of  business  transacted,  a  comf)lete  de- 
parture is  made  from  the  principles  of  the  property  tax.  A 
tax  on  gross  earnings  is  practically  impossible,  beta ti.se 
when  directed  at  railways,  whose  traffic  is  interstate — tuiu 
the  majority  of  railways  come  under  this  head — it  has  U«rj 
held  to  be  unconstitutional,  in  that  it  infringes  upon  the 
rights  of  the  Federal  Congress  to  regulate  commerce  l>e- 
tween  the  States.  A  similar  tax  on  the  net  earnings  of  mil- 
ways  may  eventually  meet  the  same  fate.  Finally,  railwa>> 
may  be  reached  by  a  franchise  tax.  The  franchise*  tax. 
though  not  satisfactorily  defined  in  law,  amounts  to  a  tax 
on  the  excess  of  value  oi  the  corporate  property  as  »  wh< 'it- 
above  the  aggregate  value  of  the  indiviaual  pieces.  A  van- 
ety  of  means  are  employed  in  the  different  States  to  deter- 
mine this  excess  value.  The  possibility  of  developing  fran- 
chise taxation  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  law  is  likely  to  make 
a  distinction  between  a  franchise  tfUL  and  a  property  tax : 
that  while  most  State  constitutions  require  all  taxes  i>n 
property  to  be  uniform,  this  provision  would  not  apply  to 
franchise  taxes,  and  would  allow  a  freer  development  of 
that  form  of  taxation  than  is  now  possible. 

The  desire  to  tax  corporations  by  the  State  government*, 
independently  of  the  local  governments,  and  the  difficuln 
of  taxing  personal  property,  owing  to  the  facility  with  whi<  i 
it  may  be  concealed  or  its  value  may  be  misrepresented,  ur 
owing  to  its  exemption  from  taxation  by  constitutional  pre- 
visions, has  led  in  the  U.  S.  to  the  introduction  of  State  e»T- 
poration  taxes,  which  directly  reach  the  corporations,  with- 
out the  intervention  of  the  lesser  political  units.  Pennsyl- 
vania took  the  lead  in  this  development  and  now  raises  m*  r** 
than  half  her  State  revenue,  $5,500,000  out  of  $10.70(),(mi, 
by  State  corporation  taxes ;  New  York  Stat«  has  follow e»  I 
suit,  and  now  raises  one-eighth  of  her  revenue  in  tbia  wa\. 
Other  States  are  falling  into  line.  Moreover,  collateral  an.; 
direct-inheritance  taxes  are  being  adopted  by  the  St«T«>^ 
The  introduction  of  such  inheritance  taxes,  which  demand  a 
certain  percentage  of  all  moneys  inherited,  is  the  best,  illn- 
tration  of  the  successful  attempt  to  develop  the  tax  $:y>t«'n 
along  other  than  the  traditional  lines.  The  tendency  is  st  n  »i.l- 
to  find  other  sources  of  revenue  than  the  property  tax  for 
the  State  governments,  and  to  leave  the  latter  tax  to  the  su>t- 
ordinate  political  units,  which  have  greater  facilities  for  .-- 
curing  correct  returns  of  the  amount  of  taxable  projHTty. 
Pennsylvania,  for  instance,  derives  only  two-fifths  of  i^r 
State  revenue  from  the  property  tax.  This  tendenov  i^  in 
keeping  with  the  more  general  one  of  limiting  the  t^i^mi 
Government  to  the  taxation  of  consumption,  by  cust«  '^.^ 
duties  and  the  internal-revenue  system,  the  Stat«  p»»\.ni- 
ments  to  the  taxation  of  corporations,  and  the  UkaI  an.: 
municipal  governments  to  the  taxation  of  property.  iiMr> 
particularly  of  real  property.  This  is  illustratea  in  the  f-  r 
lowing  tables : 

U,  S,  Federal  Revenue^  1890-91, 

From  customs  duties $219,532,205 

Internal  revenue 145,6(^.249 

Profits  from  coinage 6,714,344 

Fees  and  fines 8.985,iHH 

Public  lands 2,5ia064 

National  banks l,286.tm 

Pacific  railways 823.904 

Sale  of  Government  property. .  259,376 

Miscellaneous  receipts 6,513,3:^ 

Total  ordinary  revenue. . .  $387,259,427 

The  great  importance  of  the  taxation  of  consumption  :r- 
the  Federal  finances  is  seen  from  the  fact  that  nine-ter*j  < 
of  the  revenue  is  derived  from  that  source.    The  pnt:-'- 
from  coinage — ^the  so-called    seigniorage — arise  fn>ni   'r 
difference  between  the  market  value  and  the  face  value  • ! 
the  metals  coined,  the  Government  purchasing  silver,  ci :  - 
per,  and  nickel  and  turning  them  into  coins,  worth  mi»rv  iV- 
their  face  than  the  met^l  they  contain.    Strictly  spt^akirj. 
the  public  lands  should  not  figure  as  netting  the  Govrrv 
ment  anything  (see  above).    The  tax  on  national  banks  i^  & 
tax  of  1  per  cent,  on  their  circulation  of  bank-notes. 


368 


FINANCE 


FINDING 


issue  of  legal  tender  paper  money,  which  the  creditors  of 
the  eovemment  are  obhged  to  accept  at  their  face  value. 
In  the  case  of  voluntary  loans  the  government  enters  the 
money  market  with  its  bonds,  that  is,  with  its  promises  to 
pay,  and  offers  to  sell  them  to  the  lendinj^  public.  FlocU- 
\ng  and  permarhent  loans  or  debts  are  distinguished.  A 
floating  or  unfunded  debt  is  due  to  unsettled  accounts,  out- 
standing warrants  or  notes  issued  in  anticipation  of  reve- 
nue, which  represent  a  temporary  indebtedness.  When 
these  have  been  replaced  by  a  regular  issue  of  interest-bear- 
ing bonds,  the  debt  becomes  permanent,  or  funded.  A 
large  floating  debt,  in  the  case  of  governments,  as  well  as  of 
individuals,  is  usually  a  sign  of  financial  weakness.  Loans 
are  classed  as  productive  or  unproductivt^  according  to  the 
productive  or  unproductive  investment  of  the  proceeds. 
Thus  the  public  debt  of  Pnissia  was  largely  incurred  for 
the  purchase  of  railways,  which  investment  nas  proved  re- 
munerative, the  interest  charge  being  more  than  covered  by 
the  net  receipts  from  those  railways.  On  the  other  hanu, 
the  public  deots  of  the  U.  S.  and  of  Orcat  Britain  are  un- 
proouctive,  inasmuch  as  the  proceeds  of  the  loans  were 
wasted  in  wars — ^that  is,  they  were  unproductive! v  invested. 
Whether  loans  are  redeemable  or  trredeerrMble  depends 
upon  the  ability  of  the  government's  creditors  to  claim  re- 
payment of  the  principal  of  the  debt.  In  the  U.  8.  Govern- 
ment loans  are  quite  ^nerally  redeemable,  the  principal  be- 
comes payable  alter  a  certain  number  of  years ;  in  Europe 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  toward  irredeemable  loans,  tne 
TOvernmeuts  merely  promise  to  the  holders  of  their  bonds 
the  annual  payment  of  a  fixed  sum  in  perpetuity,  so-called 
"  permanent  annuities,"  however,  reserving  to  themselves 
the  right  of  repaying  the  principal  of  the  loan  when  they 
see  fit.  Finally  a  public  loan  is  said  to  be  secured  when 
some  specific  government  property  or  revenue  is  pledged  to 
the  payment  of  the  interest  or  principal.  A  financially 
weak  government  finds  it  necessary  to  secure  its  loans  with 
its  customs  revenue,  or  with  the  revenue  from  some  specific 
tax,  established  for  tiiat  purpose ;  otherwise  the  lending  pub- 
lic has  no  confidence  in  its  promises.  A  financially  strong 
goyernment,  however,  need  not  secure  its  loans  in  this  way  ; 
the  good  faith  of  the  government,  its  credit,  is  sufficient,  in 
the  eyes  of  the  lenders,  without  any  such  pledge.  A  sov- 
ereign power,  in  borrowing,  enters  into  a  contract  relation 
with  its  creditors.  But  from  its  sovereignty  it  follows  that 
it  acknowledges  no  power  above  it,  which  can  interpret  and 
enforce  that  contract.  Thus  a  national  government  can 
borrow,  but  it  can  also  repudiate  its  debt  with  impunity — 
that  is,  it  can  break  its  contract  and  become  bankrupt. 
Such  national  bankruptcies  can  readily  occur  in  the  case 
of  financially  weak  governments,  and  may  lead  to  wars. 
In  the  case  of  individual  States  of  the  U.  S.  repudiation  and 
arbitrary  reduction  of  interest  have  been  of  frequent  occur- 
rence; the  delinquent  States  are  protected  in  their  quasi- 
sovereign  capacity  by  the  eleventh  amendment  to  the  Fed- 
eral Constitution,  aaopted  in  1798,  which  prevents  their 
creditors  from  enforcing  in  the  Federal  courts  the  terms 
of  the  contract  on  which  State  loans  are  based. 

The  outstanding  indebtedness  of  a  government  is  indi- 
cated by  the  amount  of  principal  of  the  debt,  or  of  the  an- 
nual interest  charge.  By  the  conversion  of  a  public  debt  is 
meant  a  change  in  the  amount  of  principal  or  of  the  annual 
interest  charge  of  the  debt,  offered  to  its  creditors  by  the 
government,  and  voluntarily  accepted  by  them.  A  con- 
version generally  amounts  to  a  reduction  of  the  interest 
charge.  It  appears  in  its  simplest  form  when  the  govern- 
ment offers  to  the  holders  of  its  bonds,  the  principal  of 
which  has  fallen  due,  the  alternative  of  repayment  in  cash, 
or  in  new  bonds  bearing  a  lower  interest,  if  the  govern- 
ment's credit  has  improved — that  is,  if  it  can  borrow  at 
lower  rates  than  formerly,  a  condition  necessary  to  a  suc- 
cessful conversion — the  creditors  will  rather  receive  the  new 
bonds  than  receive  cash  in  payment  for  the  old  ones,  and  in 
this  way  the  old  loan,  which  may  have  bonie  a  high  rate,  is 
converted  or  changed  into  a  new  one  bearing  a  lower  rate  of 
interest. 

The  redemption  or  payment  of  a  public  loan  is  facili- 
tated by  providing  that  a  part  of  the  outstanding  bonds 
shall  be  redeemed  annually.  Moreover,  a  so-called  »i?ik'ing 
fund  is  often  introduced,  with  which  the  principal  of  a  pub- 
lic debt  is  redeemed.  A  certain  fraction  of  the  debt  is  an- 
nually invested  in  some  form  of  security,  generally  in  the 
outstanding  b<mds  thoniselves;  the  interest  from  these  an- 
nual investments,  together  with  the  further  investments 
from  year  to  year,  constitute  a  sinking  fund,  which  it  is 


planned  shall  accumulate  to  an  amount  sufficient  to  re<le>'tn 
the  principal  of  the  debt  when  it  falls  due. 

Bibliography. — Adam  Smith,  The  Wealth  of  Xufinn*, 
book  v. ;  D.  Ricanlo.  Principles  of  Political  Economy  mj 
Taxation;  J.  S.  Mill,  Principles  of  Political  Eronnn  j, 
book  V. ;  J.  R,  MacCulloch,  Taxation  and  the  Fund.n: 
System  (London,  1863);  E.  de  Parieu,  Traits  den  imj..'\ 
(4  vols.,  Paris,  1866-67);  P.  Leroy-Beaulieu,  Traitr  (h  h 
science  des  finances  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1888) ;  L.  Say,  Dictiun- 
naire  des  finances  (Paris,  1889-92, 2  vols.  publishe<J) ;  A.Waj- 
ner,  Finamwiasenschaft  (3  vols.,  Leipzig,  18H3-xy):  u. 
SchSnberg,  Handhuch  der  politischen  bekononiie  (\<»l.  ii.. 
Tubingen,  1885);  G.  Cohn,  Finanzwissensehaft  {S\\\n::^,i:\. 
1889) ;  L.  Cossa,  Srienza  delle  Finanze  (Milan,  IKHS),  ir.ii.- 
lated  into  English,  Taxation^  its  Principles  and  Mtit,,,:, 
(New  York,  1889);  T.  M.  Coolev,  (hi  Taxation  (Clii  ..j... 
1886);  J.  T.  Davies,  Taxation  in  New  York  (Troy,  Ih^^  : 
R.  T.  Ely,  Taxation  in  American  States  and  CitifA  (N.» 
York,  1888) ;  D.  A.  Wells,  Report  of  Tax  Commissi tm  (N*  w 
York,  1871);  Reports  on  Taxation,  50th  Congre.v*.  tir-t 
session,  Executive  Document  Xo.  400  (Washington,  lv^^  ; 
E.  R.  A.  Seligman,  Finance  Statistics  of  the  Amenrari 
Commonwealths  (Boston.  American  Statistical  Ashki.i*:.  r^ 
1889) ;  H.  C.  Adams,  Public  Debts  (New  York,  1887) ;  Ik.- 
table.  Public  Finance  (London  and  New  York,  1892). 

J.  C.  SrnwAB. 

Fin-back :  a  name  given  to  the  whales  of  the  sul>-fMii  It 
BalcenopterijKB  on  account  of  their  prominent  dorsal  fin.  vi 
appendage  which  in  many  whales  is  comparatively  mhuI:. 
or  rudimentary.  They  are  comparatively  slender,'  wnn  a 
small,  pointed  head,  the  throat  is  longitudinally  wrink.*'.. 
and  the  baleen  is  short  and  coarse.  Tlie  fin-backs  in(  J  •!• 
some  of  the  largest  of  animals,  among  them  Baitr »/>}'' ^rr 
sibbaldius,  which  attains  a  length  of  80  feet.  On  ac(«  t.^ 
of  the  great  strength  and  power  of  endurance  of  \l^^ 
whales,  coupled  with  their  small  yield  of  oil  and  the  ^\,'^r- 
ness  of  the  baleen,  they  are  but  little  sought  after.  In  ^  "  • 
localities,  however,  they  are  the  object  of  inshore  fi^K^ri* 
and  the  use  of  steamers,  gun-harpoons,  and  bondHtat.*'-^ 
makes  their  capture  practicable.  P.  A.  Lk  a>. 

Finch  [M.  Eng.^wc/*  <  0.  Eng.^n<j:0.  H.  Germ,fihrh>.  > 
Mod. Germ.  Fink  <  Teuton. *finkt- :  Celtic pinc-^  whrn<»-  Ft 
pinion  :  ItsX. ^ncione,  finch] :  any  one  of  various  binU  c^f  't ' 
iQ.m\\y  Fringxllidcs,  but  more  piu'ticularly  those  of  \\w  -^  ji- 
family  Fringillince,  The  American  finches  are  mt>st  ly « .f  •  i.r 
genera  Carpodacnsy  Chrysomitris^  Pipilo,  Cyanospizn.  /-- 
aetes^  Chondesles^  and  Zonotrichia,  They  feed  on  s»tiN  »- 
well  as  insects,  are  generally  bright,  active  birds,  an<i  ^  :;.' 
are  good  songsters.  See  Fbinoillid^,  Goldfinch,  BlLI- 
FINCH,  Chaffinch,  etc. 

Finch.  Daniel  and  Heneaoe  :  See  Nottingham. 

Finch,  Francis  Miles:  jurist  and  ix)et;  b.  at  ltl:t  -k 
N.  Y.,  June  9,  1827.  He  graduated  at  Yale  Collegi-  in  1^-* 
practiced  law  at  Ithaca,  and  in  1881  became  a  memN-r 
the  New  York  State  court  of  appeals.  In.  1892  he  U-*  a"  • 
dean  of  the  law  school,  Cornell  University.  Ainonj;  !:  - 
poems  contributed  to  different  magazines  are  the  v»'ry  \>  ■  - 
ular  The  Blue  and  the  G'ray,  which  was  first  publi^ln.:  . 
The  Atlantic  Monthly  in  1867, and  Nathan  Hale,    H.  A.  H 

Finding :  the  act  of  one  who  finds.    In  law  this  tonr  r  - 
the  same  meaning  as  in  popular  language.    The  finder  <  >!    "^ 
property  upon  land  who  takes  it  into  his  passession  l)e«'«  •    - 
invested  with  a  special  property  therein,  which  is  suj»»r.' 
to  the  claims  of  au  persons  except  that  of  the  true  o»r.  - 
He  is  under  no  legal  obligation  to  take  into  his  cu^t(Ml\  m  . 
articles  he  may  tnus  discover,  but  if  he  does,  Cfrtain  • 
portant  rights 'and  obligations  immediately  attach  t«»  i  - 
possession.    His  primary  duty  is  to  preserve  the  pmi   ^  * 
intact,  and  in  as  excellent  condition  as  its  nature  and  <:./ 
at  the  time  of  finding  will  permit,  in  anticipation  i»f  * 
owner's  appearing  to  reassert  his  title.    A  finder  thu^  i  •- 
comes  a  kind  of  bailee,  and,  like  other  bailees,  he  n\H\    \ 
fend  his  poss(»ssion  and  interest  by  bringing  action  Hir.ii-  •• 
any  third  person  who  injures  the  property,  or  asserts  <i«»in 
ioii  over  it,  or  interferes  with  his  immediate  ownership.     ' 
the  absolute  owner  ever  appears,  restoration  must  l>e  ii. . 
to  him,  and  the  finder  will  be  entitled  to  no  reward  if  ii  • 
had  been  previously  offered,  and  can  only  claim  to  N-  r 
munerated  for  the  actual  and  necessary  expenses  incum^  \ 
the  proper  care  of  the  goods.    But  if  a  specific  rewanl  \ 
been  promised,  of  which  the  finder  had  knowledge,  he  w«  • 
be  authorized  in  demanding  it,  and  would  have  a  lien  \«;«>- 


370 


FINE  ARTS 


PINE  OF  LANDS 


money  or  not,  the  designer  may  make  his  design  a  good 
piece  of  fine  art  in  spite  of  low  cost ;  but  if  he  has  to  pro- 
vide very  large  winaows  in  a  certain  part  of  the  walls  and  a 
doorway  and  porch  in  another  place,  or  to  use  a  perfectly 
flat  roof,  this  necessity  may  wholly  destroy  the  artistic  char- 
acter of  his  work.  Indeed  there  are  many  requirements  of 
modem  life  which  seem  to  tell  directly  against  beauty  of 
design.  For  these  reasons  the  fine  art  m  most  buildings  is 
of  an  inferior  kind,  and  is  not  very  impressive,  consisting 
only  in  slightly  pleasing  or  not  displeasing  proportions  and 
color  which  is  not  disagreeable. 

The  fine  arts  are  commonly  said  to  be  painting,  sculp- 
ture, and  architecture,  excludm^  music,  poetry,  eloquence, 
and  the  dance.  But  if  we  in  this  way  use  the  term  "  fine 
art "  or  "  the  fine  arts  "  for  the  arts  of  color  and  form  alone, 
there  are  really  but  two  of  them,  namely,  the  art  of  molding 
and  carving  form,  and  the  art  of  representing  solids  on  a 
surface  by  means  of  form,  light,  and  shade  and  color. 
Architecture  is  not  a  separate  and  distinct  fine  art  at  all, 
but  a  means  of  making  buildings  beautiful  by  adding  to 
them  the  appeal  to  the  sense  of  beauty  by  means  of  color 
and  of  form.  The  process  of  making  a  silver  cup  or  a  sword 
or  a  rug  or  a  boot-cover  beautiful  is  exactlv  the  same  as 
that  of  making  a  building  beautiful ;  and  the  art  of  the 
bookbinder,  the  weaver,  etc.,  is  a  fine  art  to  exactly  the 
same  extent  that  architecture  is.  It  is  therefore  a  mistake 
to  speak  of  architecture  as  a  separate  fine  art ;  it  is  indeed 
"the  highest  of  the  industrial  arts,"  as  is  stated  under 
AacHiTKCTURE,  and  it  may  be  called  the  most  important 
manifestation  of  decorative  art. 

The  act  of  creating  a  work  of  fine  art  is  the  carrying  out 
the  conception  which  arises  in  the  mind.  A  painter  has  an 
oblong  canvas  or  panel  or  piece  of  paper,  ana  as  he  sits  be- 
fore a  natural  lanascape,  or  as  he  looks  at  a  sitter  who  has 
come  to  him  for  a  portrait,  or  as  he  is  stnick  by  the  beauty 
or  the  possible  beauty  of  a  group  of  children  engaged  in 
such  or  such  occupation,  he  sees  more  or  less  clearly  tne  fu- 
ture picture  on  the  blank  rectangle  before  him.  He  com- 
poses a  group  or  a  scene.  Of  course  he  may  restrain  him- 
self and  note  down  only  what  he  sees,  or  only  part  of  what 
he  sees,  but  this  is  not  producing  a  work  of  art  in  the  his^h 
sense ;  it  is  only  providing  himself  with  material ;  it  is  atuay, 
like  the  study  of  any  mental  workman.  It  is  true  that  an  ex- 
cellent work  of  fine  art  may  be  very  like  nature,  but  that  is 
only  when  the  conception  of  the  artist  does  not  take  on  a 
character  further  away  from  the  natural  facts ;  the  resem- 
blance to  the  natural  fact  is  not  necessarily  a  merit  in  the 
work  of  art ;  bat  because  a  tree  is  a  more  beautiful  thing, 
with  its  grace  and  varietv,  its  mystery  of  color,  the  visible 
si^ns  of  its  growth  and  life  upon  it,  than  anything  man's 
mind  can  create  out  of  nothing,  therefore  it  is  generally  the 
greatest  artist  who  knows  the  most  about  his  tree  and  is 
able  to  give  the  most  essential  facts  about  it,  and  does  give 
them  while  trying  only  to  express  his  artistic  thought. 

The  fine  arts  which  apj^al  to  sight  are  often  called  the 
graphic  and  plaMic  arts ;  and  these  terms  are  sufficient  for 
sculpture  and  for  painting  and  its  subsidiary  arts,  but  do 
not  seem  to  cover  ganlening  nor  architecture  and  the  other 
decorative  arts.  1  hev  may  also  be  characterized  as  the  arts 
of  representation  ana  expression  and  the  arts  of  decoration ; 
for  it  is  the  chief  business  of  sculpture,  painting,  drawing, 
etc.,  to  give  pleasure  at  once  by  revealing  truths  of  external 
nature  and  of  sentiment,  and  by  the  absolute  l)eauty  of  the  re- 
sulting work,  while  art  in  pottery,  metals,  architecture,  etc., 
is  charged  with  decorating  that  which  would  otherwise  be 
merely  useful.  The  term  arts  of  design  also  applies  with 
fair  accuracy  to  all  these  arts. 

This  genonil  theory  of  the  nature  of  fine  art,  in  which 
practically  all  ra<Hlern  artists  agree  so  far  as  they  have  ex- 
pressed in  words  tlicir  feeling  about  their  art,  is  contradictory, 
or  seems  contradictory,  to  nearly  all  the  writing  about  art 
in  ancient  times  and  in  modern  times  down  to  the  nine- 
teenth century.  When  Homer,  as  in  the  famous  description 
of  the  shield  of  Achilles,  or  Dante,  as  in  the  account  of  the 
sculptures  or  pictures  (whichever  they  are  meant  to  be ; 
moving  simulacra,  perhaps)  on  the  Moimt  of  Purgatory,  de- 
scribes a  work  of  art,  the  exactness  of  the  representation 
of  nature  and  of  life  is  all  that  is  insisted  on.  But  the 
reason  for  this  is  simply  that  criticism  was  scarcely  ever 
applied  to  works  of  the  grapliic  and  plastic  arts  before  the 
nineteenth  century.  Men  in  Grecian  republics  admired  a 
statue  painted  in  vivid  colors,  with  gilded  hair,  the  nude 
parts  of  yellow-stained  marble,  the  (Iray)ery  blue,  green, 
scarlet,  or  of  the  yellow  stain  covered  thick  with  a  pattern 


of  dots  or  circles  or  small  figures  in  vivid  color;  they  uM 
one  another  alx)ut  the  battle  of  the  Centaurs  and  I^a'pit  hit- 
in  the  pediment  of  the  Olympia  Temple  or  the  met<ij.e>  at 
the  Parthenon,  and  admired  its  artistic  splendors,  faiw  yii);: 
all  the  while  that  what  they  admired  was  a  repreM'iitu;i'>n 
of  nature  or  the  recording  of  an  event.  The  tympanum  nf 
the  thirteenth-century  cathedral  doorway  set  forth  the  Li^- 
Judgment,  and  the  public  and  the  priests  cited  the  \iL''>r 
and  truthfulness  of  tnis  representation  of  a  scene  which  in* 
man  had  seen,  though  each  man  expected  to  see  it.  Uut 
the  artist  who  carved  it  and  painted  it  in  bright  colctr  nui\ 
touched  it  with  gold  worked  for  art  as  single-minibMily  ji<^ 
anv  self-conscious  painter  of  our  own  day. 

There  is  still  the  art  of  illustration  and  of  pictorial  *l" 
scription  and  record.  There  is  art  in  the  wood-cut  of  a  Uf  * 
kind  of  steam-engine,  and  there  is  art  in  a  pictun*  uf  a 
juvenile  book  or  on  a  postage-stamp  of  Columous  di«<'<»vi'r- 
mg  America;  but  this  descriptive  and  narrative  art  i*'  im-' 
pure  fine  art,  and  it  is  very  unusual  that  a  good  kind  of  fii  • 
art  is  found  in  combination  with  such  a  description  or  narra- 
tive. 

The  fine  arts  then  are  music,  first  and  solitary,  in  apj ■♦  n- 
ing  to  the  sense  of  hearing,  and  also  in  its  almogl  i'<(miri<  r.- 
abstraction ;  then  the  art  of  pure  form  in  three  dinien^it  r.-, 
or  sculpture,  including  all  kinds  of  carving,  modeling.  cKa- 
ing,  and  even  engraving  when  it  passes  into  sculpt urc».  h*  ir 
gem-cutting ;  then  the  art  of  color  and  form  on  a  flat  >Mr- 
lace  or  painting,  with  its  branches  in  which  form  ah  me,  '-r 
form  in  connection  with  two  or  three  tints  only,  is  u.sc*<l — i  f..ii 
is,  drawing  in  all  its  forms  and  engraving  of  the  usual  ^.t 
with  the  needle  or  burin  on  smooth  surfaces  and  the  pn- 
duction  of  prints  from  engravings  made  for  the  pur|N.^- 
Dancing  may  be  a  fine  art,  gardening  is  very  often  a  f -■• 
art.  And  all  these  are  fine  arts  proper,  having  no  ii»-»^ 
sary  application  to  any  uses  but  those  of  beauty.  But  an  n- 
itecture  and  all  those  arts  which  are  used  only  to  a<i<  vt 
objects  of  possible  utility  and  the  great  fine  arts  of  s:.:'/. 
themselves  when  so  used  are  Decoeative  Art  (7.  r.). 

Poetry  and  eloquence  are  sometimes  ranked  among  r\- 
fine  arts.  Neither  of  these  can  be  absolutely  separate*!  fr"i: 
the  other  or  from  prose-writing. 

Poetry,  whether  in  the  form  of  verse  or  not,  is  to  be  o  n 
sidered  in  the  same  manner  as  painting:  it  is  the  ii>«»'  ..' 
words  in  the  noblest  way  to  express  and  to  excite  erm  tt ;  • 
and  so  far  as  this  remains  its  work  poetry  is  fine  art.     It    • 
less  a  pure  fine  art  than  painting,  because  it  always  I .. 
something  to  relate  or  to  urge;  its  appeals  to  the  ini«:. 
are  direct  and  constant,  and  its  material  or  langua^<>  i<  r^- 
artistic  in  itself;  for  we  can  not  even  conceive  of  j»«^»'> 
made  up  of  words  in  unmeaning  sequence,  whereas  <<       • 

{)ut  together  without  representing  anything  may  l>e  v.  ^\ 
ovely.    On  the  other  hand,  the  poetry  consistv<»  not  niui  Ii  :• 
the  subject-matter,  but  almost  wholly  in  the  way   it    i- 
treated.    A  dozen  men  may  tell  a  moving  tale  in  pn'r<*  a  ^ : 
in  verso,  with  but  little  poetry  in  any  of  their  vers: 
when  the  same  storv  told  by  a  true  poet  is  «»ctH^i..z« 
quickly  as  a  lofty  work  of  art. 

Eloquence  is  fine  art  only  in  so  far  as  it  gives  high  nh  &^  ^r> 
to  the  hearer  by  the  dignity  and  beauty  of  the  tn«»iJL:*-  • 
presented  and  tne  language  in  which  they  are  pri>**T.T  •:. 
Argument  is  not  fine  art,  convincing  is  not  fine  art ;  but  ir  ■ 
peals,  consisting  of  lofty  thoughts  expressed  in  well-t. 
oined  words  and  so  addressed  to  the  higher  moral  mi:-*  .» 
to  aroiLse  men  to  noble  deeds,  can  hardly  fail  to  be  o<  »ii  -  : 
ered  fine  art  of  a  very  lofty  kind. 

Writing  in  what  is  called  prose  may  be  eloquenc»»  .1 
may  be  poetry,  and  as  such  oecomes  a  work  of  fint    w  • 
though  this  is  far  more  rarely  the  case  than  in  the  wi.rk 
the  versifier  or  the  orator.  Russex^l  Sii  r.»«;v 

Fin  de  Si^le :  a  French  phrase  meaning  end  if  * 
century,  and  used  adjectively  in  the  sense  of  pectiliar  t*  .    - 
characteristic  of,  the  close  of  the  century  or  of  the  ••f-  •  ■ 
of  such  character  as  might  be  thought  fitting  to  the  t-i   t 
the  ef)och — overwrought,  overstim Sated,  artificiaL  ain:  -•- 
phisticated. 

Fine  of  Lands :  a  species  of  conveyance  formerly  im  • 
in  English  law.    It  was  in  form  a  judgment  of  a  omr: 
justice.    There  was,  however,  no  real  litigation.    The   i 
against  whom  the  action  was  appiarently  brought  adi: 
upon  the  records  of  the  court  that  the  claim  of  the  »[•:  .•  - 
plaintiff  wns  just.    This  admission  created  a  st^e^-it^  «  * 
toppel,  so  that  he  was  prevented  from  afterwara  dcn\  :  ^ 
statement  thus  solemnly  made.    This  would  be  tniv.  > 


372 


FINlSTiiRE 


FINLEY 


Soluble  salU,  as  a  solation  of  sal-ammoniac,  often  cause 
the  separation  of  finely  divided  precipitates,  which  remain 
long  in  suspension  in  pure  water.  They  also  greatly  facili- 
tate the  filtering  and  washing  of  precipitates,  which  other- 
wise pass  through  the  filter.  G.  F.  Chandler. 

Flnistdre,  fl'ni-stffr',  or  FlBisterre  [Fr.,  from  Lat.,  end 
of  the  land ;  fi'nis,  end  +  ter'rcte,  gen.  of  ter'ra,  land] :  de- 
partment of  France,  comprising  the  western  part  of  the 
former  duchy  of  Bretaffne.  Area,  3,595  sq.  miles.  Its 
coasts  along  the  English  Channel  and  the  Atlantic  are 
formed  of  rugged  and  broken  granite  rocks,  but  in  the  in- 
terior the  soil  is  generally  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  Its 
silver  and  lead  mines  are  very  valuable.  Pop.  (1891) 
727,012. 

Flnisterre,  Gape :  a  promontory  at  the  northwestern  ex- 
tremity of  Spain ;  lat.  42''  54'  N.,  Ion.  9"  21'  W. 

Flaite  Difference:  in  mathematics,  the  difference  be- 
tween two  values  of  a  variable  quantity ;  generally  the 
amount  by  which  the  quantity  increases  in  consequence  of 
an  increase  of  unity  in  the  variable  on  which  it  depends. 
For  example,  if  the  quantity  is  n»,  then  an  increase  of  n  by 
unity  changes  the  quantity  to  (n  +  1)*.  The  excess  of  this 
over  n'  is  the  finite  difference  of  n*,  found  thus : 


(«+!)•  =  n*  +  2»  +  1. 
Subtract  n*  =  «' 

Finite  difference  of  n*  =         2n  +  1. 


The  finite  difference  of  a  quantity  is  represented  by  the 
symbol  A  before  the  symbol  of  the  quantity.  Thus  the 
last  result  is  written  A(n*)  =  2n  +  1. 

The  increase  of  the  original  quantity  (n  in  this  example) 
is  not  necessarily  nnity ;  it  mav  be  anything  whatever,  and 
may  be  called  An.  We  should  then  have,  for  the  value  of 
A(n«), 

A(n*)  =  (n  +  An)*  — n*  =  2n  An  +  (An)'. 

A  finite  difference  differs  from  a  differential  only  in  not 
being  supposed  infinitesimaL  The  calculus  of  finite  differ- 
ences treats  of  the  theory  of  the  subject,  which  has  many 
practical  applications.  An  excellent  English  treatise  on  the 
subject  is  tnat  of  Oeorge  Boole  (London). 

Simon  Newcomb. 

Fink,  Albert  :  civil  engineer ;  b.  near  Frankfort-on-tho 
Main,  (Germany,  Oct.  27, 1827 ;  studied  at  the  Polytechnic 
School  in  Darmstadt,  and  in  1849  went  to  the  U.  S.  He  in- 
troduced the  bridge  system  known  as  the  "  Fink  truss,"  and 
in  1869  he  built  the  great  bridge  over  the  Ohio  at  Louis- 
ville, Ky.  (See  Bbidoes.)  For  many  years  he  was  identified 
with  the  management  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
and  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  Bailroad  as  superintendent 
and  engineer.  In  1875  he  organized  the  Southern  Rail- 
way and  Steamship  Association,  and  in  1877  he  became  the 
commissioner  of  the  trunk  lines  centering  at  New  York, 
which  position  he  resigned  in  1888  on  account  of  failing 
health.  During  1890  he  was  the  president  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

Finland  [<  O.  Eng.  Finna  land,  land  of  the  F'inns.  Cf. 
Icel.  Finnland ;  Finnr,  Finn  +  Icmd^  land,  but  perhai)s 
orig.  fenland,  transl.  of  the  Finnish  name  Suomenmaa, 
lakeland,  Finland] :  a  grand  duchy  of  Russia,  lying  between 
lat.  59"  and  70°  N.  andlon.  2V  and  33°  E.,  and  bounded  by 
Russia,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and 
Finland.  It  includes  a  portion  of  Russian  Lapland.  Area 
about  135,000  sq.  miles,  one-third  of  which  is  occupied  by 
lakes  and  marshes ;  pop.  (1889)  2,305,916.  The  ground  may 
be  generally  described  as  a  table-land  from  400  to  600  feet 
high,  with  occasional  elevations,  depressions,  and  ranges  of 
hills  covered  with  dense  forests  of  fir  and  pine,  which,  in 
connection  with  the  beautiful  lakes,  give  the  country  a  pic- 
turesque and  romantic  though  somewhat  somber  aspect. 
The  coast  is  low,  except  the  southern  part,  which  presents 
a  line  of  mgged  cliffs  skirted  with  innumerable  rocky  isl- 
ands. While  Finland  was  united  to  Sweden  it  exported 
yearly  a  great  quantity  of  rye  and  barley;  indeed,  it  was 
called  the  "granary  of* Sweden."  But  since  its  annexation 
to  Russia  it  has  larffcly  given  up  agriculture  and  has  taken 
to  cattle-breeding,  for  which  the  country  in  many  places  is 
eminently  atlapted.  The  most  valuable  exports  are,  how- 
ever, the  products  of  its  forests,  as  timber,  pitch,  potash,  tar, 
and  rosin.  It  yields  also  some  copper,  iron,  lime,  and  slate. 
Reindeer,  wolves,  elks,  beavers,  various  kinds  of  game,  and, 
amon^  fishes,  salmon,  trout,  and  herring,  abound.  The  cli- 
mate IS  rigorous.  A  severe  winter  of  seven  or  eight  months 
passes  through  a  short  spring  immediately  into  a  hot,  dry 


summer.  About  84  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  Finns, 
the  balance  being  Lapps,  Swedes,  Russians,  Germans,  ami 
gypsies.  The  Finns  are  a  branch  of  the  Ugrian  race,  kin- 
dred to  the  Laplanders  and  the  Magyars  of  Hongarj,  hut 
different  both  from  the  Swedes  and  the  Russians.  They  art- 
tall,  strongly  built,  and  well  proportioned,  but  the  shape  of 
their  faces  is  nearer  the  square  tnan  the  oval,  and  their  fea- 
tures do  not  indicate  any  high  degree  of  intellectualit) . 
They  are  an  honest,  industrious,  and  energetic  people,  how- 
ever, and  their  peculiar  language  and  literature  nave  at- 
tracted much  attention.  Along  the  coast  the  inhabitaQt> 
have  generally  given  up  their  peculiar  dress  and  custom^, 
but  toward  the  interior  primitive  customs  still  prevaiL  The 
residences  here  greatly  resemble  the  old  American  block- 
houses. In  olden  times  the  Finns  formed  an  independent 
empire,  but  in  the  twelfth  century  they  were  conquered  and 
converted  to  Christianity  by  the  Swedes.  During  the  union 
with  Sweden  the  Swedish' language  and  civilization  tixik 
deep  root  among  the  Finns,  and  when  in  1809  Russia  final- 
ly conquered  and  secured  the  country,  she  was  met  wirh 
great  opposition  and  aversion  by  the  people.  The  Sweili^h 
was  the  official  lan^age  down  to  1868.  Russia  has  gor- 
emed  the  country  with  great  prudence,  granting  the  Fmns 
many  privileges,  and  her  attempts  at  eliminating  the  Swi-d- 
ish  elements  by  supporting  and  developing  the  original  Fin- 
nish foundation  nave  been  somewhat  suocessfoL  In  the 
popular  schools,  as  a  rule,  Finnish  is  the  medium  of  in- 
struction. All  the  native  population  are  able  to  read  arui 
write.  The  mast  important  towns  are  Helsingfors,  Aim. 
Sweaborg,  and  Viborg.  The  Emperor  of  Russia  is  Grand 
Duke  of  Finland.  The  state  Cnurch  is  Lutheran,  Th^ 
government  is  nearly  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  Russian 
empire,  and  is  administered  in  accordance  with  the  Finni-L 
constitution  of  1772.  The  country  has  an  independent  s\-^ 
tem  of  coinage,  the  unit  being  the  mark  =  one  franc.  S-v 
Finnish  Language.  Revised  by  C.  H.  THriuER. 

Finland,  Gnlf  of:  the  great  eastern  arm  of  the  Baltir: 
situated  between  lat.  59''  and  61°  N.  and  Ion.  22^*  and  30  E. 
Its  water  is  only  very  slightljr  salt,  having  come  from  tlie 
great  lakes  Onega,  Ladoga,  Peipus,  and  Saima  through  the 
river  Neva.  At  its  east  end  is  St.  Petersbui^,  and  along  \> 
coasts  are  Narva,  Reval,  Frederikshamn,  Helsingfors,  and 
Viborg. 

Finlay,  George,  LL.  D.  :  historian ;  b.  of  Scottish  luir- 
ents  near  Faversham,  England,  Dec.  28,  1799;  studied  at 
Glasgow  and  Gottingen.  In  1828,  before  the  death  of  L<*nl 
Byron,  he  joined  the  Greeks  in  their  struggle  for  indeof  n.l- 
ence,and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  Greece,  st  ml vitil' 
its  history  and  antiquities.  He  wrote  Greece  under  iht  Kr- 
mans,  146  B,  C.  to  716  A,  D.  (1843 ;  2d  ed.  1856) :  History  f 
the  Byzantine  Empire,  716-1067  A.  D.  (1852;  2d  ed.  l^Vi  . 
History  of  the  Byzantifie  and  Greek  Empires,  dottn  to  ly 
A.  D.  (1854) ;  History  of  Greece  from  its  Conquest  by  th* 
Crusaders  to  its  Conquest  by  the  Turks,  lsiOJhl566  A,  A, 
and  of  The  Empire  of  Trebizond,  UOJhU^l  (1851):  ZTiVA'tv 
of  Greece  under  Othoman  and  Venetian  Domination^  ly  :- 
1821  A,  /).  (1856) ;  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution  (1n61  , 
rev.  ed.  1877).    D.  at  Athens,  Jan.  26, 1875. 

Finley,  Lieut.  John  Park  :  special  student  of  and  writ^'r 
on  tornadoes;  b.  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  Apr.  11, 1854:  tniu- 
cated  at  the  State  Normal  School  and  State  Agrieuitutu) 
College  of  Michigan;  received  the  degree  of  M,  S.  fn>ni  tl.f 
latter.  He  has  &en  assistant  to  the  chief  sig^nal  officer  ami 
officer  in  charge  of  the  Pacific  coast  division  of  the  Weather 
Service.  Among  his  numerous  papers  may  be  mentionetl 
Tornadoes  {\^1)\  Manual  of  Instructiim  in  Optical  Tti'^'?- 
raphy  (1889) ;  Sailor^s  Handbook  of  Storm-trark,  Ftxt,  ohd 
Ice  Charts  of  the  North  A  tlantic  and  Gulf  of  Mejiro  (ItW  : 
Prize  Essay  on  the  Development  of  Tomadioe^  (1890). 

M.  W.  H. 

Finley,  Samuel,  D.  D.  :    Presbrterian  clergyman  ar  : 
president  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey;  b,  in  (bounty  Ar- 
magh, Ireland,  1715;  arrived  in  Philadelphia,  Pa..  Si»^t,  *> 
1734 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  Aug.  5, 1740,  and  was  ordain"*! 
at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Oct.  13, 1742.    He  began  hi<  mi 
istry  during  the  religious  revivals  of  the  time,  and  haTn.^: 
preached  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  violation  of  a  law  ft>rb:-i- 
ding  itinerants  to  preach  in  the  parishes  of  settled  minister? 
without  their  consent,  in  Sept.,  1743,  he  was  seized  and  far- 
ried  as  a  vagrant  beyond  the  limits  of  the  colony.     Fti«' 
July  14, 1744,  to  1761,  he  was  pastor  and  teacher  of  an  acawi 
emy  which  he  established  at  Nottingham,  Md.    In  Jul> 
1761,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  College  of  New  Jer*^  < 


374 


FINNISH   LITERATURE 


FINSCn 


ment  appeared  in  1718  and  the  Old  Testament  in  1728.  The 
youn|^er  Gezelius  also  issued  a  new  revised  edition  of  the 
Finnish  prayer-book,  which  appeared  in  1701,  and  is  still 
used  in  Finland  without  any  subsequent  revision.  This  pe- 
riod produced  a  large  number  of  books  of  sennons  by  Eskil 
PetriBus,  Isak  Rothovius  (d.  1652),  Olof  Arenius  (d.  1682), 
and  Gabriel  Vallenius  (d.  1690).  The  scientific  works  of 
this  age  were  usually  written  in  Latin,  and  the  chief  topic 
was  theology.  Among  writers  of  this  class  we  find  E.  Sve- 
nonius  (d.  1688),  J.  Terserus,  J.  Flachsenius,  and  the  father 
and  son  Gezelius.  The  elder  Gezelius  also  published  a  phil- 
osophical cyclopaDdia.  Philosophy  was  represented  by  A. 
Thuronius,  Axel  Kempe,  and  tne  polyhistor  M.  Wexionius 
(d.  1670),  whose  Eiica  and  Politica  made  their  author  fa- 
mous. He  also  wrote  a  short  geography  of  Finland.  Phi- 
lology was  also  studied,  and  brought  forth  the  first  Swedish 
and  the  first  Finnish  grammar.  The  seventeenth  century 
produced  one  botanist  of  note,  Elias  Tillandz,  and  one  anti- 
quarian, Elias  Brenner  (d.  1717),  who  wrote  a  Thesaurus 
nummorum  Sveo-Gothicorum,  The  conquest  of  Finland  by 
Sweden  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  brought 
Swedish  culture,  and  with  it  the  Swedish  language,  into 
the  country,  and  at  the  same  time  many  Swedes  settled 
in  Finland.  On  the  other  hand,  Finland  has  contributed 
much  to  the  historical  development  of  Sweden;  and  a 
number  of  the  great  men  of  Sweden— Arvid  Horn,  Arm- 
felt,  Reuterholm,  and  others — were  Finlanders  by  birth. 
The  university  naturally  had  to  look  to  Sweden  for  its 
professors,  particularly  in  its  infancy ;  and  the  university 
being  the  center  of  intellectual  activity,  Swedish  influence 
became  supreme.  The  Swedish  element  developed  a  liter- 
ary activity  in.  all  directions,  and  in  course  of  time  produced 
poets  and  scholars  of  the  highest  rank.  Indeed  many  of 
the  native-bom  Finlanders,  like  Franz^n,  Runeberg,  and 
Topelius,  writing  in  Swedish,  became  the  chief  creators  of 
the  literature  of  Sweden.    See  Swedish  Literature. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  influence  of  the  Swedish 
element  was  seen  chiefly  in  the  introduction  of  lyric  poetry 
and  the  so-called  students'  dramas  (J.  Chronander,  P.  Carste- 
nius,  D.  Achrelius,  J.  Paulinus,  and  T.  Rud^n). 

The  ravages  of  the  great  war  a^nst  Peter  the  Great 
(1710-20)  reduced  Finland's  population  from  three-quarters 
to  one-quarter  of  a  million,  ana  caused  a  serious  interrup- 
tion in  the  development  of  Finnish  literature.  By  the  Ny^ 
ted  peace  (1721)  Viborg  was  ceded  to  Russia.  Finland 
gradually  regained  her  prosperity  and  former  population, 
and  Finnish  literature  entered  upon  a  new  era,  in  which 
particular  attention  was  paid  to  practical,  economic,  and 
scientiflc  subjects.  Swedish  and  Finnish  now  became  rivals 
of  the  Latin  language  in  the  presentation  of  these.  The 
new  epoch  produced  the  eminent  theologian  and  philoso- 
pher tfohan  JBrowallius  ^d.  1755) ;  the  botanist  Peter  Kalm 
fd.  1779),  who  was  Linne's  pupil,  and  who,  at  the  request  of 
Linn6,  visited  North  America  (Sept.,  1748,  to  Feb.,  1751)  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  its  flora.  He  embodied  the  results 
of  his  researches  in  three  volumes,  called  Un  resa  till  Norra 
Amerika  (A  Journey  to  North  America) ;  the  chemist  and 
mineralogist  Peter  Adrian  Gadd  (d.  1797) ;  the  economist 
Anders  Chydenius  (d.  1803),  who  has  the  honor  of  having 
defended  in  his  published  works  the  same  principles  as  the 
celebrated  Adam  Smith.  Poetry  was  represented  in  this 
epoch  bv  Abraham  Achrenius  (d.  1769)  and  Gustaf  Filip 
Cfreutz  (a.  1785),  the  former  writing  hymns  in  Finnish,  the 
latter  pastoral  poems  in  Swedish. 

The  Gustavian  epoch  so  celebrated  in  Swedish  literature 
did  not  begin  to  bloom  in  Finland  until  its  flowers  had  al- 
ready commenced  to  fade  in  Sweden.  The  chief  Finnish 
poet  of  this  period,  Frans  Mikael  Franz^n  (b,  1772;  d.  1847), 
was  not  only  the  first  great  poet  of  Finland,  but  he  also  at- 
tained the  rank  of  one  of  the  most  eminent  lyric  skalds  in 
the  annals  of  the  literature  of  Sweden.  Other  poets  of 
this  epoch  were  Mikael  Choneus  (b.  1774;  d.  1806);  Jakob 
TengstrSm  (b.  1775 ;  d.  1882),  known  also  as  an  historian ;  and 
Henrik  Gabriel  Porthan  (b.  1739 ;  d.  1804),  whose  poems  are 
forgotten,  but  whose  labors  in  the  cause  of  the  Finnish 
language  secured  him  undying  fame.  This  age  also  pro- 
duced the  great  jurist  Matthias  Colonius  (1737-1817) ;  the 
philosopher  G.  I.  Hartman  (d.  1809) ;  the  mathematician  A. 
J.  Lexell  (d.  1784) ;  the  physicist  G.  G.  HallstrSm  (d.  1844) ; 
and  the  great  chemist  and  mineralogist  Johan  Gadolin  (d. 
1852). 

In  1809  all  of  Finland  beciime  a  province  of  Russia.  It 
seemed  at  the  out»set  as  if  the  Russian  conquest  would  be  a 
blow  to  Finland  from  which  it  would  not  soon  recover ;  but 


after  the  university  had  been  removed  from  Abo  to  HeLsini;- 
fors,  the  new  capital,  in  1828,  Finland  entered  upon  h«  r 
most  brilliant  intellectual  period,  producing  scholars,  {hi^ls. 
and  artists  of  whom  any  nation  in  any  age  might  be  pniuil. 
The  first  to  kindle  the  new  enthusiasm  and  activity  wa> 
Adolf  Ivar  Arwidsson  (1791-1858),  the  poet,  publicist,  and 
historian.  His  writings  roused  the  people  to  a  love  of  tluir 
country,  their  language,  and  their  history  hitherto  nf\»r 
known.  He  fought  for  the  rights  of  the  Fmnish  tongue  a-* 
the  vehicle  of  Finnish  thought,  though  the  scientific  ?tudr 
of  the  language  it^lf  had  already  been  b^nin  by  G.  Renvall 
(d.  1841)  and  by  R.  v.  Becker  (d.  1858).  Scholars  now  nn- 
aertook  the  collecting  of  songs  and  tales  from  the  mouth*:  nf 
the  common  people,  the  grandest  results  in  this  direct  i<>i) 
being  attained  b^  the  celebrated  Elias  Ldnnrot  (b.  1802 :  d 
1884),  who  published  in  1835  the  extensive  popular  eiir 
Kalevala  (see  Kalevala)  ;  in  1840  a  collection  of  popular 
lyrics  called  JTan/eZe^ar  (the  Finnish  harp  is  called  kanttU^. 
and  in  1880  a  volume  of  troll-runes.  The  discovery  an»i 
publication  of  all  this  popular  poetry  suddenly  shed  a*  fltiCHj 
of  light  upon  the  mythic  past  of  the  Finns,  and  gave  a 
mighty  impetus  to  the  conflict  which  is  still  raging  betwtf  n 
the  Fennomans  and  the  advocates  of  Swedish.  Much  cn^iii 
is  due  in  this  connection  to  the  Finnish  literary  soei^t} 
{Suomalaisen  Kirjalisunden  Seura)  organized  in  1831.  Be^ 
sides  publishing  the  popular  literature  already  mentiont^l 
this  society  founded  a  magazine,  the  Suomi,  ox  which  moiv 
than  forty  volumes  have  appeared.  In  the  meantime  Fin- 
nish poetry  began  to  flourisn  as  never  before.  Its  chief  rrp- 
resentative  is  August  Eugelbrekt  Ahlquist  (b.  1S26),  wh<>  l< 
at  the  same  time  the  foremost  authority  in  Finnish  philol  cy. 
Swedish  literature  in  Finland  also  felt  the  influence  of  th^ 
new  movement.  Its  greatest  ornament  is  Johan  Lud  vig  Runt- 
berg  (b.  1804;  d.  1877).  By  his  imperishable  verse  he  uot 
only  became  the  strongest  pillar  of  Swedish  culture  in  Fir- 
land,  but  he  will  forever  be  counted  as  one  of  the  ^ai**^i 
poets  that  the  whole  North  has  produced,  ranking  easily  with 
Tegn6r,  Oehlenschlftger,  or  Welnaven.  In  his  Stories  of  En- 
sign Stdl  he  immortalized  Finland's  last  conflict  in  a  s^tim 
of  pictures  of  wonderful  beauty.  Next  after  Runeberg  nuik^ 
Zacharias  Topelius  (b.  1818),  a  poet  of  the  highest  order,  anrl 
Finland's  most  popular  novelist.  His  Surgeon's  StoriKf  jH 
vols.)  have  been  translated  into  many  languages,  and  art- 
everywhere  the  delist  of  the  reading  public,  but  the  «ii^ 
cussion  of  Franz^n,  Runeberp,  and  Topelius  belongs  uTiiier 
Swedish  as  much  as  under  Finnish  literature.  Other  \^^i* 
of  this  period  are  Fredrik  Cygmpus  (1807-81),  a  lyric  an  i 
dramatic  writer  too  deep  to  bejpopular;  Lars  Jakob  Sten- 
back  (1811-70);  Johan  Jakob  Nervander  (180SM0):  Enu: 
von  Qiianten  (b.  1827);  Josef  Julius  Wecksell  (b.  lN>i. 
author  of  the  tragedy /)am>/  Bjort;  Karl  Robert  Main,- 
str5m  (b.  1830) ;  and  Theodor  Lindh  (b.  1833).  The  remo^  a! 
of  the  university  to  Helsingfors  also  brought  forth  a  nuiri- 
ber  of  distinguished  scholars,  among  whom  were  Johan  Ja- 
kob NordstrSm  (d.  1874),  an  historian  of  great  ability;  Ma- 
thias  Alexander  Gastrin  (d.  1852),  Professor  of  Finnish  am': 
translator  of  Kalevala  into  Swedish ;  Georg  August  Walln 
(d.  1852),  explorer  and  linguist;  Gabriel  Rein  (d.  IS*;:, 
Matthias  Akiander  (d.  1871),  and  G.  Z.  Forsman,  the  !h^* 
three  historians;  Johan  Vilnelm  Snellman  (d.  1881),  y\w- 
lofiopher ;  and  Carl  Gustaf  Estlander  (b.  1834),  writer  on  art* 
and  [esthetics. 

Finnish  literature  has  been  exhaustively  treated  by  S.  <». 
Elmgren  in  his  Review  of  Finland's  Literature  (1865).  »r  I 
by  Gabriel  Lagus  in  his  Lectures  on  the  Development  of  '^' 
Finnish-Swedish  Literature  (1867).  Very  comprehfiiMu- 
articles  on  Finland,  its  history,  langiiage  and  literaturr.  a^ 
published  in  vol.  iv.  of  Koraisk  Pamiljetok  (18tt?l),  and  u  • 
this  work  the  present  writer  is  largely  indebted  for  his  ma- 
terials. IIasxus  B.  Anderson. 

Finsbory,  or  Fen  Town :  See  London. 

Finsch,  Friedeich  Herrmann  Otto,  Ph.  D. :  German 
ornithologist  and   explorer;   b.  Aug.  8,   1839,   at    Wami- 
bninn,  Silesia,  Prussia.    Educated  for  a  mercantile  lift*.  h» 
seized  the  first  opportunity  to  indulge  his  love  of  travel  an<t 
natural  history  oy  accepting  a  position  with  the  Austnati 
consul  at  Rustschuk.    From  18ol  to  1864  he  was  as^iijun: 
in  the  Museum  of  Levden,  Holland,  and  at  the  end  of  ihi*; 
time  was  appointed  director  of  the  Museum  of  Nature 
History  and  Ethnology  at  Bremen.      In  1878,  under  ttj** 
auspices  of  the  Bremen  Society  for  North  Polar  Explorati'»i^ 
he  made  a  journey  through  Western  Siberia  acoompaDieil  >'  ▼ 
Dr.  A.  E.  Brehnif  tLnthoT  of  Das  Thierlebef^^Hud  explored  ti»^ 


376 


FIRDAUSI 


FIRE-ALARMS 


was  seventy  years  of  age  when  his  monumental  work  of  60,- 
000  couplets,  or  120,000  lines,  was  finished.  He  presented 
it  to  the  sultan  through  his  friend  Ayaz.  The  monarch 
onlered  an  elephant  to  be  laden  with  60,000  gold  pieces  and 
sent  to  the  poet.-laureate.  But  the  sultan's  jealous  vizir, 
the  knavish  Uasan  Meimendi,  persuaded  Mahmud  to  change 
his  decision  and  to  substitute  60,000  silver  dihrems  for  the 
gold.  Firdausi,  as  the  story  goes,  was  in  the  bath  when  the 
gift  arrived.  He  received  it  with  joy,  but  on  discovering 
the  deception  and  the  broken  promise,'  he  fell  into  a  furious 
rage.  He  at  once  divided  the  money  into  three  parts,  giv- 
ing 20,000  to  Ayaz,  and  distributing  the  remaining  40,000 
silver  pieces  equally  between  the  bath-steward  and  a  servant 
who  brought  him  a  glass  of  cordial.  He  then  sent  back  a 
reproachful  message  to  Mahmud.  The  latter,  incensed,  or- 
dered Firdausi  to  be  put  to  death,  but  on  the  morrow  re- 
voked this  cruel  mandate.  The  aged  poet,  however,  in  bit- 
ter despair  fled  from  Ghazni,  leaving  behind  him  a  satire 
which  cm  the  spur  of  the  moment  he  liad  composed  against 
Mahmud.  This  satire,  which  has  been  preserved,  destroyed 
all  the  effect  of  the  poet's  former  noble  panegvric  on  the 
prince,  and  has  ever  lasted  as  a  tarnish  upon  the  name  of 
Mahmud. 

For  the  ten  years  that  remained  of  his  life,  Firdausi 
seems  to  have  been  a  wanderer.  He  went  first  to  the  region 
of  Masandarfin;  thence  he  betook  himself  to  the  Khaliph 
Kader-billah  of  Baghdad,  by  whom  he  was  hospitably  re- 
ceived, and  for  whom  he  composed  a  poem  of  9,000  couplets 
on  the  love  of  Yusuf  and  Zuteikha,  a  version  of  the  story  of 
Joseph  and  Potiphar's  wife  as  found  in  the  Koran.  Obliged 
again  to  flee,  he  sought  refuge  ultimately  with  the  govenior 
of  Kohistan.  The  latter  made  efforts  for  a  reconciliation 
between  the  wronged  poet  and  the  angry  sultan,  and  not 
without  success.  Firdausi,  however,  had  meanwhile  re- 
turned to  his  old  home  in  Tus.  Thither  Mahmild  sent  to 
him,  it  is  said,  the  once-promised  gold  pieces,  together  with 
a  robe  of  honor,  and  a  handsome  apologv.  The  reconcilia- 
tion came  too  late.  The  aged  poet  had  just  died,  a.  d.  1020 
(A.  H.  411)  in  his  eightieth  year,  or  some  eleven  years  after 
the  completion  of  his  great  work. 

To  the  story  is  added  a  statement  that  the  Sheikh  of  Tus 
at  first  hesitated  to  grant  Firdausi's  body  the  proper  funeral 
obsequies,  on  the  ground  that  he  was  an  infi<lel,  and  leaned 
toward  the  old  faith  of  the  fire-worshipers.  Warned  in  a 
dream,  however,  the  sheikh  revoked  the  decree  and  Firdausi 
was  honorably  interred.  The  gift  sent  him  by  Mahmud  of 
Q^hazni  was  ultimately  aecepted  by  the  dead  poet's  relatives, 
and  employed  in  carrying  out  the  design,  wnich  in  his  life- 
time he  hail  cherished,  of  improving  the  dikes  of  Tus. 

Firdausi's  Shdh-Ndmah^  or  Book  of  Kings,  is  one  of 
the  great  epics  of  literature.  It  is  really  the  national  chron- 
icle of  Iran,  narrating  the  achievements  of  the  ancient  kings 
from  the  mythical  days  of  Kaiilmers,  the  first  King  of  Per- 
sia, down  to  the  Mohammedan  conquest,  a.  d.  641.  The 
most  interesting  portion  of  the  poem  is  its  first  half  or  two- 
thirds,  down  to  the  invasion  of  Alexander.  Though  much 
of  the  material  is  legendary,  fabulous,  and  romantic,  Fir- 
dausi seems  in  general  to  have  followed  quite  faithfully  his 
sources  referred  to  above ;  and  in  the  poem  there  is  unques- 
tionably a  vast  store  of  real  history.  The  Shdh-Ndmah, 
for  example,  has  thrown  much  light  on  many  historical  allu- 
sions in  the  Avesta  (a,  v.).  The  language  of  the  Shah-Ndmah 
is  in  general  a  pure  Persian,  comparatively  free  from  Arabic 
elements;  and  the  style  is  worthy  of  the  subject  and  not 
overladen  with  an  excess  of  Oriental  richness  and  coloring. 
The  nature  of  the  poem,  a  sort  of  rhyming  chronicle,  pre- 
cludes real  epic  unity ;  but  the  composition  of  the  booK  is 
interesting  as  being  the  work  of  one  person.  Some  of  the 
best  parts  of  the  poem  are  the  episodes.  The  most  famous 
perhaps  is  that  of  Sohrab  and  Rustcm. 

The  best  editions  of  the  text  are  by  Turner  Macan,  Shah- 
Ndmah,  an  Heroic  Poem  (4  vols.,  Calcutta,  1822-29);  by  Jules 
Mohl,  Le  Livre  des  Rots  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1831-68);  Vullers, 
Schahname  (8  vols.,  Leyden,  1877 — continued  by  Landauer). 
There  is  a  complete  French  translation  by  J.  Mohl,  Le  Livre 
des  Hois  fraduit  et  commente  (7  vols.,  Paris,  1876-78) ;  also 
an  Italian  one  by  Pizzi,  Firdusi,  II  Lihro  dei  Re  (8  vols., 
Turin,  1886-88),  and  an  unfinished  German  translation  by 
Ruckert,  Firdosis  Kdnigsbuch  Schahname,  hrsg.  von  E.  A. 
Bayer  (Berlin,  1890).  Selections  in  German  are  by  A.  F.  von 
Shack,  Ueldeymagen  des  Firdusi  (3  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1877) ; 
and  there  is  a  convenient  English  translation  and  abridg- 
ment by  James  Atkinson,  Shdh-Ndmah,  (London,  1832), 
of  which  a  handy  reprint  has  been  published  (New  York, 


1886).  Consult  also  Ouseley,  Persian  Poets,  Ferdusi  {Ihjh- 
don,  1846).  and  Gfirres,  Heldeiihuch  von  Iran  (Berlin,  I820i. 
An  edition  of  the  Yusuf  and  ZuUikha^  of  which  an  ex- 
tremelv  rare  manuscript  is  to  be  found  in  the  British  Muhe- 
um,  is  being  prepared  by  Ethe.  Fuxlhermore,  regarding  the 
genuineness  of  some  minor  poems  attributed  to  Firdausi, 
consult  Ethe  in  Mdnchner  Sitzungsber  (1872-73). 

A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Fire :  See  Flame  and  Combustion. 

Fire-alarms :  devices  used  for  giving  notice  of  the  (recur- 
rence of  a  fire,  classified  as  fire-alarm  telegraphs,  automatic 
electric  fire-detectors,  and  mechanical  fire-3etectors.  In  thf 
first  named  &  system  of  signal-boxes  is  distributed  over  a 
given  district,  and  connects  by  electric  circuits  with  a  cent  ml 
station,  and  thencH)  with  a  series  of  alarm-bells  on  a  second 
circuit.  By  giving  a  signal  at  one  of  the  boxes  the  place  of 
the  fire  is  telej^phed  to  the  central  station,  and  from  the 
latter  to  the  signal-bells  at  the  local  stations,  to  direct  the 
engines  to  the  place  where  needed.  The  first  practical  trial 
of  a  fire-alarm  telegraph  system  was  made  in  1851  in  Berlin 
and  New  York,  but  the  plan  was  much  modified  in  succ«r<Hi- 
ing  years,  and  as  thus  changed  was  fully  adopted  in  some  of 
the  cities  of  the  Eastern  States  before  being  put  into  regular 
use  in  New  York  in  1871.  Although  simple  in  principle, 
the  details  of  the  system  are  somewhat  complex.,  and  for  a 
full  description  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  U.  S.  patent  of 
Farmer  and  Channing,  dated  May  19, 1857.  It  is  well  known 
that  different  substances  or  mechanical  devices  change  their 
volume  or  position  with  change  of  temperature ;  and  if  wt- 
imagine  one  of  these  substituted  in  lieu  of  human  fingers  tt» 
break  or  close,  by  such  changes,  an  electric  circuit  connect***! 
with  alarm  mechanism,  we  have  an  idea  of  the  essential  prin- 
ciple of  a  self-acting  electric  fire-detector.  Mechanical  de- 
tectors depend  for  their  action  upon  agencies  altogether  me- 
chanical ;  such,  for  example,  as  tne  burning  of  a  string  to  ^f't 
the  annunciating  appliances  in  motion. 

The  fire-alarms  of  most  interest  are  those  of  the  automat ic 
electric  variety,  of  which  in  recent  years  a  number  have  Ixn-n 
devised.  In  each  of  these  a  thennostat,  acting,  when  heatt^i. 
by  change  of  form  or  position,  is  used  to  break  or  ch^se  a 
circuit ;  but  the  arrangement  of  the  circuit  wires,  the  ther- 
mometric  devices,  and  the  accessory  mechanism  in  the  dif- 
ferent plans  are  widely  different. 

The  earliest  record  of  an  electric  fire-alarm  appears  to  be 
the  British  patent  of  N.  Rutter  (1847),  in  which  the  mer- 
curial column  of  a  thermometer  closes  the  circuit  when  tlit^ 
temperature  is  high  enough  to  be  dangerous.  A  galvanom- 
eter, alarm-bell  apparatus,  and  electro-magnetic  coil  are  in- 
cluded in  the  circuit.  Thermometers  properly  fitte<l  with 
wires  are  placed  in  important  parts  of  tne  building,  so  thnt 
any  unusual  increase  of  temperature  becomes  instHntly 
known.  On  the  completion  of  the  circuit  a  soft  iron  Iwif. 
detached  from  a  permanent  magnet,  falls  upon  the  detent 
of  a  spring  or  other  alarm,  putting  it  into  action,  and  at 
the  same  time  deflects  the  galvanometer  needle,  so  as  tt» 
show  the  place  of  the  danger.  Rutter  also  proposed  the 
modified  use  of  his  invention  as  a  ^burglar-alarm  and  Tr 
the  detection  of  undue  pressure  of  steam  in  boilers,  etc.  lu 
1852  one  John  Hunter  suggested  applying  fusible  or  <:*tim- 
bustible  conductors  to  render  electric  telegraphs  self-c«>ni- 
municating  in  case  of  fires.  In  the  same  year  race  patentt*<i 
a  thermometric  circuit-actuating  device,  the  principle  of 
which  has  been,  and  still  is,  in  practical  use.  Lloyd  ih- 
scribes  an  indicator  for  completing  the  circuit  by  means  of 
a  curved  compound  metallic  strip  made  of  steel  and  ham- 
mered zinc,  connected  with  one  battery  pole;  the  other 
battery  pole  is  fixed  to  the  opposite  part  of  the  instrumcDt. 
On  elevation  of  temperature  the  strip  straightens  hselt  and 
completes  the  circuit.  Lloyd  descrioes  an  alarm  in  whieh 
a  detent  lever,  actuated  from  the  circuit,  releases  a  Ux»tiied 
wheel,  which  is  then  rotated  by  a  cord  and  weight,  where- 
upon a  suitable  escapement  causes  a  hammer  to  strike  a 
bell.  In  1857  Greenhow  patented  a  valuable  modification, 
in  which,  instead  of  setting  the  alarm  in  action  by  tx^m- 
pleting  the  circuit,  the  same  effect  is  produced  bybreak- 
mg  it. 

In  1865  Charles  Dion,  of  Montreal.  Canada,  patentee!  in 
France  fire-alarms  embracing  contrivances  both  electric 
and  mechanical,  and  of  simple  and  scientific  construction. 
Other  apparatus  brought  forward  about  the  same  time  in- 
cluded the  use  of  thermometric  devices  that  under  ordinary 
conditions  themselves  form  a  portion  of  the  circuity  so  that 
elevation  of  temperature  will  break  the  circuit  and  transmit 


1 


378 


FIREARMS 


the  "  protector  "  remained  in  this  atmosphere  during  more 
than  naif  an  hour  without  inconvenience.  On  Aug.  6, 1874, 
at  a  trial  at  Toronto,  Canada,  persons  remained  for  twenty- 
three  minutes  in  an  atmosphere  of  smoke  from  damp  straw 
and  tobacco-stalks,  in  which  the  chief  of  the  city  nre  bri- 
gade found  it  impossible  to  remain  more  than  one  minute 
without  the  protector.  The  necessity  of  wetting  the  air- 
filtering  materiid  on  each  occasion  when  desireof  for  use 
could  perhaps  be  obviated  by  some  hygroscopic  treatment  of 
the  sponge ;  for  this  purpose  glycerin  or  some  other  neutral 
absorbent  of  moisture  probably  would  prove  efficacious. 

A  dust-muzzle  or  respirator  is  used  where  grain  handled 
in  larg^  quantities  in  loading  vessels  from  elevators  or  ware- 
houses gives  off  clouds  of  almost  impalpable  dust.  It  com- 
prises a  metallic  chamber  shaped  at  its  inner  end  to  fit  the 
mouth  and  nostrils  and  with  its  outer  end  provided  with 
perforations  which  admit  the  air,  and  from  which  it  passes 
to  the  respiratorv  organs  through  a  filtering  material  placed 
within  the  chamber.  The  device  is  held  in  place  when  in 
use  by  a  band  which  passes  over  the  head  of  the  wearer. 
The  addition  of  a  covering  for  the  upper  part  of  the  face 
would  make  this  device  a  cheap  and  simple  fire-mask. 

In  1888  an  improvement  in  supplying  a  fireman's  mask 
with  fresh  air  comprised  an  air-pipe  carried  along  the  hose 
of  the  engine  to  tne  fireman  holding  the  hose-nozzle.  In 
another  apparatus,  patented  in  1889,  provision  is  made  for 
breathing  at  will  direct  from  the  atmosphere,  or  through  a 
suitable  filter,  or  from  an  air-supply  pipe  suitably  arranged. 
Another,  made  public  in  1893,  contemplates  an  armor  to  be 
worn  by  a  fireman,  the  armor  supplie(i  with  air  and  having 
external  pipes,  each  provided  with  a  mask  capable  of  being 
placed  over  the  head  of  a  person  in  a  suffocating  condition 
to  renew  respiration  during  transport  to  a  place  of  safety. 

James  A.  Whftnet. 

Firearms :  arms  loading  with  powder  and  ball ;  all  arms 
which  expel  their  charge  by  the  combustion  of  powder, 
whether  cannon,  such  as  guns,  howitzers,  mortars,  or  small- 
arms,  such  as  muskets,  rifies,  pistols,  and  fowling-pieces.  See 
Artillery,  Cannox,  and  Small-arms. 

Fire-brick :  brick  made  from  very  refractory  clay  and 
used  for  the  lining  of  furnaces,  stoves,  grates,  etc.  As  they 
are  largely  consumed  in  iron-making,  the  manufacture  fs 
an  important  branch  of  industry  which  has  been  carefully 
perfected  by  experience,  and  is  now  largely  carried  on  at 
certain  localities  where  the  somewhat  rare  materials  used 
for  the  purpose  are  most  easily  attainable.  Fire-brick  are 
usually  made  from  Fire-clat  (g.  v.),  but  other  materials 
are  used  in  their  manufacture  ;  as,  for  example,  the  "  Dinas 
brick,^*  the  fire-brick  most  esteemed  in  Wales,  is  made  of 
pulverized  quartzose  rock  cemented  with  a  little  lime.  In 
the  U.  S.  the  best  fire-brick  are  made  from  the  "Amboy 
clay  "  (a  cretaceous  clay  found  in  New  Jersey)  and  from  the 
fire-clays  of  the  coal  measures  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Illi- 
nois, and  Missouri.  In  the  manufacture  of  fire-brick  both 
plastic  and  non-plastic  clays  are  employed.  In  the  use  of  a 
plastic  clay  like  that  of  New  Jersey  this  is  first  burned  in  a 
Kiln,  losing  its  plasticity  by  the  process,  and  becoming  what 
is  known  as  **  cement."  This  is  then  coarsely  ground, 
mixed  with  from  one-sixth  to  one-tenth  of  plastic  clav, 
molded,  and  burned.  The  Mt.  Savage  fire-bricK  are  made 
at  Mt.  Savage,  Md.,  from  two  varieties  of  carboniferous 
fire-clay;  one  of  which  is  non-plastic,  in  it«  natural  state 
has  the  properties  of  the  **  cement  "  before  mentioned,  and  is 
treated  in  tne  same  way.  The  Mt.  Savage  brick  are  of  great 
excellence — bein^  equally  esteemed  with  the  Amboy  brick 
— and  are  extensively  used  throughout  the  U.  S.  At  Min- 
eral Point,  Tuscarawas  co.,  O.,  a  non-plastic  clay  is  found 
similar  in  appearance  and  properties  to  that  used  at  Mt. 
Savage.  It  is  here  manufactured  in  the  same  way,  and  the 
brick  made  from  it  are  scarcely  inferior  to  those  before 
mentioned.  •  In  all  factories  of  fire-brick  the  refuse  of  the 
kilns  is  ground  over  and  cemented  with  a  little  fresh  plas- 
tic clay,  and  in  this  way  bri(^k  are  manufactured  which  nave 
great  power  to  resist  fire.  From  their  mode  of  manufacture 
the  most  refractory  fire-brick  are  necessarily  tender  and 
have  little  power  to  resist  mechanical  strain  or  violence. 
They  are  therefore  employed  only  for  the  central  portions 
of  furnaces,  where  they  are  exposed  to  the  greatest  heat. 
Higher  up  in  the  blast  iumace  and  near  the  doors  of  pud- 
dling furnaces  brick  of  greater  strength  and  less  resistaiK^e 
to  fire  are  used.  These  are  made  in  large  part  of  plastic 
clay,  to  which  more  or  less  sand  is  atlded.  In  the  various 
parte  of  the  different  kinds  of  furnaces  used  in  smelting 


o 


FIRE-ENGINES 

operations  brick  of  different  shapes  and  qualities  are  n-- 

S[uired ;  hence  at  all  factories  may  be  seen  bricks  of  various 
orms  and  sizes,  and  those  in  which  the  materials  are  dilltr- 
ently  mixed.  As  all  iron  furnaces  frequently  reauire  U)  U- 
relined  with  fire-brick,  the  impression  generally  pn:?vaii> 
that  they  are  rapidly  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  h.  ,♦» . 
This,  however,  is  not  true,  as  the  best  fire-brick  are  iuftiM- 
ble  by  ordinary  means.  The  rapid  destruction  of  firp-t)n<  k 
which  takes  place  in  a  furnace  is  for  the  most  part  dm-  to 
the  union  of  the  iron  with  the  silica  of  the  brick,  forniinjr  a 
fusible  slag;  in  this  way  the  brick  are  eat«n  or  diss(>)\*>^i 
away.  In  the  selection  of  clay  for  fire-brick  it  is  important 
that  it  should  contain  as  little  iron,  lime,  soda,  potash,  vu-.. 
as  possible,  as  these  readily  combine  with  thesibca,  forniin^: 
fusible  silicates.  The  price  of  the  best  fire-brick  in  th- 
U.  S.  varies  from  $35  to  $60  per  1,000  at  the  kiln,  and  th>  >h 
are  made  at  comparatively  few  localities.  Cheafier  bn<  k, 
and  those  of  somewhat  inferior  quality  and  yet  adapted  to 
most  purposes  for  which  fire-brick  are  used,  are  or  may  be 
manufactured  at  a  thousand  different  localities;  wherever, 
indeed,  a  reasonably  good  fire-clay  can  be  obtaine<l.  S*^ 
Brick.  J.  S.  Newberry. 

Fire-clay:  the  name  specifically  applied  to  the  \h^\s  of 
clay  which  underlie  most  of  the  coal-seams  in  the  CarU>n- 
iferous  strata.  •  They  are  so  called  because  as  a  cla<!i  tlitv 
are  very  resistant  to  the  action  of  fire.  These  clay-bc^ls  ari* 
fine  sediments  which  accumulated  at  the  bottom  of  shHil'>« 
pools  of  water,  subsequently  filled  up  by  growing  vetri  *.t- 
tion.    The  roots  of  aquatic  plants  penetrating  this  clay  h&vf 

generally  abstracted  its  potash,  soda,  lime,  iron,  etc.,  an . 
ave  removed  such  a  percentage  of  silica  as  to  leave  it  «rr, 
a  larger  relative  quantity  of  alumina  than  it  had  before  l»- 
in^  subjected  to  their  action.  Thus  they  have  taken  fr<<rr. 
it  its  more  fusible  ingredients,  and  have*  imparted  to  it  Vi- 
peculiar  property  it  possesses  of  remaining  unchanged  Ht :. 
nigh  heat.  Clays  very  like  fire-clays  are  found  unuerlyirii: 
many  beds  of  peat,  ana  in  such  circumstances  the  formal:-  n 
of  fire-clay  may  be  seen  going  on. 

In  the  IJ.  S.  there  are  two  varieties  of  fire-clay — the  of  ♦ 
non-plastic,  and  specially  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of 
fire-brick;  and  the  other  plastic,  and  used  also  for  fj-t- 
brick,  and  for  pottery,  glass-pots,  etc.  In  the  first  c  1  .-- 
are  the  clays  of  Mt.  Savage,  Md.,  Mineral  Point  and  Ni'\» 
Lisbon,  0.,  and  from  these  large  quantities  of  sujH^rior  fire- 
brick are  made.  The  second  class  includes  most  of  the  f.ri  - 
clays  of  the  coal  measures.  These  differ  much  among  tip  '  • 
selves  as  regards  purity  and  excellence,  but  they  are  ^t-r. 
largely  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  stoneware  &i.  i 
second-quality  fire-brick.  Analyses  are  given  below  <  f 
some  of  the  best  and  best-known  fire-clays,  Nos.  2  and  -< 
being  non-plastic  and  Nos.  4  and  5  plastic  clays : 

ANALYSES   OF   FIRE-CLAYS. 


SUBSTANCES. 

No   1. 

NO.S. 

NaU 

N«.4. 

>'•    L 

Water 

17-84 

45-25 

28  77 

7-72 

0-47 

12-74 

50-45 

85-90 

1-60 

0-18 

0-20 

irro 

40-20 
87  80 

0-40 
010 

5'M 
59-95 
83  85 

205 
056 

5  45 

Silica 

Tl»  71' 

Alumina 

21  ri' 

Oxide  of  Iron 

Lime 

0  « 

Ma^esia 

Potash 

u  r 

No.  1  is  from  Stourbridge,  £ne:land:  2,  Mt.  Savagi\  M-i 
3,  Mineral  Point,  0.;  4,  Port  Washington,  O. ;  5,  >pr  :.j- 

field,  O.  J.  S.  NEWBLkKY. 

Fire-damp :  See  Marsh-gas. 

Fire-eater:  a  term  the  invention  of  which  is  asc-riU-':  * 
Col.  Howell  Rose,  of  Coosa  co.,  Ala.,  who  in  the  S<»ih:.«  " 
Rights  convention  at  Montgomery  co.,  Ala,,  in  1k51.  ..■ 
plied  this  epithet  to  the  avowed  Disunionists  of  that  l-«  * 
The  term  was  afterward  applied  in  political  parlan»>:  * 
extremists  among  the  Southern  Rights  men,  wnethtT  I^^- 
unioiiists  or  not. 

Fire-engines:    machines  for  extinguishing  firv.     Tr- 
earliest  fire-engines  were  huge  squirts  or  syringes  uioui."- 
upon  wheels.    These  are  known  to  have  been  used  in  Au-.-^- 
burg  as  early  as  1618.    The  transition  from  the  squirt  t<  ' ' 
pump  on  wheels  initiated  the  fire-engine.    The   impn**- 
mont  of  the  pump  was  a  matter  easily  reache<1.  but  by  -|  "» 
stages,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  tin-  ^  ** 
engine  embodied  a  practically  valuable,  though  iniHha:i 
ally  crude,  machine,  such  as  is  shown  in  the  Newshaiu  t  • 
gine.    Two  of  these  were  taken  to  New  York  in  17^,  &i>  - 


380 


PIRE-EXTING  UISHERS 


beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  consisted  of  a 
strong  pole  of  from  36  to  40  feet  in  length,  surmounted  by 
an  iron  cross-bar  designed  to  rest  against  the  aide  of  the 
building  and  to  keep  the  pole  from  turning.  About  3  feet 
from  its  upper  extremity  the  pole  carriea  a  pulley,  oyer 
which  was  a  rope  having  at  one  end  a  basket,  the  rope  being 
worked  from  tne  pavement  to  raise  and  lower  the  basket. 
The  rope,  pulley,  and  basket  have  been  frequently  combined 
with  a  laader,  the  last  taking  the  place  of  the  pole  pre- 
viously described.  The  most  useful  example  of  the  sixth 
class  is  the  fire-escape  of  Ranald  Macdonald,  of  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  in  which  thin  wire  ropes  are  joined  by  rounds  formed 
of  gas-pipe,  thus  forming  a  flexible  ladder  which  is  wound  on 
a  portaole  reel  when  not  in  use,  but  which  may  be  readily  ex- 
tended from  an  upper  window  in  case  of  emergency. 

A  fire-escape  apparatus  preferably  should  be  a  nxture  of 
the  building  and  so  arranged  as  to  permit  the  rescue  of 
persons  from  the  dwelling  as  well  as  to  permit  their  volun- 
tary escape.  An  apparatus  invented  bv  Dr.  Abraham  W. 
Lozier,  of  New  York  city,  and  patented  in  1884,  has  been 
carefully  designed  to  meet  these  conditions.  A  fixed  ladder 
is  surrounded  by  a  protecting  case  which  can  be  opened  from 
the  street,  an  alarm  being  automatically  sounded  within  the 
building  when  the  case  is  thus  opened.  It  may  also  be 
opened  from  within  to  afford  access  to  the  ladder  to  the  oc- 
cupants of  the  building,  the  ladder  being  arranged  in  con- 
venient relation  with  a  window  platform.  Interest  in  the 
subject  appears  to  be  greatly  on  the  increase  with  inventors. 
During  tne  years  188^1892  inclusive  no  less  than  333  U.  S. 
patents  were  granted  on  fire-escapes.    James  A.  Whitney. 

FIre-extlngnishers :  apparatus  for  extinguishing  fires 
either  by  means  of  water  or  by  non-combustible  gases.  The 
term  technicaUv  considered  excludes  fire-engines,  although 
the  principle  of  operation  may  be  similar  in  both. 

The  original  fire-extinguisher,  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
term  is  now  generally  used  and  understood,  was  the  inven- 
tion of  William  A.  Graham,  of  Lexington,  Va.,  who  filed 
his  applications  for  a  patent  in  Nov.,  1837.  The  patent 
was  issued  more  than  forty  years  later,  in  July,  1878,  and  its 
validity  was  sustained  in  a  Federal  decision  six  years  after. 
Among  other  thin^  Graham  claimed  as  his  invention  **  the 
method  of  extinguishing  fires  by  means  of  a  properly  directed 
stream  of  mingled  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water  projected  by 
the  pressure  or  expansive  force  of  the  mingled  mass  from 
which  the  stream  is  derived  " ;  also  "  the  combination  of  fixed 
pipes  or  tubes  arranged  by  oj  through  a  building  with  a 
stationary  or  fixed  fountain  or  tank,  for  forcing  mingled 
carbonic  acid  gas  and  water  by  its  own  elasticity  through 
said  pipes  " ;  also  "  the  combination  of  a  strong  vessel  for  con- 
taining the  mixture  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water  under 
pressure,  with  a  stop-cock,  flexible  hose-tube,  and  a  nozzle." 
The  carbonic  acid  gas  was  compressed  in  the  liquid  either 
by  artificial  pressure  or  by  generation  therein.  Graham 
claimed  to  be  the  discoverer  of  the  fact  that  "carbonic 
acid  gas  compressed  in  water  in  the  proportion  of  ten  or 
more  volumes  of  gas  to  one  of  water,  in  portable  fountains 
or  fixed  reservoirs,  could  be  usefully  applied  to  extinguish- 
ing fires  " ;  and  that  he  had  "  devised  suitable  apparatus  by 
which  a  stream  of  gaseous  water,  by  the  elastic  force  of 
the  gas,  would  be  projected  a  distance  of  40  feet,  so  as  to 
Quickly,  cheaply,  and  effectually  subdue  the  fire."  Graham 
died  in  1857  after  twenty  years  of  vain  endeavor  to  convince 
the  Patent  Oflice  of  the  patentability  of  his  invention.  Twelve 
years  later  certain  foreign  inventors,  who  probably  had  no 
knowledge  of  Graham*s  invention,  received  a  U.  S.  patent 
embracing  its  principle,  but  were  unable  to  carry  back  the 
date  of  their  aiscovery  of  it  beyond  1861,  whereas  it  was 
shown  that  Graham,  aside  from  liis  application  for  a  patent 
in  1837,  had  successfully  made  and  used  an  apparatus  em- 
bodying the  discovery  as  early  as  1853.  This  appeared  in 
long  subsequent  litigation.  In  1876  the  administrators  of 
Graham  filed  a  new  ap[)lication  for  a  patent,  which  was  re- 
jectetl  on  the  ground  of  delay  and  long  public  use.  On  June 
14,  1878,  an  act  of  Congress  was  passed  which  revised  the 
original  application  of  forty-one  years  before,  and  upon  this 
the  patent  was  finally  issued.  Drawings  which  accompany 
his  patent  specification  show  the  mechanical  structure  of 
the  apparatus  to  have  been  somewhat  crude,  but  Graham 
appears  to  have  been  beyond  question  the  originator  of  that 
cuiss  of  fire-extinguishers  which  depend  for  their  operation 
upon  the  combined  use  under  pressure  of  carbonic  acid  and 
water.  In  1851  what  was  known  as  the  Philips  fire  "annihi- 
lator  "  was  tested  with  experimental  success.    Its  operation 


depended  upon  the  chemical  evolution  of  certain  non-com- 
bustible gases  in  connection  with  the  vapor  of  water. 

Among  the  various  modifications  of,  and  practical  im- 
provements upon,  the  Graham  extinguisher  was  the  employ- 
ment in  1867  of  a  sealed  glass  vessel  to  hold  the  acid,  which 
is  fractured  on  occasion  by  suitable  mechanical  devices; 
also  the  use  (in  1870)  of  one  or  more  perforated  plates.  j»ar- 
titions,  or  diaphragms  arranged  within  a  portable  fire-ei- 
tinguisher  and  below  the  acid  vessel,  to  distribute  the  ai  id 
through  the  alkaline  solution  previously  provided  therein,  to 
facilitate  the  chemical  action,  and  to  prevent  the  accumula- 
tion of  the  acid  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Previous  to 
this,  in  1868,  an  apparatus  was  made  that  when  used  was  in- 
verted, having  the  effect  of  mixing  dry  acid  on  a  forami- 
nous  internal  shelf  with  the  water  sdready  charged  with  the 
opposite  material,  thus  producing  and  charging  the  water 
with  carbonic  acid  gas,  which,  upon  the  opening  of  thecnck^ 
forcibly  discharged  the  water  from  the  vessel.  In  an  af^ 
paratus  patented  in  1888  a  charge  of  peculiar  com{)ositiori 
IS  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  closed  chamber  contain- 
ing the  liquid,  and  being  ignited  produces  a  gas  which,  ac- 
cumulating until  a  high  pressure  was  reached,  remains  t^) 
exert  a  constant  pressure  u()on  the  water.  The  apparatus  i^ 
kept  continually  under  pressure,  and  in  this  respect  wtji 
mechanicaUy,  upon  the  same  principle  as  that  of  the  first 
fire-extinguisher  ever  made,  the  compressed  gas  in  the  k*iw 
case  being  simply  an  equivalent  for  the  compressed  air  in 
the  other.  The  Babcock  extinguisher  is  filled  with  a  satia- 
tion of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  has  in  its  upper  part  a  u-^ 
sel  of  acid  suspended  by  lateral  pivots  to  a  stinup  dejiend- 
ing  from  the  top  of  the  apparatus.  The  stopper  of  this  vt«- 
sel  is  worked  by  a  rod  through  the  top  of  tne  extinguisher 
By  withdrawine^  the  stopper  the  vessel  tilts  over,  and  min^U-> 
the  acid  with  the  solution,  thereby  discharging  the  earlxfiiic 
acid  from  the  latter.  An  improved  method  of  generating 
gas  in  fire-extinguishers,  patented  in  1890,  consists  in  fir^t 
mixing  hydric  ^phate  with  a  solution  of  sulphite  of  M.Ki& 
or  other  sulphite,  and  then  throwing  the  mixture  into  a  !f^>lu- 
tion  of  a  carbonate  contained  in  the  main  vessel  of  the  ei- 
tinguisher. 

As  carbonic  acid  at  ordinary  temperatures  is  heavier  than 
air,  and  much  heavier  than  air  heated  by  conflagFatitm,  it 
has  been  contended  that  the  extinguishinE:  agent  tends:  u> 
descend  through  the  burning  material  before  fully  attom- 
plishing  its  purpose.  To  meet  this  difficulty  an  elaboniu 
apparatus  operatinc^  with  heated  extinguishing  gases  wa^ 

Catented  in  1888.  In  this  a  furnace  is  so  combined  with  • 
lower  and  air-conducting  pipe  that  air  for  the  combust  ini: 
of  the  fuel  is  found  below  tne  latter  to  provide  for  it*  ct»n- 
version  into  carbonic  oxide,  and  above  the  fuel  to  convert 
this  oxide  into  carbonic  acid.  The  latter  passes  into  tht- 
flues  of  a  steam-boiler,  shown  horizontally  at  the  right  of 
the  flgure,  and  c^enerates  steam  in  the  boiler.  The  steam  is 
used  to  run  the  olowcr.  and  any  surplus  may  be  turned  int<» 
the  furnace  to  assist  in  the  production  of  tne  extinguishing 
gases.    The  latter  pass  into  the  outlet  pipes,  shown  as  cnrv«-il 


Fire-extin^isher  usinic  hot 

in  the  figure,  from  which  they  are  passed  to  the  firp  tc 
be  subdued.     A  supplemental  carbonic  acid  reservoir  i>  s^ 


382 


FIRE-INSURANCE 


of  the  burnable  property  of  the  U.  S.  is  protected  by  insur- 
ance, a  fact  whicti  throws  an  important  light  on  the  business 
possibilities  of  the  present  era  through  the  protection  of 
credits  and  the  enlargement  of  enterprises  which  would  be 
impracticable  but  for  the  re -enforcement  which  insurance 
affords.  This  is  of  universal  application  wherever  insurance 
is  generally  practiced. 

According  to  the  best  information  obtainable  there  are 
(1893)  over  600  companies  prosecuting  fire-insurance  in  the 
U.  S.,  as  follows : 

U.  S.  joint-stock  fire-insurance  companies 388 

U.  S.  mutual  fire-insurance  companies. 212 

U.  S.  marine  insurance  companies 14 

Foreign  marine  insurance  companies 12 

Foreign  fire-insurance  companies 41 

Total 617 

The  marine  companies  do  but  little  fire-insurance,  and 
the  mutuals  (except  the  factory  mutuals)  confine  their  op- 
erations mainly  to  the  insurance  of  farm  and  village  risks. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  business  is  covered  by  those  known  as 
the  "  agency  companies  " — the  domestic  joint-stock  and  the 
foreign  fire  companies. 

The  Agency  System. — When  offices  were  few  and  confined 
mainly  to  the  seaboard,  inland  towns  and  cities  were  with- 
out facilities  for  insurance  except  as  they  were  obtained 
through  correspondence.  Gradually  agencies  were  planted 
in  the  hands  of  merchants  and  bankers,  but  the  rapid  spread 
of  the  business,  as  tabulated  above,  soon  drew  to  it  men  who 
made  insurance  their  vocation,  and  in  due  time  the  entire 
country  became  covered  with  a  network  of  agencies,  until 
there  are  not  less  than  50,000  persons  now  engaged  in  the 
various  branches  of  the  agency  business  in  the  U.  S.  Some 
of  the  larger  companies  employ  3,000  agents  each,  and 
many  of  them  500  or  more.  The  local  agent,  a  resident  of 
the  town  where  domiciled,  is  a  sort  of  resident  autocrat. 
In  the  larger  places  he  employs  solicitors  and  sub-agents, 
and  has  an  office  with  clerks  and  assistants.  Next  to  the 
local  agent  comes  the  s|)ecial  agent.  He  is  a  trusted  repre- 
sentative of  the  company,  selected  for  his  knowledge  of  the 
country  and  his  professional  skiU.  He  establishes  new 
agencies,  stimulates  old  ones,  and  supervises  the  business 
generally  in  his  district.  Next  to  and  above  the  special  is 
the  manager.  Most  of  the  agency  companies  sustain  at 
least  four  departments — Eastern,  Western,  Southern,  and 
Pacific  coast — and  often  more,  and  over  eacli  of  these  a 
manager  is  appointed  who  is  an  experienced  underwriter 
and  competent  to  oversee  several  States,  occupied  perhaps 
by  several  hundred  local  agents. 

The  ctdjuster  is  an  important  figure  on  the  company's 
staff.  There  are  in  the  U.  S.  between  20,000  and  25,000  fires 
annually,  large  and  small,  involving  an  insurance  loss  each 
year  of  from  $60,000,000  to  $70,000,000.  The  settlement  of 
these  losses  has  called  into  existence  a  profession  of  great 
importance,  and  the  adjusters  are,  as  a  rule,  not  only  pro- 
fessional experts  in  their  particular  line  but  men  of'  more 
than  ordinary  sagacity,  business  knowledge,  and  general 
ability.  The  incentives  to  fraud  growing  out  of  the  easy 
obtaining  of  large  lines  of  insurance  and  the  com|)arative 
ease  with  which  the  crime  of  arson  may  be  concealed  have 
led  to  numerous  incendiary  fires,  and  the  companies  have 
been  compelled  to  defend  themselves  by  the  employment  of 
sharp  adjusters,  the  offering  of  rewards  for  the  detection  of 
incendiaries,  the  use  of  bureaus  for  the  interchange  of  re- 
ports concerning  dishonest  men,  the  employment  of  detec- 
tives, and  other  means  of  a  similar  nature!  All  these  ex- 
penses, which  add  materially  to  the  cost  of  insurance,  grow 
out  of  what  is  familiarly  known  as 

Moral  Hazard. — There  are  two  hazards  in  an  insurance 
risk,  the  physical  and  the  moral,  both  of  which  are  promi- 
nently considered  in  determining  upon  its  acceptance  or 
rejection.  The  physical  hazard  includes  the  natural  causes 
of  fire,  the  combustibility  of  the  risk  itself  growing  out  of 
its  construction,  occupancy,  and  exposure  to  other  risks. 
For  all  this  class  of  nazafds  reasonable  estimates  of  the 
proper  premium  to  be  charged  can  be  made ;  but  for  the 
moral  hazard,  which  includes  the  dishonesty  of  owners  and 
employees,  the  jealousy  of  rivals,  the  revenge  of  enemies, 
ana  all  like  causes,  no  price  can  be  named,  and  where  a  risk 
is  known  or  suspected  to  be  tainted  in  this  regard  it  is 
promptly  declined  bv  intelligent  underwriters.  In  1891 
there  were  in  the  U.  S.  2,602  fires  attributed  to  incendiarism, 
with  1,956  exposed  risks  burned  by  the  incendiary  fires. 


These  4,558  cases  involved  an  aggregate  loss  of  $15,020,747. 
with  insurances  of  $8,348,157. 

Factory  Mutuals. — What  is  known  as  the  factory  mutual 
system  originated  in  Rhode  Island  about  1840,  and  grew 
out  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  high  rates  charged  for  textile 
factories  and  other  manufacturing  risks  wnich  were  re- 
garded as  excessively  hazardous.  A  mutual  insurance  citrn- 
pany  was  organized,  which  was  soon  followed  by  others  in 
Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts.  The  prime  obje<;t  of  then- 
organizations  has  been  not  so  much  the  payment  of  1o>m.'> 
as  the  prevention  of  losses.  To  this  end  buildings  accepteii 
must  come  up  to  a  certain  standard^popularly  known  as 
"  Mill  Construction  and  Sprinkler  l!({uipment.'*  While 
these  companies  are  important  factors  in  the  region  where 
they  work  and  among  tne  classes  of  risks  which  they  i^^mt. 
their  operations  are  necessarily  very  limited  as  compar^i 
with  the  whole  field  of  fire-insurance.  The  total  risks  now 
covered  by  them  do  not  exceed  $650,000,000,  mainly  within 
the  area  of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States. '  Effort.*^ 
have  been  made  in  the  Western  States  to  establish  factory 
mutuals,  but  the  frequency  of  manufacturing  risks  and  thV 
organized  effort  prevailing  in  New  England  being  absiiit. 
these  efforts  have  not  been  to  any  considerable  extent  suc- 
cessful. 

Fire-insura/nce  ikoyds. — A  recent  phase  of  fire-insuranc*- 
in  the  U.  S.  is  the  *•  Lloyds  plan,"  so  called.  It  differs  fr.»m 
the  marine  practice  of  individual  underwriting,  so  familiar 
in  Great  Bntain,  and  is  partly  the  outgrowth  of  an  existin? 
dearth  of  large  insurances  and  partly  of  a  desire  to  avoid 
the  onerous  taxation  laid  upon  corporations.  SulK^riUrN 
usually  a  hundred  or  more,  contribute  a  sum  of  $1,000  i" 
$5,000  each,  and  appoint  a  representative  whom  they  ii^iz- 
nate  as  an  attorney.  This  person  is  an  insurance' expert, 
and  he  manages  the  business  much  as  an  ordinary  executive 
of  a  regular  company  would  do. 

Individual-  underwriters  are  very  much  the  same  as  th*- 
Lloyds,  except  that  they  insure  only  for  members.  Ea*'h 
member  subscribes  $2,000  or  more,  and  his  liability  on  ea^'h 
other  member's  policy  isjoro  rata  with  the  several  siiK*i*rip- 
tions.  All  these  schemes  are  modifications  of  mutual  planv 
The  last  two  mentioned  are  quite  modem,  and  like  other  in- 
surance projects  will  prove  their  fitness  as  they  are  X/^vi 
by  time  and  fire. 

Insurance  Legislation. — Insurance  being  a  business  of  s 
beneficent  nature  whose  function  is  to  sustain  the  cre*lil  «f 
the  merchant,  manufacturer,  and  shipper,  and  add  to  t\t^ 
business  stability  of  the  state,  it  woula  seem  as  if  it  oui:t  t 
to  be  approached  with  more  than  usual  intelligence  an<l 
should  enjoy  the  fostering  care  of  the  legislatures;  but,  bt- 
ing  carried  on  by  corporations,  it  has  l^n  divorced  f n  in 
public  sympathy  and  made  the  subject  of  hostile  legislation 
to  an  extent  not  easily  explained.  In  various  Stat4?«;  lau^ 
known  as  "Valued  Policy  Laws'*  have  been  enacted.  <t»M- 
pelling  the  companies  to  pay  the  full  amount  of  a  policy  uo 
a  building,  regardless  of  its  value  at  the  time  of  the  fir^. 
Other  laws  have  been  passed  making  it  a  misdemeanor  f<>r 
the  companies  to  form  boards  or  associate  together  for  tf  * 
establishment  of  rates.  In  some  States  the  form  of  poh'-v 
is  dictated  by  statute.  Many  of  them  require  large  doJ>o^r'^. 
and  in  nearly  all  **  retaliatorv  laws,"  so  called,  exist ;  a:;-': 
taxation  of  various  forms  is  laid  heavily  on  the  compat:.*  ? 
in  almost  all  the  States;  those  which  levy  upon  the  gT1~'^ 
premiums  sometimes  taxing  in  excess  of  the  net  ine<»nit^— 
the  residue  after  paying  losses  and  expenses.  Official  ficiir^^ 
tabulated  for  ten  years  show  that  the  taxation  in  ont'  Starr 
amounted  to  220  per  cent,  of  the  net ;  in  three  States  it  wv 
over  100;  in  four  over  60;  in  seven  over  80;  and  in  «»•:. 
others  it  ran  from  2  to  17  per  cent,  of  the  net  inci'mt?. 
There  were,  of  course,  individual  companies  that  were  m«  'n 
fortunate  than  others,  but  this  was  the  result  of  the  aggn- 
gate  business. 

Co-insurarhce. — In  marine  insurance  practice  a  man  in- 
sures as  large  or  as  small  a  proportion  oi  his  vessel  or  ?.hi:- 
nient  as  he  chooses  and  carries  nis  own  risk  on  the  rem*  '^• 
der,  bearing  his  proportion  of  losses,  total  or  parti »L  Bat  :r 
fire  the  practice  has  prevailed  of  collecting  the  whole  of  .. 
partial  loss  from  the  insurers,  even  though  the  owner  h  i> 

Eaid  premiums  on  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  value.  Thi> 
as  induced  economical  owners  of  good  buildings  to  takt 
out  only  as  much  insurance  as  would  catch  the  prubal  .* 
losses,  compelling  the  companies  to  pay  in  full  the  partis. 
losses  which  the  whole  property  produced,  while  the  own-* 
saved  the  expense  of  insuring  the  whole  value.  This,  in 
turn,  has  constrained  the  insurers  to  adopt  what  is  popular^ 


SM 


FIRELESS  ENGrNE 


Slait  Dtparlmenla. — These  h&ve  be«n  established  by  the 
{^oremiDents  of  very  tnanj  of  the  States,  and,  while  they  are 
nsaalljr  managed  by  political  incumbents,  have  had  a 
marked  inSuence  upon  the  insurance  business  nt  the  coun- 
try. Between  the  examinations  by  the  departments  and 
the  exposures  by  the  journals,  it  has  become  well-nigh  im- 
possible  for  fraudulent  insurance  schemes  to  make  much 
permanent  headway.  The  annual  statements  required  under 
oath  from  the  oEBcers  o(  all  the  companies  by  these  departs 
ments  ia  in  the  same  line  and  has  the  same  tendency.  The 
commissioners  of  the  several  Stales  meet  in  annual  conven- 
tion for  conference,  and  these  gatherings  are  illuminated  not 
only  bv  discussions  of  members  on  current  topics  of  insur- 
ance, but  by  the  reading  of  papers  by  experts  which  are 
usually  of  a  high  order  of  merit. 

LiTBRiTnRB.— Joseph  K.  Angell's  Law  of  Fire  and  Life 
Tftguranee  (Boston,  18S5) ;  In&uranee  Late  Journal  [32  vols., 
New  York,  1870-83) ;  Edmund  H.  Bennett's  Fire  Inaarance 
Oase»  (5  vols.,  Boston,  1873-77) ;  Charles  J.  Bunyou's  Laic  of 
Kre Insaranee (London,  1875);  Ostrander's  Loico/JVre /n- 
•uroace  {Chicago,  1892);  George  A.Clement's  DigestofFire 
Intitranct  Deeitiont  (New  York,  18B3) ;  Walford's  Ingur- 
anee  Cyclopedia  (5  vols.,  London,  18TS),  and  his  Firta  and 
Fire  Inauranef  (Ijondon,  1877) ;  Ineuratiee  Blue-book  (>ie* 
York,  1870) ;  Ingaranr^  Year-book  (New  York,  1880-»3) ; 
Fowler's  liit/ory  "f  Insurance  (Philadelphia,  1888);  Gris- 
wold's  Fire  Underwriters'  Texi-book  (Mnntreal,  1880) ;  Rel- 
toa's  An  Account  of  Fire  Insurance  Companies  (London, 
1898).  C.  C.  Bine, 

FIreless  Engrlne :  a  successor  to  the  ammoniacal  gas- 
engine.  Dr.  Emile  Lamm,  a  native  of  France,  hut  for  many 
years  a  citizen  of  New  Orleans,  La.,  was  the  inventor  and 
patentee  (July  19, 1870)  of  an  engine  in  which  the,|M>wer 
was  derived  from  the  vapor  of  ammonia.  The  ammonia,  on 
escaping  from  the  engme  which  it  propelled,  was  recon- 
densod  (absorbed)  b][  water,  over  whicn  it  was  passed.  This 
ammoniated  reservoir  of  water,  on  being  heat^  to  the  tem- 
perature of  about  186°  F.,  gave  up  the  ammonia  in  the  form 
of  vapor.  The  same  vapor  was  again  returned  to  the  en- 
gine, and  was  again  allowed  to  escape,  to  be  absorbed  by  its 
bath  of  water.  The  detail  of  the  construction  of  the  engine 
and  water-bath  need  not  be  given,  since  the  engine  has  been 
super^eiled  by  the  incidental  discovery,  by  Dr.  Lamm,  of  a 
convenient  method  of  using  detached  steam  for  the  like 
purpoee.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  ammoida  engine  was 
successfully  used  in  propelling  street-cars  in  the  city  of 
Now  Urieans  on  the  Canal  Street  railway  at  the  nXe  of 
about  8  miles  per  hour,  and  with  decided  economy  as  com- 
pared with  horse-power.  This  was  used  in  the  year  1871. 
While  perfecting  the  methods  of  applying  the  ammonia- 
propelling  power,  and  studying  heat  in  its  latent  and  ac- 
tive foniiH,  Dr.  Lanira  was  impressed  with  the  facility  with 
which  the  vapor  of  water  may  he  condensed,  even  at  high 
temperature,  m  water  under  nigh  pressure  ;  and  following 
up  the  experiments,  he  was  led  to  the  invention  of  the  fire- 
1^  engine,  patented  Apr.  9,  1873.  and  afterward  in  com- 

Eiete  use  in  New  Orleans,  bul  first  (lerfeeted  by  Dr.  Lamm 
imself,  and  applied  to  the  selfsame  engine  used  for  driving 
the  ammonia  cars. 

Plre-proof  Bnildin^ :  the  science  of  constructing  an 
edifice  not  only  incombustible,  but  capable  of  resisting,  with- 
out injury  to  its  stability  or  serious  damage  to  its  structure, 
the  action  of  any  fire  originating  either  within  its  contents 
or  from  without.  The  destructive  effect  of  long-continned 
and  fierce  flame  upon  incombustible  materials,  such  as  stone 
and  iron,  rentiers  the  problem  of  fire-proof  building  a  difll- 
cult  one.  1'he  burning  of  stored  merchandise,  and  even  the 
radiated  heat  of  a  great  conflagration,  may  suffice  to  melt 
exposed  iron-work,  or  at  least  to  soften  it  until  it  collapses, 
dragging  Soors  and  walls  down  with  it  in  a  general  ruin ;  it 
may  even  fuse  the  surface  of  wall-tiling  (Athletic  Club  fire, 
Chicago,  1893),  crack  and  destmv  solid  granite  masonrv  from 
across  the  street  (Boston  post-o^ce  building,  1872),  and  cause 
zinc  and  copper  to  burst  into  flame  (Constantinople  [Pcral. 
1870).  The  gutting  of  many  edifices  alleged  to  be  flre-proof, 
among  which  have  been  not  a  few  constructed  almost  en- 
tirely of  incombustible  material,  has  led  to  a  popular  ''- 


trust  of  flre-proof  construction  not  justified  by  the  real  facts ; 
while  the  experience  acquired  in  Uiosc  disasters  has  finally 
made  it  possible  to  reduce  the  principles  involved  to  clear 


and  definite  statement 

The  distinction  should  be  caretuliy  drawn  between  Jire- 
prouf  and  merely  incombustible  buildings.    The  latter,  al- 


FIRE-PROOF  BUILDING 

though  wholly  composed  of  material  incapable  of  ciimbut^ 
tion,  may  be  completely  gutted  by  the  spread  of  the  fin- 
among  their  contents  from  one  part  to  another  through  halt  fa- 
ways,  stairways,  and  other  openings;  and  may  even  Butl'-r 
senouB  structural  damage  by  the  collapse  of  their  mciiil 
beams  and  columns.  A  jSrc-proo/ building  should  suffer  nn 
structural  damage  from  either  internal  or  eilemal  flre.  nO'l 
should  offer  an  effectual  barrier  to  the  spread  of  the  flamrs 
from  one  story  or  section  to  another.  There  is  also  a  ttiini 
class  of  buildings  which,  though  built  with  incombu^lilk' 
walls,  floors,  roof.s,  and  partitions,  are  finished  with  infliim- 
mabte  fittings  and  decorations.  The  damage  by  lire  to  "  firH< 
proof  "  buildings  has  mainly  been  in  structures  of  this  cla^s. 
which  includes  a  large  proportion  of  modem  "Hro-priiiil"' 
hotels,  apartment-houses,  and  offlcc-buildings.  Yet  tne  gut- 
ting of  structures  of  this  class  is  comparatively  rar«,  becaii^ 
of  the  difficulty  with  which  the  flames  acquire  mass  or  h'-iul- 
way  in  them,  which  would  juslifytheirbemg  classed  am^Tii; 
"slow-burning"  buildings,  and  it  is  doubtless  a  fact  (hii 
the  multiplication  of  such  edifices  greatly  diminishes  thr 
danger  of  general  conflagrations  in  large  cities. 


Fio.  I  .—Floor-arch  of  solid  brick. 

Purposu. — It  should  be  the  aim  in  any  svst«n  of  firr- 
isisting  construction  (1)  to  build  wholly  of  incombu>iil'Jr 
aterials ;  (2)  to  protect  by  non-conducting  coverings  ail  r'l- 
poaed  structural  metal-work;  (3)  to  dispense  aiwoTutplv.  if 
possible,  with  inflammable  material  even  for  the  fiiii-lt:':; 
and  minor  embellishments ;  and  (4)  to  oppose  every  gKr..!).;, 
tiarrier  to  the  passage  of  fire  from  one  part  of  the  budduii; 
to  another. 


Via.  S.— Horizontal  aoor-arch    ot  hollow  brick 


Jtf>/Aod».— Burnt  clay  in  the  form  of  brick,  terra-ct.1' 
and  tiles,  is  the  best  fire-resist«r  of  all  building  matenn; 
In  its  highest  form — that  of  fire-brick— it  is  practioallv  i! 
fusible  as  well  as  uninflammable,  while  e — '- 


flre-proof  building  might  therefore  be  compoeed  e 
walls  and  piers  carrying  vaulted  ceilings  and  roof  oi  iir;<  t. 
with  tile  flooring  and  roof  covering.  Svstems  of  light  ai  •! 
nearly  fiat  vaults  of  thin,  hard-bumed  tiles  have  been  ii->l 
in  several  buildings  erected  in  the  U.  S.,  which,  bv  avnidii..- 
the  excessive  cost,  weight,  and  waste  of  space  o^  onlii.Hrt 
vaulting,  have  brought  this  method  of  constmction  wi;l;; 
the  range  of  practicability  for  warehouses,  libraries,  n'  ■ 
similar  depositories  of  valuable  and  inflammable  nialer::> 
But  the  use  of  iron  and  steel  for  beams  and  colomos.  ''> 
reason  of  their  economy  of  sfMK-e  and  ease  and  rBpiif';> 
of  erection,  has  become  practically  inilispensable  for  \'a- 
framing  of  roofs,  stairs,  and  elevator- ways,  and  for  s).ni;- 
ning  wide  distances  withont  intennediate  supports ;  m:- 
modem  ingenuity  has  devised  various  means  forprolei't[r; 
these  metallic  members  from  damage  by  fire.  TTiis  is  u-^- 
ally  effected  by  means  of  fire-proof  and  non-rondnctinc  i-  >■ 
erings  or  jackets,  generally  of  terra-cotta  or  fire-bri'i, 
though  sometimes  special  compositions  of  plaster  or  cem.-n' 
are  applied  to  the  metal,  either  directly  or  upon  cit^inp^  ■ ' 

/7oi)r«.— -Floors  are  usually  built  ot  I-beams  spaced  fi*  r- 
3  to  6  feet,  anchored  to  (he  walls,  tied  by  continuous'  '■.■ 
rods  to  prevent  sprcailing.  and  supporting  incombusTii^- 


386 


FIREPROOFING 


PIRKOWITSCH 


the  general  introduction  of  rolled-iron  beams  into  building 

Eractice  between  1840  and  1850.  In  the  Berlin  Museum, 
y  Stiller  (1843-55),  trussed  beams  of  cast  and  wrought 
iron  were  used  with  brick  arches ;  during  the  same  period 
Bunnett's,  Fox  &  Barrett's,  and  Cheyne's  patent  fire-proof 
floorings  were  invented  in  England,  and  tne  Thuasne  and 
Vaux  systems  generally  adopted  in  Paris.  The  Cooper  In- 
stitute in  New  York  was  the  first  building  in  the  U.  S.  to 
employ  American  rolled-iron  joists  with  brick  arches.  Since 
1876  the  progress  in  methods  of  fire-proof  building  has  been 
especially  great.  This  period  has  also  witnessed  the  adop- 
tion, especially  in  New  England,  of  the  so-called  "slow- 
burning  "  or  "  mill-construction  "  system  of  heavy  wooden 
floors  on  widely  spaced  beams  of  heavy  section,  described  in 
the  articles  Floor  and  Mill-construction. 

A.  D.  F.  Hahun. 

Fireprooflng :  the  process  or  means  of  rendering  textile 
fabrics  or  other  matenals  incombustible.  On  Mar.  17, 1735, 
one  Obadiah  Wyld  obtained  an  English  patent  for  "  making 
or  preparing  paper,  linen,  canvas,  and  such  like  substances 
which  will  neither  flame  nor  retain  fire,  by  mixing  alum, 
borax,  vitriol,  or  copperas  dissolved,"  and  dipping  the 
fabrics  "into  a  strong  infusion  of  the  said  materials  in 
water  or  thin  size  m^e  hot.'*  Impregnation  with  alum, 
borax,  or  copperas,  as  the  case  may  be,  is  by  far  the  best 
treatment  for  fireproofing  and  preserving  wood,  which  thus 
treated  has  been  strongly  recommended  for  railway  cars 
subjected  to  risk  of  fire  from  overturned  stoves  and  lamps 
in  cases  of  collision,  etc.  The  use  for  fireproofing  of  sul- 
phate of  ammonia  was  proposed  by  De  Breza  in  1838 ;  that 
of  soluble  glass  by  Bethell  in  the  same  year;  that  of  hydro- 
chlorate  of  ammonia  by  Froggant  in  1851,  but  this  last  does 
not  appear  to  have  received  serious  attention.  The  use  of 
tungstate  of  soda  and  phosphate  of  ammonia  was  at  a  later 
date  found  by  Dr.  Versemann,  after  a  series  of  the  most 
careful  experiments,  to  be  the  best  adapted  for  common  use 
with  cloths,  etc.,  either  of  these  rendenng  the  lightest  mus- 
lins uninflammable.  The  tungstate  of  soda,  however,  has 
this  advantage  over  the  other,  that  it  may  be  used  with 
starch  and  does  not  interfere  with  ironing.  A  mixture  of 
this  salt  with  starch  is  sold  in  London  under  the  name  of 
fire-proof  starch.  The  tungstate  of  soda  should  be  used  in 
preference  to  the  others  for  light  articles  of  apparel,  cur- 
tains, upholstery,  etc. 

A  Qerman  recipe  for  fire-proof  coating  is  three  successive 
applications  of  a  hot  solution  of  3  parts  alum  and  1  part 
copperas,  and  after  this  of  a  solution  of  copperas  brought 
to  tne  consistence  of  paint  by  the  admixture  of  pipe-clay. 

The  disastrous  results  of  fires  in  theaters  ana  like  places 
of  amusement  have  led  to  the  invention  of  fire-proof  drop- 
curtains,  the  material  of  which  could  undoubtedly  be  em- 
ployed for  other  but  similar  purposes.  In  some  of  these 
asbestos  is  the  material  most  reliea  upon  for  the  desired  fire- 
resisting  properties.  James  A.  Whitney. 

Fire-proof  Safes:  in  general,  movable  receptacles  of  iron 
or  steel,  lined  with  non-combustible  materials,  and  used  for 
the  preservation  of  papers,  money,  or  other  articles  of  value. 
The  fire-proof  safe  originated  in  New  York  city  between  the 
years  18^9  and  1832,  when  James  Conner  made  an  iron  box 
filled  in  with  plaster-of- Paris  for  use  in  his  office.  He  made 
no  attempt  to  benefit  the  public  by  his  invention  and  the 
safe  was  almost  forgotten  until  1843,  when  one  Fitzgerald 
invented  a  similar  receptacle.  From  this  date  the  manu- 
facture of  fire-proof  safes  received  a  lasting  impetus.  Nu- 
merous new  compounds  were  devised  for  filling.  Although 
Conner  was  the  nrst  to  make  a  fire-proof  safe,  William  Marr, 
of  London,  was  the  first  to  patent  and  make  public  a  method 
of  construction.  This  he  did  in  1834.  Marr's  invention 
differed  materially  from  Conner's;  the  former  filling  the 
spaces  between  the  inner  and  outer  shells  or  casings  of  the 
safe  with  sheets  of  mica  pasted  upon  paper,  and  crowding 
the  space  between  with  burnt  clay  ana  powdered  charcoal, 
or  in  lieu  of  these  with  powdered  marble.  The  next  alleged 
improvement  was  that  of  Charles  Chubb,  also  of  London, 
in  1838,  who  used  a  series  of  concentric  linings  of  iron 
plates,  the  intermediate  spaces  filled  with  baked  wood- 
ashes,  or  "such  other  slow-conducting  materials  as  will 
retard  the  transmission  of  heat."  In  1843  three  gentlemen 
named  Tann  originated  safes  made  fireproof  by  filling  the 
spaces  with  ground  alum,  finely  sifted,  and  gypsum,  also 
finely  pulverized.  The  alum  and  gypsum  were  intimately 
mingled,  heated  to  liciuefaotion,  and  after  cooling  to  a  hard 
and  brittle  condition  comminuted  to  a  coarse  powder  for 


use.  This  mixture,  when  subjected  to  an  extreme  b*-&t. 
would  give  off  water  from  the  plaster;  but  the  ca,)cinat ••  ^> 
of  the  alum  of  course  detracted  from  its  utility.  In  iv/. 
George  Price,  of  Wolverhampton,  used  powdered  alum  a  : 
sawdust  as  a  filling.  During  the  previous  use  of  alun  : 
had  been  discovered  that  various  other  salt-s  contairtT..' 
water  of  crystallization  would  serve  the  same  pu^p(^^e  .'. 
the  filling. 

The  construction  of  fire-proof  safes  has  for  manv  vr-A!^ 
formed  a  very  important  branch  of  manufacture,  anc!  ma:  ^ 
improvements  have  been  made  which  in  the  aggregate  hi/- 
much  increased  their  utility.    But  the  essential  feature^  •  - 
main  the  same,  so  that  these  fire-proof  receptacles  mar  ?* . 
be  classified  as,  1,  those  having  a  nlling  of  some  simply  n. :  - 
conducting  material,  like  clay  or  conci-ete;  2,  thost^'fit  ■.. 
with  plaster  capable  of  giving  off  water  by  calcinat:  r 
thougn  onlv  in  moderate  quantities ;    3,  those   in  whi'  _ 
alum  or  otner  salt  yielding  a  large  percentage  of  waU't  :•* 
decomposition' is  mingled  with  the  plaster ;  and  4,  the  st^i*^- 
safes,  m  which  vessels  either  of  glass  or  metal  and  tiil- : 
with  water  are  arranged  between  the  inner  and  outer  wn.  - 
to  give  off  steam  when  subjected  to  a  high  heat. 

very  many  inventions  relating  to  fire-proof  safes  have  1  "-^  z 
developed  in  the  U.  S.  since  1850,  the  greater  number  r>  *..: 
ing  to  the  filling  upon  which  the  fire-proof  quality  dfj-ii,  J» 
Amon^  these  was  one,  in  1864,  which  comprised  a  filling  f 
alum  m  small  lumps  rolled  in  plaster  and  then  bHid*-*!  r 
dry  clay.    In  1865  a  filling  of  Epsom  salts  was  used,  euh  ' 
alone  or  combined  with  smphate  of  lime  or  plaster-of-Phr 
(this  also  is  the  filling  used   in    a   celebrated   fire-{*r.*' 
safe);  in  1866,  a  novel  arrangement  of  vessels  contairi-. 
water  between  the  inner  and  outer  walls  to  form  a  >t»a  - 
safe.    In  1868  nearly  a  score  of  patents  for  fire-pro<»f  v  '•■ 
were  granted;  among  others,  upon  wood  imbedded  in  "- 
plaster  filling  to  enhance  its  non-conducting  power,  tlu  ir. 
troduction  of  non-conducting  material  between  the  \  W-^ 
of  the  door  and  the  door-casings,  the  use  of  fine  (con  n  : 
salt  as  a  filling,  water-vessels  stopped  with  glue  or  niui ..... 
inserted  in  the  cement  filling,  the  construction  of  tht  -» 
filling  with  cells  for  the  reception  of  a  vaporizing  suV>*it.^:.  ^ 
also  several  novel  forms  of  steam-safes,  in  one  of  wh-.  i  » 
space  external  to  the  water-filling  was  provided  tort<M.. 
tne  steam  from  the  filling,  and  thus  provide  a  non-coniiu' ' 
ing  jacket  to  the  whole.    From  1869  dates  the  use,  e^Ur.  . 
to  an  alum  or  similar  filling,  of  cans  containing  steam  •  - 
vapor-producing  substance  placed  between  such  filling:  ^ 
the  outer  casing  of  the  safe ;  also,  the  construction  of  5j1  • 
with  a  water-supply  from  an  elevated  head.    These  eml-  :; 
the  leading  varieties  of  fire-proof  safe  construction,  alth«-t.z ' 
various  improvements  of  more  or  less  merit  have  been  f  r  : 
time  to  time  proposed.    It  must  always  be  remembered  tr...' 
no  safe  is  al^lutely  fire-proof,  although  several  manui.  - 
turers  make  them  capable  of  withstanding  an  exceed irc' 
high  temperature.     Wherever  possible,  a  safe  should  U*  n 
bedded  in  brickwork,  which -experience  has  shown  to  U-  •  r  • 
of  the  most  effective  of  all  protections  against  the  injur:  i  ." 
transmission  of  heat.  James  A.  Whitxet. 

Fire-ship :  a  vessel,  often  old  and  unseaworthy,  whirh  • 
laden  with  combustibles,  fired,  and  sent  into  the  tnid<*  •  f 
an  enemy's  fleet  for  the  purpose  of  setting  it  on  fire.  Ir- 
ancient  device  has  been  frequently  tried  in  modem  warfA*^. 
and  though  sometimes  of  much  service,  as  in  the  war  * 
Greek  independence,  it  can  never  be  of  much  effect  wJ  • 
employed  against  a  well-managed  steam-marine ;  moreiT^r 
this  service  is  fraught  with  great  danger  to  the  aggrcs^Tt 
party. 

Fireworks :  See  Pyrotechny. 

Fire-worshipers:  See  Guebrbs  and  Pabsbeism. 

Firishta :  See  Ferishtah. 

Firkowitsch,  feer'ko-vitch,  Abraham:  Jewish  arrh*^ - 
ogist;  b.  at  Lutzk,  in  the  Crimea,  Sept.  27, 1786.  He  *-- 
the  son  of  Karaite  parents,  and  was  reared  in  the  faith  ••!  K  • 
forefathers.  (See  Karaites.^  Of  a  reatly  mind  and  e 
for  learning,  he  was  afforded  all  the  advant^es  which 
Jews  of  the  Crimea  had  at  their  command.  These  werv  I 
scanty;  most  of  his  knowledge  consisted,  therefore,  of 
thorough  mastery  of  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  car 
and  of  tradition,  acquired  mainly  at  Eupatoria,  wht^n 
had  enjoyed  the  use  of  a  manuscript  library  belonpnc 
the  Karaite  congregation.  He  became  a  rabbi,  and  d\< 
giiished  himself  in  his  connections  at  Cherson  and  K«V 
His  study  of  the  MSS.  at  Eupatoria  had  instilled  in  fair 


388 


FIRST-FRUITS 


from  the  dead  to  die  no  more/'  and  so  is  "become  the 
first-fruits  of  them  that  slept"  (Rom.  vi.  0;  1  Cor.  xv. 
20).  He  is  called  "the  first-begotten"  (same  word,  Heb. 
i.  6),  as  he  was  destined  to  occupy  the  highest  position  of 
honor  in  the  universe  (cf.  Ps.  Ixxxix.  27;  Phil.  ii.  9-11). 
The  righteous  are  spoken  of  as  "a  society  of  first-boms, 
registered  in  heaven  (Heb.  xii.  23),  because  they  enjoy  the 
f r^om  of  the  city  of  God,  the  heavenly  Jerusalem ;  it  ex- 
presses their  pre-eminent  dignity  and  distinguished  prerog- 
atives.   (Cf.  Kx.  iv.  22 ;  Jer.  xxxi.  9.) 

For  the  subject  of  the  first-born's  rights  under  the  English 
law  of  primogeniture,  see  Primogeniture. 

T.  O.  SlTMHERS. 

First-ftmits  (in  Heb.  n^(S^6n ;  Gr.  &vapxai;  LsLt.primitim): 

the  earliest  gathered  fruits  of  the  season.  The  offering  of  the 
first-fruits  of  the  season,  with  more  or  less  of  religious  cere- 
mony, is  a  natural  expression  of  pious  gratitude  in  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  Divine  bounty,  and  was  practiced  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  as  well  as  by  the 
Hebrews.  The  form  in  which  it  is  first  expressly  command- 
ed by  Moses  (Ex«  xxii.  29)  implies  a  custom  already  existing. 
It  may  be  traced  back,  perhaps,  to  the  very  beginning  of 
history  (Gen.  iv.  3,  4).  Under  the  Mosaic  ritual  these  offer- 
ings were  of  two  kinds — the  one  national,  the  other  indi- 
vidual. The  national  offerings  were  in  connection  with 
two  of  the  great  national  festivals ;  the  first,  a  sheaf  of  bar- 
ley at  the  Passover,  when  the  barley-harvest  began;  the 
second,  two  loaves  of  bread  at  Pentecost,  when  the  wheat- 
harvest  ended.  These  national  offering,  which  had  a 
solemn  representative  character,  were  to  be  made,  of  course, 
at  Jerusalem,  and  ceased  with  the  destruction  of  the  Temple. 
The  rules  to  be  observed  are  laid  down  in  Lev.  xxiii.  Still 
more  minute  directions  are  given  in  the  Talmud.  Individ- 
ual offerings  were  not  merely  in  acknowledgment  of  depend- 
ence upon  God,  but  also  for  the  sustenance  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  were  to  be  made  throughout  the  country,  as  well 
as  at  Jerusalem.  Specific  directions,  bringing  out  the  re- 
ligious significance  of  the  act,  are  contained  in  Deut.  xxvi. 
1-11.  Some  kinds  of  offerings  were  expressly  devoted  to 
the  priests'  use  (Num.  xviii.  12),  as  the  best  of  the  oil,  wine, 
and  wheat,  in  addition  to  which  mention  is  also  made  (Deut. 
xviii.  4)  of  the  fleece  of  sheep.  Of  young  trees  no  fruits 
could  be  taken  till  the  fourth  year,  in  which  they  were  offered 
to  the  Lord ;  after  this  they  might  be  eaten.  Of  every  kind 
of  produce  of  the  earth,  as  it  ripened,  a  basketful  was  to  be 
presented  by  each  Israelite,  some  in  their  natural,  and  others, 
as  wine  ana  oil,  in  their  prepared  state.    The  amount  of  the 

fifts  of  the  first-fruits  was  not  specified  in  the  Law,  and  the 
eld  was  thus  left  open  for  Talmudic  casuistry  to  busy  itself 
in  deciding  what  was  proper  or  obligatory.  The  gift  was 
not  to  be  taken  from  the  portion  designed  for  tithes,  nor 
from  the  comers  left  for  the  poor.  One-fortieth  (or,  accord- 
ing to  the  school  of  Shammai,  one-thirtieth)  was  accounted 
a  uberai  proportion  of  the  entire  produce,  while  a  moderate 
portion  was  a  fiftieth,  and  a  scanty  portion  a  sixtieth.  But 
whatever  was  offered  must  be  the  produce  of  the  Holy  Land. 
Beyond  Palestine  it  might  be  converted  into  monev,  and  thus 
sent  to  the  Temple.  See  Spencer,  De  Legibus  HebrcBorum 
RitualibuSf  iii.  9. 

Fir- wool:  a  fiber  prepared  to  some  extent  in  Germany 
from  the  leaves  of  Pinus  sylvestria  (Scotch  fir),  and  made 
into  cloth  and  wadding  which  are  believed  to  be  useful  in 
the  treatment  of  rheumatism  and  skin  diseases.  Fir- wool  oil 
is  an  oil  of  turpentine  made  from  these  leaves.  Fir- wool 
extract  is  a  residual  substance  prepared  from  the  leaves,  and 
used  to  some  extent  in  medicine. 

Fiscal  Departments :  Sec  Finance. 

Fisch,  Georges,  D.  D.  :  a  French  Protestant  clergyman ; 
b.  in  Nvon,  Switzerland,  July  6, 1814 ;  educated  in  the  acad- 
emy at  Lausanne.  After  entering  the  minivStry  he  preached 
for  nearly  five  years  to  a  German-speakinj^  congregation  at 
Vevey,  and  then  emigrated  to  France  and  joined  the  French 
Evangelical  Church.  Became  in  1846  the  successor  of  the 
celebrated  Adolphe  Monod  at  Lvons.  In  1854  removed  to 
Paris,  as  pastor  of  the  church  'f  aitbout,  where  he  was  the 
colleague  of  his  brother-in-law,  Edmond  de  Pressenso.  the 
learned  French  Protestant  ecclesiastic.  In  1863  Dr.  Fisch 
became  president  of  the  Union  seeking  the  coalition  of 
French  Protestants,  and  was  a  director  of  the  Evangelical 
Society  of  France,  a  powerful  auxiliary  to  the  Union.  He 
figured  prominently  at  the  Evangelical  Alliance  meeting  held 
in  New  York  in  1873.  D.  in  Vallorbe,  Switzerland,  July  3, 1 881. 


FISH-CULTURE 

Fischart,  JoHANN :  satirical  writer;  b. (according  to  x-v.i 
accounts,  at  Strassburg;  according  to  others,  at  3ientz,  (nr- 
many)  about  1550 ;  studied  law  at  Strassburg,  where  he  iv- 
ceivea  a  doctor^s  degree  in  1574;  became  advocate  to  the 
imperial  chamber  at  Spires  in  1581,  and  in  1583  was  maJe 
bauiff  of  Forbach,  near  SaarbrQcken,  where  he  died  in  rh« 
spring  of  1590.  His  numerous  writings,  comprising  t»'!i 
prose  and  verse,  were  published  under  a  great  variHv  ( 
pseudonyms,  and  with  strange,  fantastic  titles  Almost  aJ 
of  them,  though  satirical  in  form  and  abounding  in  humur- 
ous  thoughts  and  oddly  coined  words,  have  in  general  ib«* 
serious  purpose  of  holdmg  up  to  public  contempt  the  ric**: 
and  follies  of  all  classes  of  society,  and  especially  of  viti  :.• 
eating  Protestantism  against  the  charges  of  its  entrt.  t^. 
Perhaps  the  best  known  of  his  writings  is  his  free  imitd*:  ri 
of  the  first  book  of  Rabelais's  Oarganhta  (1575).  Of  hi.<  <  •{  i*  ^ 
works  may  be  mentioned  AUer  Praetik  Graastnutter  (157e  . 
Eulenfmiegel  Reimensweisa  (1572);  FWhhalz  und  Wnb'-r- 
tratz  (1578) ;  and  Bienenkorb  cUts  Heilia,  R6misehtn  Imtu- 
8chwarms  (1579),  the  last  a  sharp  attack  on  the  lives  of  tii« 
dissolute  clergy. 

Fischer,  Kuno:  philosopher;  b.  July  23, 1824,  in  Sanii-- 
wald,  in  Silesia ;  educated  at  the  Universities  of  Ijeip/i^:  kiki 
Halle ;  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  the  University  of  Jena 
1856-72 ;  since  1872  Professor  of  Philosophj  in  Heidelh^nj. 
Author  of  Diotima,  the  Idea  of  the  Beautiful  (1K49):  //i4- 
tory  of  Modem  Philosophy  (1852-72) ;  Kant  (1860) ;  Sy^Uf, 
of  Logic  and  Metaphysics  (\9^)'j  Spinoza  (1865);  Fmu-^* 
Bacon  and  his  Successor  (1876) ;  Lesaing  (1882) ;  Cn7»</"'  •* 
Kantian  Philosophy  {1B85) ;  Goethe's  Faust  {^88^) ;  *Sr/..  " 
(1892).  C.  H.  Thvrblk. 

Fish  [^M.  Ene.  fisch,  fisc  <  O.  Eng.  fisc :  Goth,  fisks :  d  U 
Germ.  Jisk  >  Mod.  Germ.  Pisch  <  Teuton,  fiskos :  Ir.  w 
Lat.  piscis  <  Indo-Eur.  pisk-j :  anv  one  of  many  various  a:: 
widely  differing  animals  having  the  common  charaoten^*: 
of  Uvmg  in  water.  The  word  fish  is  also  used  as  a  coll«  f .  < 
plural  to  desi^ate  a  number  of  fishes  without  distinct  n  f 
erence  to  the  individuals.    See  Fishes  and  Food. 

Fish,  Hamilton,  LL.  D.  :  lawyer  and  politician ;  b.  in  Nf ^ 
York  city,  Aug.  3, 1808 ;  a  son  of  Nicholas  Fish ;  educav . 
at  Columbia  College  in  his  native  city ;  graduated  in  1^> . 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New  York  in  1830 ;  was  in  1^»* 
chosen  to  the  State  Legislature;  then  served  in  Conprp--  ' 
1843-45;  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  York  1847-41' 
Governor  of  New  York  1849-^51 ;  and  from  1851  to  18.57  u.  ^ 
one  of  its  U.  S.  Senators.    He  was  in  1862  one  of  the  V.  > 
commissioners  to  visit  soldiers  confined  in  Confederate  ;  r*- 
ons,  and  rendered  valuable  service  in  negotiating  for  ::- 
exchange  of  prisoners.    In  1869  he  was  appointed  Secr»  ^.f 
of  State  in  the  cabinet  of  President  Grant,  his  term  of  if 
commencing  in  March.    Mr.  Fish  suggested  the  joint  hi^*: 
commission  between  the  U.  S.  and  Great   Britain   wL.>  • 
met  in  1871  to  settle  the  various  difficulties  between  th*  tv 
nations,  including  the  famous  Alabama  claims.    In  1"^?^  :■ 
became  president  of  the  order  of  the  Cincinnati.     In  l^^. 
he  was  reamtointed  Secretary  of  State  at  the  Iteginninj    ^ 
President  Grant's  second  term,  and  served  till  Mar.,  1**7T 
D.  in  New  York  city,  Sept.  7, 1893. 

Fish,  Nicholas:  soldier  and  politician;  b.  in  New  Y-  r* 
Aug.  28, 1758 ;  entered  the  College  of  New  Jersey  at  Pnn-  • 
ton,  N.  J.,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  but  left,  and  commci  ■ 
the  study  of  law  with  John  Morin  Scott,  with  wh«»ci  »• 
served  in  1776  as  aide-de-camp,  and  subseouentlv  a.^  n..    r 
of  brigade;  Nov.  21  major  of  the  Second  New  Vork  K».. 
ment,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  a  lieutenant -t^v  ^ 
Col.  Fish  was  in  both  battles  of  Saratoga,  commanu^. 
corps  of  light  infantry  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  s^t^^I  * 
Sullivan's  expedition  against  the  Indians  in  1779,  wa»  «   ' 
the  light  infantry  under  La  Fayette  in  1780,  and   in  17* 
was  active  with  his  regiment  in  the  operations  whit  h  • 
suited  in  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown,  Va.    h 
was  adjutant-general  of  the  State  in  Apr.,  1786,  and  ti'.<  *>^ 
after  for  many  years.    He  was  revenue  supervisk»r  u!.«i  • 
Washington  in  1794,  and  a  New  York  alderman  f  nnn  \  ^  ■ 
to  1817;  president  of  the  New  York  Society  of  the  Cii 
nati  in  1797,  and  a  prominent  member  of  masij  literan  v- 
l)enevolent  institutions  of  New  York  city.    D.  in  Xew  Y-  • 
city,  June  20,  1833. 

Fish-cnltare :  a  t'Crm  which  in  its  widest  sen^*  nt" 
the  increase,  distribution,  and  protection  of  useful  arn'.    " 
namental  aquatic  animals  and!^  plants.    The  method  a: 
ends  involved  receive  a  more  nearly  adequate  expn-^^,,  l  : 


390 


FISHERIES 


Luther's  writings ;  besides  this,  in  opposition  to  the  Lutheran 
doctrines,  he  wrote  several  treatises.  In  1530  he  opposed 
the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  from  Catharine  of  Aragon,  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  of  Ijondon  in  1534,  and,  receiving:  the 
carainars  hat  from  Pope  Paul  III.  Mav,  1535,  was  convicted 
for  denying  the  royal  supremacy  on  itune  17,  and  executed 
at  London,  June  22,  1535.  See  his  Life  by  J.  Lewis  (2  vols., 
London,  1855)  and  his  Life  by  T.  E.  Bridgett  (1888). 

Flsheiies :  those  industries  which  consist  in  the  taking 
for  commercial  purposes  of  fish  or  of  any  other  kind  of 
aquatic  animals,  such  as  seals,  whales,  clams,  corals,  and 
sponges.  The  term  fishery  means  fishing  for  business,  as 
mstinguished  from  angling,  which  is  fishing  for  sport,  and 
implies  the  use  of  fine  tackle  for  the  capture  of  active,  well- 
flavored  fish. 

In  an  article  like  this  the  most  general  treatment  only  is 
possible,  and  the  most  important  fish  and  fisheries  can  alone 
oe  treated  of  at  length,  while  a  mere  enumeration  of  others 
must  suffice.  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  almost  every 
common  fish  is  somewhere  caught  and  used  for  food,  often 
in  considerable  numbers,  without  being  the  object  of  any 
particular  "fishery."  It  may  also  haopen,  as  is  pre-emi- 
nently the  case  on  the  Great  Lakes  of  rforth  America,  that 
large  fisheries  may  be  carried  on  having  as  their  object  the 
catching^  of  fish  in  general  and  no  one  species  in  particular. 
The  subject  of  the  fisheries  of  the  U.  S.  is  dwelt  on  at  special 
length  in  this  article,  not  only  because  of  their  importance, 
but  because  detailed  information  concerning  them  is  much 
more  accessible  than  it  is  for  other  countries. 

It  has  seemed  best  to  discuss  the  fishes  in  their  natural 
groups,  giving  under  each  some  of  the  more  important 
methods  of  capture,  and  to  preface  this  with  a  description 
of  the  general  types  of  apparatus  used. 

Apparatus. — Under  tnis  head  come  hooks  and  lines,  nets, 
traps,  and  spears.  Hooks  and  lines  are  naturally  proportioned 
in  their  sizes  and  lengths  to  the  various  kinds  of  fish  and 
various  depths  of  water  for  which,  and  in  which,  they  are 
used.  They  may  be  classed  as  hand-lines  and  set-lines, 
long  lines  or  trawls.  These  three  names  are  applied  to  long 
lines  having  attached  to  them  at  regular  intervals  short 
lines  armed  with  hooks.  At  either  end  is  an  anchor  to  hold 
the  trawl  in  place,  furnished  also  with  a  line  and  buoy  to 
indicate  its  oosition. 

For  cod-nshing  trawls  usually  have  the  hooks  6  feet 
apart,  and  are  set  in  lengths  of  3,000  feet,  although  two  or 
three  of  these  lengths  are  frequently  combined. 

A  full  set  of  trawls  for  a  fishing-schooner  is  72,000  feet, 
or  over  12  miles,  long,  and  is  furnished  with  14,000  to  15,000 
hooks.  The  difficulty  of  hauling  trawls  in  deep  water  (and 
they  are  used  at  depths  of  from  600  to  1,500  feet)  is  so  great 
that  boats  are  provided  with  little  winches,  known  as  hurdy- 
eurdies.  Trawls  were  first  used  on  the  Grand  Bank  of 
I>[ewfoundland  by  French  fishermen  and  it  was  a  long  time 
before  they  were  adopted  by  North  American  fishermen. 
Although  usually  allowed  to  rest  on  the  bottom,  the  Italian 
fishermen  use  trawls  having  at  alternate  intervals  a  float 
and  an  anchor,  this  arrangement  causing  the  main  line  to 
assume  the  form  of  triangles,  the  hooks  at  the  base  taking 
such  flshes  as  dwell  at  or  near  the  bottom,  while  those  near 
the  apex  capture  such  species  as  swim  nearer  the  surface. 
The  terms  trawl  and  trawling  have  such  different  signiflca- 
tions  in  different  localities  that  it  is  often  necessary  to 
specify  just  what  is  meant.  In  the  U.  S.  trawl  always  means 
a  long  line  as  described  above ;  in  England  it  means  beam 
trawl,  a  kind  of  net ;  and  in  Scotland  trawling  is  applied  to 
the  use  of  haul-seines  for  catching  hernngs.  Trolls,  drails 
or  trails  are  modifications  of  hand-lines  used  from  boats  in 
rapid  motion  for  taking  active,  predatory  fish,  such  as  the 
bluefish  and  barracuda. 

The  hook  either  has  its  upper  part  imbedded  in  lead  or 
tin,  or  has  attached  to  it  a  piece  of  bone,  bright  metal, 
rag,  or  bait  of  some  kind. 

The  most  important  nets  are  gill-nets  and  seines.  These 
are  both  long,  straight  nets  kept  in  a  vertical  position  by 
having  the  lower  edge  weightea  with  le^d  or  stones,  while 
the  upper  edge  is  buoyed  up  by  means  of  cork,  wootl,  or 
glass  flx>ats.  Glass  floats,  which  are  now  so  extensively 
used,  seem  to  have  originated  in  Europe,  and  as  they  are 
made  of  strong  green  glass  in  the  shape  of  hollow  balls  and 
are  covered  with  netting,  they  are  extremely  durable.  They 
have  the  merits  of  never  becoming  water  soaked,  and  of 
being  much  cheaper  than  cork  flouts  of  equal  buoyancy. 
Gill-nets  are  either  anchored  in  position  or  set  across  the 


current  of  moving  water  and  allowed  to  drift  with  stream 
or  tide,  the  object  in  either  case  being  to  capture  fish  U 
their  becoming  entangled  in  the  meshes  of  the  net.  (liii- 
nets  are  used  not  only  at  the  surface  but  at  the  l)ottoni.  il^ 
in  the  cod  gill-net  fishery,  the  sinkers  used  being  suffieiti.:!} 
heavy  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  floats.  Or,  as  in  ih*^ 
European  herring-flshery,  the  upper  rope  of  the  net  may  h. 
attached  to  buoys  by  ropes  and  lowered  to  any  desin^  dis- 
tance below  the  surface. 

Seines  are  long  nets  which  are  drawn  around  a  shoal  <f 
fish,  or  around  a  locality  where  fish  are  supposed  to  hie.  iii 
order  to  surround  them.  When  set  from  shore,  one  end  cf 
the  net  is  fixe<l,  while  the  other  is  carried  around  to  form  ao 
immense  circle,  and  then  drawn  in  by  man,  horse,  or  stc-am- 
power,  according  to  the  size  of  the  seine.  Some  of  ih»» 
Albemarle  Sound  shad-seines  are  nearly  1^  miles  in  len^k 
while  one  used  at  Stony  Point,  on  the  Potomac,  ha^i  u 
length  of  3,400  yards,  or  nearly  2  milea  Seines  are  iLsd  lu 
localities  where  the  bottom  is  comparatively  level  and  fr**- 
from  rocks  or  other  obstructions,  as  otherwise,  as  the  for^t .  f 
the  seine  is  dragged  over  the  bottom,  fish  would  escape  bc^ 
neath  it  or  the  net  would  be  torn.  In  purse-seines,  siich  a» 
are  used  in  the  mackerel  and  menhaden  fisheries,  a  rope  m 
run  around  the  bottom  of  the  net  in  such  manner  that  thn* 
lower  part  of  the  net  can  be  drawn  together  so  as  to  fnm] 
an  immense  bag  or  pocket.  Mackerel  purse-seines  are  fr>>!ii 
900  to  1,500  feet  long  and  from  160  to  180  feet  deep,  and 
are  naturally  used  only  in  deep  water.  They  are  nt>t  v^i 
directly  from  the  vessel  carrying  them,  but  from  large  n  w- 
boats. 

The  beam-trawl,  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  X^r- 
Sea  fisheries  of  Europe,  is  a  triangular,  bag-shapetl  r.  ' 
whose  wide,  open  end  is  attached  to  a  beam  supported  •  r 
iron  runners.    The  lower  edge  of  the  bag  is  weignted,  ar.d, 
as  the  apparatus  is  dragged  over  the  bottom  of  the  s^a,  irr 
low-swimming  or  ground-haunting  fishes  are  swept  up  t;. 
it  and  pass  into  the  hinder  end,  which  forms  a  pocket  fr.  r. 
which  they  can  not  escape.    A  large  trawl-net  is  aliour  ^ 
feet  long,  and  has  a  beam  of  30  to  50  feet.    The  beam-tni.( . 
can  be  used  to  advantage  only  where  the  bottom  is  c  •:: 
paratively  smooth,  and  it  is  particularly  adapted  for  tnK:r  j 
flat  flshes.    Related  to  the  oeam-trawl  is  tne  drag-nn  >r 
paranzella  of  the  Italian  fishermen,  now  coming  into  u«%>  >i 
the  Pacific  coast    This  is  a  bag-shaped  net  with  winc^  <  ^ 
leaders,  but  the  upper  edge  is  kept  clear  of  the  botton*.  I  < 
floats,  and  the  net  is  extended  by  having  the  drag-line^  a' 
tached  to  spars  projecting  from  the  sides  of  a  bcmt.    Or  w 
may  be  dragged  between  ^o  boats,  or,  even  when  smal!  a-  . 
used  in  shallow  water,  between  two  men. 

The  term  traps  includes  a  large  number  of  devices,  fr  :: 
small  wickerwork  affairs,  constructed  on  the  plan  of  a  nj 
trap,  up  to  pound-nets  and  weirs  and  the  deadly  fykt^n*  * 
This  consists  of  a  rather  long,  cylindrical  net,  kept  ojn-i  - 
hoops,  and  terminating  in  a  pocket  entered  by  a  fui:- 
shaped  opening.    From  the  open  end  of  the  net  are  strv^u  : 
long,  straight  nets,  termed  leaders,  their  object  bein;:  * 
lead  the  flsh  to  the  mouth  of  the  trap.    Fyke-nets  an-  ^ 
at  or  near  the  bottom,  being  supported  by*  stakes,  &n*\  a- 
very  extensively  used  both  on  the  coast  and  in  lake  fi>h    : 
being  subject  to  almost  endless  modifications  in  the  armr . 
ment  of  pockets  and  leaders,  according  to  the  l<>i-al:  y 
which  they  are  used  and  fish  that  they  are  inten<i''<] 
catch.    Pound-nets  are  long,  straight  nets,  usually  \va  w  : 
from  near  the  shore  into  deeper  water,  and  having  a:  * 
outer  extremity  a  square  or  bag-like  net  so  arranginl  *  • 
fish  once  within  its  bounds  can  not  escape.    Fish   m^  s    . 
along  the  shore  reach  the  leader,  as  the  straight  u*:   > 
called,  and  foUow  it  down  to  the  trap.    Pound-netJ»  are  ^  . 
in  water  of  moderate  depth,  rarely  as  much  as  75  fett.  ** 
are  supported  by  stakes.    The  leaders  are  from  500  ft-ii  t 
1,400  feet  long,  and  very  long  nets  may  have  two  or  ir  - 
pockets.    Among  the  advantages  of  pound  and  fykr  :    • 
IS  the  fact  that  the  fish  are  kept  alive  and  not  ]4k<  if  - 
fishermen  are  prevented  by  rough  weather  or  othi-r  <.i»;.-  - 
from  visiting  their  nets  regularly. 

A  weir  is  practically  a  stnicture  on  the  principle  i '  • 

Eound  net,  built  largely  or  entirely  of  stakes^  Ikvatxi*,    " 
mshw(x>d.    Weirs  are  generally  used  in  salt  water,  w  *   • 
there  is  considerable  rise  and  fall  of  tide,  which  idl<i«>  v , 
structures  to  be  readily  built,  while  the  use  of  linivli»^    . 
obviates  the  expense  of  a  net.    They  are  extensively  '.^  ■ 
along  the  coast  of  New  England. 

Although  limited  in  its  use  to  rivers  with  a  swift  our?*:* . 
and  practically  restricted  to  the  Columbia  river,  Uivp  '^ 


ftt  $1,676,106.  The  Canadiann  also  hftve  interested  them- 
selves in  the  "sordine"  industry,  and  I  he  product  ot  their 
canneries  Tor  l!t91  amounted  U>  $>1,4I2.  Incidentjilly, 
canned  herring  appear  under  the  disguise  of  "  brook  trout." 
The  majority  of  small  herring  na  well  as  m&ny  others  are 
taken  in  weirs  built  of  brush,  but  Beines  and  gill-nets  are 
extensively  used,  and  in  some  localities  numbers  are  taken 
at  night  bv  "  torching."  In  "  torching  "  a  boat  is  provided 
witli  an  I'roD  frame  projecting  from  the  bow  in  which  a 
Sre  is  kindled.  The  Qsli  are  attracted  by  the  li^ht,  and 
scooped  up  with  a  dip-net  as  the  boat  is  ruwed  rapidly  for- 
ward. The  bulk  of  the  herring  cat«h  is  disponed  ot  fresh, 
but  vast  quantities  are  also  smoked  or  salted,  and  in  this 
form  exported,  largely  to  Europe. 

While  the  herring-nsherics  of  N'orth  America  are  to  a  great 
extent  shore-fish  en  es,  those  of  Great  Britain,  Norway,  and 
Sweden  are  mostly  carried  on  from  boats,  and  the  herring 
are  taken  almost  exclusively  in  gill-nets  bv  the  method 
known  as  drift-net  Ashing.  Some  fishing  lias  been  done 
with  seines  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  but  has  always 
met  with  bitter  op])osition  from  the  majority  of  the  fisher- 
men. The  boats  employed  in  drift-net  fishing  vary  in 
size  and  rig  according  to  locality,  but  those  ot  the  flrst-class 
are  luggers  ot  from  15  to  20  tons  and  decked  over.  Several 
nets  are  used,  fastened  to  one  another  in  a  long  line.  80  to 
130  nets  being  used,  the  whole  forming  a  "  train  "  a  mile  to 
a  mile  and  a  quarter  in  length.  As  the  floats  on  the  upper 
edge  of  the  nets  are  not  sulHcient  to  support  them  they  are 
attached  to  buoys  by  ropes  varying  in  length  according  to 
the  depth  at  which  the  flsh  are  supposed  lo  be  swimming. 
A  strong  rope  or  warp  is  [aslened  to  the  lower  edge  of  the 
nets  tor  the  purpose  ot  hauling  them  in.  as  well  as  to  secure 
the  nets  in  case  the  upper  part  should  l>e  torn  by  a  passing 
ves-'el.  The  toreraast  is  lowered  in  order  that  its  weight 
may  not  add  to  the  rolling  of  the  vessel,  and  the  boat  rides 
by  the  warp  with  just  enough  sail  set  to  steady  her. 

Yarraoiitn,  which  furnishes  large  quantities  of  red  her- 
rings, besiiles  the  well-known  "  bloaters,"  is  the  chief  port  of 
the  English  horring-Qshery,  and  Lowcstolt  comes  next  in 
importance.  Scotland  exports  large  quantities  of  pickled 
or  white  herring,  and  Ireland  has  a  herring-fisheiy  which 
in  ordinary  years  excels  that  of  the  New  England  States. 
It  requires  the  aid  ot  figures  to  convey  an  adequate  idea  of 
the  importance  of  the  herring.  Qreat  Britain  Cakes  herring 
te  the  value  ot  $8,584,008.  Norway  to  the  value  ot  $3,000,- 
000.  Frenee  reports  a  catch  worth  $l,BflS,800,  and  Hol- 
land $1,600,000,  while  $1,000,000  is  a  low  estimate  for 
Denmark,  Russia,  and  Germany.  The  British  provinces 
of  North  America  are  credited  with  herring  to  the  ex- 
tent of  $2,639,000,  and  New  Eng;land  with  the  compara- 
tively low  sum  of  $330,000,  making  in  round  numbers  an 
aggregate  of  $19,125,000,  an  amount  well  within  the  mark. 

The  true  sardine  {Clupea  pilehardta),  known  In  England 
as  the  pilchard,  and  the  well-known  sprat  {C.  tpraltua)  ore 
also  important  members  of  the  herring  family,  and  another 


B[)ceies  (C.  loli)  occurs  abundantly  on  the  coast  of  Sumatra. 
14.000.000  or  l.'>,000.000  being  taken  annually,  the  fish  being 
dried  and  the  smoked  roesciported  toChina.  Iiocal  but  com- 
paratively undeveloped  herring-fisheries  also  eiist  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  Canary  islands.  The  abundance  of  sardines  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  Spanish  fishermen  take  an- 
nually about  100.000  ton^  of  these  tittle  fishes,  having  a  value 
of  from  $400,000  to  $600,000.  A  peculiar  met  ho<l  of  captur- 
ing sardines  at  night  prevails  in  the  Adriatic,  The  locution 
ot  the  shoals  of  fish  is  literally  felt  out  bv  a  light  sounding- 
line,  and  by  means  of  the  attraction  of  a  fire     ' 


pine  the  fisli  are  slowly  coaxed  into  some  creek  or  estoary 
and  surrounded  with  a  seine.  The  demand  tor  wood  for  use 
in  this  and  other  night  fisheries  causes  a  serious  drain  on  the 
pine-forests  around  the  shores  of  the  upper  Adriatic 

Another  valuable  member  of  the  herring  tribe  is  the  men- 
haden, mossbunker,  or  porgy  [Brevoorlia  tyranniia),  which  is 
the  object  of  important  fisheries  peculiar  to  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  U,  S..  New  York.  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Isl- 
and being  foremost  in  this  field.  The  menhaden  is  very 
erratic  in  its  movements,  as  is  well  shown  by  the  llaine  fish- 
ery, which,  formerly  prosperous,  was  practically  abandoned 
between  1880-86  owing  te  absence  of  fish,  and  is  again  as- 
suming considerable  proportions.  Menhaden  approach  the 
coast  in  immense  shoals,  swimming  at  or  near  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  great  numl>ers  are  taken  iu  purse-seines,  al- 
though pounds  and  weirs  play  on  important  part,  and  gill- 
nets  are  also  used,  especially  by  the  smaller  cratt.  One 
peculiarity  ot  the  menhaden-fishery  is  the  employment  of 
steamers,  which  have  great  adranlAges  (wer  sailing  cra^ft.  not 
only  in  cruising  for  fish  but  in  transporting  them  to  the 
tocteries  where  they  are  ground  and  pressed.  A  small  pir- 
tion  of  the  catch  is  used  fresh,  canned,  or  salted,  but  m.ist 
otthefishare  used  for  the  manufacture  ot  oil  and  fish  guano. 


V  specie! 


confined  to  the  northern  hemisphe'n  . 
anadromous,  residing  the  greater  portio: 
the  sea,  but  ascending  rivers  to  spawn.  Large  numbers  of 
salmon  are  taken  with  gill-neU  and  traps  in  Great  Britain, 
Norway,  Russia,  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  there  ore 
extensive  fisheries  in  Eastern  Asia,  including  Japan.  A  small 
number  of  salmon  are  taken  in  Maine,  many  more  in  the 
British  provinces,  but  the  most  valuable  of  the  salmuu- 
fisheries  are  on  the  northwest  coast  of  North  America,  and 
especially  on  the  Columbia  river. 

The  most  important  species  is  the  quinnat  ot  king  salmon 
{Oneorkynekua  chouitha)  but  the  blue-back  salmon  iU. 
ntrka),  and  the  white  salmon  {0.  kisaick),  and  Gainlner'i 
trout  {Salmo  gairdneri).  are  also  commercially  valuahlt-. 
The  fish  are  taken  on  their  run  up  the  rivere  by  gill-nel.-^ 
seines,  pound-nets,  traps,  and  fishing- wheels,  and  are  chirfir 
used  for  canning.  "  Columbia  salmon  "  being  exported  to  all 
parts  of  the  world. 

The  extent  of  this  industry  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in 
1888  the  value  of  salmon  canned  in  the  Pacific  Staled  WM 
$3,70,t,838.  In  18B1  the  Dominion  of  Canada  reported  sal- 
mon canned  to  the  value  of  $1,522,508,  neariy  all  from  Brit- 
ish Columbia. 

The  future  of  these  great  salmon-fisheries  appears  to  dts 
pend  largely  on  the  possibilities  for  artificial  propaeation  on 
an  extensive  scale,  coupled  with  rigid  protective  laws,  ap- 
pliances for  taking  fish  having  so  niulliplie<1  that  the  salmon 
nave  decreased  in  on  alarming  manner.  The  value  of  pro- 
tection is  well  shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  returns  trcit 
the  salmon-fisheries  of  Great  Britain  with  those  for  llie  Ea:st- 
em  U.  S..  where  salmon  were  formerly  abundant.  The  re- 
ports of  England  and  Wales  for  1887,  and  of  Scotland  and 
of  Ireland  for  1888,  show  that  the  value  of  salmon  taken  wa» 
respectively  $464,095,  $1,166,400.  and  $1,622,987,  Ihe  total 
$3,253,572,  nearly  equaling  the  value  of  the  product  of  thir 
Pacific  coast  fisheries  ot  the  U.  S.  In  1880  tlte  salmtm-fi-h. 
ery  of  the  Eastern  U.  S.  yielded  $34,118,  all  but  $388  worth 
coming  from  Maine.  In  1891  Canada  and  Ncwfoundlan'l 
took  sSmon  ot  the  volue  ot  $1,712,762,  exclusive  of  salmon 
used  for  canning. 

The  smelt  ((^jmcrws  tnortjo^).  although  bnt  a  small  relative 
of  the  salmon,  is  of  considerable  importance,  the  catch  iit 
this  little  fish  in  the  riversof  Maine  alone  amounting  in  I!lt'<V 
te  1.055,385  lb.,  worth  $74,977.  while  Ihe  catch  of  mlirnn 
was  but  152,740  lb.,  worth  $34,118.  The  figures  for  Ciuiaiia 
are  even  more  striking,  being  $298,951  tor  the  same  y.-^r. 
The  smelt  occurs  on  both  coasts  ot  N'orth  America  in  c»:d 
waters  and  is  token  in  weirs,  by  small  seines,  dip-nets,  mi:d 
hook  and  line. 

Theeulachon.  or  candle -fish  [Thaieiehfhyt  patiiicae\  and 
the  surf  smelt  {Hypomemn prfliotnta)  are  two  abundarit  and 
toothsome  relatives  ot  the  smelt,  found  on  Ihe  northwca 
coast  of  North  America.  Another  valuable  little  fish  is  the 
cajiclin  (H/illoliiK  viUottis)  which  occurs  in  vast  numbers  I'n 
the  northern  shores  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  during;  the 
spawning  season.     Although  it  is  dried  in  great  quanliliec 


394 

□f  marine  fishes  which  includes  the  mm;  and  well-H&vored 
red-anapper  (Lufj'anua  blarkfordi)  and  sboepshead  (Diplo- 
du»  probatoeepl-alua).  In  188U  the  CAtch  at  the  red-snap|>er 
amounted  to  4.023,286  lli.,  worth  fllS.riTS.  The  other  mem- 
bera  of  the  group,  ahhoug'h  inostly  small,  are  largely  used 
for  food.  Among  them  are  the  snapper  of  Austraha  {Pogrus 
ttnitolor),  an  important  food-Bsh,  tiie  sargo  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  sailor's  choice  {l^naadntgn  fulvoToacuiatut). 

The  true  mullets  [Mullida)  are  marine  fishes  of  warm  or 
tropical  watera,  whpse  most  important  membKr  is  the  red- 
mullet  of  the  Mediterranean  (3fuUi»  barbalua).  The  an- 
cient Romans  paid  fabulous  prices  for  this  fish,  and  it  is  still 
considered  a  delicacy. 

The  drums  (Sciwiiida)  form  an  important  family  of 
edible  fishes,  including  many  large  species,  whose  members 
with  a  single  exception  dweH  in  salt  water  and  in  warm  re- 
gions. As  they  frequent  rocky  places,  keep  near  the  bottom, 
and.  as  a  rule,  do  not  go  in  shoals,  they  are  mostly  taken  by 
hand-lines.  The  squeteague.  or  weakfish.  or  trout  (Ct/nox- 
eion  regait),  and  sea  trout  (Cynoseton  maentatum),  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  U.  S.,  however,  are  largelj'  taken  in 
seiues  and  weirs,  and  are  Tolued  not  only  for  their  flesh  but 
for  their  sounds  (swimming  bladders),  which  furnish  a  fine 
quality  of  isinglass.  The  T^il-dTam  {Seimnops  oeellatd\  is  a 
valued  fish  of  the  Southern  waters  of  the  IJ.  S.,  and  the  Idng- 
flsh  and  whiting  (Mentieomta  nebuloeua  and  M.  albumu»), 
which  ore  taken  in  nets,  rank  in  fiavor  next  the  pompano 
and  sheepshead.  The  catch  of  these  two  species  amounted 
in  1889  to  12,14e.(X)0  lb.,  which  brought  |413,000. 

The  maigre  (Seittna  aguila)  and  the  corvo  (Umbritta 
eirrltota)  are  caught  on  the  European  coasts,  the  former 
occurring  also  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  on  the  coast  of 
Southern  Australia. 

The  wrasses  or  rockflshes  {Labridte)  comprise  nearly 
SOO  species,  mostly  tropical,  inhabiting  rocky  shores, 
where  they  feed  on  moUusks.  Many  of  the  species  espe- 
cially those  brightly  colored,  are  dry.  hut  othera,  hke 
the  taulj>g  or  blackflsh  {Taaloga  onitis)  and  cnnner 
(Clenolt^niu  adtpersua),  are  excellent  pan-fish.  Of  these 
two  fish,  well  known  alone  the  New  Kngiand  coast,  the 
catch  for  1889  was  reported  at  557.195  lb.  of  tautog,  worth 
132,401,  and  1,072,630  lb.  of  cunners,  valued  at  t43,41T. 
The  scare  of  the  Mediterranean  {Scanu  creltiisis),  the  but- 
terfish  of  New  Zealand  {Coridodax  puttus^  and  the  hogfish 
of  the  Uult  of  Mexico  [LaehnolamM  faiealut)  are  important 
forms.  The  parrot-fishes  (I'geudotearua)  attain  a  consider- 
able size,  but  unfortunately  the  flesh  of  theae  is  sometimes 
poisonous.  The  rockfishea  are  larRely  taken  with  hand- 
lines,  but  the  clap-net  is  also  used  to  advantage  in  their 
capture,  while  in  some  localities  pounds  and  gill-nets  and  oc- 
casionally seines  may  be  used. 

The  rockflshes  {Seorpanidif}  are  residents  of  tempetateor 
cold  seas,  often  found  at  considerable  depths,  and  are  taken 
with  liand-linosor  trawls.  The  rosefish  or  Norwoy  haddock 
(Sebtutet  marinun)  is  of  considerable  importance  in  Green- 
land and  Northern  Europe,  and  is  also  caught  to  some  ex- 
tent bv  fishermen  of  the  British  provinces  and  Northern 
New  fingland.  The  group  is  particularly  well  represented 
in  the  North  Pacific,  between  twenty  and  thirty  species  oc- 
curring on  the  northwest  coast  of  North  America,  the  rock- 
flsh  brought  into  Son  Francisco  alone  in  1888  amounting  to 
860,000  lb.,  with  a  retail  value  of  |68,000. 

The  Gultus  cod  {Ophiodon  eloitgalum),  a  large  fish  reach- 
ing a  weight  of  30  or  40  lb.,  belonging  to  the  allied  group 
of  Chirida,  is  an  iniportant  flsh  of  the  North  Pacific. 

The  coil  family  lOadida),  commercially  the  most  impor- 
tant among  fishes,  is  mainly  confined  to  north  temperate  and 
arctic  xeas.  being  well  represented  both  in  Ihe  North  Pacific 
and  North  Atlantic  Oceans,  lis  leailing  member  is  the  com- 
mon codflsh  (6adu»  monhua),  which  has  for  centuries  been 
the  object  of  extensive  fisheries  along  the  northern  shores  of 
Europe  and  America,  on  the  Gnuiil  Banks,  near  the  Lofo- 
den  islands,  and  on  the  shoals  of  the  German  Ocean.  Tbe 
enterprise  of  the  early  fishermen  is  well  shown  by  the  fact 
that  those  of  Kormandy,  Brittany,  and  the  Ba.squp  Prov. 
inces  visiteil  Mewfoumlland  in  1504,  only  seven  years  after 
the  discoverj  of  the  island,  while  by  1578  not  less  than  400 
sail  of  Spanish,  French,  and  English  vessels  were  engaged 
in  the  Newfounilland  fisheries.  The  cod-fishery  of  eastern 
North  America  may  l>e  divided  into  the  bunk  and  inshore 
fisheries,  the  former  lielng  carried  on  by  viwscls  of  from  50 
to  125  tons,  and  sui)|ilying  the  bnlk  of  the  salt  fish,  the  latter 
being  proseculcil  from  smaller  craft,  in  some  jiarts  of  the 
British  provinces  even   from   roW'boata.      In   the  British 


provinces  the   larger   port  of  the  flsh  taken   inshore   B^■    | 
salted,  while  on  the  coast  of  the  L'.  S,  the  inshore  fi^hiTi 
supplies  a  groat  part  ol  the  fresh  fish  for  market. 

Prior  to  1860  the  bank  fishery  was  carried  on  bv  duni.i 
craft  of  40  to  70  tons,  and  tbe  fish  were  token  frvni  Ihe  v<~ 
sel,  using  salt  clams  or  salt  mackerel  tor  bait.  The  sch'-.n- 
ors  anchored  on  the  banks,  and  remained  in  one  pla.T5i> 
long  as  fish  bit  well.  Since  1880  larger  and  faster  vi-s...  ^ 
have  been  introduced  and  trawls  employed,  or  where  h&ii<l- 
lines  are  used  they  ore  osed  from  small  flal-botlnmrai  boau 


Baak  flihlDK-THael  of  the  old  tTpe. 

termed  dories,  which  are  eminently  characteristic  of  \Y'. 
New  England  fisheries.  Trawls  are  used  in  deep  wit.  t. 
hand-lines  where  it  is  under  300  feet,  and  the  bait  is  ^^'/'  s 
herring,  salt  herring  or  mackerel,  capelin,  or  squid,  or--''-:- 
ing  to  season.  The  flsh  are  split,  cleaned,  and  sa]ll^i  < ;. 
board  the  fishing-schooners,  the  drying  being  done  cd  it-- 
return  of  the  vessel  to  a  home  port.  Tbe  George's  Bui^ 
cod-fisherj  is,  in  winter,  one  of  the  meet  hazardous  of  i>i<  u- 


is  steam  tarred,  900  feet  long,  provided  with  two  hoiiks  an  ■ 
a  lead  weighing  8  or  9  lb.  A  considerable  number  of  hi^.. 
but  are  taken  in  connection  with  this  flshcTT;  th<¥i'  i>r< 
packed  in  ice,  but  the  cod  are  split  and  salted.  Hanii-I.'  s 
and  trawls  are  used  in  the  inshore  ood-flshery,  and  siimi'  i-  ■) 
are  taken  in  gill-nets,  principally  when  bait  i*  scMoe.    Bola 


-n  flBhJi]g«choo 


T.  tlip  n«doiilL 


British  Columbia  and  the  U.  S.  fiarticipat*  in  the  Ala.--' 
cod-flshery,  which  is  carried  on  with  hand-lines  anil  tr»o  - 
This  latter  gear  can  not  be  used  in  some  iocahliesowijij  ■ 
the  abundance  of  sea-fleas  {Amphipod»\.  which  svami  ■  <  - 
the  l)ait  and  eat  holes  in  the  cod  after  they  hm-r  l»-- 
hooked.  The  cod'flsheries  of  Norway  and  Swe«lon  -t- 
moinly  carried  on  with  hand-lines  and  giU-nets  rmm  ]»r^ 


FTSHERIES 


makes  it  desirable  to  have  boats  that  can  be  drawn  out  on 
the  beach.  These  conditions  have  given  rise  to  the  bom- 
sehuit,  a  stout,  almust  flat-bottomed  cratt,  blunt  at  either 
end  and  more  than  half  as  broad  as  long,  furnished  with  lee 


A  Dutch  bomscbuit. 

boards  and  CMpable  of  being  run  on  the  beach  and  drageed 
out  by  oxen,  to  l)e  dragged  down  again  at  low  tide  when 
wanted. 

The  flatflahes  conclude  the  list  of  edible  flshea,  and  it  re- 
mains only  to  show  some  of  the  total  results  of  the  fisheries, 
and  in  the  most  general  waj  to  note  some  of  the  causes 
aSectine  them. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  value  of  the  fisheries 
of  some  of  the  most  important  maritime  nations,  but  it 
ebould  be  said  that  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  gathering  fish- 
«7  statistics  the  figures  can  not  be  implicitly  relied  on. 
The  reports  of  the  U.  S.  and  of  France  are  very  complete, 
but  the  returns  for  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  for  Great 
Britain  are  avowedly  incomplete  in  details.  The  official 
esdraate  of  the  fisheries  of  the  United  Kingdom  for  1890 
was  £5.815,000  (*a8.260.900).  Dr.  G.  Bmwn  Goodo's  esti- 
mate in  1883  was  $40,000,000,  and  $83,000,000  is  doubtless 
safe. 

Total  Valve  of  Fisheries  of  all  Kindt. 

New  England  SUtes $8,119,800 

Middle  Atlantic  States IO,,^50.S40 

Southern  Atlantic  States 11,601  760 

Gulf  States 2.488,675 

Pacific  States 6.387,805 

Great  Lakes 2.615.785 

Other  inland  Fisheries 1,400.000 

Total  forU.S $43,138,205 

Great  Britain $32,000,000 

i»P^ 26.000.000 

5"^'» 23.000.000 

France. ...   21.256,283 

Dominion  of  Canada 18  !)77878 

Norway.  S.'oOOioOO 

Newfoundland 6  871)  574 

Port  "K»l 3,'400,"000 

JP*'"-  ■ 8.500,000 

Holland 2,22,'),000 

Swf  len 2,300.000 

«aly 1.216,000 

Dr.  Goode's  estimate  of  the  total  value  of  the  fisheries  of  the 
world  is  $420,000,000. 

The  value  aa.signed  the  fisheries  of  Japan  seems  high,  but 
the  Japanese  both  consume  and  export  large  quantities  of 
flsh,  and  not  only  carry  on  flsheries  along  their  own  coast. 


but  alon^  the  adjacent  shores  of  Asia,  a  fleet  of  some  4.(J(K> 
lioats  bemg  cmplovnl  on  the  Korean  coast  alone  the  «n- 
nual  catch  being  worth  from  $1,330,000  to  $1,760,000.  Al-.iit 
187,000  boats  and  over  1.500,000  people  are  said  t<)  b..  ,-il- 
ployed  in  the  Japanese  fisheries,  but  of  this  latter  nunilir 
only  one-third  are  bmui  fide  fishermen,  the  balance  bfiiiir 
engaged  as  helpers  or  in  the  preparation  of  Bsherr  iirncl- 

China  has  vast  fishing  interests,  and  is  eitensiveh  tn- 
paged  in  taking  cultlefiSies,  the  citi- of  Ningpo  alone' lut- 
ing 1.2O0  boats  thus  employed.  It  mav  be  said,  in  utt-cinB. 
that  cuttlefishes  are  coiuing  into  use  iii  the  V.  S..  and  llaf' 
there  is  a  demand  for  them  not  onlv  among  the  Chine--  ..I 
the  Pacific  coast,  but  in  the  Buslem  markets.  Tlie  iii-h 
rank  of  France  is  partly  due  to  the  extent  of  the  suUidizni 
cod-fisheries  and  partly  to  eitensive  and  successful  ovsi.r 
cultivation. 

Norway  is  peculiar  from  the  fact  that  a  comparaliv.h 
small  portion  of  the  proilucts  of  her  fisheries  is  consuru.-o 
at  home,  very  nearly  80  per  cent,  being  exported. 

The  fisheries  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia  are  iieinj; 
rHj)idly  developed,  and.  although  confined  to  supplving  ihr 
local  markets,  will  undoubtedly  attain  considerable' iiron.^. 
lions.  The  Dutch  East  Indies  have  large  local  fi^h.■ri.^ 
Java  and  Madura  counting  about  50,000  fishermen,  and  t'„' 
Philippine  islands  export  great  quantities  of  trepang  (drii-l 
sea-cucumbere),  peari  shells,  and  shark -fins,  mainly  to  Chini. 
The  figures  for  the  U.  S.  are  smaller  than  they  were  tin 
years  previous,  partly  owing  to  certain  differences  in  lli^; 
manner  of  tabulating  the  value  of  the  products  of  the  fi^li- 
erie*.  and  partly  on  account  of  a  falling  off  in  certain  fi^^h- 
eries.  notably  in  those  (or  fur  seals,  whales,  and  mackenl. 
The  returns  from  the  New  England  and  Southern  Atlanll< 
States  are  less  than  in  the  last  decade,  but  other  sections  -f 
the  eountry  have  gained.  Increase  in  the  vtUue  of  ii.iJi 
catch  docs  not,  however,  always  indicate  a  desirable  stale  ■■! 
affairs,  as  it  may  be  due  to  increase  of  aj)paratus,  or  to  iht 
taking  of  undersized  fish,  or  those  which  have  become  nisr- 
ketable  through  the  absence  of  larger  or  better  species.  Tin 
reports  for  the  U.  S.  show  that  the  percenlace  of  increase  m 
value  of  fish  taken  is  proportionately  much  less  than  thi' 
increase  in  the  amount  of  capital  invested,  althoagb  grealer 
than  the  increase  of  men  employed. 

There  is  a  steady  growth  in  the  value  of  the  secondarr 
products  of  the  fisheries  by  the  utilization  of  refuse  in  the 
manufacture  of  glue,  oil,  and  fish  guano,  although  unfor- 
tunately, and  often  unavoidably,  large  araonnlf  of  material 
still  go  to  waste.  Improved  methods  of  tnuisporting  and 
handling  fisli,  such  as  the  use  of  steamers,  fast-sailing  ve;^ 
sels,  refrigerator  cars,  and  warehouses,  have  been  importai.I 
factors  in  the  development  of  raanv  fisheries,  the  one  bv 
speedily  carrying  the  fish  from  their'place  of  capture  to  the 
pointBof  distribution,  the  other  by  keeping  them  in  g.i«l 
order  while  in  transit.  The  red-snapper  furnish^  a  ei««i 
illustration  of  these  facta,  for  while  in  1880  it  brought  $1  t.i 
$1.50  per  lb.  in  New  York  markets,  it  can  now  be  purcha*n] 
(or  15  cents.  This  is  partly  due  to  better  knowledge  of  the 
fishing-grounds,  but  without  facilities  for  transportation  tb* 


t  but  ..  ^ 

more  accessihlc  ground.= ;  the  supply  of  liters  has  in  5ome 
localities  dwindled  ;  and  the  seemingly  inexhaustible  hrds 
of  oysters  in  Chesapeake  Bay  have  become  greaUv  deplti'^i 
The  salmon  has  almost  disiappeared  from  the  waters  of  the 
Eastern  V.  S.,  and.  from  the  Potomac  northward,  the  ^h..-l 
would  have  followed  the  salmon  but  for  the  efforts  of  tin 
U.  S.  Pish  Commission. 

Anadromous  fishes  are  often  practically  prevented  bv  a 
multiplicity  of  nets  from  reaching  their  spawning-grounii*: 
fishing  IS  carried  on  at  seasons  when  it  should  be  prohihii.-.i ; 
and  fine-meshed  nets  are  used  which  take  fishes  so  vounc  *> 
■  >  be  of  little  or  no  value. 

The  erection  of  dams  and  the  pollution  of  water  bv  mtii.'?.. 
manufactories,  and  sewage  are  other,  and  often  preventii-U-, 
causes  for  the  decline  or  ruin  of  some  fisheries. 

Much  of  this  mi^ht  be  remedied  by  good  laws  well  f-n- 
forced,  but  unhappily  the  fishermen  who  would  b*  iin..-i 
benefited  are  too  often  bitterly  opposed  lo  any  laws  for  i  h» 
protection  of  fisheries,  and  they  are  carried  on  in  a  wa.«leful 
and  destructive  manner. 

It  is  by  fish-culture  only  that  many  ot  the  fisheriesof  xht 
U.S.  can  be  preserved,  and  while  its  effects  are  most  i^adili 
appreciable  in  lakes  and  rivers,  there  is  grod  reason  to  t-"- 


398 


FISHERY  RELATIONS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES 


dry  and  cure  fish  on  the  soil  belonging  to  any  organized 
state  without  permission. 

In  the  treaty  of  1783,  by  which  Great  Britain  acknowl- 
edged the  independence  of  those  North  American  colonies 
which  now  form  the  U.  S.,  the  right  of  their  inhabitants  to 
take  fish  on  the  banks  of  NewK>undland  was  admitted,  as 
well  as  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  at  all  other  places 
of  the  sea  where  they  had  been  wont  to  fish  in  earlier 
times.  Liberty  also  was  conceded  to  them  to  take  fish  with- 
out drying  or  curing  them  on  parts  of  the  coast  of  New- 
foundland used  by  British  fishermen,  and  ''  on  the  coasts, 
bays,  and  creeks  "  of  all  other  British  dominions  in  Amer- 
ica; and  ^so  to  take,  cure,  and  dry  fish  in  any  of  the  un- 
settled bays,  harbors,  and  creeks  of  Nova  Scotia,  Magdalen 
islands,  and  Labrador,  so  long  as  thev  should  remain  un- 
settled, but  to  dry  and  cure  fish  after  the  settlement  of  such 
coasU,  etc.,  "  only  with  the  consent  of  the  inhabitants,  pro- 
prietors, or  possessors  of  the  ground." 

The  treaty  of  Ghent  (1815),  terminating  the  war  of  1812- 
15,  said  nothing  of  the  right  of  fisheries.  The  U.  S.  Gov- 
ernment claimed  that  the  old  treaty  of  1783  survived  the 
war,  and  the  British  Government  denied  such  a  claim,  on  the 
general  principle  that  war  dissolves  ordinary  provisions  of 
treaties.  In  1818  a  convention  made  at  London  conceded 
to  fishermen  from  the  U.  S.  the  right  to  take  fish  on  the 
southwestern  and  western  coasts  of  Newfoundland  within 
certain  limits,  on  the  shores  of  the  Magdalen  islands,  and 
on  those  of  Labrador  from  Mt.  Joly  eastward  and  north- 
ward. The  liberty  of  drying  and  of  curing  fish  was  con- 
fined to  the  southern  coasts  of  Newfoundland  and  the  coast 
of  Labrador,  as  defined  in  the  treaty,  so  long  as  they  should 
continue  unsettled,  but  i^t-erward  only  with  the  consent  of 
pTX)prietors,  as  before.  These  grants  were  expressly  made 
perpetual,  and  therefore  suspended  only,  but  not  tenninated, 
by  war.  On  the  other  hand,  the  U.  S.  renounced  for  ever 
the  right  to  take,  cure,  or  dry  fish  within  3  marine 
miles  of  any  coasts  of  the  British  dominions  not  named 
in  the  treaty.  Liberty  to  enter  bays  or  harbors  thus  ex- 
cept^ from  the  right  of  fishing  was  granted  for  pur- 
poses of  shelter,  repairing  damages,  and  obtaining  wood 
and  water. 

In  1854  a  new  treaty  relating  to  the  fisheries  on  the  east- 
em  coasts  was  negotiated,  which  went  by  the  name  of  the 
Reciprocity  Treaty,  and  considerably  enlarged  the  liberties 
concedeu  to  fishermen  from  the  U.  S.  The  rights  created 
by  the  old  treaty  remained  untouched  and  unenlarged; 
this  treaty  granted  the  additional  right  of  takhig  fish,  ex- 
cept shellfish,  of  every  kind  on  the  seaooasts  and  shores 
and  in  the  bays,  harbors,  and  creeks  of  Canada,  New  Bruns- 
wick, Nova  SScotia,  Prince  Edward  island,  and  of  the  isl- 
ands thereto  adjacent,  and  the  permission  of  landing  to  dry 
their  net«  and  cure  fish  on  all  these  coasts,  as  weU  as  on 
those  of  the  Magdalen  islands ;  provided  it  be  done  with- 
out interference  with  private  property.  From  the  permis- 
sions given  by  this  treaty  those  of  catching  salmon  and 
shad  and  of  fishing  in  the  mouths  of  rivers  were  excepted. 
On  the  other  hand,  similar  liberties  were  given  to  British 
fishennen  to  fish  along  the  shores  of  the  U.  S.  as  far  S.  as 
the  36th  degree  of  latitude,  with  similar  permission  to  dry 
and  cure,  and  with  the  reservation  of  fisheries  similar  to 
those  already  mentioned.  Other  riehts,  such  as  the  free 
navijration  of  Lake  Michigan  bv  both  parties,  and  that  of 
nsin^  the  St.  Lawrence  within  British  territory,  were  pro- 
vided for,  as  well  as  the  free  exportation  of  a  number  of  its 
products  by  either  country  into  the  other.  Among  such 
products  were  lumber,  coal,  and  fish,  which  latter  was  the 
chief  equivalent  for  the  free  fishing  granted  the  fishermen 
of  the  I.  S. 

This  treaty,  terminable  after  ten  years  on  twelve  months* 
notice,  was  actually  terminateil  by  the  action  of  the  U.  S. 
Mar.  17,  1^66,  in  pursuance  of  notice  given  a  year  before. 
Consequently,  the  treaty  of  1818  alone  regulateil  the  fish- 
eries on  British  American  eastern  co*usts,  and  many  irri- 
tating eien'ises  of  power  and  claims  that  the  Americans 
had  surpiissotl  their  rights  (X'curred  on  the  pirt  of  the  au- 
thoritit^  of  the  Briti«<h  doiniiiions.  Five  years  pa^^sed  away 
before  the  treaty  of  Washinirton  of  1871  put  the  fi>heries  on 
a  new  basis.  In  this  treaty  most  of  the  |>artioulars  whit-h 
enter  into  the  int^R^ourse  of  bonier  states  were  0(»nsi(lered. 
and  fonn  a  sy<tem  in  which  the  advantaires  were  intendetl 
tobeetjual.  The  fi'?heries  were  airaiu  phued  substjintially, 
as  far  as  riurhts  of  fishinj;,  curiiitr,  and  drying  were  con- 
cerned, on  the  l>asis  of  the  recipriK'ity  treaty  of  1854;  only 
the  southern  limit  of  British  rights  of  fishing,  etc.,  along 


the  coasts  of  the  U.  S.  was  moved  northward  to  the  39th 
parallel.  An  important  feature  of  the  treaty  was  that  of 
article  21,  the  admission  of  fish-oil  and  fish  (except  fish  of 
inland  waters  and  fish  preserved  in  oil)  into  the  t^rritori^'S 
of  the  U.  S.  from  those  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  of 
Prince  Edward  island,  being  the  produce  of  their  fi>h- 
eries,  and  vice  versa,  tree  of  duty.  Another  provision  of  the 
treaty  arose  from  the  claim  on  the  British  American  side 
that  the  concessions  were  of  more  valiie  to  the  U.  S.  than  u> 
themselves.  In  order  to  determine  this,  article  23  provides 
for  the  appointment  of  commissioners  to  meet  at  Halifax 
and  determine  what  gross  sum,  if  any,  ou^ht  to  be  pai<i  to 
the  British  Government  as  a  oonipensatton  for  excess  of 
advantages  conceded  to  the  U.  S.  Such  a  commission  met 
at  Halifax  in  1877,  and  awarded  $5,500,000  to  Great  Brit- 
ain. This  part  of  the  treaty  of  Washington  was  by  artu  ]p 
3^  made  terminable  after  ten  years,  and  after  one  year'-> 
notice.  Such  notice  was  given  in  1884,  causing  these  treat v 
provisions  to  terminate  on  July  1, 1885.  The  treaty  of  WS 
has  thus  a^in  come  into  force,  and  this  has  given  ris«'  to 
serious  difficulties  between  the  U.  S.  and  Canada.  An  at- 
tempt in  1888  to  settle  this  vexed  question  by  a  new  treaty 
failed,  owing  to  the  non-concurrence  of  the  Senate  in  tbV 
ti-eatv  proposed.  It  is  probable  that  no  form  of  recipro<'iTy 
which  balances  the  free  entry  of  fish  against  the  freedom  of 
the  inshore  fisheries  can  be  permanently  satisfactory.  Yvt 
the  conditions  of  the  mackerel  fisherv,  which  is  the  one  pri  nt  i- 
pally  concerned,  are  constantly  changing,  and  its  imfxT- 
tance  accordingly  fluctuates,  while  the  free  entry  of  C  4- 
nadian  fish  is  of  constant  value.  The  two  are  not  pr-|»T 
eauivalents.  It  is  suggested,  therefore,  that  a  fair  s<»liitii>L 
of  the  problem  would  be  to  secure  through  yearly  licens^ « 
or  outright  purchase  the  fishery  rights  of  the  pmvim  la: 
shores  for  U.  S.  fishermen,  and  then  settle  the  question  of 
the  free  importation  of  Canadian  fish  on  its  own  mt-nt^ 
separately  as  a  domestic  matter.  Until  some  such  st'trlt- 
ment  is  made  difficulties  will  always  arise. 

Under  the  head  of  fisherv  relations  with  Great  Britain 
should  also  be  mentioned  the  sealing  difficulty,  the  I'.  S. 
claiming  the  right  to  forbid  all  captures  of  seals  in  th*- 
Bering  Sea,  by  any  persons  of  whatever  nationality,  exct  1 1 
the  employees  of  a  smgle  company,  under  penalty  of  ct>iitiV 
cation  of  ship  and  outfit    See  Bering  Sea  Controversy. 
This  claim  was  at  first  mainly  based  upon  an  exclu^M'- 
jurisdiction  over  the  eastern  portion  of  the   Berinc  J^a. 
which  the  U.  S.  was  asserted  to  have  derived  from  Ku^-:^ 
with  the  Alaska  purchase  in  1867.    Such  exclusive  juri^i:  - 
tion  was  denied  bv  Great  Britain,  since  (1)  the  Bering  >•  i 
was  part  of  the  nigh  seas,  and  since  (2)  Russia  by  forn..i. 
treaty  in  1824  with  the  U.  S.  and  with  Great  Britain  in  l*^,iri 
had  renoimced  the  claim.    It  was  also  asserted  that  th> 
U.  S.  had  a  propertv  right  in  the  seals  accustomed  to  res-n 
to  its  islands,  and  that  their  indiscriminate  killing  was  r  'r.- 
tra  bonos  mores.    As  the  sealskins  are  dressed  in  Loii<i>  ^. 
both  countries  have  a  sufficient  reason  for  desiring  * :.  • 
preservation  of  this  animal,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  f  r^t 
Cleveland  administration  an  attempt  at  an  amicable  Sit:!- 
ment  was  made  to  include  several  states  and  preserve  ? "  . 
species  threatened  with  extinction.    This  arrangement  » a^ 
prevented  by  the  protests  of  Canada.    Upon  the  failun:-  .-f 
this  plan,  the  Benng  Sea  was  again  patrolled  by  U.  S.  ^>.^ 
sels,  and  pelagic  sealing  checked  by  force.    At  the  sar  • 
time  negotiations  were  resumed  which  ended  in  an  airr^-e- 
ment  to  submit  certain  mooted  points  to  arbitration,  a]<  r  * 
with  the  question  of  proper  international  protection  t4*  t.. 
seals  and  rules  therefor.    This  court  of  arbitration  sjtt   m 
1893  at  Paris.    The  main  question  before  it  was  whether  t: 
U.  S.  on  any  ground  possessed  the  right  to  prevent  peia^  • 
sealing  in  the  Bering  Sea  exclusively ;  and  also,  if  such  {  "  - 
tection  could  only  arise  bv  agreement  with  Great  Bnt,i  r, 
what  rules  were  reasonable  and  necessary  to  make  it  .:- 
fwtual.    The  claim  to  an  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  a  j-  -- 
tion  of  the  Bering  Sea  as  being  territorial  waters  of  •  •  • 
U.  S.  was  not  strongly  pressed  by  the  counsel  for  the  V,  >, 
but  the  question  of  a  property  right  in  the  seals  resort ir  c  *• 
the  Pribyloff  islands  was  very  in^niously  and  forciblv  uri>  i 
The  award,  however,  published  m  Aug.,  18©3,  denietl  ail  r* 
pretensions  of  the  U.  S.  to  prevent  sealing  in  the  Berinjr  ^^  -*• 
as  a  matter  of  right.    It  denied  any  property  right  in   t*. 
seals.     It  did  more.    It  attempted  to  preserve  the  seial  h»  "t 
by  prescribing  rules  to  be  binding  upon  and  enforce*!  by  U^' 
nations  which  limit  in  time  and  place  and  methtxl    t\> 
pt^lairic  seal-fishery.    In  brief ,  pelagic  sealing  is  permi**.  : 
only  between  Aug.  1  and  May  1  to  sailing  vessels,  using  l> 


400 


PISHES 


the  sknll  also  exhibits  well-ossified  bones ;  supramaxillary 
and  intermaxillary  bones  are  well  dereloped;  the  nasal 
iq>ertures  are  bot^  external ;  preopercular  and  interoper- 
oular  bones  are  present ;  the  hyoid  apparatus  is  well  devel- 
oped ;  the  ceratohyals  sustain  a  number  of  branchiostegal 
rays ;  the  pectoral  iin  has  two  external  cartilaginous  basilar 
elements  entirely  separated  from  each  other ;  and  the  air- 
bladder  connects  witn  the  oesophagus  by  a  duct  which  enters 
it  from  above.  This  group  contains  the  orders  Cydoganoids 
(represented  in  the  U.  S.  by  the  bowfins  or  Amiids)  and 
Rnomboganoida  (representea  by  the  alligator-gars  or  Lepi- 
dosteids). 

In  the  second  group  (brachioganoids)  the  skeleton  is  also  in 
great  part  ossified,  but  the  centra  or  bodies  of  the  vertebrae 
may  be  either  osseous,  or  (in  extinct  types)  represented  bv  a 
persistent  notochord ;  the  skull  is  provided  with  well-ossined 
out  superficial  bones;  supramaxillary  and  intermaxillary 
bones  are  distinguishable;  the  nasal  apertures  are  external; 
preopercular  and  interopercular  bones  are  both  wanting ; 
the  hyoid  apparatus  is  defective  in  the  branchiostegal  rays ; 
the  pectoral  member  is  connected  with  and  interposed  at  its 
base  between  two  bones  converging  and  uniting  at  their  base 
with  a  cartilage  representing  a  humerus ;  the  air-bladder  is 
highly  cellular,  and  connects  by  its  duct  with  the  floor  of 
the  oesophagus.  The  group  is  represented  in  the  present 
age  of  the  earth  by  a  single  order  (crossopterygians)  with 
two  genera  (Polypterua  and  CcUamoichthys),  but  was  in  an- 
cient times  rich  in  species. 

In  the  third  group  (dipnoans)  the  skeleton  is  in  part 


Lepidotiren  partuiojca. 

ossified  and  in  part  cartilaginous,  and  the  bodies  of  the  ver- 
tebne,  instead  of  bein^  ossified,  are  represented  by  a  simple 
notochord ;  the  skull  is  in  great  degree  cartilaginous,  but  is 
also  encased  with  superficial  and  thin  membrane  bones; 
no  supramaxillary  or  intermaxillary  bones  are  distin- 
^ishable ;  the  posterior  nasal  apertures  are  internal,  i.  e. 
m  the  mouth ;  no  preopercula  or  interopercula  are  devel- 
oped ;  the  hyoid  apparatus  is  more  or  less  defective,  espe- 
cially in  branchiostegal  rays ;  the  pectoral  member  is  con- 
nected by  a  pedicle  (homologous  in  part,  at  least,  with 
the  humerus)  to  the  intrascapular  (coracoid)  cartilage ;  the 
air-bladder  is  replaced  bv  a  true  lung,  which  is  more  or 
less  divided  into  two,  and  which  is  connected  with  the  oesoph- 
agus by  a  duct  or  rudimentary  trachea,  which  enters  it 
from  beneath.  This  type  is  represented  at  present  by 
three  very  distinct  genera — viz.,  Lepidoairen  in  South 
America,  Protoptents  in  Africa,  and  Ceratodus  in  Australia, 
the  members  of  this  last  genus  being  locally  called  salmon 
and  barramunda.  Formerly,  the  members  of  the  group  were 
among  the  principal  representatives  of  the  class,  and  in  the 
Triassic  period  of  Europe  the  Ceratodus  of  Australia  was 
represented  by  several  typical  species  of  that  genus,  which 
was  originally  established  on  fossil  dental  plates. 


The  common  Rturgeon. 

In  the  last  group  (chondroganoids)  the  skeleton  is  almost 
entirely  cartilaginous  (and  from  this  circumstance  the  group 
has  been  named);  this  is  the  case  especially  with  the  verte- 
bral column  and  its  appendages ;  the  skull  is  also  cartilag- 
inous, but  is  covered  by  dermal  bones ;  no  supramaxillary 
or  intermaxillary  bones  are  differentiated;  the  nasal  aper- 
tures are  external;  both  the  preopercular  and  the  intero- 
percular elements  are  wanting;  the  hyoid  apparatus,  as  in 
the  last  types,  is  deflective  in  branchiostegal  rays ;  the  pec- 
toral member,  as  in  the  Hyoganoicls,  has  external  cartilag- 
inous basilar  elements  entirely  distinct;  and  the  air-blad- 
der connects  with  the  oesophaj^us  by  a  duct  which  enters 
from  above.  To  this  group  belong  the  sturgeons  (constitut- 
ing the  order  Chondrostei)  and  the  "  shovel-noses  "  or  "  pacl- 


dle-fishes"  of  North  America  and  Eastern  Asia  (constitut- 
ing the  order  Selachostomi), 

While  the  four  groups  just  enumerated  are  the  only  gna* 
primary  types  of  ganoid  fishes  that  have  members  in  i\>v 
waters  of  tne  present  epoch  of  the  earth,  in  ancient  tim*-^ 
there  were  some  very  strange  and  peculiar  forms  which  an 
not  referable  to  any  of  those  divisions,  but  which  apj^ar 
to  stand  isolated  and  afar  from  all  others,  aud  thu<  n<^ 
cessitate  still  another  primary  group.  The  types  allu(le«i  t<> 
flourished  among  the  first-known  fishes,  and  in  the  Silunar. 
and  Devonian  epochs.  So  strange  are  some  of  the?^  in 
their  appearance  that  remains  of  them  have  been  reffrr>  •! 
to  the  crustaceans.  Such  are  the  forms  which  have  Uh  :. 
called  Cevhalaapid{B.  Others  (Placoganoidea)  are  alm<.< 
equally  aberrant  in  appearance,  and  their  relations  vmti!*: 
not  be  suspected  from  their  external  characters;  but  ih* 
dental  armature  and  scapular  arches  of  a  species  discovm-.: 
by  Prof.  Newberry  in  Ohio  have  convincea  the  writer  th.i* 
they  were  closely  allied  to  the  order  Sirenaidei,  and  wii  t: 
them  formed  the  super-order  Dipnoi,  The  vomerine  ar..i 
palatine  dental  plat-es  were  contiguous,  and  seem  to  be  h«  » 
mologous  with  the  palatine  plates  of  the  Sirenoid^i, 

Limitations  of  Characters, — The  student  of  the  fish*-', 
more  than  of  any  other  class  of  vertebrates,  must  dissipiitr 
all  prejudices  with  regai-d  to  the  value  of  form  in  dt*t»r- 
mining  the  relations  of  members  of  the  class.    Fonns  2i.» 
diverse,  almost,  as  any  among  all  the  quadruped  mamtiuN 
or  among  all  the  birds  are  found  combinea  in  the  shi!.'- 
natural  family  among  fishes,  and  on  the  other  hand  th«n 
are  forms  that  are  very  similar  associated  with  8tnutur»; 
characteristics  that  are  very  dissimilar.    The  student  ini;^: 
also  dismiss  prejudices  respecting  the  constancy  of  meml-  r- 
(fins  in  fishes)  in  weighing  their  systematic  relation*.     1  u- 
members,  for  example,  may  vary  'in  the  same  fainily.  ai  .1 
ventral  fins  may  be  present  or  absent  in  closely  relateil  ;:•!.- 
era ;  scales  are  also  by  no  means  invariably  characteh>' : 
of  fishes,  for  they  likewise  may  be  present  in  one  genu<  ai.  i 
absent  in  another  in  other  respects  very  closely  reiai^'i 
But  although  the  presence  or  absence,  per  «e,  of  part^  ri:j\ 
be  comparatively  immaterial,  their  structure,  when  prr-s.^'t 
is  all  important.    The  pectoral  and  ventral  memlM^rs,  f-r 
example,  are  always  constructed  on  the  SAme  gt^eraf  plar.. 
and  contrast  markedly  with  those  of  the  higher  verttbm'* n 
The  character  and  mode  of  development  of  the  s^^ales.  i.*-. 
though  not  so  distinctive  as  the  fins,  are  sui  gen^nt.  in 
fishes. 

Oeographieal  Distribution, — About  9,000  species  of  liv- 
ing fishes  are  now  known,  variously  distributed  and  f«>tii  • 
in  greater  or  less  numbers  in  almost  all  the  waten.  t»f  11 1 
globe,  fresh  and  salt ;  the  greatest  numbers  of  speoies,  h<  v. 
ever,  are  found  in  the  tropical  waters,  and  especially  in  tn» 
seas  of  the  Indo-Moluccan  Archipelago.    The  distfibur:  r 
of  the  types,  especially  of  the  marine  species,  to  a  r<in^  :- 
erable  degree  coincides  with  thermometncal  conditiims.    U- 
the  polar  and  northern  temperate  regions,  for  exam  pit*.  &!>' 
found  representatives  of  the  families  of  gadoids  or  t«j- 
fishes,  lycodoids.  stichseoids,  liparidoids,  cottoidsor  sculj  rn- 
and  others  less  known ;  in  the  tropical  regions  many  f « >n  * 
are  distributed  throughout  the  entire  zone  (and  tliervf  r 
designated  as  tropicopolitan),  this  being  especiallT  the  in^ 
with  many  genera  of  labroids(of  which  the  tautoe  is  a  nor'  r 
em  type),  scaroids  or  parrot-fishes,  pomacentroias,  f^Tn.  :* 
serranoids  or  groupers,  sparoids  (of  which  the  porgr  is  a  r  ;- 
resentative),  cai-angoids  or  horse-mackerel,  and  others;  ?.  .- 
inerous  species  of  these  families  being  found  in  torrid  waf.  '^. 
while  very  few  extend  far  northward  or  southward.     In  i- 
antarctic   regions,  again,  there  is  another  combination    >' 
forms;  typical  codfishes  and  the  other  types  character^' 
of  high  northern  latitudes  are  wanting,  but  are  rephio^.  - 
several  peculiar  groups,  which  seem  to  fill  an  analo>piu«>  ]'\*  - 
in  the  economy  of  nature,  having  a  superficial  resembS- 
in  general  aspect,  although  they  are  not  at  all  (comjiarativ 
speaking)  related  in  structure.    The  gadoids,  for  exarv.-  . 
are  replaced  by  notothenioids,  the  lycodoids  by   fio*;.    .' 
genera,  the  cottoids  by  harpagiferoids,  etc.     In  the  t««T.Trv-' 
between  these  antarctic  and  the  arctic  forms  there  i>  « »• 
dence  of  the  absence  of  any  paramount  causal  relati»  r.  ^- 
tween  temjwrature  and  structure ;  and  it  is  necessary  u   r  • 
mark  here  that,  in  addition  to  the  tropicopolitan  tTi>os  « ■"  ' 
great  region  has  a  number  of  characteristic  and  p*H--   t: 
typos. 

But  the  distribution  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  great  «  t  •  • 
seas  and  those  of  the  inland  waters  is  determined   l>.v 
ferent  conditions,  as  might  o  priori  be  supposeiL     VS  :u 


41)2 


FISH-HOOK 


FISTULA 


injf  upon  fish  which  it  captures  by  swoopinj?  down  upon 
thorn  when  they  are  near  the  surface.  The  j^Mieral  color  of 
the  flsh-hawk  i»  van«Iyke  br*)wn  alM)ve,  the  cjuill  feathers  are 
blatkii^h.  aixl  the  heiul,  nei^k,  and  under  partA  arv  white. 
The  luitor  i«k%  hs  in  owN,  can  t)e  tumtni  backward  and  the 
powerful  fiH't  mv  fumiNhwlwith  sharp  spicules  which  aid  in 
fioldiiiic  the  bin!*8  i*lipi>ery  prey.  The  length  is  about  2 
leei,  the  spn'twl  of  wing  4(.  and,  as  in  most  binls  of  prey, 
the  fnimle  is  lanjer  than  the  male.  By  preference  the  flsh- 
hawk  n<wts  in  ull  trees  near  the  water.  The  ne:*t,  which  is 
a  bulky  affair  of  Micks  and  wi-wls,  repairMl  and  abided  to 
yearly,  is  v>  larp»  that  small  binls  fre<|uently  build  their 
iieMn"  in  its  interstices.  The  fish-hawk  ranj^«  over  the 
jfTfrtter  |K>rtion  of  the  warm  and  tera|)erate  fwirts  of  the 
lfl..U\  the  American  binls  lieinjf  fre<juently  sejxaratetl  as  a 
diMinrt  jfe<>KTaphical  race  or  siil)-s|)ecies,  Fandion  haliaitus 
earoUneriJUA.  The  binl  is  syHteraatically  plundered  by  the 
hrtld  eagle,  and  in  some  southern  Uxjalities  by  the  frigate 
binl.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Fish-hook  :  a  curTe<l,  barbe<l,  and  pointe<l  steel  wire  usetl 
in  anu'liii;:  and  the  fisherii»s.  The  m<»st  im(>ortant  scats  of 
the  ti>h-h<K)k  manufat^-ture  are  Limerick  in  Ireland  and  Red- 
ditch,  Worc«*stcr«hire,  England,  but  fish-hooks  of  the  best 
quality  are  matle  in  the  V,  S.,  not  inferior  to  tht>se  of  Lim- 
erick ex<H»pt  in  reputation  and  cost.  The  Limerick  hook 
has  a  barn  which  is  forged  solid  and  then  filed  into  the 
pn>per  shape,  while  the  English  and  other  onlinary  hooks 
nave  a  barb  which  is  raiMMJ  by  cutting  into  the  wire. 
Thi>se  are  inferior  in  temper  and  durability  to  the  best 
b(M)ks. 

FUhin^-boBntlM:  bounties  varying  from  $1  to  $2.50 
per  ton,  given  during  the  pericKl  of  British  rule  over  North 
America  to  all  verwU  employed  for  the  term  of  four  months 
at  least  in  ea<'h  year  on  the  Newfoundland  Banks  or  other 
fii«^heri«s.  Three-eight  lis  of  the  b<»unty  went  to  the  owner  of 
the  ve>s<>l.  and  the  remaining  fivt*-eightlis  to  the  fishennen. 
I)uring  the  Revolutionary  war  this  svstem  of  bounties  fell 
out  of  UM»,  but  by  act  of  Congn»ss,  179^,  it  was  re-established, 
on  the  ground  that  in  case  of  war  the  state  attained  a  great 
Itenefit  fn>m  the  fisheries  as  nurseries  for  seamen. 

FifthlBf-ftrof :  See  A!(olek. 

Pifthkill  OB  the  HBdiioB,or  Pishkill  LaD^lBf :  village 
antl  railway  junction,  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of 
count  v.  s<»e  map  «»f  New  York,  ref.  6-J);  on  Uuds<m  River, 
op|M»Hite  Newlmrg.  with  which  it  is  connected  by  steam 
ferry :  ."W  mih*s  l»y  rail  N.  of  New  York,  It  has  three  churches, 
an  cxt-ellent  public  S(*hooL,  the  I)e  Garmo  Institute,  a  hat- 
factorv,  machine  and  Uuler  shop,  and  an  insect  icide-fai'tory. 
Pop,  (IWHO)  2,508;  (1890)  3,617;  (1893)  estimatetl,  4,000, 

Editor  or  "  Fihhkill  Standard." 

FIfth-loVM:  a  name  applied  to  numentus  itarasites  (gen- 
erallv  entom<wtra<M»uH  rru**ta<van8  of  the  onler  (^opeptMia) 
whn-h  tnfrst  fi*'hrH.  Th*'  jr^ncra  Arfjulu*^  ("nhgHn^  Sitothof^ 
DirhrleAtium^  J^rfupfMitMcus,  Chondraranthus,  Achtfures^ 
Anrharriltt,  and  l^rufotoma  are  best  known. 

FUhnoth :  See  E.vtomoumt. 

Fifth-platefi :  a  (lair  of  plates  pUoed  u (Mm  op^xtsite  sides 
of  a  JMJni  in  a  U'am.  antl  c<mnt*cte<l  by  ImiUs  (ia*^iiig  through 
thf  iH'ttMi.  The  fish-ji»int  f4»r  railway  rails  wa-*  lir*.t  ummI  in 
Eiu'iand  in  1M7,  the  pUu-*  Inking  18  iiifhe*  long.  3  inches 
«i<l«',  thrt^'-fouiih^  of  an  ini-h  thi«-k,  and  l>olttMl  throutrh  the 
rail-*  !•>  f'»»ir  \**Ms  in  «>val  h^lrs,  so  as  to  allow  fur  changes 
in  )•  Mu'th  i>1  tfif  niiN  due  to  trin|wrHturp.  This  joint  is  dc- 
fl(  h  III  in  '*lilTtn-Hj*  and  hif*  !nu'stl\  |iii.Nse<)  out  of  use,  the 
•n;:Ii'-liitr  j«iint  ImMiig  tuk>*n  w^  plm-i*.    Se<'  Rails.    M.  M. 

Fink.   <'li\to?i    Bow  ex  :    «M.Mu»r  and    politirian;    b.   in 
(}ruv-»\il)f.   N.  Y.,   IK-**.  H,  IH-JN  ;  Usame  a   n»«'n*hant   and 
tiariMTnl  i '•♦IdwatiT.  Mn  h.  ;  ent^-n-d  thi-  rninn  army  m  1861 
a*  a  pmaif.  nfid  Im**  anu-  bn'>«'t  um jor-i^'Urnil  «»f  vohintt*«>rM  j 
in    \'^V'\.     \{r  iU'\i*t*-*\    htrii«M'lf  t«>  tht*   niiprovriiii*nt   of  th«' 
iM»lori*«i  rait',  wa*  a-^-^j^tant    rMiiuiii'*'»iMin'r  m  th«'  Fnt'dint'n'H  1 
Hun  (111.  ati'l  ftMitHh-^l  thf  Kl»*K  I'MntKHrT^'  (y.  f.j.      \\r  was  a  i 
mt-iiiiN-r  of  thr  Indian  t'<irntiit'*«.t<tri  in  1^7:1;  h«-ld  nuin\  ntlu»r  j 
iiniMtriitnt  oiVpf*!:  wa^  a  Ki')Mil*!i<'an  until  1*^h4.  whrn  lie  U^-  ' 
i»Mi4'  ft  Pnthihitj-ini-^t.     In  !•***»$  hi-  wa*  a  I'r«»h>lMti.in  rnn«li-  ■ 
tl.iN'  f<«r  <ii»>fni'tr  '»f  N**w  .Irr^'\.and  in  l**x*<  thi*  I*n'fnl»it  imu 
n"iintn-<.  for  i*n-<jdcnt  itf  the   T.  S.     D.  in  N»'»  Ynrk  tilv, 
Juh  W,  iNlKi. 

FItik.  Wiinti,  I).  I).:  b.  in  BniTtMniro,  Vl..  Atiir.  31, 
17'.*'^;  iniritsi  tn  1»»12  thr  ^'photiKirr  rja^^  m  th*»  Tnivt-niity 
of  Vrnnnnt,  tml  "jient  hi*  •<ru«jr  yrar  at  linmn  Tnivrp^ity, 


where  he  graduated  with  high  honor  tn   18] Sl     R't^o-^j 
with  great  zeal  u|Km  the  study  of  the  law,  hr  wa*  v*    • 
in  his  course  by  what  threatened  to  lie  a  fatal  il  r*-  ^  ; 
in  1818  was  lii'ensetl  as  a  locral  pread-hrr  in  tbr  )!•'    •    ; 
Epi>co[>al  Church,     He  stKm   t(M>k  high   rank  v  a  i 
orator.     He  was  in  1825  cho(««m  first  princi)«!  of  1^•  « 
braham  Academy,  Massachusetts,  removing  U.t*K*'r  ir  '»*j 
in  1830  was  chosen  first   pre>itlent  t>f  thf  Wt^.-«i.r 
versity,  Middletown,  Conn.,  and  enterv<|   nf-'O  tr  H 

of  this  office  in  1831.  He  declined  a  btdiofmr  in  X•^>  .-j 
in  Middletown,  VU,  Feb.  22,  1H3».  He  w**  a  ii-*i  f  -H 
Fenelon  ty|)e  of  character.  Published  f'rt/ni»««'»r  #  • -^ 
vfnty  (New  York,  IKiT) ;  TVairis  in  Eurm  (1h.b»%  ,  .s*-^  ^ 
and  Lectures  on  Untt^rsaiism,  Hepltf  to  f\*r^  ^/  •  *i^ 
Atonement,  and  other  tracts  aiK)  sermons.  Srr  to.*  /,•'•  -i 
Rev,  Jtweph  Holdich,  D.  D,  (1842)  and  by  Pn.f,  if  -^ 
Prentice  (1890). 

FIftke,  John,  M.  A,,  LU  R:  hi^orian :  b.  tn  I!*'-'  -i 
Conn.,  Mar.  30,  1842  ;  graduated  at  Uarranl  1n«.i  :;.,-.] 
on  philosophy  1860-71;  instructor  in  hiMorr  l«<7t»  a*  ^ 
ant  librarian' 18?^79,  all  in  Harvani  Colk ,:\» ;  ^.^fp*  -  | 
the  same  institutitm  1870-91;  Professor  of  Ant»r-j  ai.  K^ 
tory,  Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  18M.  IW  t.v  ; 
engagetl  mainly  in  Wturing  antl  writint;.  makmc  I  *  * 
at  Cambridge.  His  lectures  have  l»een  rw*<*itr*J  »."  ^^ 
favor  not  only  in  the  U.  S.,  but  also  in  Great  Hntair4  I 
also  tlevoted  himself  to  the  eX[K>sition  t»f  Hrriwrt  >f-- 
philt)sophy.  His  principal  works  are  ToAur^.  ttud  A  •* 
(New  York,  1868) ;  Jfvthti  and  Myth-maker*  .  It-t  -  >-j 
Outlines  of  Cosmic  Philomphy,  Based  on  th^  /*rf-"»i. 
i^co/u/ion  (2  vols,,  London,  1874;  pepublinhftl  in  B*«»4.  - 
Unseen  World  (Boston,  1876);  />annn iVm  01*4^  oth^^  i  m 
(Ijondon,  1879 ;  newand  enlargwl  editit»n,  B*»^i«in.  Ivk*  £ 
cursions  of  an  Ei'oiutionist  (Boston,  li^U  ;  7a«  /v« 
Man  Viewed  in  the  Light  of  his  Origin  {\itie,x,  fi,  1*<»m 
Idea  of  God  as  A  fleeted  by  Modem  A'iw*wv-^rfc»  ■•  •  | 
18H.5);  American  PoliticeU  Ideas  Viewed  frutm  f.w  .s'-^ 
point  of  Universal  History  (New  York,  IwTm;  J^*  #'-  j 
I^riod  of  A  merican  History  { B<  wttm,  lf«>» » :  7Tfc#  /f*  yi  *  1  •  1 
ofXew  England  (Boston,  188}»);  The  War  of  /f^i^pm%  ^ 
for  young  people  (Boston,  1889);  Civil  t^iwVn* •»*•%' 
United  States  (Boston,  1890);  The  Am^nean  H^tt  .\  * 
vols.,  Boston,  1891);  The  Diseottry  of  Ame'ry^^  z 
Boston,  1892).  K\  H.  Ta.  atu 

FIsk  UBlyenltj:  an  institution  at  Na^MlU-.  T*-  •. 
the  e<lucation  of  colored  pemons  of  both  acY^^ ;  '  . 
in  1865  largely  through  the  efTorta  of  Urn,  C'.*r.t  ■  !■ 
Fisk,  for  wht>in  it  Is  name<l.  It  haa,  lic»i*)r»  ir  ■  -«, 
course  of  study  in  liberal  arts,  normal,  imlii<tf  n*^  &-  - 
paratory  dei»artments,  and  schools  of  thr«  U»tr«  a-  ■.  s 
The  original  endowment  was  not  larp*,  but  •«!•!.'  •  . 
been  matte  frt)m  time  to  time,  imlutling  a  tbr^  c<  • 
which  was  completed  in  1891,  and  the  Fi^k  m«-ii.t.r-».  *  ■ 
The  collep*  is  well  attentled  by  the  f^'himl  rftrv,  ms, 
done  much  for  its  adyaucement 

Flmlrofttret  [MtKL  LaU,  from  LaL  ,<amjt,  r>  r  * 
tram,  beak,  in  anu>ifm  to  the  width  of  ipafw  '  :  «  t-— :. 
plif^l  by  Cuvier  to  a  "tril)***  of  binU  ct.nij  ri*:f  c  * "      •' 
suckers,  swiftN  and  swalUfWs,  and  mi  rit«t;*i*«i    %n    •- 
(^ray  as  t-t)  include  the  tn»eon».  kingfl^hrrs.  ■»«!  »   k  .  1 
of  t/ther  wide-mouthed  birds.     The  gniip.  wLk  h    ««• 
trastetl   with    Dentirostres   antl    TVnwi rbWrv«,    «■(•        « 
artittfiaj  antl  the  binls  tx)mpnMng  it  arr  n-««    .1  «cr    1 
in  various  orders.    The  adjective  fi»Mrt«trmjL   i.  •««••- 
mains  as  a  convenient  U^rrn.  K    .1.  I        1 

Fls'tnla  fLat.,  reetl,  t>i()e.  fi<«tula]:  in  |iatb  :.«^  ^-> 
nonnal  canal,  usually  t>f  small  Imt^h  am)  ttuaif  *.  r  pa«i 
fnun  one  nrtmn  tt>  ant»ther  (vi-*u^>-ia4:ina;  Il«t  ,^  -  1 
•iorne  cavitv  t>f  the  ImkIv  l<»  the  ritrmai  wi  r^.  .?»•'  - 
biliary  tiMula.  fistula  in  ano). 

Fistula  is  calU**!  (1)  complete,  when  It  ba#  t«.  .^^ 
C2)  UKftinplete  tir  blintl.  when  it  has  tmlv  tmr  ;  ^  *i  | 
%^hi*n  thf  o|M>nin(r  is  through  the  •kio;  (4)  tr.t#na*».  %*^ 
o{Mii<»  nnly  into  a  eavity  tif  the  IhhIv.  The  t«<>  a^  ^  —^ 
lU'iit  chantfteri^tit**  n(  m  fiMula  an*  th«  t^^r^Mtt*  •■  -  ■ 
fn*iii  it  nf  a  tliin  purulent  fluitl,  «tih  wKi*  N  !»•*•  ^^  «<^*  | 
tho  ortran  alT<M-tcd  are  mixeil,  and  thf*  ctlnttr^ai  «  «  -  «  ^ 
It  r(»H|*f*  the  ht'alini;  i»r«*tx"^».  Thi*  lattrr  r«<^.  *•  •**  . 
natttn*  of  tin*  wall  nf  the  ft«iula.  wKuh  in  rvw^t  « 
fftnntii  of  ^»ft.  unhealthy  granulat»<tf>-rr*U  wK»  t  t* 
tt^ndency  tti  unite  to  ft.rra  rithrr  ri'alnu  **•  i-^«  | 

nlilcr  case^  the  walls  ciui'^ist  pnntif«Il«  ^4  ^tiii«  m.i^  J 
ntH'tivr  tt*Aue,  in«t'))anibir  frtmi  tbr  «arn-aivl  '^    (^tf**| 


• 


404 


FITZGERALD 


FIVE  FORKS,  BATTLE  OF 


privy  cotincil.  Was  the  grand  master  of  the  order  of  Free- 
masons in  Ireland.  For  many  years  he  was  the  sole  Irish 
dake,  and  he  also  held  the  rank  of  first  marquis  and  earl 
among  the  Irish  nobility.  In  politics  he  was  a  Liberal,  but 
conservative  on  the  question  of  a  repeal  of  the  union  with 
England.  In  1818  the  duke  marriea  the  daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Harrington,  by  whom  he  had  four  chilaren.  D.  in 
London,  Oct  10, 1874.  His  eldest  son,  known  as  the  Mar- 
quis of  Kildare,  succeeded  to  the  dukedom,  but  died  in  1887, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Gerald  Fitzgerald. 

The  Fitzgerald  family  of  Ireland  is  a  very  ancient  Anglo- 
Norman  one,  long  thoroughly  Hibernicized,  and  derives  its 
descent  from  the  Barons  of  Offaly,  first  ennobled  in  1205. 
In  1747  the  family  was  elevated  to  the  British  peerage,  and 
in  1766  the  then  head  of  the  family  was  created  Duke  of 
Leinster. 

Fitzgerald,  Edward:  author;  b.  at  Bredfleld  House, 
near  Woodbridge.  Suffolk,  England,  1809 ;  d.  1888.  He  was 
educated  at  Tnnity  College,  Cambridge,  and  spent  his  life 
mostly  in  his  native  county  in  study  and  literary  pursuits. 
He  made  translations  from  ^Eschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Cal- 
deron,  and  published  a  selection  from  the  writings  of  his 
father-in-law,  Bernard  Barton,  the  Quaker  poet.  His  fame 
rests,  however,  on  his  translation  (1859)  of  the  Ruhdiydt 
(quatrains)  of  the  Persian  poet  Omar  Khayyam,  which  went 
through  many  editions  ana  achieved  a  remarkable  success. 
Fitzgerald's  Letters  and  Literary  Remains  (3  vols.)  were 
published  in  London  in  1889.  H.  A.  Beebs. 

Fitzgerald,  Edward  :  a  bishop  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church ;  b.  in  Limerick,  Ireland,  1833.  He  removed  to  the 
U.  S.  in  1849 ;  was  educated  at  the  College  of  the  Barrens, 
Missouri,  and  at  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmettsburg;  or- 
dained priest  in  1857 ;  and  in  charge  of  a  parish  in  Colum- 
bus, O.,  till  1867,  when  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Little 
Rock,  Ark.  While  in  Columbus  he  restored  harmony  be- 
tween his  parishioners  and  the  Archbishop  of  Cincinnati,  on 
which  his  church  was  relieved  of  an  ecclesiastical  interdict ; 
and  in  Arkansas  he  promoted  immigration  to  the  State,  and 
introduced  several  orders  of  brothers  and  sisters  to  conduct 
missionary,  educational,  and  charitable  work.  He  took  part 
in  the  Vatican  Council  in  Rome  1869-70,  and  in  the  Third 
Plenary  Council  in  Baltimore  1884. 

Fitz  Gerald,  James  Newbury,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  a  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church ;  b.  in  Newark,  N.  J., 
July  27, 1837.  He  was  educated  and  fitted  for  the  profession 
of  law,  and  was  from  1858  to  1862  an  attorney  and  counselor. 
He  entered  the  ministrv  in  the  Newark  conference  in  1862, 
and  was  pastor,  or  presiding  elder,  until  1880.  He  was  re- 
cording secretary  of  the  missionary  society  1880-88,  and 
electeabishop  in  1888. 

Fitzgerald,  Rt.  Hon.  John  David,  P.  C,  Q.  C,  LL.  D. : 

b.  in  Dublin  in  1816 ;  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  ; 
called  to  the  bar  in  1838,  and  became  a  Q.  C.  in  1847.  In 
1855-56  was  solicitor-general  of  Ireland,  and  in  1856-58  and 
in  1859-60  attorney-general.  In  the  House  of  Commons  he 
represented  Ennis  from  July,  1852,  to  Feb.,  1860,  and  was 
then  made  a  judge  of  the  court  of  o^ueen's  bench  in  Ireland, 
where  he  was  a  commissioner  of  national  education,  of  char- 
itable donations  and  bequests,  and  of  endowed  schools. 
In  1856  he  became  a  privy  councilor.    D.  Oct.  16,  1889. 

Fitzgerald,  Oscar  Penn,  D.  D.  :  a  bishop  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  South;  b.  in  Caswell  co.,  N.  C, 
Aug.  24,  1820 ;  educated  at  Oak  Grove  Academy,  Rocking- 
ham CO.,  N.  C. ;  held  successively  the  positions  of  pas- 
tor, editor,  college  president,  and  superintendent  of  puolic 
instruction  in  Caliromia.  He  was  elected  bishop  in  1890, 
and  resides  at  Atlanta,  Ga.  He  has  published  a  number  of 
books,  including  California  Sketches  (2  vols.,  1879-81); 
Christian  Growth  (18H:3)  ;  Centenary  Cameos  (1884) ;  Bible 
Nights  (1888);  Judge  Longstreet :  a  Life  Sketch  (1891). 

Fitzgerald,  William,  D.  D.:  Anglican  Bishop;  b.  in  Lif- 
ford.  Limerick,  Ireland,  Dec.  8,  1814,  and  educated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Dublin;  B.  A.  18:^5.  In  1840  he  wrote  in  op- 
position to  7%«  Tracts  for  the  Times.  In  1847  was  appointed 
Frofessor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  Trinity  Colle«je,  and  in 
1852  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History.  He  etlited  Con- 
.  stable's  Ethics  and  Butler's  Analogy,  and  wtis  author  of  one 
of  the  answers  to  Essays  and  Rericivs,  lie  was  joint  editor 
of  The  Irish  Church  Journal  with  Dr.  Abeltsnauser,  was 
consecrated  to  the  see  of  Cork  in  1857,  and  transferred  to 
that  of  Killaloe,  Kilfenora,  Cloiifert.  and  Kilinacduagh,  in 
1862.    D.  at  Clarisford  House,  Killaloe,  Nov.  24,  1883. 


Fitzmanrice,  Henbt  Charles  Pbttt  :  See  Laksdownk 

Fitzpatrick,  John  Bernard,  D.  D.:  b.  of  Irish  pan'T.*\ 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nor.  1,  1812;  educated  at  Boston,  at  iIm 
College  of  Montreal,  and  theSulpitian  fcjeminary,  Paris,  In 
1840  he  was  ordained  a  Roman  Catholic  priest :  in  1H44  >ir^<. 
consecrated  coadjutor-bishop  of  Boston,  cum  jure  surr^-M 
sionis;  and  in  1846  succeeded  Bishop  Fenwick  in  the 
bishopric.    D.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  13, 1866. 

Fitzrqy,  Robert:  British  naval  ofBcer;  b.  at  Amtnn 
Hall,  Suffolk,  July  5, 1805.  He  entered  the  nary  in  1h19, 
and  in  1828  was  placed  in  command  of  the  Beagle  hrip. 
then  engaged  in  surveying  the  coasts  of  Patagonia  uodtT 
Capt.  King  of  the  Adventure.  The  ships  retumeil  t*>  Ei.j:- 
land  in  1830;  in  1831  Fitzroy  was  commissioned  t<i  cd- 
tlnue  the  surveys  in  the  Beagle,  Charles  Robert  Dae^tn 
{a,  t\)  going  with  him  as  naturalist.  The  cruise  lasted  ur.:il 
Oct.,  1836,  and  included  thorough  surveys  of  the  southeni 
and  western  coasts  of  South  America,  and  the  running  r-f 
a  chronometric  line  around  the  globe.  In  1837  Fitzroy  re 
ceived  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  S^xittT 
In  1839  he  published  his  Narrattve  of  the  Surreying  Vot,- 
CMes  offf.  M,  Ships  Adventure  and  Beadle  (S  vols..  8vo ;  thr 
3d  vol,  by  Darwin).  In  1841  Fitzroy  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment; he  was  governor  of  New  Zealand  1843  to  184*5.  arcj 
superintendent  of  the  Woolwich  dockvard  1846  to  1849.  In 
1850  he  retired  from  active  service.  In  1851  he  was  ele<t'^i 
to  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  1854  was  appointed  chiif  of 
the  meteorological  department  of  the  Board  of  Trndr. 
D.  in  London,  Apr.  30,  1865.  Besides  the  Narrative  t^ 
ferred  to,  he  published  several  well-known  works  on  n&n- 
gation  and  meteorologv.  Barometer  Manual  (1861k  &n*) 
Weather-book  (1863),  and  was  practically  the  founder  of  tur- 
modem  weather-signal  service.  Herbert  U.  Smitil 

Fitzsim'mons,  Thomas:  b.  in  Ireland  in  1741 ;  bt^amf 
a  merchant  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  commanded  a  v<Mi:r- 
teer  company  in  the  Revolutionary  war;  was  for  ni..:j< 
years  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly ;  in  1>.'- 
delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress ;  in  1787  to  the  Fttit 
constitutional  convention;  and  1789-05  member  of  Ci 
gress.    D.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Aug.,  1811. 

Flame,  fi-oo'ma :  free  imperial  city  of  Hungary;  on  t 
coast  of  the  Adriatic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Fiuniara,  wh-r^ 
it  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Quamero ;  40  miles  S.  E.  of  Tni-"- 
(sec  map  of  Austria-Hungarv,  ref.  8-D).  It  is  an  imj^ort^i.* 
seaport ;  has  large  ship-building  industry,  and  manuiiiuiiin^ 
of  paper,  machinery,  tobacco,  etc  The  harbor  is  exctri^-  t.t 
ana  tne  quay  admirable.  The  exports  and  imports  are  t-^  u- 
siderable.    Pop.  (1890)  29,001. 

Fire  Forks,  Battle  of:  a  battle  between  the  Tn-  >r 
forces  under  Gen.  Sheridan  and  the  Confederates  uni'T 
Gen.  Pickett,  fought  in  Dinwiddle  co.,  Va.,  Apr.  1,  1865. 

Gen.  Grant,  extending  his  left  around  the  right  of  Lt  ••  ^ 
line  near  Petersburg,  ^vanced  the  Fifth  Corps  (Warr  - 
and  the  cavalry  under  Sheridan  to  the  vicinity  of  Fp- 
Forks.  Warren  on  Mar.  31  struck  the  right  of  the  cnt^rr>- 
line  on  the  White  Oak  Road,  where,  supported  by  H  ..i- 
phreys,  he  fought  the  action  of  White  Oak  Ridge  wi'K  a 
loss  of  about  1,400  killed,  wounded,  and  missing  from  f.  * 
corps.  Sheridan's  advance,  moving  farther  to  the  left,  !'.•* 
a  superior  force  near  Five  Forks,  and  was  driven  back  t 
Dinwiddle  Court-house. 

On  Apr.  1  Sheridan  was  placed  in  command  of  the  um^^- 
ment,  and  having  connected  his  forces  with  Warren'^  '  ■ 
decided  to  attack  the  left  (east)  flank  of  the  Confeilt  ^^: 
position  at  Five  Forks,  overlap  their  line,  strike  their  n  *r. 
and  thus  cut  them  off  from  the  rest  of  the  army,  whilt*  *- 
cavalry  was  to  strike  their  front  and  right  flank  so  ^    i  «.-> 
the  infantry  was  fully  en^ged.    The  attack  was  ma-  \i  .i' 
about  4  p.  M.  and  was  carried  out  as  planned ;  but,  o^inj  '• 
the  exact  position  and  shape  of  the  Confederate  line  - 
being  known,  some  confusion  arose  in  one  of  Warren V   i  - 
visions,  and  the  direction  of  the  march  of  the  other  t  * 
had  to  be  changed.    The  necessary  steps  were  taken  u? 
the  personal  direction  of  Gens.  Sheridan  and  Warren  : 
Confederate  left  wing  was  enveloped  by  the  infantr>,  : 
cavalry  attacked  in  front  at  the  same  time,  and  the  (     * 
federate  line  was  rolled  back  from  its  intrenchments  •! 
completely  routed,  with  the  loss  of  a  number  of  prisi'ti,  -« 
estimated  by  different  authorities  from  2,600  to  4,5<^>.  • 
gether  with  six  guns  and  thirt^^en  colors.    The  numl-r-r 
killed  and  wounded  is  not  exactly  known,  but  was  pn^*  .• 
about  600.    On  the  Union  side  the  chief  losses  were  t  r    - 


*>.. 


1- 


j; 


4<>6 


FIXTURKS 


FLAcrrs 


to  have  been  attached  for  permanent  (Hmtinuanoe  will  pass 
lo  hoim  rather  than  to  ext»outor»,  will  be  iH>nveyod  umler  a 
dt'wl  or  niort^cN?^  ^^  ^**^  pn»|n'rty  to  the  vendixr  or  mort- 
jfajfee,  or  will  lie  inoludwl  within  the  contract  of  one  who 
a^rnnv  to  purchaw>  the  Untl.  But  a  lar^  nuralter  of  annex- 
at  ions  may.  even  in  thi.s  c\ns»  of  inytancen,  l>e  conHidered  n» 
(ion«>nal  pnt(>erty,  for  tho^e  additions,  a^  has  been  stated, 
art«  al<»ne  ireatetl  as  n^alty  in  n^^nl  to  which  the  legal  pre- 
fium|>tion  is  that  they  were  aildvd  for  the  pertnanttU  im- 
prov^mmt  and  habitual  enjuifment  of  the  premist«.  In 
onler  to  determine  whether  such  a  presumption  can  Justly 
be  entertained  regard  is  had  to  a  variety  of  tests,  as,  for  in- 
stance', to  the  nature  of  the  annexation,  whether  bulky  and 
unwieldy  or  light  and  easily  removable ;  to  the  adaptabilitv 
of  the  attM^hment  to  the  pro|)er  and  natural  use  of  the  builu- 
ing  in  which  it  is  placed,  or  of  the  land  with  which  it  is 
<H>nne<'t4'd ;  and  to  many  diverse  considerations  which  must 
evidently  depend  upon  the  cinmmstances  of  each  particular 
case.  If  a  building  were  erected  in  such  a  location  and  with 
such  peeuliantii«  of  construction  that  it  could  only  be  used 
to  arlvantAtrc*  by  the  employment  of  certain  machinenr  which 
had  l>e<*n  placed  within  it,  or  could  be  adapted  to  different 
pur]***^*^  "ily  at  gn»at  expense,  the  dwluction  would  be  nec- 
esiarily  made  that  such  mai-hinerv  was  intemled  to  be  no 
mere  temp(»rary  attat^hment,  but  that  it  was  designed  for 
p<»rraanence. 

One  test  of  considerable  important^  and  frec]uent  applica- 
tion is  to  consider  the  manner  in  which  the  fixture  is  joined 
to  or  c<mnectiHl  with  the  property  to  which  it  is  attacned — 
whether  it  can  be  removiil  without  injury  to  the  premises, 
or  whether  its  fastenings  can  \w  reailily  tletacheeL  This  was 
formerly  said  to  be  the  chief  <listingui.Hhiii^  test  in  all  ques- 
tions (concerning  fixtures,  the  statement  l>eing  made  tlmt  all 
objects  firmly  fastened  were  rwd  prtTierty,  whiFe  t)i^i!?^  not  so 
annexed  remained  chattels;  but  this  rul^  would 'eBokidi  all 
constructive  fixtures  from  the  catcg<»rvof  realty,and  can  not 
lie  upheld.  The  critericm  is  only  valuable  as  indicative  of 
intention  to  have  the  articles  remain  N)nstaht.»ttw^ments 
t4>  the  land.  But  it  is  so  indefinite  and  g«'nerai  4n-  itn  char- 
acter, and  lea%*es  «»  much  rtwm  for  fine-^trwwn-HisliiR^ions 
and  delicate  subtleties  of  discrimination  whose  reasonalile- 
Dew  is  oftentimes  difficult  to  discern,  that  to  this  caii^^e  alone 
IS  attributable  much  of  the  confu<^ou  in  the  legal  <le<'LHion<« 
u|H»n  the  subject  of  fixtures.  ThiLs  mai'hinery  attached  to 
a  building  Ity  means  of  rods  passing  through  joists  and  there 
se<Mired  by  nuts  has  been  held  to  U*  real  estate,  while  Imims 
mendy  fastened  to  the  fioor  by  screws  have  been  wmsidered 
perM»nalty.  Some  courts  have  gone  so  far  a^  to  hold  that 
articles  fastened  by  U>ltsor  nails  wouhl  become  resalty,  when 
if  fastenetl  liy  scn.*ws  they  would  still  remain  chattels,  since 
screws  can  l>e  so  much  more  reailily  rpmoved  that  it  is  nat- 
ural to  believe  that  in  the  latter  case'a  removal  was  intended. 
Other  c«Hirts  deny  the  distinction.  In  rt'gani  to  such  ob- 
jects as  stoves,  lioilers,  kettles,  and  Tarioiit  articles  of  ma- 
chinery of  moderate  size,  the  case^  hare  exhibited  much  dis- 
crepancy. Builtlings  ervcted  upon  wo*^len  blocks  merely 
are  generally  consideri»<l  chattels,  A  statue  re»(ting  ujKm  a 
pedc-«tal  in  the  garden  of  a  flwelliiig-hoU'*e  has  N'en  decided 
to  lie  real  prt)[K>rty  as  U'tweena  mortgagor  and  a  mortgagv'e, 
as  proliably  en»ci«'<|  for  permanent  ctmiiriuance.  The  roll- 
ing-stix^k  of  railniatis  Ls  by  some  courts  (Mii^itlereel  nml,  by 
others  pergonal  pn>|»erty,  in  peq»lexing  variety.  As  between 
mortgngi>r  and  mort^^a^^'cihe  «le<MHiuii«*  pn'ttonderate  that  it 
mav  lie  tn'at«*4l  an  real  tMntc  lint  by  »  <teci««ion  renderiNl  | 
in  S'ew  Y»>rk  it  ha-*  U'eri  held  to  lie  |>erM»rml  pn>|iert>  {Iloyle  \ 
Ts.  i^tattfUfurt)  attd  Montrtai  HailrtHid  i'ttmpany^  ."M  New  ' 
York  MA  [\nr,\\\. 

But  it  wiMiM  lie  u***!**^  to  multiply  il I n««t rations;  tmly  the  , 

{:»*iieml  pniji  iple  i-nii  In*  -^t  i'»fmt4.nl_\  ■*tatt'<l.  The  ct>mmon 
•i»  nile  i"*  tliiti  tradt^fitlun'^,  in  n*kT*nl  lo  the  ncJii"  of  thoM.» 
clit'*'***^  ttf  |wr'H»n'»  tfial  ha*e  hilfit>rto  Ik**'!!  c*<»ii'*i<len*<l.  ar»*  tn»t 
tn  U'  tr«*ate<i  ilitTen*nt l»  fn»iii  tixiiin*^  of  oi^uT  kiii*N,  but  in 
the  r^'Utiun*  of  lnti<)!<>nl  and  tenant  it  will  U*  •nvn  tliat  thev  i 
altnin  to  ^'n>at   iin|H»r1.'in<'e. 

In  rei^rd  to  th«  n;:*it-*  of  th«»ir  per»*»n**  forniio^  the  sec- 
ond <  !it'««  aU>%e  tiii'iit  i<>ii«-^|-  %  1/^  laihDord  ainl  tt-iiniit  and 
tenant  fnr  life  ntid  n-mrtiieier-iimn^-the  law  conceniuitf  fix- 
tiin'^  i«  \en  ditTr't  j.t.  |ii>th  the  (|ueMwm  «>f  |tn"*iMiie*l  in- 
t«  fit  and  t  he  di«  t^t.-*  of  ttuM)(*  |»<tli(  v.  a-*  h.i*  U-^-n  -^i-ii,  l«  n*\ 
t«»  e«»rj(  lu<*iMfi%  ( •»'M 'it ut,i\  ili\t'p<<4*  fri'in  ttii'M*  v»ln«li  lia%e 
N  1  I)  Htatt^l  H*  «!»[''*  n.;;  to  oilu-r  •  a-^"*.  But  the  do«'trihe  of 
|»r»-^um»M|  ttit«'nl  iMii  i»  not  t  nrrieii  %«»  fur  a**  to  (M-nnit  a  ten-  t 
a:tt  to  erei't  an\irKi(Lr  he  iim\  i  ti«HrM>  u{">n  hi^  LnTi<llnnl'<«  ' 
prvmnr^s  with  thf  [-rn  i;<  o*  of  r»*fno\iiJi;  it  when  hi-^  teiiaiu  y 


is  ended,  since  the  landlord's  interBnts*  whi<h  ai>  n.-.i 
deserving  of  pn>tecti(m,  might  l>e  unduly  ^Mn*.i«^l 
tenant  therefore  may  only  take  away  a<ldit»<*fi«  tm 


1 


"I 


""*     »3 


1 

-•I 
i 


"  •\ 


-1 


when  they  lielong  to  one  of  the**  »(ieciai  t  i*f 
may  remove  all  fixtures  which  he  ha*  err«Hr«t   f  r  ;    • 
of  trade  or  manufacture.    This  rule  ise*talili^jf\i  *<  ; " 
busine^    enteqirise.      Thus    brewing-veMv'lx    <  i ;-  • 
closets,  shop-i-ounters,  engines,  pmvra.   clc^   m«i    i 
rightfully  removed.     The  rule  ha^  aiM>  been   «xif-  . 
buildings  constructed  by  the  tenant  iorymTyimm^  of  tr* 
e.  g..  ailditions  to  an  inn.  ta^em-kerping  U  i:.^  ,^^ 
s^Kfies  of  trade.    The  removal  must  lie  ma<lf  bi  i*. 
so  as  not  to  injure  the  landlord's  premiMi^     ''i    In  ■  ^ 

the  general  rule  is  established  that  fi^turv*  an***!  ■  •  i 
agricultural  purfKises  mav  lie  removed.  In  Eni:.*'  :  •  -i 
trary  rule  was  maintained  at  common  law.  but  «  ••#  rt  ••! 
tions  have  been  established  by  statute.  Nupmti  tr**-»  »  i 
be  an  illustration  of  agricultural  fixtun^  '..i  K"  i 
erecte<l  for  domestic  use  and  conveniem-e  aiiil  th*  : .-.  — •- 
eiijt>vment  of  the  premises  are,  in  general,  tx  iuov»*  .^  "  i 
privilege  probably  would  not  extend  lt»  ol»jrtt  *  i»f  n  •  -•  -j 
menu  In  any  case,  it  is  nece*«arT  that  the  t»  i  »  :  •  i 
exercise  his  right  of  removal  befonp  the  expira*.  -.  f  •  ^ 
tervst  and  his  yielding  up  iM)e«9e«««i<»n,  asoth«-rw.<>^  ' '  «  i 
deemed  to  have  alMindone<l  the  fixtures  t*»  hw  1ax»  : 
the  executor  of  a  tenant  for  life,  as  the  ne<t-»iM  «  f  '■■ 
demands,  has  a  reasonable  time  after  the  trnant  •  :  a 
take  awaj  the  fixtures. 

The  rights  of  landlord  and  tenant  mar  b«»  «a^ 
modified  by  mutual  agreement.  They  may  i^.u*rm*  • 
Mder  certain  articles  chattels  which  «i*ulil  «>(--r«  ' 
come  real  estate  according  to  general  niie^  ai.*]  ry 
It  is  quite  common  to  find  a  provision  in  !«<»•<«-«  tL^*  •; 
tures  at  the  end  of  the  tenn  shall  be  taken  l>i  tN  ^.  i 
at  a  Taluation  made  in  a  sfiecified  manner;  aik,  r.  c.  4 
praisers  selected  by  the  parties.  By  nurh  an  a»— ■ 
matters  which,  lega[lly  speaking,  would  W  re*,  f--.-  %*  ■ 
made  to  ap(iertain  so  far  to  the  tenant  a*  t«i  rr.:.:  ■ 
comnensation.  Consult  Am«is  and  Ferartl  «  n  / 
Wash  borne  on  Reai  Property:  Chit  tv  on  r  Vm.'-i  ••. 

Gbokok  (*hase.     ReTisevl  bv  T.  W.  !>•     ,-, 

Flar'enfl :  a  cognomen  of  several  Roman  f  a  -r  •  •  •-•  '  •  •  i 
the  mtist  inifiortant  liehmged  to  the  grntr^  K«*.»  _a.  V  i.  i 
and  Pomnonia.  The  poet  Hoeacx  (9.  oal**!  U^n  •■  «-aa 
Among  tne  illustrious  men  of  the  name  ««t»>  1  .  1 
Valerivs  I'YAcrrs,  consul  with  C.Man  u«  id  lia»  a.  mtj 
in  97,  and  again  consul  in  Hfi  b.  c^  when  be  w»^  r  .*  -  - 
Fimbria.  (2)  y.  FrtTiis  Fiurc  fs,  c<m«ul  2:iT,  *J4.  a-  } 
B.  c,  often  pnptor.  and  distinguishes!  in  th^  >»-«'•  •  ,  I'a 
and  many  other  wan,  in  whi<'h  he  was  f«»nu'.»t» 
character  is  staimnl  by  his  cruel  trT«tment  «>f  tr.«  *  mM 
nians.  His  family  proiluced  many  pubhc  men,  mn^  -^  v« 
his  iM»n,  y.  Fulvius  Flai'cus  (d.  17^  B.  c.i,  ami  hi*  ;*a-.  ^ 
M.  Fulvius  Flaccus,  were  the  m*i«t  rmowi>«l.  "I .  •  H 
was  a  distinguished  general  in  Spain ;  the  Uti«T,  a  |«j«j 
of  the  Gracchi,  was  put  to  death  121  b.  c. 

Flacf  na.  OAirs  VALrmirs:  an  epir  port   wt-     «     -^ 
in  the  reign  of  Ve?*fta'*ian.     He  i»  not  t*)  lir 
Martial's  im  n't -friend  Flaccus 
given  in  the  Vatican  manusi' 
St'tinus)  makes  it  probable 

die*l  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  pn»liably  at«  t  a 
(^uintilian  s|ii>aks  of  his  death  as  a  !««*»  u*  ' 
wan  theauthttr  of  a  poem  entitleil  Ar^rm»*»f'  •■  «  .« 
IH^lition  of  the  An^tnaiitj^  in  niittAt:4in  d  rf«  'v^^ 
Afiolhtnius  of  Kht»*U*s.  which  extrn*lrti  to  r  ^»  •  '••«x 
wa*  left  unfinishe<l.  His  style  i*  an  tni"*:.  • 
Ver;;il,  but  more  declamatory  and  artifii  u^t  |i. 
duces  ol«<'uritv  bv  the  use  of  invoh«<«t  i,  ti**r-. 
t»K»  cn»wdt»<l  fijrures,  and  t4io  fm^uenll»  at  t  «  r 
o^-ca-^ions  calls  in  the  aid  of  the  p"l«^  Thr  tm^m^  -. 
tfioM*  tif  Bumiann  (I'trwht,  iTttt;  I-<rid. -i.  }T 
\Vn:nH'r  MJottiriL^'n.  IMttt,  2  voK) :  O.  1**i..  .  y, 
and  C.  Sthenkl  (Berlin,  1W7I).        Reii^i  ».<    M    \ 

FlmtruK  SicfiA'i:  a  writer  <»n  lantl-*ur«#-%    -  ^   « 
prT>l»Hl»lv  v«»n  aft*'r  the  ri'ign  of  Nrr»a.     N   *.       ^     . 
of  hi^   fife.      Hi<«  extant  Wtirk.  /Ap   /•>•.«/ irt  'm»-^»  j 
111   il-  prx'^'iit  f(trui  refen  onU  to  halt.  «i.'l    i*   «  * 

leannii^  and  valuable  informatitm.     It  s«  :i  .« 

inann-  n  I  it  ion  of  the  (fromattct  (IWrlin,  l*«-i^  ,\j 

K4-i:«.<«l  t.»    M     «  •■ 

FlBrcna,  Mak  rs  VxBRtrs:  a  frv^nlmaii  ).«   t  —  ■ 
gin^iht^l  at*  a  grammarian  and  teacbrr  at   k.  «-« 


IS :  an  epir  port    w f      r      -^ 

He  i»  not   t<)  lir   «-«  r  '  .«      4 

us. a  native  of  1^1  : A.  J 

si'ri j>t  (C.  VaU-nu*  ►  .»■*     .  ^«] 

that  be  wa*  U»m   mi    *^  •  a^ 


ftS 


THE  NEW  YORK  ' 
PUBLIC    LIBRARY 


APtO»»,  LENOX  AND 
TiLOtN  FOUNDATIONS. 


408 


FLAG 


FLAGEOLET 


U.  S.^  embroidered  in  silk,  with  the  number  and  name  of  the 
regiment  embroidered  in  yellow  in  a  red  scroll  under- 
neath the  eagle.  Each  company  has  a  swallow-tailed  silken 
guidon  3  ft.  5  in.  x  2  ft.  3  in.,  half  red,  half  white,  divided 
at  the  fork,  the  red  above ;  on  the  red  the  number  of  the 
regiment  in  white,  and  on  the  white  the  letter  of  the  com- 
pany in  red. 

The  hospital  and  ambulance  flags  are  of  white  bunting 
9x5  feet,  6x4  feet,  and  28  x  16  inches,  with  a  cross  of  red  bunt- 
ing in  the  center ;  the  arms  of  the  cross  are  of  equal  lenp:th. 
Camp  colors  are  national  colors,  as  described  for  garrison 
flags,  printed  upon  bunting  18  x  20  inches,  mounted  on  an  ash 
pole  8  feet  long,  armed  at  its  t)utt  with  a  pointed  ferrule  so 
that  it  may  be  easily  driven  in  the  ground. 

The  supreme  royal  standard  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  hoisted  for  the  first  time  on 
the  Tower  of  London  Jan.  1, 1801.  It  is  a  square  flag  or 
banner  on  which  are  emblazoned  the  arms  of  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland,  the  field  of  the  first  and  fourth  quarters 
being  red,  the  second  yellow,  and  the  third  blue.  Tnis  flag 
is  displayed  over  the  residence  of  the  sovereign  or  any  other 
member  of  the  royal  family,  as  well  as  on  certain  fortresses 
and  stations  throughout  the  empire  on  state  occasions  or 
royal  anniversaries,  and  is  hoisted  at  the  masthead  of  any 
vessel  on  which  a  member  of  the  royal  family  is  embarked. 
The  second  or  admiralty  flag  in  the  British  navy  bears  an 
anchor  and  cable  on  a  red  ground,  and  characterizes  the 
presence  on  board  ship  of  the  lord  high  admiral  or  the  lords 
commissioners  of  the  admiralty.  It  came  into  use  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The  third  flag  in  the  British  navy 
is  the  national  or  union  flag.  Originally  it  bore  the  cross  of 
St.  George  combined  with  that  of  St.  Andrew,  but  on  the 
legislative  union  with  Scotland  in  1707  a  new  design  was 
adopted,  to  which  the  red  cross  of  St.  Patrick  was  added  at 
the  union  with  Ireland  in  1800.  This  device  forms  the  can- 
ton or  upper  corner  next  the  staff  in  the  British  naval  and 
commercial  flags.  The  union  flag  is  generally  also  called 
the  union  jack,  but  according  to  some  authorities  the  name 
jack  should  be  restricted  to  the  small  union  flag  displayed 
irom  a  staff  at  the  end  of  the  bowsprit  of  war- vessels.  The 
union  flag  is  carried  at  the  main,  and  is  appropriated  to  the 
admiral  of  the  fleet  of  the  United  Kingdom.  On  certain  oc- 
casions it  is  displayed  on  shore  as  well  as  on  sea.  The  fourth 
flag  is  a  white  flag  divided  into  four  quarters  by  a  red 
cross.  This  flag  is  carried  at  the  main  by  admirals,  at  the 
fore  by  vice-admirals,  and  at  the  mizzen  masthead  by  rear- 
admirals.  The  ensign  in  the  British  navy  is  a  large  flag 
with  a  white,  blue,  or  red  fleld,  bearing  the  union  in  the  up- 
per inner  corner  or  canton.  The  white  ensign  is,  in  addition, 
divided  into  four  quarters  by  the  red  cross  of  St.  George, 
and  is  used  exclusively  by  the  royal  navy  and  the  royal 
yacht  squadron.  The  blue  ensign  is  appropriated  to  the  use 
of  the  naval  reserve  and  certain  yacht  clul)s,  and  the  red  en- 
sign is  carried  by  the  merchant  marine,  by  most  vessels  not 
connected  with  the  navy,  and  is*  commonly  used  on  shore. 
The  flag  of  the  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland  bears  the  device 
of  the  union,  with  a  blue  shield  in  the  center  charged  with 
a  golden  harp.  It  is  hoisted  at  the  main  of  the  ship  on 
which  the  Lord- Lieutenant  may  embark  within  Irish  waters 
or  on  St.  George's  Channel. 

Flags  are  used  as  the  symbols  of  rank  and  command,  the 
officers  using  them  being  designated  flag-officers.  Such 
flags  are  square,  to  distinguish  them  from  broad  pennants 
ana  narrow  pennants. 

There  are  flags  also  which  are  symbols  of  individual  au- 
thority. Among  such  are  royal  standards,  flag  officers' 
flags,  etc.  In  the  navy  of  the  U.  S.  the  President's  flag  is 
rectangular  in  shape  and  blue  in  color,  with  the  arms  of  the 
U.  S.  in  the  center,  surmounted  by  thirteen  stars  in  the 
arc  of  a  circle,  and  is  carried  in  the  bows  of  his  barge  or 
hoisted  at  the  main  of  the  vessel  on  board  of  which  he  may 
be.  The  flag  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  President  in  shape  and  color,  but  smaller,  and  has 
four  stars,  one  in  each  comer  with  a  vertical  foul  anchor 
in  the  center.  The  flags  of  an  admiral,  vice-admiral,  and 
rear-admiral  are  rectangular  in  shape  and  blue  in  color, 
having  four  stars  in  the  center  for  an  admiral,  three  for  a 
vice-admiral,  and  two  for  a  rear-admiral.  A  commodore's 
broad  pennant  is  swallow-tail  in  shape  and  blue  in  color, 
with  one  star  in  the  center.  In  the  event  of  two  or  three 
flag  officers  or  comnuHlores  being  present,  the  senior's  flag  is 
blue,  that  of  the  second  in  rank  red,  and  the  junior's  white. 

To  strike  the  fia^  is  to  lower  the  national  colors  in  token 
of  submission. 


FlagSy  signal,  are  described  under  Naval  SjonaLiS. 

Flag-captain,  or  fleet-captain,  the  chief  of  staff  of  a  flac- 
officer  or  commander-in-chief ;  generally  the  captain  of  it* 
flag-ship. 

Flag-lieutenant,  a  lieutenant  on  the  staff  of  a  commander 
in-chief. 

Flag  of  truce,  a  white  flag  displayed  to  an  enemy  t 
indicate  a  desire  to  communicate.     See    Iktebnatiomi 
Law. 

In  monarchical  countries  the  royal  standard  is  worn  .st 
ceremonies  in  honor  of  the  sovereign  and  at  those  at  whi'  S 
the  sovereign  may  be  present. 

The  white  fla^  is  the  symbol  of  peace,  and  is  used  as  tbt 
flag  of  truce  or  m  token  of  surrender. 

The  red  flag,  bidding  deflance,  is  often  used  by  rf  vrlu 
tionists.    In  the  U.  S.  service,  when  hoist^  at  the  fore  of  & 
vessel,  it  shows  that  she  is  receiving  or  discharging  her 
powder. 

The  yellow  flag  shows  a  vessel  to  be  in  quarantine. 

Flags  are  said  to  be  at  half-mast  when  they  are  b(«i>^  . 
but  half  the  height  at  which  they  are  ordinarily  worn,  ani 
in  this  position  desi^ate  mourning. 

Dippm^  the  flag  is  a  salute  to  a  fort  or  passing  vessel  h\ 
lowering  it  slightly  and  hoisting  it  again. 

A  pennant  is  a  flag  much  k)nger  in  the  fly  than  in  :\> 
hoist.  The  narrow  or  long  pennant,  also  callea  coa^h-iff  ; 
and  streamer,  is  carried  at  the  masthead  of  a  ^venirii^*. 
vessel  in  commission.  The  broad  pennant,  such  as  carr:-<* 
by  a  commander's  vessel,  is  sometimes  pointed,  and  usu^:i^ 
has  its  fly  about  twice  its  hoist.    See  Flag-officer. 

Revised  by  Jamks  Mescl^ 

Flagr'ellants  [from  Lat. /^^c/'tefw,  pres.  partic.  offloijfl 
la're,  to  whip,  deriv.  otflagel'lum  (whence  Eng,  flait),  lU-wj. 
of  flagrum,  a  whip,  scourge] :  a  name  given  to  com  pan.  ^ 
of  persons  in  the  Middle  Ages  who  marched  and  sang  a:  . 
scourged  themselves  in  public  places  for  their  own  an. 
others'  sins.    Self-flagellation,  as  a  penance,  had  its  on.v 
in  the  monasteries,  and  is  of  early  date.    It  was  first  tk\>  •• 
mended  to  others  than  monks  about  the  year  900  by  Ht  ^v' 
(d.  915),  Abbot  of  Prflm,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  in  his  Dt  !>"■ 
ciplina  Ecclesice,  ii.,  c.  442,  but  it  did  not  become  a  p«<|  u.  ..- 
penance  till  after  the  time  of  Peter  Damiani  (1007-72  a.  u.  . 
by  whom  it  was  earnestly  advocated.    Du ring  the  t  hi rtet  n •  r. 
fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  Flagellants  bec&nu  j 
sort  of  intermittent  order  of  fanatics,  frequently  reapji'^r- 
ing  here  and  there  in  times  of  extraordinar}'  declension  ( r 
distress.    Three  such  outbreaks  are  specially  prominent :  1. 
in  Upper  Italy,  1260  a.  d.,  in  connection  with  the  strucc:  • 
between  the  Guelphs  and  the  Ghibellines ;  2,  in  1349  a.  d 
while  the  black  plague  was  raging;  8,  in  1414,  when  tr.&T^ 
were  beginning  to  be  dissatisfied  with  the  papal  Cfour<  h. 
The  FlagellanU  generally  enrolled  themselves  for  the  it^m 
of  thirty-four  days — a  day  for  each  year  in  the  life  of  Chr.^". 
Stripped  to  the  waist  and  scourging  themselves  with  knot*..-.: 
whips,  they  marched  with  songs  and  banners  from  town  t 
town.    In  market-places  they  would  fling  themselves  uf-  r 
the  ground,  with  arms  extended  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  j'/ 
ing  their  whips  till  the  blood  came.    Blood  so  drawn  v^5 
thought  to  have  an  atoning  eflScacy.    Other  wild  nr ti  -.5 
were  entertained.    The  celebrated  John  Gerson  (136^^-1 4J'- 
wrote  against  them,  and  they  were  condemned   by  th 
Council  of  Constance  (1414r-18).    Their  last  appearanc**  in 
Germany  was  in  1481.    In  spite  of  all  their  extravagari- » % 
their  existence  served  as  a  sort  of  prot^t  against  the  bh:  : 
ritualism  of  the  age.    See  the  standard  authority  on  the  <ct>- 
ject,  E.  G.  F5rsteraann,  Die  christlichen  Qeis8lergestU*rh,\*' 
ten  (Halle,  1828);  cf.  W.  M.  Cooper,  Flagellation  and  t\* 
Flagellants  (London,  1870).       Revised  by  S.  M,  3xck$os. 

Flagella'ta :  a  group  of  Protozoa.    See  Infusoru. 

Flagerinm,  pi.  Flagr^lla  [from  lAt,  flagellum,  a  whi:)': 
a  name  given  to  the  lon^,  whip-like,  vibratory  organ  f •  •• 
sessed  by  many  microscopic  animals  and  plants^ and  seoi:  .j 
for  purposes  of  locomotion,  etc.  A  flagellum  is  simpl>  « 
single,  long  cilium.    See  Cilia.  F.  A.  L. 

Flageolet'  [from  Fr.  flageolet,  whistle,  flute,  diroin.  of  •  • 
Fr,  flaaeol  <  Lat.  *flauti'olu8,  dimin.  of  flauta,  fluto]  •» 
musical  instrument  consisting  of  a  wooden  or  ivory  i/- 
with  a  mouthpiece  at  one  end,  the  other  end  bein^  o|vn.  I. 
has  one  large  aperture  near  the  mouthniece  and  six  «>r  m.»- 
finger  holes.  Its  invention  is  ascribea  to  one  Flavicny  ^ 
1580,  but  the  fiutes  of  the  ancients,  like  those  of  some  unnit-ro 
barbarous  nations,  were  simply  flageolets. 


110 


FLAME 


The  latter,  a  faintly  laminous  balo  (the  "  outer  veil "),  aur- 

rouDda  the  flame  on  lill  sides,  ami  is   its  liottest   portion. 

~"  no!  temperature  is  a  little  above  the  point  of 

p,  where  hIso  is  found  the  highest  oiidiz  1113 

piivor ;   while  just  tuilhin  the  lummuua 

point  high  temperature  and  the  presence 

of  free  carlion  co-operate  to  produce  the 

most  energetic  reduting  action. 

Luminotily  of  Flames. — The  lurainos- 
itf  nf  flames  varies  between  wide  limits, 
from  the  faintly  luminous  and  (in  day- 
light) almost  invisible  flames  of  hydro- 
gen, carbonic  oiide,  or  sulphur,  t«  the 
intense  brillianey  of  the  "  Bude  light,"  in 
which  coal-gas  is  burnt  with  pure  oxy- 
gen, and  of  tne  magnesium  flame.  Frank- 
land  has  shown  that  faintly  luminous 
flames  may  become  intensely  so  when  the 
gases  are  strongly  compressed  during 
combustion.  Unaer  ordinary  circum- 
stances, however,  useful  luminosity  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  presence  in  the  flame 
of  a  sufficient  (yet  not  excessive)  amount 
of  a  highly  heated  solid :  usually  carbon, 
which  in  ordinary  candle,  lamp,  or  gas 
flames  is  liberated  from  the  combustible 
gases  by  the  influence  of  the  high  tem- 

Srature  of  the  exterior  portions  of  the 
,rae,  through  which  no  free  oxygen  can 
iiass  inward.  But  when  illuminating  gas 
19,  previous  to  combustion,  mixed  with 
Air  or  oxjgen  sutHcient  for  the  complete 
combustion  of  all  its  ingredients,  the 
separation  of  carbon,  and  consequent  lu- 
minosity, will  be  suppressed,  while  the 
temperature  is  greatly  increased.  This  ' 
_.  the  principle  upon  which  the  "  Bunsc 

burner"isDased,lhe  body  of  whoee  flan 
represents  the  blue  ciip  (No.  2)  or  the  ■'oxidation  cone"  1 
the  blowpipe.  By  varying  the  supply  of  air  the  flame  may 
thus,  at  will,  be  made  to  esert  an  oxidizing  or  a  reducing 
effect— ft  principle  of  most  important  practical  application 
in  the  management  of  the  reverheratory  and  gas  furnaces 
used  in  metallurgical  operations,  where  the  flame,  urged 
either  by  draught  or  blast,  or  by  both  combined,  is  readily 
varied  in  character  to  suit  the  requirements  of  any  stage 
kind  of  process. 

The  tfmprrature  of  flames  depends  primarily  upon  the 
nature  of  the  fuel,  upon  the  rapidity  and  completeneaa  of 
combustion,  and  upon  the  amount  of  inert  gas  mixed  with 
the  active  ingrodionts.  The  hottest  flame  is  that  of  pure 
hydrogen  burning  with  half  its  bulk  of  pure  oxygen ;  but 
a  hydrogen  flame  burning  in  air  is  less  hot,  because  four- 
fifths  of  the  air  is  an  inert  gas  (nitrogen),  which  has  also  tc 
be  heated.  Still  less  hot  is  the  flame  of  coal-gas  in  air,  be- 
cause it  consists  in  part  of  carbon,  whose  combustion  gen- 
erates less  heat  than  does  that  of  hydrogen. 

The  measurement  of  flame  temperatures  is  a  matter  of 
very  great  difficulty.  The  following  are  the  values  for  the 
hottest  portions  of  a  few  flames  which  have  been  subjected 
to  experiment : 

Bunsen  flame  (non-luminous). . ..  1,360'  C.  (Rossetti). 

Stearin  candle-flame 840°  U.         " 

Localclli  lamp-flame 885°  C.         " 

Alcohol  flame 1.180°  C. 

Qaa  flame  (argand  burner) 1,373'  C.  (Crova). 

According  to  Rogers  (Silliman's  Journal.  43,  p.  801).  the 
flame  of  the  common  blatt-lanip  is  about  150'  hotter  than 
that  of  the  Bunsen  burner,  while  the  flame  of  burning  mag- 
nesium occupies  an  intermediate  position,  being  at  least  50° 
lower  than  the  blast-lamp  flame. 

J%«  (lofcro/^niM  depends  in  part  upon  the  substances 
that  are  vaporized  within  them,  and  is  very  characteristic, 
e»[)ecially  when  observed  with  (he  spectnweope.  Thus 
i!ompounds  of  sodium  (such  as  common  SHlt)  produce  a 
yellow  tint ;  copper,  green  and  blue ;  calcium  (lime),  orange- 
red  ;  strontium,  crimson ;  potassium,  violet,  etc.  Such  flames 
show  bright  line  S[*ectra;  the  spectrum  of  ordinary  illumi- 
nants,  however,  is  simply  that  of  solid  incandescent  carbon 
heated  to  a  temperature  of  rather  more  than  1.000°.  It  is  a 
continuous  spectrum  with  the  maximum  of  energy  in  the 
infra-red.  Of  the  apjiarent  light-giving  area  of  oniinary 
gu-flunes,  only  about  1  per  cent,  is  actually  occupied  by 


FLAMINGO 

luminous  particles.  A  bat's-wing  burner,  for  instanui:. if 
sq.  inches  apparent  area  will  uoi  exceed  in  cantlli-povrt  g 
incandescent  lamp  of  the  same  temperature  the  area  uf  1: 
fllament  of  which  is  '05  inches. 

Revised  by  E.  L.  NitBuu-. 
Fla'men  [Lat., priest,  connected  either  with  Goth.  W-Vi 
worship,  or  with  banskr,  brahjruin-,  priest] :  a  Koman  |<r" 
devoted  to  the  service  of  one  deity.  They  wen-  st  tir 
three  (established  by  Numa),  but  were  increased  ullimai' 
to  fifteen,  constituting  two  distinct  classes — viz.:  (h  li 
Flaminet  majorta,  consisting  of  only  three,  Iht  limh 
rnarlialis.  and  gtttrinalie,  consecrated  the  flrst  to  Jii|i;'. 
the  second  to  Mars,  and  the  third  to  the  deified  R-itiiu.' 
and  selected  from  the  descendants  of  patricians  onk;  ti 
(2)  the  twelve  Flamines  minores,  who  usually  were  ct  1 

Silebeian  order.  The  office  was  for  life,  but  a  flamen  <-■ ., 
orfeit  it  by  neglect  of  duty,  and  was  liable  to  removal  1!  1 
ill-omened  event  disturbed  any  of  his  sacred  perfornisn.' 
Their  characteristic  dress  was  the  apex,  a  cap  either  (<>iit 


accciniing  to  Varro  and  Festus,  the  word  flamen  wif .  1 
taincd,  but  by  Plutarch  derived  frompiVeum.hal).  thi-  h:. 
or  mantle,  and  the  laurel  wreath.  The  most  disIinpiM. 
of  the  flamens  was  the  diatie.  who  was  requiretl  to  la  '>■ 
son  of  parents  united  in  marriage  by  confamsation.  1\- 
flamen  dialis  immediately  after  his  appointment,  tlH  1,.'!:  • 
minor,  was  relieved  from  parental  control,  and  bnai  i'  1 
auiiuris.  Ho  was  never  required  to  give  oath,  h*>l  s  •••■ 
in  the  Senate  ej:  o^eio.  and,  like  the  highest  officers  ol'iv-. 
had  the  use  of  the  srlia  eurulis  (or  chair  of  state)  and  nf  ■'' 
logo  pro'lfxla.  the  assistance  of  a  liclor,  the  right  o!>iii- 
tuary  for  his  house,  and  the  high  prerogative  of  iinnur:.: 
pardon  or  respite  tor  criminals.  On  the  other  hanil. '.' 
dialis  suffered  numerous  restrictions  and  deprivationi- :  t- 
e.  g.,  he  was  not  allowed  to  mount,  or  even  to  tonch.  a  hi  '- 
wear  a  ring,  or  to  touch  a  dead  body.  He  was  forbidd-  t.  ' 
sleep  out  of  his  own  bed  for  three  consecutive  nij^lii-  '.■ 
leave  the  city  even  for  a  single  night  (a  rule  moditiril  " 
AufTistus  and  Tiberius),  and  was  obliged  to  reeign  anil  ^ 
mam  single  upon  the  decease  of  his  wife,  who  asiistnl  i  r 
in  the  performance  of  some  of  his  sacred  function)^  >:> 
was  called  ^mini'ea.  and  was  subject  to  reslrictiin-  '  - 
those  by  which  her  husband  was  fettered.  Theflamrn  -iir 
was  chosen  by  the  Pontifex  Maximus  from  three  caniliiin'  - 
nominated  by  the  pontiflces.  See  MarquardI,  Rv'.itn- 
Slaalsverwaiiung  {toI.  iii.,  pp.  313-333). 

ifevised  by  G,  L.  Hkiidxice?'>\ 
Flkmeng,  flaa'meng,  FaiNgois:  figure-painter:  >• 
Paris  in  1808  ;  pupil  of  his  father,  Leopold  Fl«nierL-  •- 
engraver,  and  of  Cabanel.  Hedouin,  and  Jean  Paul  Ia 
Tens;  second-class  medal.  Salon.  1878;  medal  of  h>  1 
Paris  Exposition.  1889;  Legion  of  Honor  1885.  An  sr  ■ 
of  fine  anility;  among  his  most  important  work»  ar>'  7 
Oirondins  Summoned  (1879)  and  The  Bovlrrs  il— ■ 
Orolitr  and  Ald'is  is  in  the  urolier  Club,  New  Ytprk.  > 
'  dio  in  Paris.  W.  A.  f. 


Flamlng'O,  flA-ming'go  [from   Portug. 

flameneo ;  cf.  Prov. ^^monf,  ~ 

flamingo,  pres,  partic.  used 
as  noun  nf  ;Iafnar-,  to 
flame] :  a  bird  of  the  ^ 
nuB /viarnicopferu*;  distin- 
guished by  a  bill  bent  down- 
ward for  half  its  len^h  and 
provided  with  tooth-hke  pro- 
jections, or  lamellie.  similar 
to  those  of  a  duck's  bill. 
The  neck  and  legs  are  long, 
the  feet  webbed.  On  ac- 
count of  their  long  legs  the 
flamingoes  were  formerly 
cla8.sed  with  the  wadere,  but 
they  seem  rather  to  l>o  aber- 
rant ducks,  and  are  now 
placed  with  those  birds  in 
the  order  Anserrs  or  Che- 
nomorphif,  or  occasionally 
set  apart  in  the  order  Orfon- 
foglomur.  Several  species  are 
known  inhabiting  tropical 
or  warm  countries,  the  most 
anliquorum  of  Southern  Ei 


:?)»■; 


406 


FIXTURES 


FLACCUS 


to  have  been  attached  for  permanent  continuance  will  pass 
to  heirs  rather  than  to  executors,  will  be  conveyed  under  a 
deed  or  mortgage  of  the  property  to  the  vendee  or  mort- 
gagee, or  will  be  included  within  the  contract  of  one  who 
agrees  to  purchase  the  land.  But  a  large  number  of  annex- 
ations may,  even  in  this  class  of  instances,  be  considered  as 
personal  property,  for  those  additions,  as  has  been  stated, 
are  alone  treated  as  realty  in  regard  to  which  the  legal  pre- 
sumption is  that  they  were  added  for  the  permanent  im- 
provement and  habitual  enjoyment  of  the  premises.  In 
order  to  determine  whether  such  a  presumption  can  justly 
be  entertained  regard  is  had  to  a  variety  of  tests,  as,  for  in- 
stance, to  the  nature  of  the  annexation,  whether  bulkv  and 
unwieldy  or  light  and  easily  removabte ;  to  the  adaptability 
of  the  attachment  to  the  proper  and  natural  use  of  the  build- 
ing in  which  it  is  placed,  or  of  the  land  with  which  it  is 
connected;  and  to  many  diverse  considerations  which  must 
evidently  depend  upon  the  circumstances  of  each  particular 
case.  If  a  building  were  erected  in  such  a  location  and  with 
such  peculiarities  of  construction  that  it  could  only  be  used 
to  advantage  by  the  employment  of  certain  machinery  which 
had  been  placed  within  it,  or  could  be  adapted  to  different 
purposes  only  at  great  expense,  the  deduction  would  be  nec- 
essarily made  that  such  machinerv  was  intended  to  be  no 
mere  temporary  attachment,  but  that  it  was  designed  for 
permanence. 

One  test  of  considerable  importance  and  frequent  applica- 
tion is  to  consider  the  manner  in  which  the  fixture  is  joined 
to  or  connected  with  the  proi)erty  to  which  it  is  attached — 
whether  it  can  be  removed  without  injury  to  the  premises, 
or  whether  its  fastenings  can  be  readily  detached.  This  was 
formerly  said  to  be  the  chief  distinguishing  test  in  all  ques- 
tions concerning  fixtures,  the  statement  being  m^e  that  all 
objects  firmly  fastened  were  real  propeirtr,.  while  fli^^e  nht  so 
annexed  remained  chattels;  but  this  rule- would^draudt^  all 
constructive  fixtures  from  the  categorv  of  realty,  and  can  not 
be  upheld.  The  criterion  is  only  valuable  as  indicative  of 
intention  to  have  the  articles  remain'  dortstaht.tittaohments 
to  the  land.  But  it  is  so  indefinite  dhd  ^efteritl  4n-  its.  char- 
acter, and  leaves  so  much  room  for  ^flrieHatfttm "-distinctions 
and  delicate  subtleties  of  discrimination  whose  reasonable- 
ness is  oftentimes  difficult  to  discern,  that  to  this  cause  alone 
is  attributable  much  of  the  confusion  in  the  legal  decisions 
upon  the  subject  of  fixtures.  Thus  machinerjr  attached  to 
a  building  by  means  of  rods  passing  through  joists  and  there 
secured  by  nuts  has  been  held  to  be  real  estate,  while  looms 
merely  fastened  to  the  floor  by  screws  have  been  considered 
personalty.  Some  courts  have  gone  so  far  as  to  hold  that 
articles  fastened  by  bolts  or  nails  would  become  realty,  when 
if  fastened  by  screws  they  would  still  remain  chattels,  since 
screws  can  be  so  much  more  readily  removed  that  it  is  nat- 
ural to  believe  that  in  the  latter  case  a  removal  was  intended. 
Other  courts  deny  the  distinction.  In  regard  to  such  ob- 
jects as  stoves,  boilers,  kettles,  and  various  articles  of  ma- 
chinery of  moderate  size,  the  cases  have  exhibited  much  dis- 
crepancy. Buildings  erected  upon  wooden  blocks  merely 
are  generally  considered  chattels.  A  statue  resting  upon  a 
pedestal  in  the  garden  of  a  dwelling-house  has  been  decided 
to  be  real  property  as  between  a  mortgagor  and  a  mortgagee, 
as  probably  erected  for  permanent  continuance.  The  roll- 
ing-stock of  railroads  is  oy  some  courts  considered  real,  by 
others  personal  property,  in  perplexing  variety.  As  between 
mortgagor  and  mortgagee  the  decisions  preponderate  that  it 
may  Be  treated  as  re«d  estate.  But  by  a  aecision  rendered 
in  New  York  it  has  been  held  to  be  personal  property  {Hoyle 
vs.  Plattsburg  and  Montreal  Railroad  Company^  54  New 
York  314  [1873]). 

But  it  would l)e  useless  to  multiply  illustrations;  only  the 
general  principle  can  be  satisfactorily  stated.  The  common 
law  rule  is  that  trade-fixtures,  in  regard  to  the  rights  of  those 
classes  of  jK^rsons  that  have  hitherto  been  considered,  are  not 
to  be  treated  differently  from  fixtures  of  other  kinds,  but  in 
the  relations  of  landlord  and  tenant  it  will  be  seen  that  they 
attain  to  great  importance. 

In  regard  to  the  rights  of  those  persons  forming  the  sec- 
ond class  above  mentioned — viz.,  landlord  and  tenant  and 
tenant  for  life  and  remainder-man — ^the  law  concerning  fix- 
tures is  very  different.  Both  the  question  of  presumed  in- 
tent and  the  dictates  of  public  policy,  as  has  been  seen,  lead 
to  conclusions  esscntiallv  diverse  from  those  which  have 
been  stated  as  apf)lying  to  other  cases.  But  the  doctrine  of 
presumed  intention  is  not  carried  so  far  as  ix)  permit  a  ten- 
ant to  erect  anything  he  may  choose  upon  his  landlord's 
premises,  with  the  privilege  of  removing  it  when  his  tenancy 


is  ended,  since  the  landlord's  interests,  which  are  equallv 
deserving  of  protection,  might  be  unduly  sacrificed.  The 
tenant  therefore  may  only  take  away  additions  be  has  made 
when  they  belong  to  one  of  these  special  elates.  (1)  He 
may  remove  all  fixtures  which  he  has  erected  for  purposi-^ 
of  trade  or  manufacture.  This  rule  is  established  to  prom«  tu- 
business  enterprise.  Thus  brewing-vessels,  cider-nnlU. 
closets,  shop-counters,  engines,  presses,  etc.,  may  all  W 
rightfully  removed.  The  rule  has  also  been  extended  t^* 
buildings  constructed  by  the  tenant  for  purposes  of  traiic.  n^. 
e.  g.,  additions  to  an  inn.  tavem-keepmg  being  deenivd  n 
species  of  trade.  The  removal  must  be  made  by  the  tenant 
so  as  not  to  injure  the  landlord's  premises.  (2)  In  the  U.  S. 
the  general  rule  is  established  that  fixtures  annexed  for 
agricultural  purposes  may  be  removed.  In  England  a  e<*n- 
trary  rule  was  maintained  at  common  law,  but  some  excv [»- 
tions  have  been  established  by  statute.  Nursery  trees  woiiM 
be  an  illustration  of  agricultural  fixtures.  (3)  Articlf< 
erected  for  domestic  use  and  convenience  and  the  nece>>arv 
enjoyment  of  the  premises  are,  in  general  removable.  Tlii« 
pnvilege  probably  would  not  extend  to  objects  of  mere  onia- 
ment.  In  any  case,  it  is  necessary  that  the  tenant  shoulu 
exercise  his  right  of  removal  before  the  expiration  of  hi^  in- 
terest and  his  yielding  up  possession,  as  otherwise  he  will  W 
deemed  to  have  abandoned  the  fixtures  to  his  landlord.  But 
the  executor  of  a  tenant  for  life,  as  the  necessity  of  the  ca-^' 
demands,  has  a  reasonable  time  after  the  tenant's  death  to 
take  away  the  fixtures. 

The  nghts  of  landlord  and  tenant  may  be  varioa>!y 
modified  by  mutual  agreement.  They  may  contract  to  o.ii- 
sider  certain  articles  chattels  which  would  otherwu^>  U>- 
come  real  estate  according  to  general  rules,  and  vice  t^r^i. 
It  is  quite  common  to  find  a  provision  in  leases  that  the  ti::- 
tures  at  the  end  of  the  term  shall  be  taken  by  the  laiidl<  pI 
at  a  valuation  made  in  a  specified  manner ;  as,  e.  g.,  h\  a;>- 
praisers  selected  by  the  parties.  By  such  an  agreeru>  ur 
matters  which,  legally  speaking,  would  be  real  estate  may  1% 
made  to  appertain  so  far  to  the  tenant  as  to  entitle  him  ;4 
compensation.  Consult  Amos  and  Ferard  on  Fixinr^A. 
Wasnbume  on  Real  Property  \  Chitty  on  Contracts^  He. 
George  Chase.    Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Flac'cns :  a  cognomen  of  several  Roman  families,  of  wh  i>  L 
the  most  important  belonged  to  the  gentes  Fulvia,  Val«na, 
and  Pomponia.  The  poet  Horace  (q.  v.)  also  bore  this  n.Hiiir. 
Among  tne  illustrious  men  of  the  name  were  (1)  Lu<  ii  ^ 
Valerius  Flaccus,  consul  with  C.  Marius  in  100  b.  c^  cens.  r 
in  97,  and  again  consul  in  86  b.  c,  when  he  was  murdered  }>v 
Fimbria.  (2)  Q.  Fulvtus  Flaccus,  consul  237, 224,  and  210 
B.  c,  often  prsetor,  and  distinguished  in  the  Second  P(rit< 
and  many  other  wars,  in  which  he  was  fortunate;  but  hi^ 
character  is  stained  by  his  cruel  treatment  of  the  dmii  d- 
nians.  His  family  produced  many  public  men,  among  iffh<  rr. 
his  son,  Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus  (d.  17^  B.  c),  and  his  grand?- 'ii, 
M.  Fulvius  Flaccus,  were  the  most  renowned.  The  foriL.-  '• 
was  a  distinguished  general  in  Spain ;  the  latter,  a  pani-^^  i 
of  the  Graccni,  was  put  to  death  121  b.  c. 

Flaccus,  Gaius  Valerius:  an  epic  poet  who  flouri-j^-"^. 
in  the  reign  of  Vespasian.    He  is  not  to  be  confused  vk    h 
Martial's  poet-friend  Flaccus,  a  native  of  Padua.   The  n.-.TLr 
given  in  tne  Vatican  manuscript  (C.  Valerius  Flaccus  lUuf  :-i 
Setinus)  makes  it  probable  that  he  was  bom  at  Sctia.     H- 
died  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  probably  about  a-  d.  89,  a*   • 
Quintilian  speaks  of  his  death  as  a  loss  to  ]it«raturv.     11  • 
was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  Argonauiiea,  on  the  c.v- 
pedition  of  the  Argonauts,  in  imitation  of  the  pt>exi:     f 
Apolloniusof  Rhodes,  which  extended  to  eight  bot»k>.  1    - 
was  left  unfinished.    His  style  is  an  imitation  of  that     ^ 
Vergil,  but  more  declamatory  and  artificial.     He  often  j»'  - 
duces  obscurity  by  the  use  of  involved  constructions  :».   . 
too  crowded  fibres,  and  too  frequently  and  on  Un>  -il-  • 
occasions  calls  in  the  aid  of  the  gods.    The  best  edition-  a- 
thosc  of  Burmann  (Utrecht,  1702;  Leyden,   ITM):  J.   A 
Wagner  (Gottingen,  1805,  2  vols.) ;  G.  Thilo  (Halle,  iv^.   , 
and  C.  Schenkl  (Berlin,  1871).       Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Flaccas.  Siculus:  a  writer  on  land-surveying,  who  r.v- 
probably  soon  after  the  reign  of  Nerva.    Nothing  is  kti  «    . 
of  his  life.     His  extant  work,  De  Condicionibua  Agn»r>* 
in  its  present  form  refers  only  to  Italv,  and  is  full  of  K-j  . 
learning  and  valuable  information.    It  is  included  in  L^  ' .  - 
mann's  edition  of  the  Qromatici  (Berlin,  1848-52\ 

Revised  by  M.  Waerfn. 

Flaccus,  Marcus  Verrius  :  a  freedman  by  birth.  tW^zx  ~ 
guished  as  a  grammarian  and  teacher  at  Rome  under  A  u  - 


THE  HEW  YORK 
PUBLIC    LIBRARY 


a*to»,  lenox  and 
TilDen  foundations. 


1 


418 


FLEXURE 


concave  and  compressed.  The  neutral  surface  ismnrs, 
and  the  central  line  of  this,  u  v  x,  is  the  elastic  curve. 
The  intersection  of  the  neutral  surface  with  a  cross-section 
of  the  beam  is  called  the  neutral  axis  of  that  section  ;  thus 
m'  n  is  the  neutral  axis  of  the  section  a  h'  d'  c'.  By  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  statics  it  is  proved  that  tKe  neutral 
axis  always  passes  through  the  center  of  gravity  of  a  sec- 
tion, provided  the  elastic  limit  of  the  material  be  nowhere 
exceeded. 

The    practical    discussion    of    a    beam  with  respect  to 
strength  consists  largely  in  the  use  of  the  formula 

in  which  M  is  the  bending  moment  of  the  loads  and  reac- 
tions on  one  side  of  the  section,  c  the  distance  of  the  remot- 
est fiber  of  the  section  from  the  neutral  axis,  I  the  least  mo- 
ment of  inertia  of  the  cross-section,  and  R  the  unit-stress 
of  tension  or  compression  on  the  fiber  distant  c  from  the 
neutral  axis.  This  formula,  although  only  strictly  true 
when  the  stress  R  is  less  than  the  elastic  limit  of  the  ma- 
terial, is  often  used  for  the  rupture  of  beams,  in  which  case 
R  is  called  the  modulus  of  rupture. 

The  following  values  of  c  and  I  for  the  most  common 
cross-sections  are  needed  in  applying  the  above  formula : 


SECTION. 


Rectanj^ular 

Square 

Circular 

Triangular 

HoUow  rectangular 

Hollow  square 

Hollow  cylindrical. 
I  cross-section 


¥ 
^ 


I- 


1 


1 

"2^ 


6d» 
12 
d« 
12" 
wr* 
4 

bdfl 

86 

bd*  -  b'd'* 


12 

d* 

-d'* 

12 

»(H 

1  _  r'*) 

4 

6d» 

-  6'd'« 

12 


in  which  b  denotes  breadth,  d  depth,  and  r  radius,  the  same 
letters  accented  being  the  inner  dimensions  for  the  hollow 
sections ;  for  the  I  section  b'  denotes  the  breadth  minus  the 
web  thickness,  and  d'  the  depth  minus  the  two  flange  thick- 
nesses. * 

The  average  values  of  R,  both  for  the  case  of  rupture  and 
for  a  safe  degree  of  stability,  are  given  in  the  following  ta- 
ble in  pounds  per  square  inch : 


MATERIAL. 

ModoJuof 
raptan. 

WORKIMO  VSIT  STRESSES 
FOR— 

BaUdlngi. 

Bridgw. 

Wood 

9,000 

85.000 

55,000 

120,000 

2,000 

6,000 

14,000 

25,000 

1,200 

3,000 

8,000 

13,000 

Cast  iron 

Wrought  iron 

Steel  

As  an  example  of  the  use  of  the  formula,  let  it  be  required 
to  find  what  load  will  break  a  wooden  beam  4  inches  wide, 
6  inches  deep,  and  108  inches  long  when  supported  at  the 
ends  and  loadwl  in  the  middle.  Here  let  the  load  be  P; 
then  the  bending  moment  Jf=iPx  54  =  27P,  and  R  =  9,000 
lb.  ner  sq.  inch,  c  =  8  inches,  /=  72,  and  inserting  all  these 
in  the  formula  there  is  found  P=  8,000  lb. 

The  equation  of  the  elastic  curve  of  a  beam  and  the 
amount  of  defiection  are  determinable  by  the  theory  of  flex- 
ure, provided  that  the  stresses  in  the  material  are  within 
the  elastic  limit.  If  ^  be  the  coefficient  of  elasticity  of  the 
material,  and  x  and  y  the  linear  co-ordinates  of  any  point 
of  the  curve  with  respect  to  rectangular  axes,  the  general 
equation  of  the  elastic  curve  is 

d^_M 
dx*  "^Er 


(2) 


in  which  M  and  I  have  the  same  significations  as  in  for- 
mula (1).  Applied  to  the  case  of  a  cantilever  beam  of 
length  I  having  a  load,  P,  at  the  free  end,  this  becomes,  for 
an  origin  at  the  free  end, 

^Ely  =  P(31«a;  -  x*). 


which  shows  that  the  curve  is  a  cubic  parabola.    If  x  U- 

made  equal  to  /  the  value  of  y  is  ^rrr^,  which  is  the  difl»n - 

tion  of  the  end  of  the  beam  due  to  the  load  P,  The  f< blow- 
ing table  gives  the  values  of  the  maximum  bending  moment 
and  the  maximum  deflection  for  beams  of  uniform  fn>-<>- 
section,  W  being  the  total  load  whether  uniform  or  com  en - 
trated. '  It  is  seen  that  a  concentrated   load  pru<luct*>  a 


KIND  OF  BEAM  AND  LOAD. 


Cantilever  beam,  load  at  end 


Cantilever  beam,  uniform  load 


Simple  beam,  load  at  middle. 


Simple  beam,  uniform  load 


Beam  fixed  at  both  ends,  load  at  middle. . , 
Beam  fixed  at  both  ends,  uniform  load . . . . 


yfawliwM^ 

w»mmx. 

d^ 

BelM«. 

Wl 

I 

8 

EI 

1- 

1 
6 

EI 

i- 

1 
48 

EI 

i- 

5 

884 

EI 

8"' 

1 
IttS 

EI 

«►•■' 

1 
884 

EI 

greater  bending  moment  and  a  greater  deflection  than  tiie 
same  load  uniformly  distributed. 

Columns. — If  a  column  supports  a  load  P  the  averairv 
compressive  imit-stress  upon  it  is  P-h^,  where  A  is  tiif 
area  of  the  cross-section.  If  the  length  of  the  column  \*c 
considerable  compared  with  its  thickness,  a  slight  sidewi^ 
deflection  may  occur,  in  consequence  of  which  the  comprw.>i\> 
stress  on  the  concave  side  becomes  greater  than  the  averas^ 
value  P-k-  A,  and  that  upon  the  convex  side  becomes  le>6- 
The  exact  determination  of  the  maximum  stress  can  not  be 
made  theoretically  unless  the  deflection  is  known,  but  the 
subject  is  one  of  great  practical  importance,  and  manT  t'lr.- 
pirical  formulas  have  been  propo^  for  this  purpose.  *  Tht 
curve  assumed  by  the  central  line  of  a  column  when  t  hu^ 
subject  to  flexure  is  a  sinusoid,  and  its  equation  is 

y  =Asin  nir-w. 

in  which  A  is  the  maximum  deflection,  /  the  length  of  the 
column,  y  the  deflection  at  a  distance  x  from  the  end,  ajid  « 
is  1,  2,  or  3,  according  to  the  number  of  times  the  sinus^  il 
crosses  the  axis.  The  value  of  A,  however,  is  indetermina't . 
and  can  not  be  expressed  theoretically  in  term  of  the  loa-i. 
A  long  column  fails  usually  by  sidewise  flexure  rather 
than  by  direct  compression,  and  the  load  which  causes:  in- 
cipient failure  is  given  by  the  formula 

P=Ef^^, 

in  which  n  and  ^  are  as  just  defined,  E  is  the  coe£5eieDt  cf 
elasticity  of  the  material,  and  /is  the  least  moment  of  in- 
ertia of  the  cross-section.  If  the  load  be  less  than  this  fr- 
mula  gives,  the  deflection  of  the  column  tends  to  deorva^r- , 
if  it  be  greater,  the  deflection  tends  to  increase,  and  in  ih> 
sense  P  is  the  load  which  causes  the  failure. 

History  and  Literature.— The  problem  of  the  flexiir*  •-' 
a  beam  was  first  discussed  by  Galilei  in  1638 ;  he  reg&niiil  r . 
fibers  as  inextensible,  but  nevertheless  some  of  his  eon<  .  . 
.sions  were  correct.    Hooke's  discovery  of  the  law  of  eln-*    - 
ity  in  1678  rendered  it  possible  for  a  better  thcorv  x*-  \ 
developed,  and  this  was  done  during  the  followinVr    tiT- 
years  by  Marietta,  Varignon,  and  others.    The  elastic  cur^  - 
was  first  investigated  by  James  Bemouilli  in  1694,  but   r- 
complete  practical  application  was  not  made  until  the  >o'- 
ject  was  treated  by  Navier  more  than  a  centurv   laT»r. 
Among  those  who  have  made  important  contribution^  ■ 
the  theory  of  fiexure  during  the  nineteenth  centurv  may  '  • 
mentioned  Lam6,  Saint- Venant,  (Mapeyron,  and  Wevrau*  • 
The  flexure  of  columns  was  first  treated  by  Euler,  an*i  11:: 
theoretical  advance  has  since  been  made.     A  smop-K^.v 
writings  on  the  theory  of  flexure  previous  to  1860  is  driven  -. 
Todhunter's  History  of  the  Tlieory  of  Elasticity  (18JS6>.      !• 
modern  text-books  the  subject  is  usually  treated  in   w<.r*- 
on  the  resistance  of  materials.    Among  these  mav  l*c  n.«  ■ 
tioned  Wood's  Resistance  of  Materials  (1875);  MerrimMi « 
Mechanics    of  Materials    and  of  Beams,  ,Coi^{fnw94t,    ,r-. 
Shafts  (1885);   and  Church's  Mechanics  of  Enaift^^,.. 
(1889).    The  flexure  of  continuous  beams  is  fully  devfj,  .i. 
in  Weyrauch's  Theorie  der  einfachen  und  eontin^  ir! , .- *, 


420 


FLINT 


FLOOD-PLAIN 


and  Protracted  MiMCular  Exercise  (1871) ;  Service  of  Mus- 
cular Poufer  (1878) ;  Text-hook  of  Human  Physiology  (1875). 
In  addition  to  these  he  has  written  a  large  number  of  pam- 
phlets, memoirs,  etc.,  on  professional  subjects. 

Revised  by  C.  H.  Thubber. 

Flint,  Robert,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  a  theologian  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland ;  b.  near  Dumfries,  1838,  and  educated  at  Glas- 

Stw.  He  was  in  the  pastorate  1859-64,  was  Professor  of 
oral  Philosophy  and  Pclitical  Economy  at  the  Universitj 
of  St.  Andrews  1864-76,  and  then  became  Professor  of  Di- 
vinity in  Edinburgh  University.  Among  his  published 
works  are  The  Philosophy  of  History  in  Prance  and  Ger- 
many (Edinburgh,  1874) ;  Theism  (Baird  lectures  for  1876- 
1877;  seventh  ed.  revised  1893);  Anti-Theistic  Theories 
(Baiid  lectures  for  1877;  1879  and  three  subsequent  edi- 
tions). 

Flint,  Timothy:  clergyman;  b.  in  Reading,  Mass.,  July 
11,  1780;  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1800;  was  a 
Congregational  minister  at  Lunenburg,  Mass.,  from  1802  to 
1814;  was  missionary  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  was 
afterward  farmer  and  teacher  at  Cincinnati,  0.,  and  in 
Louisiana.  Returned  to  Massachusetts  in  1825 ;  from  1825 
till  1828  edited  at  Cincinnati  the  Westenh  Review.  In  1833, 
at  New  York,  edited  the  Knickerbocker ;  in  1827-30  edited 
The  Western  Monthly  Magazine ;  subsequently  lived  in  Al- 
exandria, Va.  He  published  Geography  and  History  of  the 
Western  States  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  (1828),  besides  va- 
rious novels  (the  best  known  of  which  is  Francis  Berrian, 
1826);  Lectures  on  Natural  History,  etc.  D.  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  Aug.  16,  1840. 

Flint  Glass :  one  of  the  varieties  of  glass  which  contain 
a  large  percentage  of  lead.  Powdered  flint  was  formerly 
used  in  the  manufacture,  whence  the  name.  The  best  of 
white  sand  (51  parts),  a  tolerably  pure  carbonate  of  potash 
(16  parts),  minium  or  litharge  (28  parts),  and  saltpeter  (4i 
parts)  are  used  as  principal  ingredients ;  a  little  manganese, 
arsenic,  baryta,  and  lime  are  ^ded  to  correct  any  discolor- 
ation. Flint  glass  is  used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of 
achromatic  lenses,  and  grades  inferior  to  the  very  finest  are 
used  in  making  bottles,  table-ware,  and  other  glass  goods, 
either  blown  or  molded.  The  Venetian  and  Bohemian  glass 
articles  are  especially  celebrated.    See  Glass. 

Flint  Implements:  See  Stone  Implements. 

Flint  Rirer :  a  river  of  Georgia ;  rises  in  Clayton  County 
and  flows  first  in  a  S.  S.  E.  and  then  in  a  S.  S.  W.  course  to  the 
S.  W.  corner  of  the  State,  where,  joining  the  Chattahoochee, 
it  forms  the  Appalachicola  river.  It  is  300  miles  long  and 
navigable  during  hi^h  water  to  Albany  by  light-draught 
steamers,  and  at  all  times  by  larger  steamers  to  Bainbridge, 
bo  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Flint  Biter:  a  river  of  Michicran ;  rises  in  Tjapeer  Coun- 
ty ;  flows  100  miles  W.  and  N.  W .,  and  falls  into  the  Shia- 
wasee,  an  affluent  of  the  Saginaw.   Its  lower  part  is  navigable. 

Flintsliire:  maritime  county  of  North  Wales ;  situated 
between  the  Irish  Sea  and  the  river  Dee ;  area,  253  sq.  miles. 
The  coast  is  low  and  sandy,  except  along  the  estuary  of  the 
Dee.  Parallel  with  the  Dee  runs  a  range  of  hills,  rising  in 
Garrey  to  825  feet.  The  plains  and  the  vales  are  fertile,  and 
produce  wheat,  oats,  and  barley.  The  hills  yield  coal  and 
ores  of  iron,  zinc,  copper,  silver,  and  especially  lead ;  one- 
fourth  of  the  lead  produced  in  Great  Britain  is  supplied  by 
Flintshire.  As  the  county  has  a  mild  climate,  moderate 
elevation,  and  shelter,  it  is  well  adapted  to  aj^culture,  and 
three-fourths  of  its  area  are  under  cultivation.  Cotton  is 
the  main  manufacture.  Flint,  Mold,  St.  Asaoh's,  and  Ha- 
warden  are  the  chief  towns.     Pop.  (1891)  77,189. 

Flipart,  flee'paar',  Jean  Charles:  engraver;  b.  in  Paris 
in  1700.  His  best  works  are  a  portrait  of  Rene  Chopin,  after 
Jacnet;  The  Virgin  and  T/iiVrt  and  Christ  in  the  Garden  of 
Olives,  after  Raphael ;  also  llif  Penitent  Magdalen,  after 
Lebrun;  and  Apollo  Teaching  /M/>A7if,  after  Ren^  Houape, 
for  the  Crozat  collection.  He  was  father  of  Jean  Jacques 
Flipart  (b.  in  1723 ;  d.  1782),  more  famous  than  himself, 
and  of  Charles  Francois  Flipart,  both  engravers  who 
learned  their  art  of  him;  the  former  was  also  a  painter 
and  a  skillful  draughtsman,  and  left  many  engravings  after 
Greuze,  Giulio  Romano,  Natoire  Vier,  and  Dietriek  and 
others.  W.  J.  S. 

Floating  Batteries :  See  Ships  of  War. 
Floating  Breakwater,  DocliB,  etc. :  See  Breakwater, 
Docks,  etc. 


Flodden  Field  :  the  last  point  of  the  Cheviots,  the  pliko 
where  King  James  IV.  of  Scotland,  after  craving  the 
Border  on  Aug.  22,  1518,  with  an  army  of  over  80,000  lutu. 
encountered  the  Earl  of  Surrey  at  the  head  of  an  Englisli 
army  of  32,000  on  Sept.  9.  The  battle  was  stubbornly  c<-r.- 
tested  till  after  nightfall,  but  resulted  in  the  compleU'  dt"- 
feat  of  the  Scottish  armv,  and  the  loss  of  from  6,000  to  12,- 
000  men,  includingi;he  king  and  many  of  the  nobility. 

Flodoard,  fld'do'aar',  or  Frodoard :  Canon  of  Kheiiii« : 
b.  at  iSlpemay,  894  a.  d.  ;  opposed  the  intrusions  of  the  t-ivi 
power  into  the  affairs  of  the  Church,  and  was  impri><>i.*'(i 
therefor;  author  of  French  annals  (Chronieon,  919-W>«i; 
a  history  of  the  Rhemish  Church ;  the  TriumphuA  Chn*tt. 
a  metrical  work,  etc.  He  became  an  abbot,  and  died  Mar. 
28,  066.  His  Chronicon  is  a  work  of  much  value  to  the  hi>- 
torian.  Large  portions  of  his  writings  are  extant,  and  hd\e 
been  printed. 

Floersheim,  Otto:  journalist  and  composer;  b.  in  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  Mar.  2, 1853 ;  studied  there  under  local  ti-aeh* 
ers,  and  then  at  Cologne  under  Ferdinand  Hiller ;  went  tr> 
New  York  in  1875,  and  contributed  musical  articles  and  cnti- 
cisms  to  various  German  periodicals.  In  conjunction  with 
Marc  A.  Blumenberg  he  established  the  Musical  Courier,  to 
which  he  has  since  confined  his  writing.  In  1892  he  return*?] 
to  Germany,  where  he  still  remains  (1803).  His  comp<»Mt i>  re 
comprise  orchestral  pieces,  songs,  and  pianoforte  pieces. 

D.  E.  HEavEY. 

Flogging:  the  infliction  of  stripes  or  blows  b^-  a  whip 
or  scourge,  especially  when  directed  b^  a  court  of  just  it v  ^r 
other  public  authority.  Corporal  punishment  has  fn>ni  thf 
earliest  ages  been  inflicted  as  a  punishment  for  van  ^l- 
offenses.  In  the  form  of  the  bastinado  it  is  still  extenM>i  i> 
employed  in  the  "East,  In  ancient  Rome  scourging  roij./ 
not  be  administered  to  a  citizen,  for  it  was  looked  up<T.  &« 
giving  the  deepest  dishonor  to  its  victim.  It  was,  howevir  r. 
frequently  employed  as  a  punishment  for  those  who  %  >'r> 
not  citizens,  and  was  administered  with  a  rod.  In  m<«ii  -^ 
Europe  it  is  not  quit«  extinct;  in  many  places  where  it  h»: 
been  abolished  it  nas  been  reintroduced.  Its  severes^t  f<  n. 
is  by  the  knout  in  Russia,  where  it  is  much  less  frequent  a:  i 
severe  than  it  formerlj  was.  In  Great  Britain  it  exists  as  a 
means  of  prison  discipline,  but  has  been  abolished  in  tb^ 
army  and  navy.  In  the  U.  S.  army  and  navy  it  has  b--*: 
abolished,  as  well  as  in  most  of  the  States,  Delaware  ix-iufi  a 
noteworthy^  exception. 

Flood,  Rt.  Hon.  Henbt:  orator;  b.  in  Ireland  in  17-^:. 
educated  in  Dublin  and  Oxford;  first  entered  tlie  Irish  Par- 
liament in  1759;  was  sworn  a  member  of  the  privy  cour- 1. 
for  Great  Britain  as  well  as  for  Ireland  in  17^5 ;  wa<  \i  '- 
treasurer  of  Ireland,  1775-81 ;  and  entered  the  British  Vat  « 
ment  in  1788.  His  speeches  are  noteworthy  for  thfir  i' 
style  and  logical  method.  He  was  an  eloquent  aiiT<icArt  f 
reform  for  Ireland,  but  the  purity  of  his  motives  has  Uu 
questioned.  Author  of  some  poems  and  a  volume  of  *S;*» »  '•  ■ « 
(1787).  D.  at  Farmley,  Ireland,  Dec.  2.  1791.  See  hi5  L.  '- 
and  Correspondence,  by  W.  Flood  (1838.) 

Flood-plain :  a  broad  river-made  plain,  formed  by  ^ 
cessive  layers  of  silt,  sand,  or  gravel,  at  times  of  river  m\ 
flow.     The  even  surface  of  the  plain  commonly  ascends  vr 
gently  from  either  margin  to  the  river-banks,  "whero  • 
greater  amount  of  deposit  is  laid  down  by  the  ovtrtl 
For  this  reason  settlements  are  often  made  on  the  hu' 
ground  close  t-o  the  river,  to  avoid  the  "back  swair: - 
lor  the  same  reason  lateral  tributary  streams  emerpini:  f - 
higher  land  frequently  turn  down  the  flood-plain  for  n  -. 
miles  before  entering    the    main    river.    A    river   Iu^.. 
ders  or  swings  in  a  serpentine  course  thnmgh   an  all  i^ 
plain-flood,  the  radius  of  its  curves  increasing  with  th«» 
ume  of  the  stream.    The  current  cuts  away  tlie   Cim* 
bank  and  builds  out  the  convex  bank,  and  thus  the 
shifts  about  the  plain.    Narrow  necks  of  land 
meanders  are  often  cut  off,  leaving  an  abandoncnl 
as  a  stagnant  ''ox-bow"  lake.    The  flood-plains 
the  lower  Mississippi  (mapped  by  the  Mis8is%%ipt»i    U- 
Commission),  Amazons,  middle  Rhine  and  Danut>e,  Ik  \ 
Po.  Nile,  and  Ganges  are  well  known.    They  are  extr»'"i 
fertile,  and  are  generally  covennl  in  the  natural   Mat* 
swampy  forests  or  meadows.    When  occupied  bv  man.  i 
tectionbv  dykes  or  levees  is  needed  against  overftow.   t» - 
elly  flood-plains  are  mmle  by  rivers  emerging  from  a  >* 
course  among  lofty  mountains  upon  a  lowlanil ;  tht-  r. 
then  splits  into  a  network  of  shifting  channels,  like  th^*^ 


1  >- 
» »\ ,  r- 

4 

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i. 


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422 


FLOODS 


mercy  of  the  slightest  accident  to  the  levees.  See  Levee 
and  KiVEBS. 

Mode  of  Occurrence  of  High  Water, — High  waters  in 
rivers  occur  in  various  ways  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
depending  on  the  climate^  the  annual  distribution  of  rain- 
fall, the  temperature,  and  especially  on  the  topographical 
features  of  the  drainage  areas  of  the  rivers,  particularly  the 
slope  of  the  ground  and  the  way  different  tributaries  com- 
bine to  form  a  «reat  river.  Of  the  dependence  of  river 
floods  on  meteorological  laws  little  more  is  known  than  that 
certain  high  waters  depend  on  the  rains  of  the  equatorial 
belt  of  calms,  on  the  rains  associated  with  the  bursting  of 
the  monsoons,  and  on  the  locking  of  water  by  frost  in 
northern  latitudes. 

Rivers  may  be  roughly  classified  according  to  the  way 
high  water  occurs.  In  land-locked  areas  the  rivers  flow  to 
the  lowest  purt  of  the  drainage  basin  and  form  a  lake.  The 
water  rises  to  the  lowest  part  of  the  inclosing  ridge,  pro- 
vided the  evaporation  from  the  lake  surface  is  less  than  the 
inflow,  and  overflows  as  a  river  to  the  sea.  In  rivers  that 
take  their  rise  in  lakes  the  flow  of  water  is  nearly  constant, 
and  there  is  very  little  variation  of  stage,  year  in  and  year 
out.  Floods  never  occur  on  these  rivers.  The  variation  in 
the  height  of  the  St.  Lawrence  river,  which  takes  its  rise  in 
Lake  Ontario,  ordinarily  is  only  4*5  feet.  High  winds  cause 
variations  of  a  few  feet  from  the  extremes  of  low  and  high 
water  lake-levels  which,  however,  last  for  only  a  short  time. 

In  the  rivers  of  Siberia  and  British  America  that  flow 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean  high  water  occurs  as  the  result  of 
snow  melting  in  the  spring  along  the  lowlands  and  up  to  a 
height  of  3,Oi30  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  rivers 
flow  from  south  to  north.  The  Obi,  Tenessei,  and  Macken- 
zie are  of  this  type.  Along  the  upper  courses  the  snow  melts 
first.  As  the  water  flows  down  it  is  met  by  the  water  from 
the  snow  farther  north  melting  later.  The  consequence  is 
excessive  high  waters  along  the  lower  courses  of  these  rivers, 
and  great  areas  of  land  are  flooded.  The  blocking  of  river- 
channel  by  the  formation  of  ice-gorges  also  adds  greatly  at 
times  to  these  floods. 

One  class  of  rivers  derive  their  water  almost  exclusively 
from  snow  melting  in  the  mountains.  The  melting  is  a 
slow  process,  and  high  water  occurs  gradually  and  with 
great  regularity.  The  Indus,  which  rises  in  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  is  a  river  of  this  type.  The  Rocky  Mountain 
region  of  the  U.  S.  abounds  in  small  streams  of  this  kind. 
In  some  instances  such  rivers  show  a  small  diurnal  fluctua- 
tion of  stage  corresponding  to  the  greater  melting  of  snow 
that  takes  place  in  the  day  as  compared  with  the  cooler 
niffht. 

Rivers  in  the  tropical  countries  receive  water  from  rain- 
fall only,  and  have  high  water  in  summer.  The  greatest 
rivers  of  the  world  belong  to  this  class,  the  Amazon,  the 
Congo,  the  Ganges,  the  Yang-tse,  and  the  Nile.  In  some  of 
these  rivers  the  nigh  waters  depend  on  the  rains  of  the  belt 
of  calms  at  the  equator.  In  those  of  Asia  the  rises  come 
from  rains  that  occur  at  the  bursting  of  the  monsoon.  The 
Amazon  does  not  vary  greatly^  at  different  times  of  the  year, 
because  when  the  northern  tributaries  are  in  flood  the  south- 
ern ones  are  low,  and  when  the  southern  ones  are  in  flood 
the  northern  ones  are  low.  The  great  floods  of  the  Yang-tse 
sometimes  last  from  June  to  December.  The  rises  show  that 
the  monsoon  winds  penetrate  to  the  interior  of  Asia  to  a 
greater  extent  than  was  at  one  time  supposed. 

In  rivers  that  are  dominated  by  the  sub-tropical  rains — 
that  is,  little  or  no  rain  in  summer-time — the  rivers  are  low 
or  nearly  dry  in  summer,  and  high  water  occurs  in  winter. 
The  rivers  of  Italy  and  Spain  are  of  this  class,  also  the 
rivers  of  California  and  Oregon.  These  latter,  however,  de- 
rive some  water  from  melting  snow  in  the  mountains. 
Rivers  of  the  temperate  zone  receive  their  main  supply  of 
water  from  rains  directly,  and  are  high  in  winter  and  spring, 
the  seasons  of  great  rainfall.  Of  this  class  are  the  Elbe, 
Rhine,  and  Seine  of  Europe,  the  Ohio,  Arkansas,  and  Mis- 
sissippi in  the  U.  S.  High  water  in  these  rivers  is  added  to 
very  materially  at  times  by  the  melting  of  accumulated 
snow.  The  smallncvss  of  evaporation  in  winter  as  compared 
with  summer  tends  to  make  the  water  high. 

Some  rivers  receive  most  water  from  rain,  but  high  water 
is  due  to  the  additional  amount  coming  from  melted  snow. 
Melted  snow  is  relatively  more  efficient  than  the  same 
amount  of  rain  in  causing  n  rise,  because  a  much  greater 

&art  of  it  goes  into  the  rivers  when  melted,  frozen  ground 
eing  impermeable  to  water.     The  rivers  of  New  England 
are  of  this  type.    With  great  depth  of  snow  on  the  ground, 


« t 


[*"» 


floods  occasionally  occur  in  some  rivers  not  otherwise  i»ub- 

iect  to  overflow.  About  once  a  century  the  river  Somme  m 
Trance  overflows  from  this  cause.  The  flood  of  1658,  which 
was  preceded  by  several  weeks  of  excessively  cold  weather, 
came  from  the  melting  of  snow  which  lay  oii  the  ground  t 
the  depth  of  6  feet.  Preceding  the  great  flood  of  1740  tlit 
conditions  were  similar. 

High  water,  besides  depending  on  great  rain,  depends  al 
on  the  topographical  features  of  the  drainage  area  in  comlii- 
nation  with  the  sequence  of  rainfall  over  its  different  pans. 
Rainfall  is  not  usually  uniform  in  depth  over  a  wide  area  ]ii 
great  rain-storms.  When  the  distribution  of  a  fall  of  rain 
in  time  and  space  is  such  that  the  freshets  in  tributarit-s 
from  several  regions  coincide  in  reaching  the  main  channel 
of  a  river  at  the  same  time,  excessively  high  water  results. 

Floods  in  the  lower  Mississippi  river  are  due  mainly  to 
water  from  the  Ohio  river.  The  Ohio  alone  is  not  suffiei^nt 
to  cause  a  stage  of  more  than  40  feet  in  the  lower  Mi>^i^ 
sippi.  To  carry  it  8  feet  farther  to  the  flood-line  retjuir^- 
that  the  Arkansas,  the  Missouri,  or  the  upper  MLvsisvij  \.\ 
shall  send  out  a  flood  to  be  opportunely  superposed  on  itie 
hip^h  water  from  the  Ohio.  Variation  in  distribntion  i>f 
rainfall  in  different  years  may  cause  flood- waves  from  ih'» 
various  tributaries  to  pass  through  the  lower  river  in  suoo*-*- 
sion,  producing  moderately  high  stages  of  water  lasting  a 
long  time,  but  no  great  high  water. 

For  any  particular  river  many  different  combinations  nf 
flood- waves  from  the  various  tributaries  are  possible,  so  th&t 
the  occurrence  of  a  flood  may  in  a  certain  sense  be  c«»n*-i  \- 
ered  as  fortuitous.  Caution  has  therefore  to  be  exervi^.-: 
in  passing  from  records  of  hi^h  water  to  conclusions  a>  :•• 
changes  in  river  regimen  and  increased  flood-heights  due  U' 
extension  of  land  cultivation  or  the  clearing  of  forests. 

Forests  and  High  TFa/«r.— Where  forests  are  cut  away 
from  a  drainage  area,  especially  on  hillsides,  the  amoont  •  <f 
silt  carried  to  the  streams  is  increased.    By  filling  up  the 
bed  of  a  river  this  may  cause  the  heights  of  hi^h  waters  u 
gradually  increase  without  any  greater  quantity  of  waiter 
passing  through  the  river.    A  notable  case  of  rising  of 
river-bed  due  to  deposit  of  silt  is  that  of  the  Sacranit-iiTo 
river.    This,  however,  is  not  due  to  cutting  away  of   thf 
forests,  but  to  the  washing  down  of  mining  debris.     Thr 
rise  in  bed  of  river,  which  is  20  feet  higher  now  than  it  wu- 
in  1849,  is  partly  due  to  restricted  tidal  scour  caused  by  n- 
claiming  of  overflowed  land  by  levees.    Bushes  that  crow 
spontaneously  on  hillsides  are  as  serviceable  as   forefit>   i: 
ctiecking  soil  waste  and  consequent  clogging  of  streams,  ^ 
there  is  no  necessity  to  plant  trees.   That  rorest  over  a  drain  n i> 
area  diminishes  the  flood-heights  of  its  rivers  by  coni5er>  w.c 
the  rainfall,  and  causing  it  to  pass  to  the  streams  mr.r< 
slowly,  is  highl J  improbable.    That  forests  have  any  infl.- 
ence  in  increasing  or  diminishing  rainfall  has  never  \m-^zi 
proved.    That  forests  do  conserve  the  water  by  ditninislui  i: 
evaporation,  giving  'greater  outflow  at  low  water,  and  pre- 
venting the  occurrence  of  very  low  stages  or  the  ate^il  r- 
drying  up  of  streams,  seems  very  likely. 

'Records  of  Rwer-stages. — Daily  records  are  kept  of  t  h- 
stages  of  water  in  rivers  at  various  places.  A  river-sta^rr  i> 
the  vertical  height  in  feet  of  the  river-surface  above  t  r  • 
local  plane  of  low  water.  The  stage  of  water  is  asieertain-  i 
by  means  of  a  river-gauge,  which  usually  consists  of  tiiuU  r^ 
or  stones  suitably  gi'aduated,  laid  along  the  incline  ««f  i 
river- bank.  When  a  bridge  pier  is  available,  a  ^Hu&n  > 
made  of  a  graduated  plank  fastened  to  it  vertically  or  \ 
the  cutting  of  marks  on  the  stone.  River-stage  observati.  i  - 
are  mainly  valuable  at  very  high  stages  of  a  river  in  oa^**  .  : 
a  threatening  flood ;  they  are  also  of  use  at  the  1«  •«  i  -* 
stages  of  water,  as  indicating  available  channel  depth^^  f.  « 
boating. 

A  flood  condition  in  a  river  is  sometimes  graphicskllv  pr  - 
sent»i  to  the  eye  by  a  device  called  a  hydrograph.    \>n  * 
sheet  of  cross-section  paper  the  squares  from  left  to  rij- 
are  taken  to  represent  successive  days,  and  the  sqtiares  f r    * 
below  upward  are  taken  to  represent  units  of  gaug^  hetir'i 
The  gauge  readings  for  the  days  are  then  plotted  as  ih^  :»-. 
and  these  are  joined  by  a  cun'e,  which  is  called    a   hv.:- 
graph.    In  this  way  a  rise  in  a  river  at  a  place  is  shown 
paj^r  as  a  wave.    There  is  a  giudual  increase  in  heitrht  ■ 
the  highest  stage  or  crest  and  then  a  falling  off-      A  bv.?r  - 
graph  exhibit-s  the  condition  of  a  river  at  only  one    |»«»     • 
To  show  the  conditions  all  along  a  river  requires   hy,;- 
graphs  for  a  great  many  points.    Another  method  of  jkn>ij  ■  *« : 
cally  showing  a  flood  condition  in  a  river  is  by  meiins  of  .^ 
pletns.    On  a  sheet  of  cross-section  paper  the  squaivs  fr,- 


424 


FLOOR 


which  beams  called  j'oista,  stretching  from  wall  to  wall  at 
short  intervals,  carry  t^  flooring  or  covering  of  boards  or  planks 
nailcKl  to  them.  In  ancient  and  roediffival  work  the  joists 
were  usually  heavy  square  timbers,  widely  spaced,  and  carry- 
ing a  floonng  of  broad  planks.  Modem  builders,  recogniz- 
ing that  the  transverse  strength  of  a  beam  is  as  the  square 
of  the  depth,  employ  deep  and  narrow  joists,  or  stout  planks 
set  on  edge,  ana  concealed  from  view  below  by  a  ceiline;  of 
wood  or  plaster.  To  secure  greater  stiffness  and  f reeoom 
from  vibration  cross-bracing  or  bridging  is  resorted  to,  by 
means  of  which  any  strain  upon  one  joist  is  distributed  over 
several.  When  the  span  is  loo  great  for  single  joists,  inter- 
mediate girders,  carried  on  piers  or  columns,  support  the 
meeting-ends  of  adjacent  rows  of  jjoists ;  or  heavy  beams  or 
trusses  span  the  area,  and  carry  joists  laid  parallel  to  the 
walls.  When  it  is  desired  to  Drin|:  the  tops  of  the  joists 
flush  with  the  top  of  the  beam  or  girder,  they  are  mortised 
into  the  latter,  or  hung  to  it  by  iron  "  hangers "  or  **  stir- 
rups." In  frame  buildings  the  joists  are  carried  by  the 
silts,  girts,  and  wall-plates  of  the  frame,  and  by  intermediate 
girders,  trusses,  or  partitions.  Where  openings  exist  for 
stairs,  hearths,  or  chimneys,  the  joists  abutting  against  the 
opening,  called  **  tail-beams,"  are  mortised  or  hung  to  trans- 
verse pieces  called  "  headers,"  which  in  turn  are  framed  to 
girders  or  double  joists  called  "  trimmers  "  on  either  side  the 
opening.  Single  floorings  are  nailed  directly  to  the  joists, 
and  in  all  but  the  cheapest  work  are  composed  of  narrow 
boards,  tongued  and  grooved  to  each  other ;  the  large  num- 
ber of  narrow  boards  reducing  the  possible  shrinkage  of  the 
flooring  at  each  joint  to  a  minimum.  Better  floorings  are 
composed  of  an  under-flooring  next  the  joists,  and  an  upper 
flooring  of  superior  quality  "  blind-nailed  "  to  it.  Ceilings 
are  made  upon  furring-strips  nailed  across  the  joists  under- 
neath, for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  perfectly  even  horizon- 
tal bearing  for  the  laths  or  woodwork  of  the  ceiling.  When 
floors  are  to  be  deadened  (or  "  deafened  "),  an  intermediate 
surface  of  boards  or  of  latli  and  plaster  is  formed  between 
the  joists  at  about  half  their  depth,  and  sometimes  leveled 
up  to  the  top  of  the  joists  with  "  mineral  wool "  or  simply 
with  shavings,  plaster,  or  other  non-conductor  of  sound. 

In  the  "  s&w-buming  system  "  of  mill-construction  recom- 
mended by  the  Boston  Manufacturers*  Mutual  Insurance 
Company,  and  widely  adopted  in  New  England,  the  floor  is 
composed  of  3-inch  or  4-inch  planks  of  Southern  pine  or 
oak,  carried  by  heavy  beams  8  or  10  feet  apart,  without 
cross-bracing  or  ceilings.  The  flooring-planks  are  grooved 
on  both  edges  and  joined  by  splines  of  nard  wood.  An  up- 
per flooring  of  l-inch  stuff  is  often  added. 

Fire-proof  Floors. — For  description  of  floors  with  iron 
beams  and  brick  arches  or  other  flUin^,  see  article  Fire- 
proof Building.  Sometimes  wooden  joists  are  used,  filled 
in  between  with  slabs  of  flre-proof  material,  and  protected 
on  the  under  side  by  plastering  applied  to  wire-lathing ;  but 
such  floors  do  not  possess  the  hignest  flre-resisting  qualities. 

Floors  on  VatUtifig, — The  Romans  and  Byzantines  were 
masters  in  the  art  of  building  floors  upon  vaults  of  brick, 
stone,  or  concrete,  an  art  which  the  medieeval  builders  car- 
ried to  even  higher  perfection.  In  some  parts  of  Italy  and 
Hungary  vaulting  is  still  employed  for  this  purpose,  even 
in  orainary  dwellings.  But  tnis  method  of  construction  is 
too  costly,  too  heavy,  and  too  wasteful  of  space  to  be  oft-en 
used  in  these  days  of  steel  beams.  The  so-called  "  Guasta- 
vino "  system  in  large  measure  avoids  these  objections  by 
the  use  of  very  thin  vaults  of  hard  tiles  laid  flat  in  cement, 
edge  to  edge,  m  two  or  three  layers  breaking  joints,  and  with 
but  little  "rise"  or  curvature  to  the  vault.  The  weight 
these  thin  elastic  vaults  will  support  is  extraordinary.  They 
are  leveled  on  top  with  concrete  to  receive  wooden  or  tile 
floorings. 

Stone  floors  are  rarely  used,  because  of  the  great  weight 
and  relatively  low  transverse  strength  of  slabs  and  beams  of 
stone.  Though  frequent  in  ancient  and  mediaeval  buildings, 
their  place  is  taken  in  modern  work  by  the  various  kinds 
of  flre-proof  construction  already  referred  to. 

Floorings. — The  most  common  materials  used  for  finishing 
the  upper  surface  of  floors  are  wood,  tile,  flag-stones,  mo- 
saic, and  concrete,  or  asphalt.  Common  floorings  are  of 
pine  or  spruce,  laid  as  already  described.  Finer  floorings 
are  made  with  narrow  strips  of  hard  wood  tongued  and 
grooved,  or  splined,  blind-nailed  to  the  under-flooring, 
planed  to  a  perfect  level,  and  oiled,  varnished,  or  waxed. 
Floorings  of  wood  mosaic  and  parquetry  are  made  of  small 
pieces  of  hard  wood  of  different  colors,  fitted  together  in 
decorative  patterns  and  nailed  to  the  under  flooring.    Tiled 


floors  and  floorings  of  marble  mosaic  require  a  firm  and  an- 
yielding  structure  to  carry  them.  The  tiles,  or  the  frair- 
raents  of  stone  and  marble  composing  the  mosaic,  are  bt^dd*  d 
in  strong  cement  spread  over  a  layer  of  concrete.  The  m<i8>ii;c 
is  then  rubbed  to  an  even  surface  and  polished.  Flagstont-* 
of  marble  or  coarser  material  are  laid  in  the  same  way.  In 
France  and  in  some  other  part£  of  Europe  the  floors  of  or- 
dinary houses  are  not  uncommonly  laid  with  small  hexag«.*rirkl 
tiles  of  fine  hard  brick,  which  are  varnished  from  time  t<> 
time.  Cement  and  asphalt  are  used  for  floonng  baserot^Tits 
cellars,  stables,  and  other  places  requiring  a  bard  surfnt  t 
absolutely  impervious  to  moisture,  ouch  floorings  are  mu«it 
by  spreading  a  layer  of  pure  cement,  or  of  cement  and  iAiiii 
mixed,  or  of  asphalt,  over  a  well-hardened  bed  of  eoncr^-iv 
of  crushed  stone,  sand,  and  cement. 

The  Greeks,  and  after  them  the  Romans,  adorned  their  tem- 
ples and  public  buildings,  and  even  their  private  dwellinL>, 
with  floors  of  marble  and  of  mosaic  of  great  beauty  of  dt>i  jr. 
and  workmanship.  (See  Mosaic.)  The  floors  of  the  early 
Christian  basilicas  of  the  East  were  often  finished  in  a  comhi- 
nation  of  optts  Alexomdrinum  or  mosaic  of  minute  trilln;ri•^^ 
of  bright-colored  material,  and  opus  seciile,  or  pattern-^  jd 
which  each  area  of  color  was  of  a  single  piece  of  marble  <  ut 
to  the  required  shape.  The  Byzantine  architects  jii^<« 
wrought  splendid  fioorings  of  the  same  kind  for  tht  ^r 
churches,  as  in  the  church  (now  mosque)  of  Agia  Sophia  ir, 
Constantinople,  and  the  Italians  have  for  centuries  exctlUi 
in  this  sort  of  work.  Floorings  of  fine  material  and  Ar- 
tistic design  are  far  more  common  in  Europe  than  in  ^  ^  •• 
U.  S.,  where,  however,  they  are  now  more  frequently  u?*-*! 
than  formerly. 

Weight  on  Floors. — This  varies  greatly  for  different  clH^ji- 
es  of  buildings.  In  calculating  the  strength  of  floor-lte^rr  :• 
it  is  customary  to  allow  for  a  weight  of  80  lb.  per  sfj.  f**"*! 
in  dwellings,  schools,  and  hay-lon-s;  120  lb.  in  chuix-h*  % 
theaters,  and  places  of  public  assembly.  But  the  ex)<n- 
ments  of  B.  B.  Stoncy,  in  England,  have  shown  that  thi>  n 
sometimes  largely  exceeded  in  "crushes"  such  as  «K;fur  in 
the  vestibules  of  theaters,  etc.  For  granaries,  100  Ih.  |*r 
sq.  foot  may  be  allowed ;  for  warehouses,  250  lb. ;  for  fu  - 
tories,  100  to  400  lb.  To  these  weights  should  always  tv 
added  that  of  the  floor  itself,  varying  from  18  lb.  pir  >«j. 
foot  in  ordinary  wooden  floors  with  plaster  ceilings  unutr 
them  to  85-60  lb.  in  fire-proof  floors  with  brick  an-lu^. 

Formulas  for  Beams. — The  requisite  size  and  strenj^h  of 
iron  and  steel  beams  for  floors  are  calculated  by  mran^  <  f 
tables  furnished  by  the  manufacturers  of  the  various  |  li- 
tems used.  For  wooden  beams,  however,  the  calculate -d? 
may  be  made  by  the  architect  or  builder  by  the  use  of  iht 
formulas 

(1) 


/scr\W'\'W) 


c  — 


2Ahd* 


(2> 


«/•(  W  +  w)' 

in  which  W=  assumed  load  per  square  foot  on  floor ;  t  = 
weight  of  floor  itself  per  square  foot ;  /  =  length  of  beaxp  ir 
feet ;  b  =  breadth  of  oeam  in  inches ;  d  =  depth  of  beam  \t 
inches ;  c  =  distance  apart  on  centers  in  feet ;  s  =  fac*t<  ^r  •  f 
safety  assumed  (usually  from  8  to  5) ;  and  ^  is  a  con>i.in; 
determined  by  experiment,  viz.,  240  for  white  pine,  270  f.'- 
spruce,  315  for  oaK,  and  375  for  hard  pine.  Formula  « : 
gives  the  depth  of  beam  required  for  a  given  span,  thi«  k- 
ness,  and  spacing  of  the  joists;  and  formula  (2)  the  |>r<^{».r 
spacing  on  centers  for  beams  of  a  given  dimension. 

When,  however,  it  is  desired  to  calculate  the  load  wh;.  " 
a  given  beam  will  carry  without  exceeding  a  deflection  r.! 
^^th  of  an  inch  per  foot  of  space,  the  following  formuJi 
should  be  used : 

_  Sbdhi 
^-    5P  > 

in  which  L  =  safe  load  required ;  6,  d, and  I  are  the  same  a« 
in  (1)  and  (2),  and  c  is  a  constant,  viz. :  62  for  white  pine,  7;; 
for  white  oak,  75  for  spruce,  103  for  yellow  pine. 

Special  Floors, — Special  kinds  of  floors  and  flooring  &^. 
required  by  certain  industries  and  for  particular  purj-  .•-.  .- 
Thus  theaters,  amphitheaters,  lecture-halls,  andsoniotir  .- 
churches,  require  inclined  floors  in  order  to  brin^  tht-  re- 
moter spectators  within  sight  and  hearing  of  the  s{ieakt>r  • 
performer  on  the  stage  or  platfonn.  Such  floors  are  i.^-- 
ally  built  upon  stagings  from  a  level  floor  forming  the  <  c. 
ing  of  the  space  or  story  below.  Ship-builders  make  us.-  ' 
a  vast  draughting-floor  of  pine  on  which  to  plot  the  curves,  v  5 


426 


FLORENCE 


PLORES 


oonseqaence  in  military  respects,  many  knights  settled  here, 
and  the  nobles  early  gained  the  ascendency.    Parties  fought 
in  Florence  a^  in  other  cities ;  nevertheless,  in  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries  it  became  a  center  of  civilization,  and  in- 
creased its  political  im[K)rtance  by  conquering  the  neigh- 
boring cities  and  towns.    In  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century  it  threw  oif  the  authority  of  the  German  emperors 
and  established  a  republic,  and  iii  1198  it  headed  the  union 
of  the  Tuscan  cities  against  Philip  of  Suabia.    In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  thirteenth  century  Florence  was  governed  by 
a  podestlL,  who,  however,  held  the  supreme  authority  only 
in  matters  of  justice ;  the  administration  and  the  political 
power  depended  on  six  consuls  and  a  municipal  council  of 
100  citizens.   The  republic  had  an  oligarchical  character,  but 
although  it  was  convulsed  by  the  civil  wars  between  the 
Guelphs  and  the  Ghibellines   the  city  still  increased  in 
power.    In  1078  the  enlargement  of  the  city  made  a  second 
wall  necessary,  and  between  1284  and  1327  the  third  wall, 
the  present  one,  was  built.     In  1222  Florence  conquered 
Pisa,  and  gained  ^reat  commercial  advantages;  in  1332  it 
conauered  Pistoja,  in  1333  Massa,  and  soon  it  ruled  over  the 
whole  of  Tuscany.    The  authority  of  the  nobility  began  to 
decrease ;  the  citizens  acquired  ascendency,  and  in  1378  the 
democracy  gained  a  decided  victory,  Salvestro  de  Medici,  a 
plain  citizen,  becoming  gonfaloniere.    It  was,  however,  Gio- 
vanni de  Medici,  the  banker  of  the  pope  and  a  man  of  im- 
mense wealth,  who  founded  the  house.    At  his  death  in  1428 
he  left  two  sons,  Cosimo  and  Lorenzo,  from  the  latter  of  whom 
the  dukes  of  the  sixteenth  century  descended.    Cosimo  ac- 
quired great  fame  during  the  Council  of  Florence  in  1439, 
and  his  grandson,  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  added  still  more 
to  the  splendor  oif  the  house.    In  1478  the  conspiracy  of  the 
Pazzi  against  the  Medici  failed,  and  in  1492  Pietro  succeeded 
his  father  Lorenzo  as  gonfaloniere.    He  was  expelled,  how- 
ever, and  Savonarola  established  a  kind  of  theocracy,  but 
was  burnt  as  a  heretic  in  1498.    By  the  victory  of  Alessandro 
of  Medici  (Aug.  12, 1530)  the  republic  was  finally  overthrown, 
and  Alessandro  was  declared  Duke  of  Florence,  July  29, 1531. 
He  was  killed  in  1589,  but  his  son  succeeded  as  grand  duke. 
After  the  death  of  the  last  Medicean  grand  duke  the  govern- 
ment of  Tuscany,  of  which  Florence  was  the  capital,  fell  to 
Francis,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  afterward  Emperor  at  Germany. 
His  descendants  were  expelled  by  the  French  in  1799.    In 
1801  Tuscany  became  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Etruria 
under  Louis  of  Parma,    m  1808  it  came  under  the  sway  of 
France.    In  1814  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  III.  once  more 
took  possession  of  the  country,  but  in  1859  his  son,  Ferdi- 
nand IV.,  had  to  abdicate,  and  on  May  22,  1860,  Tuscany 
was  incorporated  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  of  which  Flor- 
ence was  the  capital  until  1871,  when  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  transferred  to  Rome.  A.  Niemann. 

Florence :  city  and  railway  center ;  capital  of  Lauder- 
dale CO.,  Ala.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Alabama, 
ref.  1-B) ;  situate<l  on  the  north  bank  of  Tennessee  river,  at 
the  head  of  deep-water  navigation  and  at  the  foot  of  Muscle 
Shoals  Canal.  It  has  the  Southern  Female  Universitv,  Syn- 
odical  Female  College,  Paxton's  Military  and  Classical*  Acad- 
emy, State  Normal  College,  fine  city  schools,  sawmills,  and 
extensive  manufactures  of  cotton  and  iron.  Pop.  (1880)  1,359 ; 
(1890)  6,012.  Editor  of  '♦  Herald." 

Florence :  city ;  Marion  co.,  Kan.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  6-H) ;  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  Railroad ;  at  the  junction  of  the  Cotton wooil  river 
and  Doyle  creek.  It  is  situated  in  a  wheat-producing  dis- 
trict, and  has  quarries  of  building-stone.  Pop.  (1880)  954 : 
(1890)  1,229.  F  V        ;        , 

Florence :  town  and  railway  junction ;  capital  of  Flor- 
ence CO.,  S.  C.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  South 
Carolina,  ref.  5-F) ;  102  miles  N.  of  Charleston.  It  has  rail- 
way shops,  a  mill,  machine-shops,  and  a  large  trade  in 
cotton.     Pop.  (1880)  1,914 ;  (1890)  3,395. 

Florence,  William  Jermyn  (real  name  Bernard  Conlin)  : 
actor;  b.  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  July  26, 1831.  He  joined  a  dra- 
matic association  in  New  York  city  1847 ;  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  Richmond,  Va.,  Dec.  6,  1849,  as  Peter  in  Tfte 
Stranger.  He  played  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Macduff  to  Booth's 
Macbeth.  At  Brougham's  Lyceum  in  New  York  he  afterward 
appeared  in  Irish  characters.  He  married  in  1853  Mrs. 
Malvina  Littell,  a  dancer  attached  to  Wallack's  theater, 
and  subsequently  the  two  appeared  at  the  National  theater. 
New  York,  as  the  Irish  Boy  and  the  Yankee  Girl.  In  1856 
Florence  and  his  wife  went  to  England,  traveled  through 
the  British  provinces,  and  were  well  i-eceived.    On  returning 


to  the  U.  S.  they  acted  regularly  every  season  in  the  prin- 
cipal towns  antl  cities  of  the  Union.  In  1887  Mrs.  Flon-uce 
Dractically  retired  from  the  stage  and  Florence  join."*! 
Joseph  Jefferson,  playing  with  him  in  some  of  the  old  ctiiii- 
edies.  His  best-known  parts  are  Capt.  Cuttle  in  Dtmh^y 
and  Son,  Bardwell  Slote  in  The  Mighty  Dollar,  and  Kul.fri 
Brierly  in  The  Ticket-of-leave  Man.  D.  in  Pliiladehihia 
Pa..  Nov.  20, 1891.  B.  B.  Vallextine.  ' 

Florence,  Conncll  of,  1439-42  a.  d.:  the  continuation  of 
the  Council  of  Basel,  the  seventeenth  of  the  twenty  uh;u- 
menical  councils  acknowledged  by  the  Church  of  Rome, 
The  Council  of  Basel  was  opened  July  23,  1431.  Called  in 
the  interest  of  reform,  the  attendance  at  first  was  small,  the 
pope,  Eugenius  IV.,  being  hostile.  In  1434  a  reconciliation 
was  brought  about,  and  the  pope  took  the  direction  of  af- 
fairs  into  his  own  hands.  On  Jan.  8. 1438,  the  cotmcil  wii> 
transferred  to  Ferrara,  and  in  Feb.,  1439,  to  Flonni.v 
•where  its  sessions  continued  at  intervals  until  1442.  But  it- 
interest  culminated  in  the  summer  of  1439,  when  the  re- 
union of  the  Greek  and  Latin  ("hurches  was  thought  toha%e 
been  accomplished.  More  than  500  Greeks,  including  tin- 
Greek  emperor  and  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  yfy-rv 
in  attendance,  having:  joined  the  council  at  Ferrara.  ^^»l.r 
points  were  under  discussion :  1,  the  Filioque  of  the  L;itin 
Creed ;  (2)  the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  Eucharist ;  i:{i 
purgatory :  (4)  the  papal  supremacy.  The  first  three  i»<»i?ii- 
were  settled  by  compromise  ;  the  fourth  by  the  submi.ssi.n 
of  the  Greeks.    But  the  impulse  of  this  settlement  was  im- 

Eerial,  the  Greeks  desiring  Occidental  assistance  in  l)eaiiij:: 
ack  the  Turks.  The  **  reconciliation  "  had  no  root  in  tiiv 
hearts  of  the  people,  and  in  1443  the  patriarchs  of  Alex- 
andria. Antiocn,  and  Jerusalem  united  in  denouncing*  Ibf 
Council  of  Florence.  Meanwhile  the  remnant  of  the  rf)un- 
cil  summoned  by  Eugenius  IV.  continued  to  sit  at  Ba.^] ; 
in  1440  it  elected  an  antipope  (Felix  V.),  who  resigiunl  in 
1449;  removed  to  Lausanne.  July  24,  1448,  and  dis^»lY,-*i 
May  25,  1449.  See  Mansi's  Councils  (vol.  xxix.) ;  Han!um'< 
Councils  (vols.  viii.  and  ix.);  and  Hefele's  Conrihtrw^- 
schtchte  (vol.  vii.,  part  2, 1874).   Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Floreneia,  Francisco,  de :  Jesuit  author ;  b.  in  Flori<la 
(probably  in  St.  Augustine).  1620.  He  studied  in  the  Col- 
lege of  San  Ildefonso,  Mexico:  took  the  Jesuit  habit  in 
1643;  acquired  considerable  fame  as  a  teacher  and  pulpit 
orator ;  .was  procurator  of  his  province  at  Madrid  and  Romf 
1688,  and  subsequently  procurator-general  for  the  Indies  at 
Seville.  His  IRstoria  ae  la  provincia  de  la  Campari  in  d" 
Jesus  de  Nueva  Espafln  was  the  first  Jesuit  history  of  Mex- 
ico (1st  vol.  only,  Mexico,  1694).  He  also  published  severai 
biographical  works  relating  to  the  Jesuits,  and  numert>us 
theological  treatises.    D.  in  Mexico,  1695. 

Herbert  H.  Smitb. 

Florentine  Academy  (in  Ital.  Aecademia  Fiorentina):  » 
learned  association  of  Florence,  founded  in  1540.  It  i< 
famous  as  successor  of  the  Aecademia  della  Crusca.  Sv*- 
Della  Crusca. 

Floren'tius :  the  name  of  several  men  eminent  in  hiv 
toryand  in  letters.  Among  them  are  Florence  (Flort?nt  iu- 
OF  Worcester,  a  learned  monk  who  died  in  1118;  author  .f 
a  Latin  chronicle,  the  first  written  in  England  after  th- 
Norman  Conquest;  English  translation  edited  by  Thi»n»:v- 
Forester,  London,  1854  (in  Bohn's  Librar)).— Flore ntii^ 
Radenius  :  b.  at  Leerdam  in  the  Low  Countries  in  VVdi ; 
was  educated  at  Prague ;  succeeded  Gerhard  Gmot  a^  -li- 
rector  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life.  D.  1400.  S- 
his  Life  by  Thomas  k  Kempis. — Another  Florenth  - 
(Francois  Florent)  was  a  Burp^ndian  jurist,  who  diwl  <  M. 
29,  1650;  Author  oi  Dissertations  on  the  canon  law  (16;>"J\ 
etc. 

Flo'res :  a  central  department  of  Uruguay ;  cr^tated  in 
1885  from  the  northern  part  of  San  Jose ;  boundt»d  N.  aivi 
X.  E.  by  Durazno,  S.  by  San  Jos^,  and  W.  by  S«»rian.» 
Area,  1.745  sq.  miles.  The  river  Yi  borders  the  d'ejvartiiit  ir 
on  the  north.  The  land  is  generally  rolling  and  open,  su  jr .  ; 
for  pasturage,  and  grazing  is  the  principal  industry.  W  b»-,i' 
and  maize  are  cultivated  to  some  extent.  Pop.  (1*800)  aK.-it 
20,000.  Capital.  Trinidad,  123  miles  N.  E.  of  Monte^i.^-  . 
with  about  2,500  inhabitants.  Herbert  H.  Smitu. 

Flores:   the  westernmost  island  of  the  Azores;  in   thi 
Atlantic  Ocean  :  in  lat.  39"  25'  N.  and  Ion.  31"  12  W.     Ar  •. 
54  sq.  miles.    Its  name  was  given  it  by  the  Portugu*«<t-   .  . 
allusion  to  the  flowers  with  which  it  is  covered.     Pop.  !I,4M> 
Chief  town,  Santa  Cruz. 


428  PLOl 

Florida:  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  North  America  (South  At- 
lantic group)  and  the  largest  E.  ot  the  Misaisaippi  river.  In 
shape  it  is  somewhat  like  an  inverted  L. 

Silualion  and  Arta. — It  is  the  Bouthemmost  State  of  the 
Union,  lying  between  24°  BO  and  31°  N.  lat,  anil  79°  48' 
and  87°  38'  W.  Ion.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Georgia 
and  Alabama,  E.  b;  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  S.  by  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and 
Straits  of  Flori- 
da, and  W.  by 
the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico and  Alaba- 
ma, the  Perdido 
river  forming 
the  extreme  west- 
ern boundary. 
From  the  nortn- 
efn  boundary  to 
the  southern  most 
outlying  island 
the  distance  is 
460  miles.  From 
the  Atlantic 
Ocean  to  the  Per- 
dido river  the 
distance  is  400 
miles,  and  from 

SmI  of  Florida  ^^^      northwest- 

ern corner  of  the 
State  to  Key  Largo  it  is  nearly  600  miles,  the  line  running 
diagonally  across  the  Gulf  ol  Mexico.  The  peninsula  prut>er 
is  about  37''>  miles  long,  and  has  an  average  width  ot  90  miles. 
Tbeactual  area  is  58,680  sq.  miles,  or  37,535.200 acres.  Lakes, 
rivers,  bays,  and  estuaries  cover  nearly  3,000,000  acres,  an 
area  often  quadrupled  in  extent  during  a  rainy  season. 

Name. — The  name  is  abbreviated  from  the  Spanish  FOa- 
jua  Florida  (East^'r,  or  the  Feuet  of  Flowers),  bo  called  from 
its  discovery  by  Ponce  de  Leon  on  Easter  Day,  1513.  "  The 
Everglade  State  "  is  perhaps  the  most  generally  accepted 
nickname. 

Topography. — The  general  impression  received  by  the 
traveler  is  that  Florida  is  mainly  a  monotonous  level,  but 
this  is  strictly  true  only  as  regards  wide  areas  along  the  coast, 
the  land  rising  only  a  few  feet  above  the  sca-Ievel.  These 
"flat lands"  are  irregularly  distributed  in  open  grass-grown 
savannas,  pine  forests,  cypress  swamps,  and  "cabbage  ham- 
mocks," the  latter  being  the  local  name  for  extensive  native 
growths  of  the  cabbage-nalm.  The  general  level  rises  to- 
ward the  interior  untif,  almost  insensibly,  the  low  pines  give 
way  to  high  pines,  and  these  again  to  hills  of  considerable 
altitude.  The  highest  part  of  the  peninsula  proper  is  along 
the  central  ridge,  where,  according  to  the  railroad  surveys, 
an  elevation  of  nearly  300  feet  is  reached ;  the  rise,  however, 
is  so  gradual  that  onlv  the  engineer's  level  can  define  it.  In 
Western  Florida  the  land  is  creeidedlThillv,  excepting  along 
the  coast,  and  is  very  heavily  wooded,  'ropographically,  it 
belongs  to  Georgia  and  Alabama.  The  southern  part  of  the 
peninsula  proper  is  occupied  by  a  vast  tract  known  as  the 
Everglades  (probably  an  adaptation  of  the  English  word 
"  glades  '  with  the  predx  ever  to  indicate  its  extent). 

In  general  terms  this  southern  portion  of  the  peninsula 
has  been  formed  by  successive  dikes  of  coral  built  in  bygone 
ages  and  inclosing  most  of  the  space  that  now  forms  "sub- 
tropical Florida."  The  upper  nart  of  this  is  occupied  by  the 
shallow  waters  of  Lake  Okeechobee,  which  merges  into  the 
Everglades  proper  to  the  S.  and  E.,  and  is  destined  eventu- 
ally to  be  filled  up  and  become  a  part  of  the  grass-grown 
tract  now  the  abode  ot  the  remnant  of  the  once  powerful 
Seminole  Indians,  whose  name  for  it  is  Pa-ha-yo-kee — much 
grass  in  water.  They  are  penetrated  in  all  directions  by 
tortuous  open  channels  of  water  only  a  few  feet  in  depth, 
and  at  short  intervals  over  the  whole  tract  are  wooded 
islands  possessing  great  fertility  of  soil  and  usually  covered 
with  a  dense  growth  of  sub-tropical  vegetation.  These 
islands  no  doubt  were  once  surrounded  by  the  sea.  and  stood 
in  the  same  relation  to  the  mainland  as  do  the  present  Flor- 
ida reefs  and  keys.  The  Everglades  are  separaleil  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  by  wide  tracts  of  cypress  swamp.  These 
forests  extend  toward  the  southern  pomt  of  the  neninsula, 
but  are  narrowed  as  they  turn  the  ca[)e  and  extend  up  along 
the  Atlantic  coast.  Tne  Everglades  approach  the  ocean 
most  nearly  on  the  eastern  coast  at  Blscayne  Bay,  where  the 
distance  across  is  barely  5  miles,  the  intervening  elevation 
being  an  ancient  dike  of  coralline  rock,  crossed  at  short  in- 


tervals by  streams  of  considerable  volume,  navigable  lor 
small  boatd  and  Sowing  out  from  the  Evergladea  in  stroii)> 
currents  of  clear,  sweet  water.  The  Everglades,  far  Ipjiu 
being  a  stagnant  swamp  tu^  has  been  popularly  suppcHii. 
are  in  reality  a  not  unhealthful  region. 

At  frequent  intervals  throughout  the  lowlands,  pBHi''u- 
larly  along  the  coast,  are  exteosire  swamps,  some  of  aliii  ti 
have  never  been  explored,  owing  to  the  impenetrable  rhariM'- 
ter  of  the  undergrowth  and  the  impassable  boles  and  i^iiik.' 
that  break  the  surface.  Prominent  among  these  en-j! 
swamps  are  the  Big  Cypress  near  the  southern  extremllv  ii[ 
the  peninsula,  several  of  great  extent  farther  to  the  nonti.t> 
the  Fen  Holloway  and  mikulla  swamps;  there  isalsi-mii-i- 
tensive  swamp  near  the  mouth  of  the  Appalacliici'la  riv,T. 
The  largest  of  the  inlanil  swamps  is  the  Okefenoke,  wj.iih 
extends  far  to  the  northward  beyond  the  Georgia  line. 

Almost  the  entire  shore  of  the  mainland  is  sepamlnl  kiA 
protected  from  the  ocean  by  outlying  sand-bars,  which  cvt-n- 
tually  become  islands  and  peninsulas  as  vegetation  ciivri 
them.  The  inner  or  sheltered  sea-beaches  consist  for  \\i' 
most  part  of  rather  soft  sand,  nctt  easy  to  walk  uj«in.  im- 


hard  and  level  as  a  macadamized  road.  Along  the  ii 
rivers  of  aub-tropical  Florida  the  mangrove  iseverencn.sr'R- 
ing  on  the  sea.  and  often  absolutely  prohibits  passage  iiivi-g 
the  water-side.  Elsewhere  the  underlying  coralline  <ir 
limestone  rock  crops  up,  fornung  a  natural  sea  wall ;  Ihi'  \i 
notably  the  case  at  intervals  along  the  Indian  river,  Likt 
Worth,  and  Biscayne  Bay  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  at  Ihr 
mouths  of  nearly  all  the  principal  rivers  of  the  Gulf  coa.-l. 
Where  these  rivers  break  through  the  coral  dikes  aiiruur- 
dinary  formations  are  found.  In  many  instances  namra; 
bridges  exist,  and  there  are  often  deep  rock  cuttings  o[gn«t 
beauty  and  interest  to  the  geologist. 

Springs,  Streams,  Lakes,  ete. — Some  of  the  most  immut- 
able spnngs  in  the  world  exist  in  Florida.  The  most  tain<>id 
is  Silver  Spring  near  Ocala  in  Marion  County,  but  iht'rv  in 
many  others  that  are  only  less  celebrated  tiecause  they  an 
out  of  the  line  of  travel.  Among  these  is  Blue  Spring,  ai-' 
in  Marion  County,  Wekiva  Spring,  in  Orange  C'ounlv.  mi.l 
Wakulla  Spring,  near  Tallahassee,  The  extraonlitiiry 
clearness  of  the  waters  of  these  springs  is  as  remartnMt'  ■>• 
their  size.  In  several  instances  navigable  streams  bur-i  (uli- 
grown  from  the  earth.  The  volume  of  Silver  Spring  is  ■>•'■.' 
300,000,000  gal.  daily  (D.  G.  Brinton's  estimate).  The  cWr- 
ness  of  the  water  is  such  and  its  refractive  powers  so  prt\ 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  believe  that  objects  Ivincnn 
the  bottom  at  a  depth  of  30  or  40  feet  are  not  actually  du-^- 
nifted  by  the  water.  Along  the  coast  are  found  coiiiiIl'~- 
springs  of  fresh  and  sulphuretted  water.  One  of  the*-"! 
large  volume  bursts  upward  through  the  s^  itself  nnt  fu 
from  St.  Augustine,  boiling  so  violently  to  the  surface  i 
miles  from  snore  that  the  ocean  rollers  break  against  ibc 
column  of  fresh  water  as  il  it  were  a  sunken  reef.  Thv  to- 
tal volume  of  water  discharged  by  these  niulfituilin''i:» 
springs  baffles  computation,  and  where  the  supply  ci>nf 
from,  with  onlv  a  narrow  peninsula  for  a  watets&ed,  i!  4 
perplexing  problem. 

"The  lakes  are  largely  aggregations  of  smaller  spring, 
sometimes  being  themselves  the  direct  sources  of  rivers  md 
sometimes  meinber_s  of  lacustrine  systems.  There  arc  ^er- 
eral  principal  lake  groups,  one  lying  along  the  head  viil'.r< 
of  the  St.  John's  river,  including  Lakes  Munroe.  Or.r,-(, 
Dexter,  Crescent,  and  others.  The  Oktawaha  river,  a  Irit.:- 
tary  of  the  St.  John's,  finds  its  source  in  a  fine  gJou|i  of  I"'-'' 
including  Apopka.  Dora,  Harris,  Eustls,  and  Griffin,  .S'l 
these  ap^in  is  the  Kissimmee  group  including  the  T<'li"j«- 
kaliga  lakes,  Kissimmee,  and  others.  This  group  nniit^  '' 
fonn  the  great  Kissimmee  river  flowing  southward  tliri'iii;h 
vast  tracts  of  swampy  wilderness  until  it  discharges  iK- 
Iiake  Okechobee,  the  largest  body  of  open  fresh  watvr  in 
Florida.  This  great  lake  is  quite  shallow,  barelv  cxce-'-iir.; 
more  than  13  or  IS  feet  in  depth.  Its  area  is  about  l.3.'<<is;. 
miles.  It  is  for  the  most  part  surrounded  by  a  wide  Im'Ii  ^■'. 
almo.st  impenetrable  "big  saw-grass,"  so  that  it  i»  only  i.- 
cessible  by  the  natural  waterways  leading  from  the  hk!''' 
levels.  Its  main  outlet  is  by  the  Caloosa  river,  which  tl-of 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  Charlotte  harbor.  The  ^nriai. 
of  the  lake  is  only  30-24  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  its  At~ 
tance  from  the  coast  is  sufficient  to  prohibit  artificial  dra  i- 
age.  In  general  the  Florida  lakes  are  shallow,  save  w)i''r< 
chasms  and  fissures  occur  in  the  bed-rock,  and  these  arr 
often  springs  discharging  enormous  volumee  of  water.    I'l 


430 


FLORIDA 


abound  along  all  the  coasts  during  the  egg-laying  season, 
and  terrapin  are  found  in  the  inland  waters.  A  large  spe- 
cies of  land-turtle,  locally  known  as  "gophei-s,"  frequent 
the  forests,  burrowing  into  the  earth  for  refuge  from  their 
many  enemies.  Rattlesnakes  and  moccasins  are  the  only 
venomous  varieties  of  snakes,  and  these  are  rarely  seen  ex- 
cept during  the  warm  months,  say  from  May  to  October  in- 
clusive. 

Climate, — Though  Florida  extends  over  six  degrees  of 
latitude,  its  climate  is  very  uniform.  The  extreme  range  of 
temperature  in  Northern  Florida  is  from  90°  to  26*"  F.,  and 
in  Central  and  Southern  Florida  from  90^  to  43°  F.,  the 
summer  average  nowhere  exceeding  84°  F.  The  rainfall  ex- 
hibits greater  variations.  At  Tarpon  Springs  it  averaged 
84*5  inches  for  five  years. 

The  following  table,  compiled  from  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bu- 
reau reports,  shows  (1)  the  average  number  of  clear  or  fair 
days  in  the  year,  (2)  the  annual  average  rainfall,  and  (3)  the 
annual  average  temperature  at  five  of  the  Weather  Bureau 
stations : 


PLACE. 


Jacksonville. 

Sanford 

Oedar  Keys. . 
Key  West.... 
Pensacola . . . 


nombtr  of 
cUar  dayi. 


8801 
8220 
811  0 
307-7 
274-6 


Annaa]  avmg* 
nlD&U 
In 


54-70 
45-72 
56-86 
4031 
67-81 


Annua]  •▼•»(• 

tMnpanitura  In 

diff^ai  Fahr. 


69-80 
71-75 
71- 12 
77-57 
68  48 


i>m«ion«.— Topographically  the  State  naturally  divides 
itself  as  follows:  1,  the  Atlantic  coast;  2,  the  Gulf  coast; 
3,  Middle  Florida  (including  the  "  orange  belt "  and  the  best 
agricultural  tracts) ;  4,  sub-tropical  Florida  (S.  of  lat.  27°  N., 

fenerally  defined  as  the  habitat  of  the  cocoa-palm) ;  5,  West 
'lorida  (including  the  northern  Gulf  coast  and  that  part  of 
the  State  not  belonging  properly  to  the  peninsula). 

For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  divided  (1893) 
into  forty-five  counties,  as  follows : 

COUNTIES  AND   COUNTY  TOWNS,   WITH   POPULATION. 


COUNTIES. 


Alachua 

Baker 

Bradford   . 

Brevard  

Calhoun 

Citrus. 

Clay 

Columbia.... 

Dade 

DeSoto 

Duval 

E>«BambIa. . . . 

Franklin 

Gadsden 

Hamilton 

Hernando. . . . 
Hillsborough. 

Holmes 

Jackson  

Jefferson .... 

Lafayette 

Lake 

Lee 

Leon 

Levy 

Liberty 

Madison .  ... 

Bfanatee 

Marion 

Monroe 

Nassau 

Oranf^ 

Osceola , 

Pasco 

Poik 

Putnam 

St.  Johns . . . . , 
Santa  Rosa.. 

Sumter 

Suwannee  . . . , 

Taylor 

Volusia 

Wakulla 

Walton 

Washington . . 


*iur. 

S-I 

2-1 

2-1 

6-L 

2-E 

5-1 

»-J 

2-1 

9-L 

7-J 

2-J 

1-B 

»-F 

2-F 

St-H 

5-1 

fr-I 

1-D 

1-E 

2-G 

8-H 

5-J 

9-K 

2-F 

4-H 

2-F 

2-G 

7-1 

4-1 

8-C 

1-J 

5-K 

6-K 

6-1 

6-J 

8-J 

8-J 

1-C 

5-J 

2-H 

2-G 

4-K 

2-F 

1-D 

2-D 


Pop. 

1880. 


? 


Totals 


16,462 
2,a03 
6,112 
1,478 
1,580 

■  •  •  ■ 

2,888 

9,589 

257 

19,431 

12,156 

1,791 

12,169 

6,790 

4,248 

5,811 

2,170 

14,372 

16,065 

2,441 


19,662 
5,767 
1,362 

14,798 
8.544 

18,(H6 

10,940 
6,635 
6,618 


8,181 
6,261 
4,636 
6,045 
4,086 
7,161 
2,279 
8,294 
2,728 
4,201 
4,089 


P»p. 
18M. 


269,4a3 


22,934 
8.333 
7,516 
8,401 
1,681 
2,394 
5,154 
12,877 
861 
4,944 

26,800 

20,188 
8,308 

11,894 
8,507 
2,476 

14.941 
4,aS6 

17,,%44 

15,757 
8,686 
8,034 
1,414 

17,752 
6,586 
1,4.52 

14.316 
2,895 

20,796 

18,786 
8,294 

12,581 
8,133 
4,249 
7,905 

11,186 
8.712 
7,961 
5  363 

10,524 
2,122 
8,467 
3,117 
4.816 
6,426 


COUNTY  TOWNS. 


391.422 


Gainesville 

Maclenny 

Starke 

TitusvlUe 

Blountstown 

Inverness 

Green  Cove  Spe. 

LakeCf^ 

Juno 

Arcadia 

Jacksonville 

Pensacola 

Appalachicoia . . 

QuiDcy 

Jasper 

Brooksville 

Tampa 

Cerro  Gordo 

Marian  na 

Montieello 

New  Troy 

Tavares 

Myers 

Tallahassee 

BronsoD 

Bristol 

Madison 

Braiden  Town . . 

Ocala 

Key  West 

Femandina 

Orlando 

Kissimmee 

Dade  City 

Bartow 

Palatka 

St.  Auf^stine... 

Milton 

Sumterville 

Live  Oak 

Perry 

Deland 

CrawfordvlUe. . . 
DeFuniakSps.. 
Vernon 


F»p. 

1810. 


2,790 
834 
669 
746 


1,106 
2,020 


17,201 

11,750 

2,727 

681 

•  •  ■  > 

512 
5,532 

•  •  •  • 

926 
1,218 


576 

2,934 

291 

781 

2,904 
18,080 

2,8as 

2,856 

1,066 

321 

1,386 

8,a39 

4,742 

1,455 

214 

687 


«   672 


•  Reference  for  lo^tion  of  counties,  see  map  of  Florida. 

Principal  Towns,  with  Population  in  J890.— Key  West 
18.080;  Jacksonville,  17,201;  Pensacola,  11,750;  St.  Augus- 


nS^J.^T,^.'  TalUhassee  (the  State  capiUl),  2,934 ;  Orlando. 
2,856 ;  Gainesville,  2,790. 

The  indmtrial  and  business  interests  of  Florida  dnn-wl 
largely  upon  the  crops.  First  in  importance  is  the  oraii '« 
crop,  which  in  round  numbers  approximates  two  and  a  h;iif 
million  boxes  annually  for  export.  The  raising  of  e»ri\ 
vegetables,  including  strawberries,  for  the  Northern  market 
IS  a  large  and  profitable  business.  Pineapples  and  (MKn.*- 
nuts  are  largely  exported  from  the  sub-tropical  section.  IV 
bacco-growing  and  the  manufacture  of  cigars  employ  n\- 
eral  thousand  operatives.  The  cotton  crop  is  annualU 
increasing,  and  factories  are  springing  up  in  the  we-^i.m 
counties.  The  lumber  interests  are  of  great  value.  Pensa- 
cola being  the  chief  port  of  shipment.  Considerable  busi- 
ness interests  have  recently  developed  in  the  manufactun.'  ..f 
textile  goods  from  palmetto  fiber.  The  8ponge-fi.sh<»rT  i- 
carried  on  from  Cedar  Keys  on  the  Gulf  coast,  to  and  ali.n - 
the  Florida  Straits,  and  as  far  up  the  Atlantic  coast  as  BiZ 
cayne  Bay.  Key  West  is  the  principal  market  and  shipping. 
point  for  sponges.  The  manufacture  of  "koonti."  nr 
'*  coon  tie,"  a  species  of  flour  resembling  com-st«rph,  i^ 
largely  carried  on  in  sub-tropical  Florida.  This  is  made 
from  the  root  of  a  wild  plant  (Zamia  integrifolia),  and  is 
exported  in  considerable  quantities. 

PtVMWkjea.— Assessment  returns  for  1891  showed  the  fol- 
lowing valuations :  Improved  and  cultivated  area  (913563 
acres),  $42,881,184;  city  and  town  lots,  $21,693411;  tele- 
graph  lines,  $191,618;  railways  and  rolling  stock,  $15,766.- 
656;  live  stock,  $5,866,145;  and  personal  property,  $17,015,- 
485-totAl,  $102,913,149.  The  tax  rate  for  anpurposes  wi.s 
$5.75  per  $1,000  of  valuation.  The  State  debt  on  Jan.  I 
1893,  was  $1,232,500,  of  which  $724,800  was  held  in  State 
sinking  funds  and  $507,700  by  individuals. 

Banking.— In  1893  Florida  had  19  national  hanks  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $1,400,000,  and  individual  det^r.^its 
amounting  to  $4,542,736;  and  11  State  banks,  with  aV^e- 
gate  capital  of  $335,000,  and  individual  deposits  amounting 
to  $1,001,833. 

Coinmercc— Florida  has  four  ports  of  entry— Peman<l ins. 
Key  West,  Pensacola,  and  Tampa.  Daring  the  calendar 
year  1892  the  total  imports  of  merchandise  were  valued  at 
$1,481,527  and  total  exports  $6,746,381. 

Means  of  Cowmtt«tca/»on.— Natural  means  of  communi- 
cation are  the  waterways  partially  described  under  Topogra- 
phy, These  have  in  some  cases  been  improved,  as  bv'iet- 
ties  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Johns,  by  several  canah;  along 
the  Halifax  and  Indian  rivers,  and  by  improvements  in  '^•w 
eral  of  the  rivers  and  harbors.  In  June,  1891,  there  werv  in 
the  State  2,537  miles  of  railroad.  The  principal  lines  art 
Jacksonville,  Tampa  and  Key  West,  with  branches.  2ii» 
miles;  Jacksonville,  St.  Augustine  and  Indian  River  2:^ 
miles ;  Florida  Central  and  Peninsula,  684  miles ;  Loui^viUf 
and  Nashville,  160  miles ;  Florida  Southern,  286  miles,  T^ 
sides  these  there  are  numerous  smaller  roads  intervet-tink' 
the  northern  and  central  parts  of  the  State. 
^  Churches  and  Schools.— The  Methodist  Episcopal  Churvh 
bouth  is  the  strongest  denomination  in  the  State,  The 
census  of  1890  gave  the  following  statistics  of  the  Chun >h^- : 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South— organizations.  li^V: 
churches  and  halls,  370;  members,  25.362;  value  of  chunh 
property,  $333,824;  African  Methodist  Episcopal— ^^rearu- 
zations,  152;  churches  and  halls,  269;  members,  22  463- 
church  property,  $168,473;  Baptist,  colored— oi^i.i  ra- 
tions, 327;  churches  and  halls,  330;  members,  21711 
church  property,  $137,578;  Baptist,  white— organ izarioD*! 
403;  churches  and  halls,  403;  members,  18,747;  chunh 
property.  208,933;  Roman  Catholic— organizations.  44; 
churches  and  stations,  38;  members,  16,867 ;  church  pr..i>- 
erty,  $225.100 ;  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion— onrani- 
zations,  61;  churches  and  halls,  61;  members,  14  Tin 
church  property,  $90,745;  Methodist  Episcopal— organiza- 
tions, 117 ;  churches  and  halls,  112 ;  members,  5,739 ;  cluin  n 
property,  $219,000;  Protestant  Episcopal— organ izati-T.* 
100;  churches,  84;  members,  4,225 ;  church  property,  ^'A^-Hl- 
561;  and  Presbyterian  in  the  U.  S.— members.  3,444;  C. 
ored  Methodist  Episcopal,  1,461 ;  Disciples,  1,306;  Conim- 
gational,  1,184;  and  Presbyterian  in  the  U.  S.  of  America. 
1,1)43. 

^?  i^?  ^^^^  J^^  ^°^*"&  Sept.  30, 1890,  there  we^^  re- 
ported 1,746  pubhc  schools  for  white  pupils  and  587  U>t 

'^''^S^.t^}^^^^  ^'^  5  ^^''^2  white  children  of  schi.,>l  .hc*- 
and  52  865  colored— total.  113,647;  55.191  white  c-bil.inr. 
enrolled  in  public  schools,  and  37.281  colored— total,  1*2,472  • 
1.849  white  teachers  and  661  colored— total,  2,510.      The 


4:32     FLORIDA  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


PLORUS 


been  numerous,  and  have  had  some  ideas  as  to  engineering 
and  agriculture.  There  are  one  or  two  very  large  works, 
apparently  canals,  now  overgrown  with  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion, but  which  were  apparently  intended  to  facilitate  the 
commerce  of  some  prehistoric  time.  The  accounts  of  the 
early  explorers,  especially  the  French,  who  established  far 
more  friendly  relations  with  the  natives  than  did  the  Span- 
iards, point  to  quite  a  high  degree  of  cultivation.  There 
are  at  bt.  Augustine  some  collections  of  relics  that  show  the 
skill  of  the  natives  as  artisans.  Early  evidences  of  Euro- 
pean civilization  are  found  in  several  old  forts,  notably 
that  at  St.  Augustine,  built  of  coquina.  After  various  vicis- 
situdes of  siege  and  storm,  it  has  been  made  a  military 
post  and  measures  have  been  taken  for  its  preservation. 
Elsewhere,  as  at  Biscayne  Bay,  there  are  rums  of  stone 
buildings,  no  record  of  which  has  been  preserved,  and  which 
were  probably  the  work  of  settlers  afterward  exterminated 
by  the  Indians.  Similar  ruins  are  found  on  several  of  the 
keys.  Perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  antiquities  consist  of 
the  enormous  shell-mounds  that  exist  all  along  the  coast. 
These  are  of  great  magnitude,  and  are  evidently  mainly  the 
natural  accumulations  of  oyster-shells  thrown  nere  in  vast 
(quantities  by  the  Indians,  who  made  shellfish  a  principal  ar- 
ticle of  diet.  Besides  these  there  are  so-called  domiciliary 
and  burial  mounds,  in  which  have  been  found  stone  imple- 
ments and  other  proofs  of  mechanical  skill. 

Authorities.-— John  Bartram,  Journal  (London,  1766); 
Daniel  G.  Brinton,  Notes  on  the  Floridian  Peninsula  (Phila- 
delphia, 1859);  Francis  Parkman,  Pimieera  of  France  in  the 
New  World  (Boston,  1865);  George  Rainsford  Fairbanks, 
History  of  Florida  (Philadelphia,  1871) ;  James  Wood  Da- 
vidson, Florida  of  To-day  (New  York,  1889) ;  Charles  Led- 
yard  Norton,  Ha/ndbook  of  Florida  (London  and  New  York, 
1890).  Charles  Ledtard  Norton. 

Florida  Ag:ricaltaral  Colleg'e :  an  educational  institu- 
tion situated  in  Lake  City,  Fla. ;  organized  in  1884 ;  presi- 
dent, F.  L.  Kern,  A.  M.  It  has  ten  professors,  a  military 
department,  and  four  courses  of  instruction  in  classical  and 
literary,  agricultural,  mechanical,  and  civil  engineering,  and 
is  supported  partly  by  State  appropriation  but  mainly  by  en- 
dowment from  the  general  Government.  A  State  experiment 
station  is  located  on  the  ^unds,  which  comprise  112  acres. 
The  college  has  six  buildmgs,  a  full  equipment  of  apparatus, 
a  library,  museum,  etc.  In  1892  there  were  115  students. 
Tuition  is  free  to  residents  of  the  State.  F.  L.  Kern. 

Florida  Blanea,  Jost  MoSTino,  Count  of :  statesman ;  b. 
in  Murcia,  Spain,  1728;  gi-aduated  at  the  University  of 
Salamanca  and  studied  law ;  became  a  successful  advocate, 
and  secured  an  appointment  as  fiscal  to  the  tribunal  of  Cas- 
tile. While  administering  this  office  he  wrote  a  report  on 
the  subject  of  the  Jesuits  which  brought  him  to  the  favor- 
able notice  of  the  Government  and  led  to  his  appointment  as 
ambassador  to  Rome  in  1777,  where  his  skillful  diplomacy 
established  friendly  relations  between  his  country  and  the 
holy  see.  Soon  after  his  return  he  was  appointed  by 
Charles  III.  his  chief  minister  of  state.  His  administration, 
especially  in  domestic  affairs,  was  remarkablv  successful. 
He  reformed  abuses  in  the  administration  oi  justice,  im- 
proved the  means  of  transportation,  reduced  the  taxes,  pro- 
moted industries,  and  encouraged  learning  and  art.  Wnile 
his  foreign  policy  bore  good  fruit  in  the  treaties  of  commerce 
with  the  Porte,  in  the  alliance  with  Portugal,  and  in  the  re- 
pression of  Algerine  piracy,  his  enemies  accused  him  of 
bringing  on  the  disastrous  war  with  England  1779-83,  and  the 
bombardment  of  Algiers  and  attempt  on  Gibraltar  cost  his 
country  80,000  lives  without  advantageous  result.  After  the 
death  of  Charles  III.  he  retained  his  position  with  the  im- 
becile Charles  IV.,  but  lost  much  of  his  influence,  though  a 
strong  supporter  of  monarchical  rights,  and  when  in  1792 
he  tried  to  destroy  the  queen's  influence  with  the  king,  his 
enemies  procured  his  dismissal  from  court.  He  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  castle  of  Pampeluna  and  treated  with  great 
cruelty,  but  finally  allowed  to  retire  to  his  estates.  At  the 
time  of  the  French  invasion  in  1808  he  was  chosen  president 
of  the  Junta,  Sept.  25.    D.  Nov.  20,  1808.       F.  M.  Colby. 

Florida,  Cape :  See  Cape  Florida. 

Florida  Keys :  See  Florida. 

FlorideiB :  a  class  of  marine  plants,  mostly  of  a  reddish 
color,  and  hence  called  red  seaweeds.    See  Seaweeds. 

Flor'in  [from  O.  Fr.  florin,  from  Medisev.  Lat.  flori'nus 
(whence  Ital.  fiorino),  deriv.  of  Lat.  flos,  floris,  flower,  be- 
cause of  the  lily-flower  stamped  on  the  coin]  :  a  Florentine 


coin  first  struck  in  gold  in  1254.  Gold  and  silver  cum*, 
called  florins,  and  of  various  values,  have  since  been  c<)iii«(i 
in  many  countries.  England  struck  a  gold  florin  in  134:^ 
At  present  the  British  two-shilling  silver  piece,  first  coiruHl 
in  1849,  bears  the  official  name  of  florin.  It  has  nearly  the 
value  oiP  the  Austrian  new  silver  florin,  a  unit  of  account, 
worth  48*6  cents  of  U.  S.  money. 

Flori'nns:  a  Roman  presbyter  and  heresiarch  in  the  lat- 
ter  half  of  the  second  century,  who  was  deposed  by  Eleutht- 
rius.  His  heresy  was  a  form  of  Gnosticism  (see  (tso^th>>i. 
and  was  essentially  the  same  as  that  taught  by  Valentin u?. 

Flo'rio,  John  :  philologist  and  grammarian ;  was  b.  in 
London  about  1552  of  Italian  parents,  who,  as  Walden^^. 
had  sought  refuge  in  England  from  religious  i)erset'uti««n: 
resided  for  a  time  at  Oxford,  and  in  1578  published  hiv 
First  Fruits  which  yield  Familiar  Speech,  Merry  Piw- 
erbs.  Witty  Sentences  and  Golden  Sayings,  which  was  j*^- 
companied  by  A  Perfect  Induction  to  the  Italian  and  Er^g- 
lish  Tongues,  This  was  followed  by  a  similar  work  in  l.V.U, 
and  by  an  Italian  and  English  dlctionair  in  1598  under  tb' 
title  01 A  World  of  Words,  He  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  h\ - 
eral  persons  of  high  rank,  and  after  the  accession  of  James  1. 
was  appointed  instructor  to  the  young  prince,  and  later  f:<>n- 
tleman  of  the  privy  chamber  and  clerK  of  the  closet  to  iu* 
queen.  He  is  best  known  for  his  English  translation  of  Mon- 
taigne's Essays,  published  in  1608:    D.  at  Fulham  in  1625. 

Florio^  Caryl  :  composer,  organist,  and  teacher ;  K  ir< 
Tavistock,  England,  Nov.  8, 1848;  went  to  New  York  wit) 
his  parents  in  Sept.,  1858.  In  his  boyhood  he  had  a  remark- 
able soprano  voice,  and  was  a  member  of  Trinity  chimh 
choir  1858-1860,  under  the  family  name  of  Robiohn.  Simi- 
ied  under  Dr.  Edward  Hodges  and  Dr.  Henry  Stephen  <  ut- 
ler,  successively  organists  of  Trinity  church.  He  has  U*n 
organist  of  Zion  church  and  the  "  Brick"  Presbyterian  chur  h 
in  New  York.  His  compositions  include  two  o|x»ras,  t\u. 
symphonies  (all  in  MS.),  several  cantatas,  many  anthem.^.  ><  rr- 
ices,  and  hymn  tunes  for  church  service,  and  he  has  eiliini  a 
volume  of  Children's  Hymns  with  Tunes,  He  residis  in 
New  York  city.  D.  E.  Hertky. 

Flo'ris,  Francois,  called  Franc-Flore,  or  Frane-Flori* :  b. 
at  Antwerp  in  1520;  the  family  name  was  De  Vriendt,  \h 
began  studying  sculpture  with  his  father,  but  at  the  a^-  '•! 
twenty,  preferring  painting,  he  became  a  pupil  of  LaniUr: 
Lombard,  at  Liege.  Soon  surpassing  his  master,  he  «&> 
elected  member  of  the  Antwerp  Academy,  and  went  k. 
Rome,  where  he  studied  the  antique  and  aaopted  the  nmin 
ner  of  Michaelangelo.  On  his  return  to  his  count rj  \  '> 
skill  and  rapidity  of  execution  acouircd  fame  and  richiV  irj- 
mediately  for  him.  When  Charles  V.  made  his  entry  ii5:.> 
Antwerp  Floris  designed  and  executed  the  triumphal  art  i  •? 
erected  m  honor  of  this  monarch.  He  was  again  called  uj"  r. 
for  similar  work  for  Philip  II.,  and  Philip  desired  to  entPw. 
him  for  his  court  painter,  but  he  refused  to  leave  liis  f^n 
country,  where  he  died  of  drunkenness  at  the  aire  of  fif'v. 
His  chief  works  are  St,  Michael,  for  the  confraternity  of  St. 
Michael  at  Antwerp,  The  Last  Judgment,  for  a  church  at 
Brussels,  now  in  the  Louvre,  and  a  triptych  at  Ghent  re;  re- 
senting the  life  of  St.  Luke ;  also  the  nine  muses  in  Middr  ;• 
burg.    D.  in  1570.  W.  J.  Stillmas. 

FIo'roB:  a  Roman  historian,  whoee  full  name  is  a  m&\x*^ 
of  dispute.  In  the  earlier  editions  of  his  history  he  apf  •ejir^ 
as  L.  AnniBus  Florus,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  ni>>'ii- 
ber  of  the  family  to  which  Seneca  belonged.  Duker.  foil,  vr- 
ing  Vossius  (Hist,  Lat.\  infers  from  his  style,  familv  nHn»« . 
and  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  his  identity  with  t^ie  p** 
Annius  Florus,  who  interchanged  sportive  verses  witlj  t* 
Emperor  Hadrian.  In  the  preface  to  his  work  he  siM'ak>  "f 
a  revival  of  Roman  vigor  imder  Trajan^  and  would  ^^'^  t?* 
therefore  to  have  lived  in  his  reign  or  in  that  of  HailriK':. 
Titze,  however,  rejecting  the  passage  as  an  interixUBti*'!. 
maintained  that  he  is  the  Lucius  Julius  Florus  to  whom  two 
of  Horace's  epistles  are  addressed,  and  places  him  then^f'-'v 
in  the  time  of  Augustus,  a  view  no  longer  tenable.  W-  'f- 
flin,  in  the  Archiv  fur  Lat,  Lexikographie,ro\.  vi.,  pp.  1-7. 
has  shown  new  ground  for  belienng  that  the  hi<i« -nnr 
came  from  Africa,  and  is  to  be  identified  with  the  rheton<'.sr 
and  poet  P.  Annius  Flonis,  the  author  of  the  dialogue  a-^  n» 
whether  Vergil  was  rather  an  orator  or  poet  (t>r<;»/ti.* 
orator  an  poetaT),  and  probably  also  of  the  extant  poem  en- 
titled Pervigilivm  Veneris.  Florus*s  history  is  a  concise  nri: 
highly  rhetorical  account  of  the  Roman  people  from  Kir.i: 
Romulus  to  Augustus  Cfesar.    In  the  earlier  editions  tiit 


434 


FLOUR 


babbles  of  gas,  and  after  a  longer  time  it  will  become  ^id 
and  offensive  to  the  taste,  and  the  liquid  will  contain  phos- 
phoric acid,  readily  recognizable  by  chemical  t«sts. 

The  phosphatic  and  nitro&^enous  constituents  and  the 
starch  all  have  nutritive  value,  and  are  indispensable  as 
elements  of  food.  Of  these  the  starch  is  far  the  most 
abundant,  constituting  about  70  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
erain.  The  nitrogenous  constituents  or  the  albuminoid 
bodies  constitute  from  11  to  18  per  cent.,  and  the  phosphatic 
salts  about  2  per  cent.,  the  rest  being  mainly  woixly  fiber. 
Of  the  nutritious  portions,  weight  for  weight,  the  phosphatic 
constituents  are  undoubtedly  entitled  to  the  first  rank. 
The  portion  of  the  nitroeenous  constituents  lodged  with 
the  pnosphates  in  the  cefls  of  the  gluten  coat  have  been 
shown  by  Mege  Mouries  to  be  peculiarly  susceptible  to  fer- 
mentation when  exposed  to  a  moist  atmosphere.  They  are 
encased  in  capsules  impervious  to  the  air  in  the  berry.  If 
these  capsules  be  ruptured  or  crushed,  exposure  to  the  air  is 
inevitable. 

On  this  structural  peculiarity  of  the  grain  rests  the  foun- 
dation of  a  philosophical  system  of  milling.  The  larger 
the  percentage  of  the  interior  of  the  berry  in  flour,  the  less 
musx  be  its  nutritive  value ;  and  correspondinglv,  the  larger 
the  percentage  of  the  gluten  coat  in  flour — ^the  chief  de- 
posit of  the  phosphates  —  the  greater  its  nutritive  value; 
and  in  bran,  tne  smaller  the  percentage  of  adhering  gluten, 
the  more  nearly  worthless  as  an  article  of  food  the  bran 
would  be.  If  it  were  practicable  to  reduce  the  percentage 
of  pure  starch  and  increase  the  percentage  of  phosphatic 
and  nitrogenous  constituents,  the  nutritive  value  of  the 
flour  would  be  augmented. 

The  presence  of  minut«  particles  of  woody  fiber  in  the 
flour  gives  to  it  a  yellow  shade.  That  system  of  milling 
which  most  nearly  removes  all  the  woody  fiber,  and  none  of 
the  gluten  or  phosphates,  from  the  flour,  accomplishes  one 
of  the  chief  ends  to  be  gained. 

To  appreciate  the  difficulties  that  present  themselves  to 
the  inventor  of  milling  machinery  the  oerry  should  be  con- 
sidered as  it  is  found  m  commerce.  It  is  very  rare  that  any 
considerable  quantity  of  wheat  is  to  be  found  in  the  market 
absolutelv  free  from  foreign  ingredients,  such  as  chaff,  frag- 
ments 01  straw,  oats,  chess,  mustard,  cockle,  grass-seed, 
sand,  etc. ;  it  is  rarer  still  to  find  wheat  grains  uniformly 
filled  out  and  without  shriveled  or  blasted  kernels.  Wheat 
is  sometimes  plump,  the  starch  of  the  interior  being  mealy, 
so  that  if  the  berry  were  cut  in  halves  it  would  be  easy  with 
a  pin  to  detach  all  the  white  interior,  leaving  two  cups 
lined  with  the  gluten  coat  and  invested  with  the  woody  bran- 
case.  The  wheat  is  sometimes  slightly  shrunken,  hard,  and 
brittle  from  the  surface  to  the  center,  and  cuts  like  the  rind 
of  old  cheese.  It  is  sometimes  shriveled,  as  if  its  erowth 
had  been  arrested  at  the  commencement  of  the  perioa  when 
the  berrv  is  in  what  is  technically  called  "  the  milk,"  or  as 
when  it  has  been  struck  with  rust--a  microscopic  vegetable 
jfrowth  accompanying  the  loss  of  milk  from  tne  berry.  It 
IS  plain  that  shriveled  berries  in  the  process  of  milling 
would  for  the  most  part  be  resolved  into  fine  bran,  and  so 
be  with  difficulty  separated  from  the  flour,  and  thus  the 
flour  be  discolored  ana  rendered  less  nutritious.  It  is  plain, 
too,  that  the  plump  berry  with  the  mealy  interior  would  be 
easily  mashed  in  the  process  of  grindine,  while  the  hard, 
brittle  berrj  would  more  easily  be  cracked. 

Purification  of  Commerciai  Wheat. — Two  principles  un- 
derlie most  of  the  devices  for  separating  the  light  grains 
from  the  heavy,  and  the  foreign  seeds,  grains,  and  other  im- 
purities from  the  wheat.  The  one  is  the  process  of  sifting 
— the  other,  that  of  exposing  a  thin  cascade  of  falling  grain 
to  a  current  of  air.  To  these  a  third  has  been  added,  that 
of  centrifugal  force,  taking  advantage  of  unequal  specific 
gravity  and  unequal  extent  of  surface.  In  the  sifting  proc- 
ess advantage  is  taken  of  the  unequal  sizes  and  of  the  differ- 
ent shapes  of  the  bodies  to  be  separated  from  each  other. 
It  is  easy  to  see  how  light  grains  and  chaff  and  bits  of  straw 
and  dust  would  be  further  diverted  from  a  perpendicular 
in  falling  through  a  stratum  of  air  driven  by  a  revolving 
fan.  Tms  principle  was  illustrated  in  the  earliest  times, 
when  the  mixed  wheat  and  chaff  were  tossed  together  into  the 
air,  to  be  separated  by  the  wind  before  reaching  the  ground, 
and  is  the  principle  underlying  the  ordinary  fanning-mlll. 
The  separation  of  mustard  and  cockle  and  grass-seed  from 
the^  wheat  may  be  easily  affected  by  passing  the  mixed 
grains  over  inclined  plates  perforatea  with  holes  large 
enough  for  the  smaller  seeds  to  pass  through,  but  not  large 
enough  for  the  wheat.    The  oat  grain  is  separated  by  tak- 


ing advantage  of  its  elongated  form.  The  mixed  oat  aiA 
wheat  grains  are  discharged  in  a  thin  sheet  upon  an  iiiclintii 
thin  iron  plate  perforated  with  round  holes  at  iutenm^ 
nicely  determined  by  experiment,  abundantly  largi*  for  th- 
ready passage  of  both  the  wheat  and  oat  grains  if  presented 
end  foremost  perpendicularly  to  the  surface  of  the  plat*-. 
But  as  the  plate  is  inclined  each  berrj  must  be  tij>p<^i  f<  'r- 
ward  in  order  to  enter  a  hole.  An  individual  hole  i^  of 
such  diameter  that  when  the  wheat  grain,  sliding  forwani, 
carries  its  center  of  gravity  beyond  the  support  of  the  up{««-r 
edge  of  the  hole,  the  forwara  end  of  the  grain  ha>  i.m* 
reached  the  lower  margin,  and  thus  the  wheat  falls  thniu::h. 
The  oat  grain,  however,  in  sliding  down  the  inclined  jilur.M 
before  its  center  of  gravity  has  pissed  beyond  the  supi>r>rt  •  f 
the  upper  margin  of  the  hole,  will,  by  reason  of  it«  prol(»D;:»  \ 
keel,  extend  over  the  lower  margin  of  the  hole.  As  tht-  •  j^ 
advances  the  center  of  gravity  will  pass  beyond  the  lov*  r 
edge  of  the  hole,  and  gain  the  support  of  the  contiuun^^^ 
sui^ace  before  the  tail  of  the  berry  will  have  lost  the  mij»> 
port  of  the  upper  edge.  Fragments  of  straw  and  chaff  f uin^ 
on  with  the  oats. 

The  dust,  smut,  and  rust  which  may  cling  to  the  Urrr 
are  separated  by  discharging  the  impure  grain  into  the 
space  between  what  may  &  regarded  as  a  vertical  cylirui^r. 
tne  surface  of  which  is  covenS  with  brushes,  and  a  cl««^  Iv 
fitting  iron  case  perforated  with  numerous  slit-s  or  boN-?, 
which  serve  the  double  purpose  of  making  the  surftuv 
rough  and  providing  an  escape  for  the  separated  du>*. 
Round  seeds  are  separated  by  taking  advantage  of  the  su- 
perior velocity  they  acquire  in  rolling  down  an  inclir#»-.i 
plane  as  compared  with  the  long  grains,  which  slide.  The 
lormer  leap  an  opening  into  which  the  latter  drop. 

By  these  and  Kindred  processes  it  is  now  practicable*  t  ' 
obtain  good  wheat  from  a  sample  of  spring  wheat  of  mIu." 
not  more  than  one-half  is  fit  for  making  flour,  by  the  c« ml:- 
plete  separation  of  every  foreign  matter  from  the  S4^>ui.  i. 
serviceable  wheat  grains. 

The  wheat  thus  prepared  is  a  structure  the  chemi'^. 
physiological,  and  mechanical  composition  of  which  h  i- 
already  oeen  glanced  at.  If  the  grain  of  wheat  W  <  n- 
iected  to  pressure,  as  in  a  vise,  so  that  its  diameter  shah  \* 
lessened  by  a  certain  definite  amount,  the  interior  may  K 
partially  pulverized  without  rupturing  the  surface.     If  th- 

Sressure  reducing  its  diameter  by  the  same  amount  K  of 
le  nature  of  impact  or  of  a  blow,  the  interior  will  i». 
cracked,  but  not  pulverized,  with  the  probable  rupturn  .  * 
the  surface.    If  the  pressure  of  the  vise  be  continueil  i:r  •  . 
the  grain  is  flattened,  the  product  will  be  large  seal*^  nr  •! 
powder.    If  the  blows  be  repeated  with  change  of  pi^.ti 
of  the  berry,  the  product  will  be  dust,  fragments  inciu«.iii.j 
the  inner  layers  of  the  bran,  the  gluten  coat,  and  star- 
extending  to  the  center  of  the  berry,  and  the  outer  M.tl*  - 
of  the  woody  covering  more  or  less  separated  from   t :  « 
gluten  coat.     The  product  derived  from  pressure  may  t  - 
sifting  be  separated  into  its  constituents  of  scales  (or  brar 
and  powder  (or  flour).  '  The  bran  will  contain  a  lar^*  {-r. 
portion  of  the  gluten  coat ;  the  flour  will  consist  of  *i«n  : 
with    associated  albuminoids,  and    gluten-cells    detaot-  - 
from  the  bran.    In  the  case  of  reduction  by  blows  the4i.- 
will  be  chiefly  composed  of  sterch  (which,  it  will  be  un»it ' 
stood,  though  by  far  the  largest  constituent,  may  oontair  - 
larger  percentage  of  the  nitrogenous  constituents  than  t: 
gluten  coat),  the  scales  will  be  mainly  of  woody  fiber,  a* 
the  lumps  or  groats  will  be  composed  of  starch,  with  v 
associated  albliminoids  on  the  interior,  more  or  less  of  t  ^ 
bran  coat  on  the  exterior,  and  the  gluten  coat  bt^rw^>  - 
The  dust  may  be  easily  removed  by  bolting;   the  oii*. 
scales  of  bran,  mainly  of  woody  fiber,  may  be  easily  '^  :  . 
rated  by  a  current  of  air  directed  upon  a  thin  casiiuitr 
the  mixture — the  bran-scales,  with  a  given  weight  of  ir.  • 
terial,  presenting  a  greater  extent  of  surface  to  the  l  ^ 
than  the  compact  granules  from  which  they  are  to  be    .:- 
charged. 

It  is  plain  that,  weight  for  weight,  the  groats:  ct^nt? 
much  more  nutritive  matter  relatively  than  either  of   t 
two  portions  which  have  been  separated  from  them.       i 
now,  these  groats  be  subjected  to  attrition  among  t}i»--T 
selves,  their  comers  will  be  rounded  off,  the  scaler  ou    • 
outside  of  the  gluten  coat  will  be  more  or  less  detachciL  ar 
the  starch  on  the  interior  wiD  be  more  or  less  worn  off,     T 
tenacity  of  the  gluten  coat  will  tend  to  preserve  its  intt\4r'-r 
while  the  relative  friability  of  the  starch  in  the  interior  u 
the  fibrous  texture  of  the  outer  covering  of  the  gluten    ..    . 
will  facilitate  their  separation  under  t^e  influence  of  at  -  - 


436 


FLOUR 


little  flour  and  leavinfi^  the  bran  finished.  3.  Separation  of 
the  light  chaff  from  the  breaks  by  aspirators.  4.  Thorough 
and  systematic  grading  and  purifying  the  middlings  by  pu- 
rifiers. 5.  Sizing  the  large  middling  by  equally  speeded, 
smooth,  chilled-iron  rolls,  thus  reducni^  their  size  and  tak- 
ing oat  germs  and  bran  specks.  6.  Reducing  the  fine  clean 
middlings  to  flour  by  differentially  speeded  rollers.  7.  Full 
and  complete  bolting  or  sifting  after  each  of  the  above. 

The  present  methods  of  manufacturing  flour  in  a  modem 
flouring-mill  In  the  U.  S.  are  identical  with  Hungarian  proc- 
ess milling,  excepting  that  in  mills  in  the  U.  S.  all  manual 
labor  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  that  machinery  is  em- 
ployed in  all  stages  of  the  process  of  manufacture  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  modern  mill  is  practically  automatic. 
Improvements  are  being  constantly  applied  in  simplifying 
the  process  of  manufacturing,  saving  or  power,  ana  cheap- 
ening the  cost  of  production.  The  mills  of  the  U.  S.  gener- 
ally make  three  principal  grades  of  flour — viz.,  patent  or 
middlings  flour,  bakers  or  break  flour,  and  low-grade  or 
bran  flour.  Of  100  lb.  of  flour  manufactured  from  ordinary 
milling  wheat,  72  to  76  per  cent,  is  middlings  flour,  18  to  22 
per  cent,  is  bakers'  flour,  4  to  7  per  cent,  is  low-grade  flour. 
Of  100  lb.  of  good  wheat  there  is  produced  76  lb.  of  flour  of  all 
grades,  and  24  lb.  is  in  the  weight  of  bran,  shorts,  and  waste. 
To  make  a  barrel  of  flour  258  lb.  of  clean  wheat  are  re- 
quired. One  indicated  horse-power  in  a  modern  flourin^^- 
mill  in  1893  is  required  for  every  three  barrels  of  flour  m 
twenty-four  hours.  The  cost  of  water-power  in  the  Western 
States  to  make  a  barrel  of  flour  is  between  1^  and  3  cents. 
The  cost  of  steam-power  is  between  41  and  6^  cents  per 
barrel. 

Grading  Flour, — The  relative  quantities  of  the  several 
grades  of  flour  vary  with  the  kind  and  excellence  of  the  wheat 
employed.  The  following  list,  taken  from  the  record  of  a 
mill  near  Trieste,  will  illustrate  the  refinement  to  which  the 
art  of  milling  has  been  brought : 


41  per  cent,  of  extra  flour. 


QroatR,  A  and  B. . . . 

2  per  cent 

Flour,         No. 

0... 

5 

1.... 

12 

2..   . 

6 

8.... 

6 

4... 

5 

6.... 

6 

6.... 

14 

7  .. 

9 

8.... 

5 

9  ... 

10 

Bran 

18 

Loas 

8 

-  88  per  cent,  medium  and 
common  flour. 

79  per  cent. 


Of  these  quantities,  in  a  comparison  with  a  view  to  deter- 
mine the  oest  work  of  a  system  of  milling,  a  mixture  of 
the  first  total  45  per  cent,  is  taken. 

Judging  Flour, — The  excellence  of  flour  may  be  judged 
in  some  degree  by  its  shade  of  color — the  presence  of  minute 
particles  of  bran  tending  to  giYQ  it  a  yellowish  hue ;  by  its 
freedom  from  musty  odor  or  taste — proving  that  it  has  not 
been  overheated  and  is  comparatively  new ;  and  by  the  elas- 
ticity and  tenacity  of  the  dough  which  it  yields  when  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  water  and  kneaded.  To  this  may 
be  added  the  odor  which  the  dough  in  thin  layer  yieldis 
when  submitted  for  a  brief  time  to  a  sharp  baking  tem- 
perature of  about  400°  F. 

Composition  of  Flour. — It  has  been  convenient  to  treat  of 
the  composition  of  wheat  as  including  the  outer  envelope, 
bran ;  the  inner  envelope,  the  gluten  coat ;  and  the  mass  of 
the  interior,  the  starch  and  asscxjiated  albuminoids.  Proxi- 
mate physical  analysis  and  dctailei^l  chemical  analysis  have 
shown  a  much  greater  variety  than  would  be  indicated  by 
these  three.  Of  the  outer  coats  there  are  five  that  may  be 
readily  separated  from  each  other— the  gluten  coat,  consist- 
ing of  the  frainowork  of  cells  and  tlie  capsules  and  their 
contents  of  minute  grains  that  fill  the  cells,  the  loose  cellu- 
lar tissue  spanning  the  whole  interior  of  the  berry  and  sup- 
porting the  starch-colls  and  their  contents:  opposite  tne 
orush  end,  distinguished  as  a  tuft  of  vegetable  nairs,  there 
is  the  complete  structure  of  the  embryo.  The  outer  coats 
contain,  besides  the  woody  filx^r  and  cellular  tissue  of  their 
structure,  various  inorganic  substances,  including  silica. 
The  gluten  coat  contain.s,  besides  the  framework  of  cellular 
tissue,  various  nitrogenous  substances,  the  chief  of  which  is 
gluten — albumen,  gluten,  mucin,  and  cerealine,  which  differ 
from  each  other  mainly  in  their  solubility  in  water  and  in 
their  susceptibility  to  lermeutation  and  disintegration.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  contained  bibasic  phosphates  of  potassa 
— ^the  most  abundant — then  magne.*<ia  next — lime,  soda,  iron, 
in  combination  with  which  the  nitrogenous  bodies  above 


FLOURENS 

mentioned  seem  more  or  less  to  play  the  part  of  liaj*r> : 
in  addition  to  these  oil  and  sugar. 

The  interior,  besides  the  open  cellular  tissue  ami  vt 
granules,  contains  albuminoid  bodies,  kindred  with  th 
the  gluten  coat,  and  in  some  grains  in  larger  pro^.  ri 
and  a  small  percentage  of  phosphates.    The  ratio  <>{  i 
phates  in  the  interior  to  the  salts  in  the  bran  anri  i- 
coats  is  about  as  1  :  10.     The  embryo  contains.  U^:  • 
organic  texture,  the  nitrogenous  and  phoephatic  ci::'- 
ents  found  in  the  gluten  coat. 

The  following  analyses  by  Dempwolff  show  the  j^r 
ages  of  the  proximate  constituents  of  the  wheat,  the  u. 
gen  and  phosphates  in  the  different  grades  of  wheat  il 


IN  100  PASTS  ABB— 

Watar. 

Aah  phot- 

Ntoo- 

.£::l 

St«l  ' 

Qroats  and  extra  imperial 
Roll  flour 

10-6 
10-5 
10*7 
8-6 
10-7 

0-41 
0-60 
0-90 
1-66 
6-40 

1-80 
2-06 
840 
2-80 
2*90 

11-7 
18-8 
15  4 
149 
14  8 

67  -J 

Bread  flour 

C34 

Dark  flour 

61M 

Bran 

4-3  ♦     . 

The  following  analyses  of  the  flour  of  the  Pe>rh  - 
Muhl  (cylinder  mill),  made  by  the  writer,  show  th- 
tions  of  the  phosphoric  acid  to  the  nitrogen  in  the  <ii:I 
grades  into  whicn  the  flour  is  resolved  in  that   rvn 
mill.     It  should  be  remarked  that  the  so-called  **  ^t 
are  masses  of  the  interior  of  the  berry : 


irUMBEBS. 


Qrr 

>ats 
0  , 

No. 

1   , 

9. 

3 

4, 

6 

• 

6, , 

7  , 

8.. 

9,  coarse  bran 

10,  fine  bran 

Waltr. 

Aih. 

add. 

10-57 

0-42 

0-20 

10-87 

0-43 

014 

10*28 

0*41 

021 

10-47 

ros 

0*22 

10-07 

1-02 

0-17 

1024 

f  19 

0-25 

966 

0*09 

0-85 

1112 

104 

0-24 

10-99 

0-81 

021 

9-66 

101 

0-.S6 

9-71 

782 

2-14 

11  01 

4-21 

0-70 

A.:        m 


3  2  24 

12  97 
1-^ 

Il  68 
1-72 
1-72 
1  74 
1  W 
1  64 
1-60 
1-90 
l-*» 
2-20 


U 


i: 


I     1 


14 


The  constituents  of  the  gluten  coat  when  moi^tf'iii'i  * 
water  spontaneously  undergo  chemical  changes.    Thf  -• . 
and  sugar  by  themselves,  similarly  treated,  ex|xrit:- 
change.    But  when  the  starch  and  gluten  are  miiuK- 
gether  and  mixed  with  an  adequate  quantity  of  wai. ' 
changes  which  the  nitrogenous  oodies  experi'enc**  an.i* 
ferred  to  the  starch,  and  that  is  also  converted  int 
substances.      At  a  moderately  low  temperature  the  -• 
is  converted  into  lactic  acid.    At  a  temperature  of  fn- 
to  80°  F.  the  starch  is  converted  first  into  a  kind  «f 
trin,  then  into  grape-sugar,  and  then  this  gTa^x^-^Ul:a' 
alcohol  and  carbonic  acid;  at  a  more  elevated  t<^mj»:     * 
butyric  acid,  succinic  acid,  hydrogen,  with  carlfoui    • 
and  other  volatile  products,  are  produced.    In  th«^  a- 
bread -midcing  advantage  has  been  taken  of  this  m.^ 
bility  to  fermentation,  producing  volatile  products,  '•  - 
to  the  moistened  fiour  or  dough,  and  ultimately  to  tht 
the  quality  of  porosity  or  cellular  structure.    This  *,i. 
of   the  loaf,  as  is  well  known,  facilitates  dige^tion. 
later   refinements  in  the  production  of  fennent^i  f 
have  been  directed  to  securing  from  sound  flour  U  iit  < 
of  fermentation  only  which  yields  mainly  alcohol  .ir  1 
bonic  acid,  and  is  called  vinous  fermentation.    Intii' : 
with   these  products  there  is  yielded  a  certain  am-  .• ' 
gum,  and  sometimes  of  sugar,  beyond  that  convert -i 
alcohol   and  carbonic  acid,  and  also  an  agrefablc  \ 
essential  oil  or  ether,  which  imparts  to  the  fn-sh 
pleasant  aroma.    See  Bread,  Owkery,  and  Fermext.^t 
E.  N.  HoRSFORD.    Revised  by  Charles  A.  Pillsfi  '. 

Flourens,  floo'n&n',  Gustav:  litterateur  taid  p«»li': 
son  of  Marie  Jean  Pierre ;  b.  at  Paris,  Aug.  4, 183^ :  <. 
professor  at  College  of  France  in  1863 ;   fought  in  • ' 
against  the  Turks,  and  was  sent  as  ministerjplenifH>i.  '.* 
from  Crete  to  the  Greek  Government  1865-68:  took  i':«: 
electoral  movement  at  Paris  1868;  was  arrested  Apr.  >' 
and  same  year  was  wounded  in  a  duel  with  Paul  Gni'i!  ' 
Cassagnac;    took  part  in  the  communal  insum^t..' 
Mar.,  1871,  and  was  killed  near  Paris  on  Apr.  3, 1S71.     i! 
thor  of  Disconrs  du  Suffrage  Uhiversel  (1865):  Ln  '. 
tion  d' Orient  et  Vlnmrrection  Criloise  (1867) :  Pinrui  A- '  ^ 
(1871),  etc. 


438 


FLOWER  DE  LUCE 


FLOYD 


departments  of  the  British  Museum  since  1885;  president 
of  the  Zodlogical  Society  of  London  since  1879 ;  president 
of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
1889;  president  of  the  Museums  Association.  Author  of 
Diagrams  of  the  Nerves  of  the  Human  Body  (1861 ;  2d  ed. 
1872) ;  Introduction  to  the  Osteology  of  Mammalia  (3d  ed. 
1885);  Fashion  in  Deformity  (1881);  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Mammals^  Living  and  Extinct  (with  R.  Lydekker, 
1891) ;  The  Horse,  a  Study  in  Natural  History  (1892) ;  Cata- 
logue of  the  Osteological  Specimens  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  (1886) ;  and  numerous  memoirs 
and  lectures  on  anatomical,  zo61ogical,  and  anthropological 
subjects  in  the  transactions  of  various  societies  and  journals. 

C.  H.  Thurber. 
Flower  de  Lace :  See  Fleur  de  Lis. 

Flowers,  Artificial :  imitations  of  natural  flowers  and 
foliage  formed  from  various  materials,  and  used  for  personal 
adornment  or  for  decorative  purposes.  This  art  or  branch 
of  manufacture  is  of  very  old  date.    Flowers  and  leaves  of 

giiinted  linen  have  been  found  in  tombs  at  Thebes,  and  the 
g^rptians  also  invented  flowers  of  horn  shavings  stained  in 
various  colors.  The  Chinese  have  made  artificial  flowers 
of  the  pith  of  a  kind  of  bamboo  from  very  remote  times. 
Crassus  was  the  first  in  Rome  who  had  them  made  of  real 
gold  and  silver.  During  the  Middle  Ages  thev  were  much 
used,  not  only  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Churcn  and  with  a 
sjrmbolical  signification,  but  also  at  secular  festivals  and 
merely  as  ornaments.  They  were  generally  made  of  paper, 
satin,  silk,  metal,  and  wax,  and  the  most  celebrated  were 
made  in  Italy.  But  in  1728  Seguin,  a  botanist  and  chemist, 
began  the  manufacture  in  Paris,  employing  parchment  for 
the  flowers  and  bristles  of  the  wild-boar  for  the  stems,  and 
his  imitations  were  so  successful  as  to  arouse  the  jealousy  of 
the  painters.  From  this  time  the  manufacture  steadily  in- 
creased and  developed  in  France,  which  still  stands  at  the 
head  of  this  kind  of  industry.  The  French  wholesale  houses 
engaged  in  this  business  have  each  some  special  branch. 
Thus  one  makes  only  f oses ;  another,  wild  flowers ;  a  third, 
leaves.  The  work-people  earn  from  two  to  six  francs  a  day 
according  to  their  skill.  Of  the  money  received  by  the 
Parisian  manufacturers,  three-fifths  are  paid  to  the  work- 
people, one-fifth  covers  incidental  expenses,  and  one-fifth 
defrays  the  whole  cost  of  materials.  Artificial  flower-making 
was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  during  the  French  Revo- 
lution of  1790  by  refugees,  who  employed  the  art  as  a  means 
of  subsistence. 

The  principal  tools  used  by  artificial  florists  are  stamps, 
a  kind  of  knives  of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  by  means  of 
which  leaves  and  petals  are  cut  out  very  rapidly.  The  ma- 
terial to  be  shaped  is  laid,  folded  several  times,  upon  a  leaden 
table,  and  the  stamp  is  driven  through  it  with  a  hammer. 
This  part  of  the  work  is  done  by  men.  Stamps  (or,  as 
they  are  often  called,  irons)  were  invented  in  Switzerland  at 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Leaves  and  petals 
had  previously  been  cut  out  with  scissors.  Goffering-irons  of 
different  kiniis,  the  commonest  being  a  ball  of  polished  iron 
fastened  to  a  handle,  are  used  to  hollow  the  petals.  Molds 
called  veiners  are,  as  the  name  indicates,  employed  to  vein 
the  leaves.  Burnishers  of  glass  or  agate  give  the  petals  the 
polished  appearance  of  most  real  flowers.  Many  other  tools 
exist,  but  tneir  use  has  greatly  diminished.  The  florist's 
fingers,  guided  by  skill  and  taste,  are  found  better  than  any 
mechanical  appliance.  The  best  flowers  are  carefully  painted 
by  hand.  Harvard  University  possesses  a  unique  collection 
of  flowers,  made  entirely  of  ^lass,  illustrating  chiefly  the 
flora  of  the  U.  S.  See  Dictionnaire  Universel  du  XlX* 
Silcle,  Larousse,  art.  Fleurs  Artificielles,  and  Art  of  Mak- 
ing Paper  Flowers,  by  Mrs.  Bartlett  (New  York). 

Janet  Tuckey. 

Flowers,  Colors  of:  although  the  coloring  principles 
contained  in  many  of  the  most  important  vegetable  aye- 
stuffs  have  been  isolated  and  their  composition  and  chem- 
ical relations  clearlv  established,  as  in  tne  case  of  madder- 
root,  Brazil-wood,  logwood,  quercitron  bark,  indigo,  weld, 
archil,  eto.,  and  some  of  them,  as  the  alizarin  of  madder, 
have  been  produced  artificially,  the  colors  of  flowers  have, 
with  few  exceptions,  thus  far  resisted  all  attempts  at  isola- 
tion. This  is  perhaps  partly  owing  to  their  fleeting  charac- 
ter and  the  changes  which  they  so  readily  undergo.  The 
colors  of  flowers  often  change  spontaneously  during  the  life 
of  the  flower.  The  flowers  of  Myosotis  versicolor,  tUe  com- 
mon garden  weed  forget-me-not,  open  with  a  yellow  tint, 
but  soon  change  to  blue.    The  Cheiranthus  mutaMlis  opens 


i> 


yellow,  then  changes  to  orange,  red,  and  finally  to  purf>)« 
Some  flowers  even  change  color  during  the  day.  Uanl  i 
phlox  is  blue  in  the  early  morning  and  pink  in  the  min-: 
of  the  day.  Hibiscus  variabilis,  which  is  white  in  t». 
morning,  is  pink  at  noon  and  bright  red  toward  nijK' 
The  colors  of  flowers  are  very  sensitive  to  chemical  n 
agents.  The  petals  of  the  purple  or  violet  dahlia  are  n^i 
dened  by  acids,  the  purple  bemg  restored  by  alkalit-^.  l-i. 
changed  to  green  by  an  excess  of  alkali ;  a  red  nr;^  i 
bleached  by  sulphurous  acid,  but  the  color  is  resctored  \ 
dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

Many  flowers  contain  more  than  one  coloring-niHtr<r. 
The  petals  of  the  safflower  yield  a  yellow  color  to  wai-  r 
and  a  red  principle  to  alkalies.  The  orange-colored  Trt*- 
pcBolum  majus  yield  a  purple  coloring-matter  to  boiling  w li- 
ter, becoming  yellow ;  Doiliug  alcohm  then  extracts  a  ]*tir- 
ple  substance.  When  the  purple  is  absent  the  flower^  at* 
yellow ;  when  present  they  exhibit  various  shades  of  bn>wL- 
The  flowers  of  the  brown  Calceolaria  yield  two  simiLi' 
colors  under  like  treatment. 

In  but  few  cases  have  the  coloring-matters  of  flowpr^ 
been  isolated  and  their  nature  determined  with  any  itt- 
tainty.  The  coloring-matter  of  the  sidSron  crocus  {('nJr^^^ 
sativus)  has  been  isolated,  though  not  in  a  pure  state.  It  .« 
known  as  polychroite,  and  is  supposed  by  Kochleder  to  U 
identical  with  crocin,  CftsHMOn,  the  coloring  phnciplf  ni 
Chinese  yellow  berries.  (See  Saffron.)  The  red  colf>nrL' 
principle  of  the  safflower  {Carthamus  tinctorius)  is  a  v»*''y 
important  dye.  (See  Safflower.)  It  is  called  eartharu  i  u, 
Ci4&i60t.  The  blue  and  red  pigments  of  flowers  aiv  p-n- 
erally  soluble  in  water,  while  the  yellow  matters  are  oft*:: 
resinous,  and  dissolve  only  in  alcofiol  and  ether.    They  at- 

fenerally  very  fugitive,  and  consequently  of  little  value  ir. 
yeing.  '  C.  F.  Chaj^dler. 

Floy,  James,  D.  D.  :  preacher  and  author;  b.  in  N^-« 
York,  Aug.  20, 1806 ;  studied  for  a  time  in  Columbia  C  1 
lege  and  afterward  in  London ;  became  a  preacher  in  t '  • 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1883;  preached  in  Nvvi 
York,  Brooklyn,  W.  Y.,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  etc. ;  edited  T-  • 
National  Magazine  and  Good  News;  edited  the  work*  «■' 
Stephen  Olin,  and  served  on  the  *' committee  on  versi<«n-"* 
of  tne  American  Bible  Society.  Old  Testament  Charact-r* 
Guide  to  the  Orchard  and  Fruit-garden,  etc.,  were  frr. 
his  pen.  He  was  prominent  as  an  anti-slavery  leader.  D. 
in  New  York,  Oct.  14, 1883. 

Fiord,  John:  U.  S.  general;  b.  in  Beaufort,  S.  C^  O':. 
8,  1769  ;  removed  to  Qeorgia  in  1791 ;  was  brigadier-gt^n'-ri 
of  the  Georgia  militia  Aug.,  1818,  to  Mar.,   1814 ;  f  r. 
manded  at  the  battle  with  the  Creek  Indians  at  Aut<»s-'^. 
Ala.,  Nov.  29,  1818,  and  at  the  battle  at  Camp  iK-fiiu.*. 
Ala.,  Jan.  27,  1814.    Was  often  in  the  State  Legishitun- 
M.  C.  in  1827-29;  and  also  major-general  of  the  Sim' 
militia.    D.  in  Camden  co.,  Ga.,  June  §4, 1839. 

Floyd,  John  Buchanan  :  statesman  and  soldier :  K  r 
Montgomery  (now  Pulaski)  co.,  Va..  1805 ;   graduate!  »• 
South  Carolina  College  1826;  studied  and  practiced  1a « 
removed  to  Helena,  Ark.,  1836,  returning  to  Virginia   r 
1889 ;    member  of  Congress    from   Washington    ct>.,   \  *, 
1847-49;  Governor  of   Vir^nia  1860-53;  took  an  a<*tj' 
part  in  favor  of  the  nomination  and  election  of  James  Bu<  * 
anan  as  President,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  Secn-tsn 
of  War  Mar.,  1857.     During  his  term  of  office  he  u^seil  ).  - 
power  in  dispersing  the  U.  S.  army  to  distant  and  not  ea-i 
accessible  parts  of  the  country,  m  transferring  arm^  a: 
ammunition  to  Southern  arsenals,  and  generally  in  pn-^ja'- 
ing  for  the  conflict  which  it  now  appears  he  must  have  U*  - 
aware  was  impending  between  the  North  and  the  S<»u*^. 
On  the  secession  of  South  Carolina  he  became  a  zeal-  :.• 
sympathizer  with  the  secession  movement,  opposed  the  rt- 
enforcement  of  the  forts  and  troops  in  Charleston  Hari-- 
and  upon  President  Buchanan *s  refusing  to  withdraw  tr, 
U.  S.  forces  from  that  harbor  resigned  his  office.     He  «j.- 
indicted  by  the  grand  jury  of  the  District  of  Columbia  jl- 
being  privy  to  the  withdrawal  of  a  large  amount  of  Kr:  - 
from  tne  Department  of  the  Interior,  but  having  left  Wii>i 
ington  was  never  brought  to  trial.    Was  appointed  brij 
dier-general  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  command*^  i  • 
1861   in  Western  Virginia.    His  operations  there  were  'ir 
successful,  and  severely  commented  upon  by  the  Vir^:?   . 
press.    He  was  subsequently  transferred  to  Kentucky.  ^ 
at  Fort  Donelson  commanded  a  brigade,  being  senior  "' 
cer,  but  abdicated  his  command  and  withdrew,  the  ivcr 
previous  to  the  surrender,  with  Gen.  Pillow  and  some  5,».*" 


440  FLrORESCElX  FLUORESCEXCE 


Fla^resrelB.  floo-$-pes«e-in:  See  Phthauc  Acid  And  '  scribes  some  pbenomenA  wiath  •»  n/yw  Kcngr-apc  *.*  '*- 
Pbthalic  Acid  Coll>k&  l-ncingto  this  SQbjc<-l-    In  rcl^=it  rri.  :f  ti^  aus^  :    .r- 

be  dcrscril:^e5  other  apf^ATums.  a^  a^'  m  tibe  Ai7-^. : 

fTTf3f<aw  [derir.  of  ^Eas.^^^or,  flnorite  or  fluor-«p«r.  -¥«i<7ari*f.  toL  xxxii^  r«.  -iOl,  l>te.  Is  I>I5  a 
of  which  fluorescenc*  is  ft  noiiMe  pp^nertr:  ifw<*r  is  origi-  sc-hri  described  the  Iamin^4:«  ftff«Afmr^:^  -f  ?». 
nftlly  ft  Lai-  wv^  mouiing  ft  flowing,  flux,  applied  to  flu*^^-  of  quinine,  under  the  nmnstr  •►!  -si;«t*  li^  .-  . 
ite  •>n  ftceount  c»f  it?  use  as  a  flux] :  an  acn* «  <*f  certain  sab-    pL»lic  diffua^r'n."     In  n-.-oe  oi  :*#==*  M^«^es.  Jb-.'^psrr-i.  wv- 

CTLil»rd> 


lumiiious  with  brilliant  and  Tmrious  <»IorsL       ' '  '  more-  than  Iw  pa^ne^.  t>  intinr  ^«s  tr»*  mae  saC3r«>  i>-.  .  r- 

Tbe  siicplt^^st  and  most  snikiii^  illustzaxkni  of  this  actioo  Varices  of  this  remai^b^  acti-  ci.  tc  wix£.  i>^  i»t»  ---  -  i- 

is  the  ft  Howini: :  fluorescence,  becanste  he  flr^i  •  iHtrr^i  a&i  faiaed  .-  -  ' 

l.»n  the  59irf ace  ^"^f  water  in  a  clear-class  jar  M  fall  a  few  •  mineral    fluc»r  spar,  wiiieh   ^m^Htseti'i    '7..^  ^ r- c^^r-r   . 

fmrrieles  of  the  iv^j-tar  o:-l:-r  kTiown  as  flu.^resctrin.    As  the  markrii  decree.  aliL-:<i^h  T»fft.T  ^ea^  :^.a£    rirr  -•  •_  -^  i.  - 

particles  of  this  br.«.-i;-Tvd  fv>wder  slowir  diiJ!0>e,  rooc-liie  recentlj  diso.^reied.      Ttis^  researtA     f   Pr-C   "^  *-^  x-- 

nlasienTs  of  in:en?«^  izrvec  vvl-r  will  desiceod  into  the  w^cr.  a  m.:«ie'l  fctr  tb-:-T»-<i^tii«ap  a-i  mtczsmej,  *=:••  -txi*-^-:  - 

socz  pp>:-:::ii:  :he  a;  r^aran-.-e  cf  a  bT:i;eh  of  delicate  sea-  SBb>ect  as  far  as  the  maiena^  aod  £«■&$  l  ?■  ■  iir.^  t*.    - 

wr^d.     If  tbe  vrssc-l  i5Yla.^"^i  t^riweec  the  ere  aad  the  st-uree  at  thai  date  were  oz^xmxyl. 
of  liiitit.  b  werrr.  ih-s*?  ^■t^.j-e  «:Tecn  a^*:£ci::*  will  appear  :      In  lS5u  &iir  lii  Beo^ierel  p^Ltli^SH-i  :=.  tr*-  ^%i^z    . 

r*erfec:lT  traiiszArt-nt  az:i  o-f  a  i>c*i iish-c-ranire  c«.I-:-r.    The  r*i"n>  tt  dt  /^^>#iv^'f,  '^l  sen--*,  t -^_  r-  1   1.  iJi  — 

i>e**;<;  vf  ihesj^-artitararx^ts  is  that  the  li^t  kI  sh:-nerwaTe-  tifcatioo  of  a  nuincicr  of  stbsta:!-:^  wi_.  -   i-   ^— ^,1-^1--. 

'r-r-c'^    i.  e,  the  t\-.:r  ani  vi-.  >;  ai>-i  e'ren  invisit-le  n}r«'  is  "{•hi^rhrnescent  ~:  Xrr,.  nearly  a_    f  '*-3l  ar»r  '-i«-  ■^- 

a;<s:^:^  It  the  s^-lurl  .n  and  le-enLitt-e^i  in  1  -^cT  waves  sic^lar  t-*  ih-ree  sra-iird  by  Sc'.***   az^i  tiir  te:t^:I::^  v    _   . 


eriistr-tini:    crvcs   1;^:.:,  while  the    li^t    whi.h    passes    few  eicepTins  are  5ti=^ily  ih-:jst  *f  fci  p?a 
tr.rv:-ci:ti  this  si:  1-t;.  s.  tit  inr  dei^ivt^  vf  lirese  sh-:  ner  wAre*.    nixc*!  an  i  icfnei  t  y  Sc*  •&£&.    Ir  h^  •ixi'-ias: 


hjk>  a  resvi.tant  i^  re>:  iual  c*:lcr-e5t<-t  of  redii?^  «:'raninft.  J>i  /.k9*i>*T.  |:villi?2>ed  :r  1*<^-^*.  3e<?, 

A  few  other  sub?::ar».^r?  like  ti>e  ati-ovc  pos?ies«5th:5  prfierty  3l»>  ;4b^<c<  t.  trie  saae  s^tv-^:.     Ir  t2»»  .  tmwr^M  ,a-^  ' .. 

in  s^.h  a  hiirh  deinve  that  it  can  be  exhited  :n  t^e  sa=ie  Atii:.  3[  l!?72.  Beoi-erel  r.-tlia^i  a=.  Ak"-::::^^    f  a  r-r^-  - 

simile  inanr-r^r;  Ixit  there  are  a  iireal  number  which  Kn^uiie  •:«  what  sh->-li  be  c^r^i  zht  faicweEEr  zru^TDe*    f 

sC'Tt't  sivv.al  arranireakent  to  ciakr  it  manift^?.  tain  uiazie  sails,  ai.  i  m  thj?  AaA.  i^  •_"■  iL  -c  i#  5^  ,.^  . 


i»ne  M  the  siiiiip-les;  of  sa.h  arranprniriits  is  to  ppr-riie  a    senes.  t...^  im: 
f^Ti.il  ci  li*:t>t  tn  a  dark  ivvcn,  o^nsistinc  sc-le>  of  the  xery    meEijir.    Ha^reri'ifc::!.  ir.  ti 
sh  r:  rars.  iiKlui:r.i:  the  blue  and  rijlei  aDti  rei  birber    to!  cilrL  rc^  ^  i^Si.  ^•:j. 


ii:>-^.>:lle  lays   of  the  sf^^-tnim.      This  may   h?  doae  by  esce-nt  jjr  c-rrries  :-f  1  zr^ar  r"i=i>sr  f  «l":s5C 

rti-rvtin^    s;;n-rays    into  a  dark    K*>m    by    means   of   a  Ji-^iki^  :f  ly-^s-jm  Chem.  S<.<%i:Tj 

-  r*^r:e  l:ir:Dere,''  and  then  f«s^in^  tht-ni  thiv«iidi  a  class  ani  I^-^-i.  Ch^-m^  S 

ta:-£  dlled  with  a  so.i:ti:<i  of  acin::v-«iiio-s:iilj'haie  vf  c\-j ■::««•.  fc't lisiie^i  =.*ziy  r-ther  pa£«E$  :c  ":2»*  sztf  au^kc 

A   liT^  number  of  suh?c*nv>fts  plai?ed  in  the  pui'h  of  the  Koe=.t  ctli^niis  -rf  th*  Aaa.  P% 


fiintlv  ns::  -r  purrl-e-blise  licht  thus  ^••t»Taint^  wlJ  clew  as    jsrl  has  ais»:  rctlis^ic^i  sary  ?ac«£«  a.  "3*  .^K-a^Dc- 
if    n  ^,  w::h  thtlr  r»^-ul:ar  tints.    Thus  a  bl.-»ck  c«r  a  tcs-    ta.  as  in  v  1  ct.ttl.  r^  3R.  1*71 :  tL  vzjl^  =>  ^&.  I*t 


T.">?  'ir^t   -^  hfirr-i-c  Eiair3t»s::=  or  -r-f  tbe  ejee^r  a?r,  :h«r=^  aai  al*:  cc.  tbe  ar»*-(rrtL-  c 

scr_:-irly   fl:<rvd  i:.r/»;^   lire  s^zd*  s*  l-t-.a    :r  iLr 'i^  >:a'>:>es.     * rfej^e  w-tre  t.-l* 

s.L-.^ts  ji  o::*lt  clfcSN.  »">-l  a^-i  in  like  iLAUL-er,     By  liirrje  'Jjt  L.oi  ci  0»<«»'»--ii.'  A?"i 

:rTA,:iS  Trery  scnsizx  i— :iscra:3:ixs  cf  i^jjctsctir:*  iiay  tt  |  Jlf.'^»"--w' Sr''»%".Tri^-t^*r  Liciia.  A..^j«^iiKB£  Jti^i. 

riA  Ir    r.  tie  lari:^-  s.^*r,  ar.i  P:«rir--  i  rf  s  Li t^*.-  -^ 

A  Svi't^jCA^-re.  thkllrix.  iiscTrrv^i  t-r  th-e  wrrrer   "L:r>5-c        Ir  aiimr  t-;  pcLnzir  :•*:*  "b*  tm»  jMiLig  rf  'sae  t 

C\*  ^  -Vr  »rs^  I>Ti.  V. L  xxn_  T^  :???*  t*?^—  -i_y  jm  is  itself  :•:  resets.t  a:':  w  S:  ies  an>-«izD--^i  r2^  ^w  -^nrs  B^rm^  -- 

:f  '<-K^^  ♦>—•*-    — *^j  ni-sl-^   jc  w:_vi  wtr^e  an^^i^^i  it-Si.£TiS  res^ir^t  'r»>iy  wus  alw^ir  £!>^rtf'  rzao.  "tt^-    :f  -^5  -t>~ 

iz.  T«i'«rr.  .•*  «aT<fU  wrr  tiAlleoe,  ia~e  rtcrf-:^  ^j^i  ir  ine  -arr-  njm.    This  law  iuks  :«f  ~    " 

esc  fc-  — :  r.^"nis.     I_-.TT._=^*-i  ry  lirht  trzcL  r~T^-irx  **  fc^  <:az»!'«>  ty  L#  r.  zzh-.  az^^i  s  <^m^   tj^hs.  r«r 


.0 


~-^^^  ?r-  .1   a  5V.rvec.   a:  Tn^rs 


-^x  ^t-^rC  ^.:«  Srrs_r:is  .i  Sc:J--r t.*us  ai?^  t:t>^  ^.uC 


A'   *r -r  TT -a-i>   -f  ri^r-iTmr  -jtv**:--^!^  is  f:ir:i::shH*i  '-y 

•*-  t  f  ""-  •  ■>»  •^"^  "IT*  _ri  raTt^t^i  .rii:sr*?v.  "•'ti-'-—  rT*»i~'j"*?  vel-'c  iz.  rt  "n?urjt  r*T«^    T*hES  S*  ifi^^  i* 

-j:"  r .  1  .1.  ^fc- 1>    i  <-  V      Ir-z^ri-     T:^s  is  A-i_T-i  :f  -z-  «c*f«:Tr 

Z1.2-:  y     f  '-ij   *rr^,":-.rvs  kz*  v^  *?•  ~  —  is>-^  r^  «rfw~      In  wfcs  i:^-r  t-:  tz^a^T  :":>  ^ic*:^  ^^-i  iir  3*- 

U    •;<>  -»  "•-.Z:S     1   'l-r  rL>^   II_r  -l-Ttl  ▼:_■.!  tlrt^    r.-^CT*:    ijS-  WI_.^i  AT*^  HS     T    ^A.'y   t-<,'  .^    _ZLJ1.  Aiii    "; 

r  ^'  --.    T"    i*  £*■:^    *  r^i.'.s  w:l-  1  zi.k'r  ••r  i__T*;  wti  f-t-  r'r'*"€T*'iT,    «.   •T>;>iT-n, v-    »r~-    "-ti^- 

*.-^---  ^        -      •^■^^^       '»'  .1»T  ~   ~  !t   -.-*^"TT;-    S.  I-i-*">--  IT*  'ZL  ai.  _Z.—  >l.'"^r"J*r    Jk.' -T  "T  S~   ■i.'^     T*9   ~     ^t-'-n.  "^^B?      ".^    i 

"^..**    "'-!.-  r— •.-ivt    ^  'z.rr  .r-»*cs  iJL'i.  .c  lit*  s«--i-  *  t.»*  TI— ">  Wtr«  "L.<i.t_'  •*-'^-*  ^  w^  ~ —  TJ^^^^  n  ~iir    z 

I-   '-in  ■*►*  -A  i-"Ts  __r:-"  ^1^  :  i*fci  ir^i'-r  -i-  ~  ir  -1    ~::-i  ±^  rscr-^« 
r~  ^  •■~^-»  *♦!'  »»  *"•  ■'■*  t:^  j--^"  1'""*    ■">*i  IT  TifJi"*'    f  ■*!•*  -X-      '  *  -"^     IT'  _"  -f  »  ^  -oj"  ■^•-  ""^..T^  >  "I."*  w^    u  a  '^  ■•- 

T*- ""  '^ -I"*^   '--J« -•    *~    _T  » ^       "•  -i -?«!•*  r-    It   •  "^  '       '—1  >LZ'li>.'f       Z    "L^iZ'^^"'    rtj'-To*.   ~:-      .~    "  '•'^   Tt  '      "     ' 

'  ■*.*■**    ~     -  *?v''ki«r^'*^  ^    n  ^i  -I  ^ •?       I.  .*  —  —I.  ■  .^.^    a.  ^j^  -t  r — «.  ^■">.*~i     -  -r"'     "•   ^i,.. ""  *-!      "*  ii^^  ^ a*^^    £   "  ■  • 

*^    L-T^*    "-^^   L.~    -   -I"**"^.!^"     Z-   ▼  1_ L    "*"__    ^~   ^~ i    s^  Hr-  "^ iJZ  "^     fc-~  — -.       Z_         _\j>^     Sc    ZT  ^1~     Z-I~II^..""      5"»     -T"    ~ 

Jk-  ~.i  'Z    iS   f     wZ*i_     -Z    ~  -"^     Z       --      ^^^"Z    _*  •    «  "      «.  ■*     •♦«  •'—  '  1^    _  „    "f^v'-ZT    ?5^    ■«r>.'^i  "J,  -^     ~ *  ii"     __2    T?—      _  .*TT 

r    «.*  -  ^  l>.iil.  '^ \^  z z.  '-s:-  v:-^-  ^r  _•!-   .  i '-v^^-r  i*—  zij-  ■zjri  s^.i  a  :••_'  i?  -^azi-zz— ^  z- 


FLUORESCENCE 


t^m  IwKb  or  dark  spaces  will  be  seen,  corresponding  ii 
au)D«ith  the  mftiima  of  flunrescence. 
iLifft  thoF  actions  are  well  illustrated  by  applying  one  ol 
ain'i  metbods  of  observation  to  a  solution  of  "  thai- 
>."  1  hTdroc&rbon  discovered  by  the  preseDt  writ«r 
Im  Xtia.  1876,  voL  xxxiv..  p,  188).     For  this  pnr- 
K  I  pore  solar  spectrum  is  thrown  against  the  verti- 
li  ^ir  ol  a  sqoare  tank  containing  the  solution.    This 
l(v(  the  tank  is  beet  made  ol  quartx,  which  has  no 
Boatnce  of  its  own,  but  in  moot  oases  ordinary  thin 
Kr-fii»  will  serve  very  well. 
Rf.  1  rqHvsents  the  appearance  ot  snch  a  tank,  seen 


I  they  shade  off  cradaally  on  their  lower  or  left-hand  edges. 
If  these  crystals  are  gently  heat«d,  so  as  to  eipel  some 
I  water,  their  spectrum  will  chanice  to  that  shown  in  the  soo- 


mber 

■Btals 
tho( 

Dugh 

light 

gtt 

ding 


ond  stripe  of  Fig.  3,  in  which  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
same  siiectrum  as  before  is  obtained,  but  with  another  set  of 
bands  superposed  or  added.     If  the  heating  is  continued, 

the  firet  spectrum  will  grow  weaker  and  the  new  one 
stron^r,  until  at  last  the  new  one  only  is  left,  as  is  shown 
in  stnpe  8  of  Fig.  2 ;  after  this  the  same'  heating  will  produce 
no  further  change. 

If,  however,  tne  heat  is  greatly  increased,  another  new 
spectrum  shows  itself  in  combination  with  the  last,  as  is 
shown  in  stripe  4,  and  by  continuing  this  heat  the  spectrum 
shown  in  stnpe  S  remains  alone.  Analysis  shows  that  ths 
salt  whose  spectrum  appears  at  3  is  the  anhydrous  ai 


Fio.  8 

snlphate  of  uranium,  while  that  whose  spectrum  is  shown  at 
5  is  the  diuranic  ammonio-sulphate,  compounds  whose  ex- 
istence was  unknown  until  thus  revealed. 

The  fluorescent  spectra  of  the  uranic  salts  are  very  vari- 
ous and  often  ver]'  Wautifnl.     Fig.  8  is  a  diagram  illiistrat- 


442 


FLUORESCENCE 


FLUORINE 


ing  a  few  of  them.  In  this  diagram  the  location  of  the  va- 
rioas  bands  is  indicated  by  the  position  of  the  white  spaces 
in  reference  to  the  Bunsen  s{)ectroscope  scale  and  the  Fraun- 
hoffer  lines  indicated  bv  their  letters. 

The  depths  of  the  wnite  spaces  below  the  lines  indicate 
their  relative  brightness,  or,  in  other  words,  the  way  in  which 
they  shade  off,  or  terminate  more  or  less  abruptly.  The 
salts  whose  spectra  are  indicated  in  this  chart  are  the  fol- 
lowing: No.  1,  nitrate  of  uranium ;  No.  3,  acetate  of  ura- 
nium ;  No.  3,  sodio-acetate  of  uranium ;  No.  4,  oxychlorides 
of  uranium  (mixed) ;  No.  5,  potassio-oxychloride  of  uranium ; 
No.  6,  oxyfluoride  of  uranium ;  No.  7,  bario-oxyfluoride  of 
uranium ;  No.  8,  phosphate  of  uranium  (mixed  hydrates) ; 
No.  9,  calcio-phosphate  of  uranium ;  No.  10,  ammonio-sul- 
phate  of  uranium. 

The  shaded  spaces  to  the  right  indicate  absorption  bands 
not  directly  concerned  in  the  present  subject. 

The  spectra  of  more  than  eighty  such  salts  of  uranium 
have  been  mapped  and  studied,  and  will  be  found  in  articles 
by  the  present  writer  in  the  London  Chemical  News  of 
1873. 

In  certain  cases,  as  in  that  of  the  double  acetates  of 
uranium,  there  are  many  salts  exactly  alike  in  general  con- 
stitution, one  constituent  being  acetate  of  uranium  in  each 
case,  and  the  other  being  the  acetate  of  some  other  base,  as 
sodium,  potassium,  lithium,  etc.  When  the  fluorescent  spec- 
tra of  these  salts  are  studied  it  is  found  that  they  are  all  ex- 
actly alike  as  to  the  number  and  form  of  their  bands,  but 
that  the  entire  sets  of  bands  are  shifted  up  or  down  in  the 
spectrum  in  the  several  salts.  If  these  salts  are  now  tabu- 
lated according  to  the  positions  of  these  bands,  the  highest 
being  placed  first,  it  will  be  found  that  their  order  is  exactly 
that  or  their  molecular  weights.  In  fact,  they  act  precisely 
as  though  the  rates  of  vibration  due  to  the  acetate  of  ura- 
nium, which  is  their  on\j  fluorescent  constituent,  were  re- 
duced by  the  "  loading  '*  ef^ct  of  the  other  acetates  in  pro- 
portion to  their  molecular  weights.  This  is  precisely  like 
what  would  happen  if  to  a  series  of  tuning-iorks  increas- 
ing weights  were  added  from  time  to  time.  When  a  slight 
weight  was  added  to  each,  their  "  pitch  "  would  be  a  little  low- 
ered, and  more  and  more  so  as  the  weights  were  increased. 

In  all  fluorescent  liquids  and  some  solids  the  duration  of 
the  fluorescent  emission  after  the  exciting  light  is  cut  off  is 
inappreciable,  but  in  most  solids  it  has  a  finite  duration 
varying  from  a  thousandth  of  a  second  in  some  to  many 
minut^  in  others. 

This  persistent  fluorescence  is  sometimes  distinguished  as 
phosphorescence,  and  was  first  systematically  Sudied  by 
becquerel,  and  described  in  the  works  referred  to  earlier  in 
this  article. 

In  1888  E.  Wiedemann  showed  that  this  prolongation  of 
the  fluorescent  action  could  be  given  to  some  solutions  by 
solidifying  them  by  combination  with  gelatin.  Ann,  Phya, 
und  Chem.,  new  series,  vol.  xxxiv,  p.  4to. 

To  give  anything  like  a  complete  list  of  all  fluorescent 
substances  would  occupy  much  more  space  than  can  be  de- 
voted to  the  present  subject,  but  it  will  be  of  interest  and 
value  to  name  a  few  of  those  most  important  in  the  history 
of  the  subject  or  by  reason  of  their  exceptional  intensity. 

Solid  Fluorescent  Substances. — Fluor  Spar  (fluoride 
of  calcium). — Certain  varieties.  Fluorescence  blue,  moder- 
ately brilliant.  Chiefly  of  interest  because  observed  by  Her- 
schel  and  Brewster  at  an  early  period,  and  made  the  basis  of 
the  name  given  to  this  action  by  Stokes.  Phil,  Trans,, 
1852,  part  il,  p.  481. 

PlcLtiiw-cyanide  of  Barium, — This  salt  in  a  certain  state 
of  hydration  and  aggregation  has  a  very  remarkable  power 
of  fluorescence,  so  tnat  if  words  or  figures  are  written  or 
drawn  on  paper  of  an  orange  tint  with  a  mixture  of  this 
salt  and  gum-water,  and  then  are  viewed  in  daylight  trans- 
mitted through  cobalt  glass,  they  will  shine  out  with  a  brill- 
iant green  light  on  the  almost  black  pt)und  furnished  by 
the  orange  pa|)er,  illuminated  by  the  violet-blue  light. 

Thallene. — A  hydrocarbon  obtained  from  the  products 
of  the  destructive  distillation  of  petroleum.  (Journal  of 
the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  1876,  vol.  Ixxii.,  p.  225.) 
This  fluoresces  with  an  even  more  brilliant  green  light 
than  the  foregoing  under  like  conditions. 

Canary  GlorSs. — Glass  colored  of  a  yellow  tint  with  oxide 
of  uranium.  This  fluoresces  with  a  brilliant  green  tint,  and 
is  much  used  in  Geissler  tubes. 

Fluorescent  Solutions. — As  possessing  historic  interest  be- 
cause studied  by  the  early  investigators  raav  be  mentioned  : 

Solutions  in  water  of  quinine  acidulated  with  any  acid 


except  hvdrochloric.  Fluorescence  sky-blue.  Stokes,/'/*.' 
Trans,y  1852,  ii.,  pp.  471  and  541. 

Solutions  in  water  (alkaline  or  neutral)  of  ssculin.  froi . 
horse-chestnut  bark.    Violet-blue  fluorescence. 

Solution  in  alcohol  of  chlorophyll,  the  green  ooloring-um^ 
ter  of  leaves.    Fluorescence  blood-red. 

Solution  in  alcohol  of  bichloranthracene.  Fluorescru  r 
purple-blue. 

Solution  in  water  or  alcohol  of  extract  of  stramoDiun! 
seeds.    Fluorescence  green. 

Of  more  recent  discovery  and  remarkable  brilliance : 

Solution  in  water  of  bisulphobichloranthracenic  at  i-i 
Violet-blue  fluorescence.    See  Perkin,  London  Chem,  JWrr^ 

1870,  vol.  xxii.,  p.  37. 

Solution  in  alcohol  of  magdala  red.    Crimson  flu<>r'^ 
cence.    Schiendl,  Ann,  Phya,  und,  Chem,  (1869,  vol.  <  x<  ii 
p.  603);  Hofmann,  Ber,  d,  Chem,  Oes,  (vol.  ii.,  pp.  374, 4U 

Solution  in  water  of  eosin  (alkaline  salt  of  nuore^r  iir. . 
Intense  grass-green  fluorescence.    Bayer  (Ber.  d.  Chem.  Ur^^ 

1871,  vol.  iv.,  p.  658,  and  1874,  vol.  vii.,  p.  1211) ;  Hofman-i 
iJSer,  d,  Chem,  Oes,,  1875,  vol.  viii.,  p.  62) ;  and  Bayer,  shil' 
journal  and  volume,  p.  146. 

Solution  in  alcohol  of  azoresomfln.  Scarlet-red  flu  - 
rescence.  Weselsky,  Ann,  Chem,  und  Pharm,^  voL  clxii.,  i-, 
274 

Solution  in  alcohol  of  resorcin-blue  garnet.  Garnet -r^. 
fluorescence,  indigo-blue  by  transmitted  light.  Brur.M  * 
and  Kraemer,  Ber,  d,  Chem,  Gee,,  1884,  vol.  xrii.,  p.  W*.> 

Solution  in  alcohol  of  chinolin  red.  Red  fluorestviu^-. 
Hofmann,  Ber,  d,  Chem,  Oes,,  1887,  vol.  xx.,  p.  4. 

Iodine  vapor  is  stated  by  E.  Lommel  to  fluoresce  oran  jr- 
yellow,  when  excited  by  green  rays  about  E.  Phil,  Mnj . 
1883,  5th  series,  voL  xvi.,  p.  463.  Henbt  Morton. 

Flaoride  of  Alaminiam  and  Sodium :  See  Cbtolit: 
and  Glass. 

Flaoride  of  Calciam :  See  Fluor  Spar. 

Flaorine  [from  Mod.  lsX„fluorina,  deriv.  oiAuor,  fii.-: 
spar,  in  which  fluorine  is  found] :  a  nonmetalUc  elorri*  / 
belonging  to  the  group  which  includes  chlorine,  hrxm. .  .• . 
and  i^ine.    It  occurs  abundantly  in  fluor  spar,  whirti  i^  a. 
fluoride  of  calcium  ;  in  cryolite  (fluoride  of  aluminium  a:  . 
sodium),  topaz,  mica,  amphibole,  chondrodite,  tourniHL\' 
apatite,  and  numerous  other  minerals.    It  is  very  gen<n..> 
diffused,  occurring  in  all  rocks  in  small  quantities.    Ir  .* 
also  found  in  almost  all  waters  in  minute  quantitie> ;  .i. 
plants,  especially  in  grasses  and  Equisetaeete ;  and  in  w- 
imals  in  the  bones,  teeth,  brain  (Eorsford),  blood,  uru.^ 
milk,  etc.    The  name  fluorine  is  derived  from  fluor  <r  - 
from  fluo,  to  '*  flow,"  because  this  mineral  has  Urns:  t « • 
used  as  a  flux. 

As  early  as  1670  Schwankhardt,  of  Nurembers:,  <>l)St*rv-  . 
that  glass  could  be  etched  by  fluor  spar  and  sulphuric  tn   . 
Scheele  in  1771  referred  this  action  to  a  peculiar  acid  1. 
erated  by  the  sulphuric  acid.    Fluorides  are  readily  de*;  ' 
posed  by  chlorine,  yielding  chlorides.    Fluorine  is  un<l«>  /  ' 
edly  set  free  at  the  same  time,  but  as  it  enters  into  onnji  -: 
tion  with  the  material  of  almost  every  vessel  that  can  . 
used  to  collect  it,  its  isolation  becomes  a  matter  of  :r^  •" 
difficulty.    Souyot  (Comptes  Rendus,  xxii.,  960)  deoomp-  -- 
fluoride  of  silver  by  chlorine  or  iodine  in  a  vessel  of  ♦! 
spar,  and  obtained  a  colorless  gas  which  did  not   !!• 
vegetable  colors,  but  which  decomposed  water  and  atia  » 
most  metals.  Fremy  ( Comptes  Rendus,  xxxviii.,  393 ;  xi ..'.*•  • 
by  decomposing  fused  chloride  of  potassium  bv  the  v«i/ 
current,  ootained  a  gas  having  similar  propertfes.     H«'  .i  • 
obtained  a  gas  which  corroded  glass  by  the  actifin  of  <  ' 
rine  and  of  oxygen,  on  red-hot  fluor  spar.    H.  Reins* -h  * 
Jahrh,  Pharm,,  xi.,  1),  by  heating  a  mixture  of  cr><  . 
plumbic  peroxide,  and  acid  potassic  sulphate,  obtain 
colorless  gas  consisting  largely  of  oxygen,  but  contMi: 
another  gas  possessing  a  pungent  odor,  like  that  of  nitr 
acid,  which  he  supposed  to  be  fluorine.    K&mroerer  i-/.     - 
Ch,,  Ixxxv.,  452),  by  heating  iodine  with  fluoride  of  ""iS  - 
obtained  a  colorless  gas  which  did  not  attack  s^la^s,  c-<   . 
be  collected  over  mercury,  and  was  rapidly  ausorUMi    ■ 

Eotassic  hydrate.    In  1886  Moissan  described  ex|x^nni( ' 
y  which  he  had  succeeded  in  isolating  fluorine.      '1 
method  employed  by  him  consists  in  passing  an  electric  i    - 
rent  through  anhydrous  hydrofluoric  acid,  contiiinii'^   ' 
little  acid  potassium  fluoriae,  HF.  KF,  in  solution.      1 ' 
decomposition  is  effected  in  a  vessel  made  of  an  alloy 
iridium  and  platinum.    Hydrogen  is  given  off  at  the  luo 
tive  pole  and  fluorine  at  the  positive  pole. 


It  >. 


444  FLY-CATCHERS 

sian  fly  is  not  a  true  fly,  but  a  hemipterous  insect.  Many 
species  of  flies  are  to  be  regarded  as  beneflcial,  as  they  act 
as  scaveneere  and  remove  much  noisome  matter.    Sec  Eni. 

TOMOLOOV  J-  S.  K. 

FIr-catcherB :  a  name  applied  at  flrat  to  birds  ol  the  ge- 
nus Muneifapa,  but  now  applied  to  a  large  numlwr  of  Ameri- 
can binls,  none  of  which  are  of  the  above  genus.  They  are 
Hssipned  to  the  Tyrnnnida  and  other  (amiUes  of  the  order 
PassereiS.  They  are  distributed  in  many  genera.  These 
birds  all  have  the  habit  of  waitbg  until  insects  come  near 


The  ktnjt  ol  the  Dy<cstdien, 

them,  when  they  dart  upon  them  with  ironderful  qoickneia. 
The  king-bird,  Tyrannua  otroliti^nmB,  is  one  of  the  best 
known  iit  the  U.  S.  The  Savannah  fly-catcher,  Milvulu» 
mi'anna,  is  found  in  the  Southern  U.  S.  The  most  com- 
mon bird  of  the  familr  in  Europe  is  the  so-called  spotted  or 
gray  fly-catcher,  whicn  is  &  common  summer  visitant  over 
the  whole  Continent  and  Great  Britain. 


them,  especially  in  the  autumn  (Figure  A).  It  is  a  plant 
of  quite  simple  or^nization,  and  is  apparently  related  to 
the  Dlack  moulds  (Mueoratta)  in  the  order  Conjugate  of 
the  class  Chiorophycea.  It  is  now  included,  along  with  a 
nnraber  of  related  species  (forty  or  more),  in  the  family  En- 
tomophthoraeeie.  The  fly  fungus  consists  of  short,  tubular 
threails  (Figure  B)  which  ipDv  through  the  tissues  of  the  in- 
sect, and  at  length  push  through  its  skin,  where  small  t«rmi- 


by  spores;  B,  ipore-beartnir 

;  C,  portion  of  Hy  irllh  proirudlott  spore-bearing  threads. 

n 111  spores  are  produceil  by  ahstriclion  (Fi(rureC).  Just  at 
the  time  when  this  happens  the  fly  fastene  itself  securely  to 
some  object,  swoUb  up.  and  dies.  'In  a  short  time  the  spores 
fall  and  surround  the  insi-ct  with  a  white  hnlo-tike  )>owdcr 
(Figure  A).  Resting  spores  formed  bv  conjugation  were  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Winter,  but  they  have  rarely  been  seen  by 
other  observers.    In  some  related  species,  as,  for  example. 


PLYING  LEMVRS 

n  the  grasshopper  fungus  {E.  eaiopleni),  retting 
ery  numerous.  Chiklss  E. 

Flygare,  t^aiue:  See  Carl^n,  Ehilib. 


0.  Eng.^ 
O.  H.  Ger 


erb/i;<M.  Eng.yliVi 


'.Jiiogan>  'iAoA'Qeun.fiiegen  < Teuton.;tiu^.ii,]; 
tiiemotionofaTiving  animal  through  the  air  when  pmiKi;..! 
by  iU  own  wings.  Among  vertebmtes,  most  birds  and  all 
tiie  buttj  possess,  and  the  pterodactyl  and  some  other  i'->y.\ 
repliles  once  possessed,  the  power  of  flight.  It  is  proljali> 
that  flying  fishes  also  have  a  limited  power  of  true  flit'ht. 
the  [icctoral  flns  serving  as  wings.  Hanv  insects  also  Iihv.- 
the  power  of  flying,  but  their  wings,  though  functi'mnUv 
analogous,  are  not  structurally-  homologous  to  those  of  vir- 
tebrates.  In  the  latter  the  nmg  is  the  representative  ol  tli' 
arm  and  hand  or  anterior  limb  of  other  vert«br*te».  Tb'- 
so-called  flight  of  the  flving  squirrels,  flying  dragons,  etc..  l> 
by  no  means  a  true  flight.  The  parachutes  (not  wingsi  >.[ 
tlieise  animals  enable  tnetn  to  glide  safely  through  tht;  air. 
simply  prolonging  the  leap  of  the  creature,  or  at  most  jiiiri- 
ing  to  a  parachute -act  ion  that  of  a  sail  or  a  kite 

The  mechanics  of  flying  are  not  yet  well  nndcrstooil.  In 
some  birds  the  shape  of  the  quills  is  such  that  at  the  ttMk-- 
of  the  wing  the  greatest  possible  surface  is  opposed  to  tL" 
the  Tuavery,  or  eipansion  of  tne  wine,  ij 


Bals  . 


may  be  tme  oj 
rapid  closure  of  thi 
sistance  from  the  air  during  the  stroke  than 


inI 


ing  also  secures  a  great 
^.  the  stroke  than  can  ne  o 
during  the  expansion  of  the  wing. 


>ffer,-i 


There  are  many  varieties  of  flight  among  birds ;  of  thi  ~» 
among  the  most  remarkable  is  the  sailing  motion,  in  wlu.  c 
the  wings  are  but  slightly  moved,  There  is  considemlil^ 
doubt  as  to  the  means  by  which  such  birds  as  the  conili>r 
and  allutross  can  maintain  their  long  and  almost  motion- 
less poise  in  the  air. 

Flying  BnttresB:  See  BurrsEsa. 

Firing  Dragon,  or  Flying  Llsard :  a  name  applied  m 
lizards  belonging  to  the  genus  Draco  and  closely  Bllieil  ^i-n- 
era  of  the  family  Agamid-ie,  in  which  the  ribs  are  elonini'<^ 
and  exserted,  supportiug  lateral  expansions  of  memlimne 
which  serve  the  animals  as  parachutes.  The  type  of  i),i' 
group  ia  Draco  volana  of  the  Indian  ArchipeUga  The  tonn 
flying  dragon,  in  addition  to  its  mythologieai  applicaiiiiii. 
lias  sometimes  been  applied  to  the  extinct  Pttrodaclyhia. 

Flying  FIsheB:  fishes  of  the  genus  fiiocafint  livinc  ir 
large  schools  in  the  open  sea.  They  will  "fly"  a  di-.tiiTn-' 
of  from  a  few  rods  up  to  about  an  eighth  of  a  mile,  rari]  > 
rising  more  than  4  feet  from  the  water.  Their  movt-nni  i- 
in  the  water  are  extremely  rapid.  The  sole  source  of  na- 
tive power  is  the  action  of  the  strong  tail  when  in  the  w.ii'r. 
No  force  is  acquired  when  the  fish  ia  in  the  air,  but  wh>>ii  ^t 
rises  from  the  water  the  movements  of  the  t&il  are  oiiIit  - 
ueU  until  the  whole  l>ody  is  out  of  the  water.  When  l: 
tail  is  in  motion  the  pectorals  .seem  to  1*  in  a  stale  of  rap  i 
vibration,  but  this  is  apparent  only,  and  is  due  to  the  rt~>T- 
ance  of  the  air  to  the  movements  of  the  flah.  While  Ihf  tj-.  . 
is  in  the  water  the  ventral  flns  are  folded.  When  the  n~  - 
tion  of  the  tail  ceases  the  ventrals are  spread  and  hekl  cj^r 
They  arc  not  used  as  wings,  but  rather  as  parachutes.  W  li- ■-. 
the  Ash  begins  to  fall  the  tail  (ouches  the  water,  wli.  i. 
its  motion  again  begins,  and  with  it  the  apparent  mi-vt- 
ment  of  the  pectorals.  The  flsh  ia  thus  able  to  rvsrir  - 
its  flight,  which  it  finally  finishes  with  a  splash.  When  :'i 
(be  air  it  resembles  a  larf^  dragon-fiy.  The  motion  if  veri 
swift— at  first  in  a  straight  line,  but  later  deflected  in  i 
curve.  It  has  no  relation  to  the  direction  of  the  win  i. 
When  a  vessel  is  paasinc  through  a  school  of  these  fi.-b*' 
they  spring  up  tiefore  it,  flying  in  all  directions  like  gra.--^ 
hoppers  in  a  meadow.  About  Ihirtv  species  of  flvinp  fi>i.'- 
are  known,  ten  of  them  being  found  in  the  North  Atlanti;-. 
The  largest  species.  Exocoelut  cotifomicus.  of  the  Califom;.. 
flying  fish,  reaches  a  length  of  l)j  inches:  the  others  rat;::'' 
from  6  inches  to  a  foot.     All  are  excellent  fmid-flshes. 

David  S.  Josdan. 

Fifing  Fox :  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  Galir-ipitf  — 
eua(see  Flying  LEHURs),but  more  frennentlyapplie<l  to  th^ 
foi-l>ats.  or  large  fruit-eating  t>atB  of  llic  gentle  Ptmipux. 

Flying  Onr'nard :  See  nicTVLOPTEHfs. 

Flying  LemnrB.or  ColagOB:  a  name  often  applied  :■• 
two  curious  insectivorous  iimromals.  Oalaopilhecvf  ti./on< 


arches  ood  the  appearance  of  limb-buds  also  mark  this 

ttage.    Toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  week  the  head,  which 

meanwhile  has 


acutely  bent, 
and  shows  in- 
dications of 
the  beginning 
of  the  return 

erect  position 
which  later 
follows.  Coin- 
cident If  with 
these  changes 


the 


It-Cotlt.)  The  erect  ai 


umbilical  vesicle,  u ;  a.  lac  of  Uie 
-  ,  b,  anlerlor  cerebral  Teetole  ;  v,  nian- 
>r  praceai  of  (be  flnt  vlHenl  arch,  be- 
low vblch  the  mdlmeocaiT  aueceedlng  (--■-— 
arc  Keo  ;  h,  primitive  heart. 


dibulai 


the  p 


cleft, 


furrows  grad- 
uallj  disap- 
pearing. 

By  the  fourth  week  the  eitreroities.  which  very  early  ap- 
pear as  flattened  projections,  are  well  advanced,  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  upper  limb  into  the  arm,  the  forearm,  and  the 
band,  with  an  indication  of  the  division  into  fingers, 
having  been  established.  The  upper  eiCremity  first  devel- 
ops, and  consequently  anticipates  in  its  differentiation 
the  lower  limb ;  the  formation  of  the  fingers  and  toes  is  not 
completed  until  about  the  ninth  week. 

The  series  of  visceral  arches  mentioned  play  an  important 
rSU  in  the  development  of  the  face,  since  Dy  the  growth 
and  specialization  of  these  structures  the  boundaries  of  the 
nasal  and  oral  cavities  are  largely  formed.  In  man  four 
pairs  of  these  arches  exist;  the  first  becomes  partially  cleft 
into  the  upper  or  maxillari/  and  the  lower  or  mandibular  di- 
_i« —  — .„..  — A  »...i„«  „f  [jjg  lower  projections  contribute 
the  tissues  from  which  the  infe- 
rior boundary  of  the  mouth  is 
derived,  the  upper  border  being 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  supe- 
rior divisions  of  the  arches  with 
a  central  nasal  process.  When 
the  fusion  of  these  parts  is  im- 
perfect, the  orlginaJly  distinct 
Srocessea  remain  separated  by  a 
ssure  of  greater  or  less  extent; 
this  defect  constitutes  harelip, 
which  may  be  single  or  double 
according  to  the  eitent  of  the 
faulty  union. 

In  the  early  embryo  immedi- 
ately in  front  of  the  lower  vis- 
cerd  arches  lies  a  conspicuous 
i_  ou  u>w  uu  luD  —o"-  *'"i  tortuous  projection,  due  to 
tr-thlrd  day;  b,  brala-  the  underlying  primitive  heart; 
"^e'e* :  JiS^'  5"*  ■  *■   somewhat  later,  by  the  fourth 

Sle  Vrem'whlctL^e  inter-    '^ek.  the   cardiac   elevation  has 

Dal  ear  larpelr  develop* ;    been    completely    overshadowed 

«. Brat ot vfacarai arches;   by  the  distension  of  abdominal 

B.J^ltaib'budl'"*''  '"      '""s,  caused   by   the   relatively 

excessive  size  of  the  tiptal  liver, 

which  at  this  period  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  entire 

body-cavity. 

After  the  third  month  the  fietus  is  devclopmentally  com- 
plete, the  increase  in  its  general  bulk  resulting  from  the 
Kwth  and  perfecting  of  the  parts,  which  by  this  time  have 
a  establisned,  and  not  by  tne  addition  of  new  structures. 
The  rate  of  growth  is  very  rapid  during  the  third,  fourth, 
fifth,  and  especially  sixth  months,  the  weight  of  the  fcetus 
within  this  time  increasing  over  a  hundredfold.  While  the 
size  and  weight  of  the  healthy  foetus  are  liable  to  consider- 
able variation,  the  table  given  herewith  represents,  accord- 
ing to  Hecker,  the  average  weight  of  the  fcetus. 


Fw.  S.— Human  einbrTO  about 
Iwentj-vflven  dayB  old. 
(Alter  Hu.)  TlieeRibrjo 
it  UUI  Bread;  neied.  but 


Flo.S.— HimuaemblTO  about  Tbir 
V-oDe  daTsidd.  (aitw  Hi>  > 
The  ooDBplcuQus  Alir  of  th^- 
head  beiclM  t«  becoinr  prwi/ 

Ian  proceaa  of  llnl  Tt^^fi: 
ar^  :  a,  Ont  outer  vi.-fri>: 
furrow  which  uudenroe*  IrmrB 
formatlOD  Into  the  pitiTT;ii 
auditory  caoal  ;  1.  larfrr  Ijir-r  . 
w,  upp^  trtmniltj.  F^itialEy 
dUfereollated  '  rorwm.  ace 
niffge«tloiu    of    dlvliicai    iaif> 


Third  month,    11  grammee.  SeventhDionth,l,216gTamme^ 

Fourth     "        67      "  Eighth      "       1,569      - 

Fifth       "      284      "  Ninth        -        1.971       - 
Sixth       "      «84      " 

The  nulrition  of  the  fffitus  during  the  eartier  week^  ia 
carried  on  by  the  absorption  of  nutritive  tissue-juices  de- 
rived from  the  surrounding 
structures ;  by  the  end  of 
the  third  month  the  respira- 
tion and  nutrition  of  Che 
f<etus  are  provided  (or  by 
the  formation  of  the  placen- 
ta (see  EuBaroLoaT),  by 
means  of  which  the  blood 
of  the  fuctus  is  brought  into 
intimate  relation,  but  not 
actual  contact,  with  the  ma- 
ternal circulation,  thus  af- 
fording the  opportunity  for 
interchange  and  absorption. 

The  placenta  is  the  organ 
for  the  purification  of  the 
blood  before  birth,  and  is 
connected  with  the  body  of 
tlie  ffptus  by  means  of  the 
imporiant  umbilieal  blood- 
vesgels.  the  two  arteries,  and 
the  single  vein.     The  arte- 

rent  from  the  firtus  to  the 
placenta,  and  the  umbilical 
rein  carries  the  freshly  oxy- 
genated blood  back  to  the         u„,c,^ 
itptus.     The  renewed  blood 

passes  first  to  the  liver,  and  after  traversing  this  organ 
emptied  into  the  great  inferior  caval  i-ein,  which 
pours  its  blood-stream  [com- 
posed of  blood  returned  from 
the  lower  half  of  the  body  as 
well  as  from  the  liver)  into    j 
the  ri^ht  auricle  of  Che  heart. 
Notwithstanding   the   large    | 
size  of  the  liver,  this  organ 
during  the  later  months  of 
gestation  is  unable  to  receive 
the  entire  volume  of  blood 
returned  from  the  placenta 
by   the   umbilical   vein;    in 
consequence,  it  becomes  nec- 
essary to  establish  an  addi- 
tional path  by  which  the  ex- 
cess of  blood  may  reach  the 
vena  cava  on  its  journey  to 
the  fcetal  heart;  relief  is  af-   J^*- 
forded  by  the  formation  of 
a  new   blood  -  channel,  the 

ductu»  venogua,  which  extends  between  the  ontHlica]  vc:- 
and  the  inferior  caval  vein;  through  this  canal  a  Ian.- 
part  of  the  blood  brought  by 
the  umbilical  vein  from  the 
placenta  is  directly  carried 

turning  from  tJie  lower  half 
of  the  body. 

The  ftelal  eireulatum  is 
characteriied  by  peculiari- 
ties in  the  course  of  the 
blood-current  rendered  pos- 
sible by  the  existence  of  pas- 
sages which  disappear  short- 
ly after  hirth.  One  of  these 
channels,  the  ductiu  vtnoiut, 
has  already  been  mentioned  ; 
another  exists  as  an  opening 
{the  foramen  ovalr)  in  the 
interauricular  partition  of 
the  heart  through  which  the 
blood -current  brought  by  the   p^   ._ 

inferior  cava  and  guided  by  ,aa^haiiin^'iM~(irifr  1!  . 
the  Eutlaehian  vaht  passes 

directly  from  the  right  into  the  left  auricle.  A^ain,  the  In 
ited  capacity  of  the  unexpanded  tistal  lungs  is  unequal  ' 
the  reception  of  the  entire  blood-stream  carried  by  the  !■-. 


448 


FOGS 


FOG-SIGNALS 


even  when  resting  on  a  colder  surface.  In  order  to  this 
effect  it  is  necessary  that  two  strata  of  air  be  mingled  with 
each  other,  one  of 'which,  being  the  colder,  pi-ecipitates  on 
itself,  as  it  were,  the  particles  of  invisible  vapor  of  the  other. 
This  fact  is  illustrated  by  the  phenomenon  of  dew,  in  which 
atmospheric  vapor  is  condensed  into  water  without  produc- 
ing fog.  In  this  instance  the  process  may  be  conceived  as 
follows  :  An  indefinitely  thin  stratum  of  air  resting  directly 
upon  a  surface  cooled  by  radiation  deposits  its  moisture, 
leaving  it  unsaturated ;  the  vapor  of  the  stratum  imme- 
dteitely  above  it  is  then  diffused  into  the  first  stratum  ;  the 
second  is  then  unsaturated,  and  diffusion  takes  place  into 
this  from  the  third  stratum,  and  so  on,  without  the  produc- 
tion of  a  fog.  If,  however,  the  radiation  takes  place  into  a 
clear  sky  from  a  sloping  surface  of  ground,  the  colder  and 
consequently  heavier  air  resting  on  such  surface  will  roll 
down  into  tlie  valley,  and  there,  mingling  with  the  warmer 
saturated  air,  produce  a  fog.  A  fog  is  also  produced  when 
a  current  of  cold  air  passes  over  warmer  water  or  a  warm 
damp  soil.  Water  evaporates  at  all  temperatures,  and  in 
the  case  iust  luentionea  the  vapor  as  it  rises  is  condensed 
into  visible  fog.  But  the  density  of  fogs  produced  in  this 
way  is  not  usually  as  great  as  that  which  is  generated  by 
the  other  process. 

The  eastern  coast  of  the  U.  S.  is  especially  subject  to  fogs, 
the  cause  of  which  will  be  readily  seen,  from  what  has  been 
before  mentioned,  when  the  relative  position  of  the  currents 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  considered. 
First,  a  cold  polar  current  coming  out  of  Baffin's  Bay  is 
thrown  bv  the  revolution  of  the  earth  laterally  against  the 
coast  of  North  America  from  Labrador  to  Cape  Hatteras, 
where  it  passes  under  the  Gulf  Stream.  Contiguous  to,  but 
outside  of,  this  current,  and  moving  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion, is  the  great  Gulf  Stream,  an  immense  body  of  warm 
water,  which  throughout  its  whole  course  across  the  Atlantic 
heats  and  saturates  with  vapor  the  air  immediately  over  it. 
Now,  it  must  be  evident  that  whenever  the  wind  is  in  such 
a  direction  as  to  blow  this  warm  and  saturated  air  across 
the  col(i  surface  of  the  polar  current,  mingling  the  heated 
and  moist  air  with  the  colder  stratum,  a  fog  must  be  the  re- 
sult. Hence  the  fogs  on  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  and 
also  along  the  coast  of  Maine,  whenever  the  wind  is  in  a 
southerly  direction,  especially  in  the  warm  summer  months. 
In  proceeding  southerly  along  the  coast  the  direction  of  fog- 
bearing  wind  is  found  to  be  more  and  more  easterly.  Fogs 
are  also  produced  on  the  western  coast  of  North  America 
when  the  wind  from  the  exterior  ocean  passes  across  the 
coast  current  which  comes  from  the  N.  The  production 
of  fog  is  in  this  case  more  complex,  since  the  coast  current 
is  in  fact  the  eastern  pottion  of  the  great  Gulf  Stream  of 
the  Pacific.  The  nortnem  part  of  this  current  is  warmer 
than  the  surrounding  ocean,  while  in  its  southern  portion 
its  temperature  is  less  than  that  of  the  water  through  which 
it  is  passing.  But  in  either  case  a  fog  will  be  produced 
when  a  wind  of  opposite  temperature  blows  from  the  ex- 
terior ocean  across  this  current.  On  the  same  principle 
fogs  are  produced  in  other  parts  of  the  world ;  and  their 
existence  may  be  inferred  from  the  relative  position  of  the 
cold  and  warm  currents  of  the  ocean.  Fogs  are  sometimes 
associated  with  smoke  in  the  atmosphere ;  minut«  particles 
of  carbon  radiating  heat  tend  to  become  colder  tnan  the 
surrounding  air,  and  thus  condense  the  particles  of  vapors 
around  them.  London  and  other  cities  of  England  are  fre- 
quently covered  with  fogs  of  this  kind.    See  Fog-sionals. 

Joseph  Henry. 

Fog-signals :  signals  made  in  foggy  weather  to  prevent 
collisions  or  other  accidents  to  vessels  or  railway  trains. 
Along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  U.  S.  fogs  prevail  almost  con- 
tinuously at  certain  periods  of  the  year ;  and  as  the  shore  is 
exceedingly  precipitous  the  sounding-line  can  not  be  used 
with  any  certainty,  and  therefore  fog-signals  must  be  resort- 
ed to.  Attempts  have  been  made  in  France  and  Great 
Britain  to  penetrate  fogs  by  means  of  lights  of  intense 
character,  such  as  those  of  aluminium  and  electricity ;  but 
that  these  could  not  be  successful  must  be  evident  from  the 
consideration  of  everyday  experience,  that  a  mile  of  cloud 
— or,  in  other  words,  of  fog — ^shuts  out  the  image  of  the  sun. 
Recourse  must  therefore  be  had  to  sound,  which,  when  of 
a  powerful  character,  is  not  materially  affected  in  its  propa- 
gation by  fog. 

For  the  production  of  sound  for  this  purpose  bells,  gongs, 
whistles,  trumpets,  and  sirens  have  been  used  by  the  light- 
house board  oi  the  U.  S.    Although  a  powerful  sound  may 


be  produced  by  a  cannon,  the  shortness  of  its  continuaii*  >■ 
and  the  blending  of  the  echo  with  the   original   iinpti.- 
render  it  less  favorable  to  the  precise  determinatic mi  oI  ■/>- 
direction  than  the  prolonged  sound  produced  by  thi-  tru: 
pet  or  the  whistle.    Bells,  even  of  a  lai^  size,  givt>  :. 
feeble  a  sound  to  be  distinguished  across  tlie  breakt* t^  a:    . 
sufficient  distance  or  in  opposition  to  the  wind;  thcv  »*• 
only  used  when  a  signal  is  required  to  give  waminj:    ■: 
danger  at  a  short  distance  at  intermediate  positions.    Ti.- } 
are  rung  by  a  weight  wound  up  at  intervals,  the  des<-«nt    "' 
which  18  regulated  by  the  vibration  of  a  pendulum  «i'r 
clock  escapement.    In  some  cases  an  automatic  ap)>artt!:>- 
actuated  bv  the  waves  of  the  sea  has  been  used  for  ring- 
ing a  bell,  but  this  device  has  not  found  favor  with  the  l.  S 
lighthouse  board,  since  every  automatic  instrument  i<  lu- 
ble  to  get  out  of  order,  and  so  fail  to  point  out  the  dir». 
tion  of  danger  at  a  time  when  it  is  expected  to  do  so.     Vzi- 
interrupted  action  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  light b<i>' 
signals. 

Gongs,  although    they    appear  to  produce  a  p<>w^r^. 
sound  when  near  the  ear,  in  reality  give  an  impulse  of  tt« 
feeble  a  character  to  be  heard  under  all  circamstanoe>  ar  a 
distance. 

The  mechanisms  which  have  been  found  to  pr-b.  • 
sound  of  the  greatest  penetrating  power  are  those  »h.<  : 
depend  upon  the  principle  of  resonance,  such  as  the  arar 

Eipe,  the  trumpet,  and  the  whistle,  in  which  the  air  it-- !: 
ecomes  the  sounding  body,  as  well  as  the  medium  of  v. 
duction  of  the  sound.    Of  this  character  is  the  onliriu  . 
locomotive  whistle,  in  which  the  vibration  is  produciii  )  > 
a  thin  sheet  of  air  striking  against  the  edge  of  a  rin^tiindn  :: 
cavity  called  the  bell.    The  stiffness — if  the  exprv?i'^it>n  n.  r 
be  used — of  the  sheet  of  air  depends  upon  the  ten^i«in  --f 
the  steam  in  the  boiler ;  and  in  order  that  the  vibntt  i< : 
of  this  sheet  may  be  in  unison  with  the  rererberatioL  i.' 
the  air  in  the  resounding  cavity,  the  sheet  roust  U-  ir 
creased  and  diminished  in  length;  which  is  effect <h1  b}  .> 
screw,  the  turning  of  which  increases  or  diminis-ht-^   ih 
distance  between   the  narrow  opening  through  which  \l 
sheet  is  emitted  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  beU-shapf^l  <-fl\- 
ity.    As  the  loud  sound  is  produced  in  this  instrument  I] 
tHe  vibrations  of  the  air  in  the  resounding  cavitie*.  i:- 
form  or  material  of  the  inclosure  of  the  latter  has  littlt-  »f 
feet  upon  the  result.    Instead  of  the  metallic  cylinder,  l 
square  wooden  box  may  be  used,  the  orifice  through  vhi-  '■ 
the  sheet  is  ejected  being   made  to  correspond  in  fi-n: 
The  locomotive  whistle  is  the  simplest  of  the  more  jK-wf '- 
ful  of  the  fog-signals  employed  by  the  lighthouse  boanl . ! 
the  U.  S.    It  is  actuated  oy'an  ordinary  locomotive  stta't  - 
boiler  at  a  pressure  of  from  50  to  75  lb.  per  sq.  inch.      1 1  > 
sound  is  distinguished  from  that  of  locomotives  and  «t*.  .n 
vessels  by  the  length  of  the  blast  and  the  interval  lftx\^*  : 
two  soundings ;  and  these  are  regulated  and  product-*!  ;v', 
tomatically  by  a  small  engine  attached  to  the  lx)iler,  w ;  . 
opens  and  closes  the  valves,  letting  on  and  shutting  rtT  ti^ 
steam  at  the  proper  intervals.    Tnc  whistles  employ etl  &:• 
from  8  to  12  inches  in  diameter. 

The  next  powerful  instniment  used  is  that  called  the  r»  •  . 
or  Daboll  trumpet,  actuated  by  air  condensed  in  a  n^'r\    - 
by  means  of  an  Ericsson  caloric  (or  heated-air)  engine.     I  - 
this  instrument  the  trumpet  itself  is  the  resounding  lav::;. 
and  the  reed  by  its  vibration  produces  the  requisite  m*\    ■ 
of  the  air.    The  reed,  consisting  of  a  bar  of  iron,  is,  in  tb 
larger  class  of  trumpets,  18  inches  in  length,  2  incht  <  ::. 
width,  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness  at  the  ti\» 
end,  thinning  gradually  toward  the  free  end.   In  ord«*r  i « •  pi  ' 
the  best  effect,  sound  from  these  parts  must  be  in  nni^ 
and  for  this  purpose  means  should  oe  provided  forgrath.:. 
increasing  or  diminishing  the  length  of  the  trumpet.     \V  • 
a  given  stiffness  of  the  reed  the  pressure  of  the  air  in  rr. 
reservoir  can  not  exceed  a  given  intensity,  since  bevond  t:  -^ 
the  reed  can  not  recoil,  and  the  orifice  remains  clo^^iMl.     .v 
pressure  of  from  10  to  15  lb.  per  sq.  inch  is  the  maxin.- 
employed.     This  instrument  is  the    most  economical 
power*  giving  the  greatest  amount  of  sound  with   a  4^;^•  • 
expenditure  of  fuel.    Its  range  of  power,  however,  wr^ 
given  size  of  tnimpet  is  less  than  that  of  the  18-inch  wJ  ^ 
tie  ;  still  it  is  a  valuable  instrument  in  all  places  whore  fr  <  - 
water  can  not  be  obtained,  since  the  motive-power  cv.t.^  ^• 
of  heated  air,  and  not  of  vapor  generated  from  a  liquitl. 

Another  instrument,  and  the  most  powerful  of  all  yet  » :• 
ployed,  is  the  siren  trumpet.    The  siren  is  the  invent »•  t. 
Cagniard  de  Latour  (see  under  Acoustics,  2>w/A  of  S  ■»" 
waves),  but  its  application  as  a  fog-signal  and  the  ad<ii::  * 


450 


PO-HI 


POLC-LAND 


and  direction  of  the  wind.  Thus  a  sound  which  may  be 
heard  at  a  distance  of  10  miles  with  a  slight  wind  against  it 
is  lost  on  approaching  its  origin,  or  even  becomes  inaudible 
at  several  intermediate  points  by  an  imperceptible  increase 
in  the  velocity  of  the  wind  at  the  surface — a  greater  change 
perhaps  taking  place  above.  That  this  phenomenon  can  not 
oe  explained  by  the  interposition  of  strata  of  air  acoustical- 
ly rendered  flocculent  and  opaque  by  an  admixture  of  in- 
visible vapor,  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  in  a  case  of  this 
kind  the  whistle  from  an  approaching  vessel  has  been  con- 
tinuously heard  while  the  sound  from  the  instrument  on 
shore  has  been,  as  stated  above,  interrupted  in  its  passa^. 
That  a  sudden  change  in  the  condition  of  the  air  by  its 
saturation  with  moisture  will  have  some  effect  in  the  propa- 
gation of  feeble  sounds  is  evident  from  both  experiment  and 
analogy ;  but  this  cause  is  entirely  insufficient  to  produce  the 
effects  described,  since  they  are  exhibited  without  any  ap- 
parent change  in  the  hygrometrical  condition  of  the  atmos- 
phere. Besides  this,  the  fact  that  they  depend  upon  the  di- 
rection of  the  sound  with  reference  to  the  wind  is  conclusive 
evidence  that  they  are  the  result  of  the  latter.  In  the  case 
of  a  series  of  observations  by  two  observers,  A  and  B,  each 
sounding  a  powerful  instrument,  it  frequently  happens  that 
when  A  can  distinct! v  hear  the  sound  from  B,  the  sound  from 
A  can  not  be  heard  by  B.  To  explain  this  phenomenon  on 
the  principle  of  an  acoustic  opacity  produced  by  flocculency 
would  require  a  medium  which  would  transmit  sound  in  one 
direction  and  not  in  the  opposite.  Joseph  Henry. 

Fo-Hi,  or  Fah-Hi :  a  half-mythical  character  in  Chinese 
history  ^nerally  considered  to  be  the  founder  of  the  Chi- 
nese nation.  His  accession  is  assigned  in  the  Chinese  an- 
nals to  28«52  B.C.,  but  is  placed  by  Dr.  Legge  {Yi-King,  p. 
11)  in  8323  B.  c.  He  is  said  to  have  introduced  social  order, 
music,  writing,  and  marriage,  and  established  a  kind  of 
mystic  religion,  which  superseded  to  a  great  extent  the 
ancient  star-worship.  He  is  the  reputed  discoverer  or  de- 
signer of  the  pah-kwa  or  "  eight  diagrams,"  lineal  figures  of 
three  lines  each  (either  whole  or  divided),  each  figure  repre- 
senting some  power  in  nature,  either  active  or  passive. 
These  by  combination  and  multiplication  form  the  sixty- 
four  hexagrams  on  which  is  based  the  text  of  the  Yi-King, 
or  Book  of  Chanoes,  one  of  the  Five  King  or  classics  of 
the  Chinese.  Fo-Ui  is  said  to  have  copied  these  diagrams 
from  the  back  of  a  tortoise. 

Ftfhr :  an  island  in  the  Xorth  Sea,  off  the  west  coast  of 
Schleswig,  to  which  it  belongs;  area,  25  sq.  miles;  pop. 
4,1«50.  It  is  a  good  bathing-place ;  the  chief  industries  are 
fishing,  oystering,  and  fowling. 

Foil  TM.  Eng.  foil,  leaf,  from  O.  ¥T,foil,foille,  feuilU  > 
Pr.  feutlle  <  Lat  folium^  folia  :  Gr.  ^^aaovT :  thin  sheets  of 
metal  (gold-foil,  tin-foil,  ete.)  thicker  than  the  leaf  metal  of 
commerce.  Gk)ld-foil  is  obtained  by  beating.  It  is  in  fact 
unfinished  gold-leaf,  and  is  chiefiy  used  by  dentists  for  stop- 
ing  decayed  teeth.  Tin-foil  is  obtained  by  rolling  the  metal 
OToy  shaving  a  thin  layer  from  a  block  of  tin  in  an  ingeni- 
ous machine,  which  not  only  cuts  off  the  foil,  but  rolls  and 
stretehes  it  at  the  same  time.  It  is  much  adulterated  with 
lead.  Pure  tin-foil  is  of  great  use  in  chemistry  and  the 
arts.  Foils  of  copper  and  other  metals  are  used  for  the 
backing  of  gems  by  the  lapidary.  The  skillful  use  of  nicely 
colored  foils  sets  off  and  greatly  heightens  thcicffect  of  most 
precious  stones. 

Foils :  See  Fencing. 

Foix,  fwaa:  town  of  Prance;  department  of  Ariege;  at 
the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  &-E).  It 
was  the  birthplace  of  Gaston  de  Foix  and  the  residence  of 
the  Counts  or  Foix,  of  whose  ancient  castle  only  three  tow- 
ers remain.  The  town  has  some  trade  in  iron.  Pop.  (1891) 
of  commune,  6,177. 

Foix,  Counts  of  :  French  family  prominent  from  the 
eleventh  century  to  the  sixteenth.  The  first  to  assume  the 
title  was  Roger,  who  inherited  the  town  of  Foix  and  adjoin- 
ing territory  from  his  uncle,  the  Count  of  Carcassonne.  D. 
1(>64. — A  more  noted  name  is  that  of  Raymond  Roger, 
who  succeeded  to  the  county  in  1188.  He  was  a  companion 
of  Philip  Augustus  in  the  third  crusade,  and  one  of  the 
heroes  oi  the  siege  of  Acre.  In  the  persecutions  of  the  Al- 
bigensians  he  exposed  himself  to  the  charge  of  heresy  by 
championing  their  cause  against  Simon  de  Montfort,  who 
attempted  to  gain  possession  of  the  count's  lands.  De  Mont- 
fort fell  at  the  siege  of  Toulouse  1218,  and  Raymond  became 
reconciled  to  the  Church  a  short  time  before  his  death  in 


1223.~Count  Roger  IV.  (1241-1265)  rendered  homap-  for 
his  estates  to  the  King  of  France. — His  successor,  UoiiLb 
Bbr^^ard  III.  (1265-18(^),  was  a  better  troubadour  than  war- 
rior, and  stands  high  among  the  Provencal  poets.  He  «»> 
humiliated  by  his  enemies,  and  taken  prisoner  both  by  tli*- 
King  of  France  and  the  King  of  Aragon. — Gaston  III.,  >ur- 
named  Phcebus,  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  figures  of 
the  time.  He  became  count  in  1243,  fought  in  the  war 
against  the  English,  and  for  this  was  made  governor  of  I^n- 

SLiedoc,  but  was  suspected  of  conspiracy  with  Charity  t[  e 
ad  of  Navarre,  ana  thrown  into  prison  1356.  He  was  •umj, 
released,  and  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Teutonic  kni<:=  '^ 
a^inst  the  heathen  of  Prussia.  On  his  return  to  Frano'  K- 
aided  in  putting  down  the  Jacquerie,  and  rescued  the  r^nnl 
princesses  from  the  rebels  by  his  victory  at  Meaux.  U.- 
newing  the  ancient  feud  with  the  house  of  Armagnat*.  he  iU- 
feated  the  Count  of  Arma|:nac  and  took  posse^^^iun  •  f 
B^am.  He  was  again  appointed  governor  of  Languid l^r- 
by  the  king,  but  on  the  king*s  death  the  regency  be>t(iv(t  <: 
that  dignity  on  the  Duke  of  Berry.  Gaston  defeate«i  Im:. 
in  the  battle  of  Revel,  but  subsequently  renounced  hi:>  rl:i::'  - 
D.  in  1391.  He  was  skilled  in  hunting,  and  has  left  a  nn  ..r . 
of  his  fondness  for  the  chase  in  his  Miroir  de  Phibu9  dr  • 
diduicts  de  la  chaaae,  ete,  (Paris,  1507),  written  in  an  in- 
volved and  pompous  style.  In  1484  the  county  of  Foix  U- 
came  merged  in  the  kingdom  of  Navarre. — Gaston  de  F<m\ 
{q,  v.),  who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Ravenna  1512,  was  the  de- 
scendant of  a  collateral  branch.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Fokien,  or  Fnkien :  See  Fuh-sien. 

Foktchanjr,  fok-chaa'nee,  or  Fokchani :  a  town  <>f  Riai- 
mania ;  province  of  Moldavia,  on  the  Milkow  (see  map  c  f 
Turkey,  ref.  2-D).  It  has  vineyards  and  an  important  tra<i- 
with  Galatz.  On  Aug.  1, 1789,  it  was  the  scene  of  tlu*  vic- 
tory of  the  Austrians  and  Russians  under  the  Princ*e  of  (  i»- 
burg  and  Suwarrow  over  the  Turks.    Pop.  25,290. 

Folc-land  [O.  Eng.  fole,  people  +  land,  land] :  a  temi  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  laws  and  institutions,  used  to  de^i;.^^l^■ 
lands  owned  by  the  community  at  Isxge,  and  not  by  in«i<- 
vidual  proprietors — that  is,  lands  the  title  of  which  w'&s  ht  .<: 
by  the  state,  although  the  possession  and  usufruct  might  (« 
temporarily  enjoyed  by  pnvate  persons.    When  the  in>titu- 
tions  of  the  ancient  German  tribes  first  came  within  the  oK- 
servation  of  the  Romans  land  was  owned  by  the  ctmimun- 
itv,  and  this  primitive  mode  of  proprietorship  was  th**  Im-.« 
of  their  tribal  polity.    The  territory  of  a  tribe,  being  d i  vi.  i- . 
into  cantons  and  then  into  townships  (marks),  was  allott^: 
at  regular  intervals  by  the  tribal  authorities  to  the  indivi- 
dual freemen  ;  such  distribution,  according  to  Cesar.  Ui;.^' 
made  annually.    Kemble  is  of  the  opinion  that  thisi^'n.- 
mon  or  public  land  did  not  embrace  all  the  territory  \m- 
longing  to  a  tribe,  but  that  the  notion  of  private,  ah^>li.t' 
proprietorship  had  already  become  familiar  to  the  Teutti:..- 
peoples.    It  is  certain  that  at  the  epoch  of  the  final  <*\^' 
throw  of  the  Western  empire  this  notion  was  establi>})iM!  ..- 
a  part  of  their  tribal  institutions.    Upon  the  barbarian  i:i- 
vasions  of  Gaul,  Spain,  Italy,  etc,  the  provincial  owners  w< " 
at  once  deprived  wholly  or  partially  of  their  land&     Of  t* 
territory  thus  seized  by  the  conquerors,  a  portion  was  diviii'-: 
in  uneaual  amounts  among  the  warriors  and  beads  of  f.,:: 
ilies,  wno  took  an  absolute  property  or  inheritance  in  tK-  - 
allotments,  and  who  thus  became,  according  to  the  n(Ui>  r 
clature  of  the  modem  law,  allodial  propnetors.    The  '-•  - 
mainder  of  the  territory  belonp^  to  the  community,  ar 
as  a  more  regular  and  firm  political  organization  c^i^w  u* 
it  was  held  under  the  control  and  at  the  disposal  of  the  ^^i 
preme  authority — king  or  assembly  of  the  people.     Of  ih  - 
public  land  a  part  was  appropriated  to  the  uses  of  the  c  ^ 
emment  and  to  the  support  of  the  cro?m;  a  part  was  fnr- 
time  to  time  granted  to  allodial  proprietors;  while  anc^ii.t  r 
part  was  bestowed  upon  individuals,  not  in  absolute  own*  r 
ship,  but  as  benefices  to  be  held  in  consideration  of  feik." 
ana  services  rendered,  so  that  the  beneficiaries  or  tenan-* 
enjoyed  the  usufruct  only  {dominium  utile),  the  ultima* 
o¥mership  (dominium  directum)  remaining  in  the  state.     It 
respect  to  the  modes  of  ownership,  there  tihus  existed  sinv*  ■ 
taneously  among  the  Teutonic  successors  to  the  Wf^it'  ^ 
empire  three  varieties  or  species  of  land  :  (1)  the  piii 
land,  owned  by  the  state  and  under  its  immediate  oontr< 
(2)  allodial  land  ;  (3)  land  held  by  tenure  from  the  stat**  i  - 
from  some  superior  lord,  to  which  the  name  frvdol  »:.- 
subsequently  applied.     In  the  lapse  of  time,  and  es^pirx^inr 
during  the  periods  of  internal  discord,  the  allodial  minlr 
proprietorship  very  generally  disappeared,  the  allodial  pr^*- 


46d 


FULOEH 


r»lf«r.  I'ktm:  i-..l.iriL-4  uml  wril.T;  li.  in  EnftUnd  _._ 
WIT ;  rvm..».'.l  fMm  Si.rwi.h  io  !««.  u)<I  «ilh  his  (Bthpr 
*i-r ■  1.^1  al  Marltia's  ViiivvKnl.  Mams.  ;  in  leA-l  rvmovml  U>  Saa- 
lu.  krt.  lii><lBU|;htiTA'kiia«uUFnjiiiDinFrankUtriim«tli«r. 
t'nmi  l*7y  li.'  w«Bi-IiTk  i.f  tlif  courls,"'"!  wrole  j1  Loiiking- 
y'.un  Aw  Mi>  rinw^  or  /A*  /'ormfr  tipirit  of  ytw  Kngliiiul 
K'ltrrd  in  (Am  OrnrratioH  (t675),     D.  M  XKntuckfl.  I«JH>, 

Fvllra*.  t<}-l>^'nvu  (l,aU  Fvlginium):  town  of  Central 
luU:  iiriiviocG  at  I'mbrui  iS  inilni  S.  K.  of  reruinB<Mi> 
TDs(>  of  IuIt.  ref.  5-K).  It  in  the  m-uI  iif  a  liidhf>|iric.  and 
hu  Lvlfhrati^l  nianufiu'liirm  of  woolens  and  parchmf  nt.  It 
WM  known  in  tbe  Middle  A)(m  «e  Filignum,  and  retained 
iu  in'IrpFmleni.'e  until  I2C1,  when  it  vaa  tonqiwred  and  de- 
itniirnl  bf  lh«  Perui-iaris.  Kebuilt.  it  was  ruled  bv  the 
Tnnt'i  familT  nntil  XVSi.  when  it  was  incorporated  with  the 
Matm  •>(  the  C'hurrh.  Il  was  ncarW  dcstrojed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1Kt3.     Pop.  8.7.>3. 

F*lkML.  Mmtih:  anlir|iiarian;  b.  in  tjondon,  England. 
tM  ».  |(M);  d  there  in  17M.     He  was  edueated  at  Clare 

•  '■■.I'';,'-.  <'«"il>rid(:p.  ami  iii.il ingu is hni  himself  so  much  bj- 
him  iiii.-ii.iiir'al  Muilies  thai  in  1T13  he  liecanio  a  fellow  o( 
Ih-  R..)Ai  N.i.-iT.  and  in  1741  iU  president.  Id  17.CI  he 
intc-l  Ihr-u^-ri  Kninrv  miil  ItnlT.  and  nul>li^heil  bis />■>- 
wrt.U'.M  «»  !*»■  W'.qhI.  „nd  VatHr*  of  Anrirnt  i'oitis. 
a  -  i.-n-v-.t  .ork  i.  111,  T-Mf  of  fSnglish  tIM  (V,,ns  fnm 
Ik,  f...;>-:.;/h  Y..,T.,f  King  Kdintrd  111.,  trhen  (iolit  inu 
1:'  ",.^,/  tn  tl'i'i'-i,..!.  In  lit  fr^'Mnl  Timr.  trilh  Ihrir 
W...,>t.aH.I  Jntr„,-,f  IW««,  whi<h  was  j.rintwi  in  lT4iJ 

•  •'-...-  ,n  Kn:;lnr|.|.  lie  .•onlributM  tHt|>^r' on  Koiiiiin  an- 
'.,.■->  I.,  thr  Trnnmrlum*  .if  llie  Kiiyal  Sxiety  and  those 
■A  ■h'  S.  irij  o(  Anli.|Uarie». 

F«lkMl«B#:  tiiwn  of  Kn^fland;  un  tbe  southc««t  i-nast 
of  K-nl ;  •«  mill*  by  rail  S.  E.  of  l»mlon  (see  map  of  Kmr- 
^■.  I.  rrf.  IJ-I.).  ll  IS  a  favorite  waii'rintc-pW'e. and  its  har- 
ir.T  u  miii'li  tni(ut'iit(ii  )iv  l><>nl->  n-xil  in  the  mackerel  and 
l'i.p.  (1W1)  W,7(W. 

orifiin  and 

»;tni..|..jmu  <■.  in  nil 'lion  oi  words  which  immmliately  sur- 

r>r  i>f  rea*>niiir  u]>>ii  eiinw-iiHinly  iiillii-l(vl  maleriais.     It  ia 
r^U'.-l   Ui  iii.-rilifi<>  etyiiiolcij.'T  Hitnewhat  ns  folll-h>rri  i"  re- 
la'--  I  til  scifiilitlt-  biitorv.     Its  phenomena  are  due  to  an  in- 
rfiiieliTe  trnilrm-T  of  the  human  mind  to  find  raeanintc  and 
1  Ihn  apmn-iiIlT  penfer»i>  and  meaninnh-^"  nia- 
:<,n^:    They  furnish  therefore  no  Liii.le  to  the 
oli<i;r  of  the  words  ennerrneil.  but  are.  on  the 
iimt  iniiarial>tr  misleailin)t<  often  ilatiui'tiiu^ly 
ht.wi'ver.  tiiniisb  most  im|<ortant  di'wn  to  the 
nitid's  aetiiin.  as  well  as  to  thi'  soojie  nml  rela- 
fai-ton  of  onlinary  eini*'iiiii«iii-*i.     The   mi«t 
■opiiKiI  ra-.-"  of  ("lk-elytnolo|fv  are  thewe  in 
empl  to'ri'wl  ini'ntinik,'  iiitu"a  ('idT  of  eounds 
nam.>lini-aiionof  ihefonnoftheword.    Tbe 
■n  made  (o  eonfonn  to  its  sup|««iil  etjrmon. 
H  ion  of  a  woni  mai  lie  ailaptiil  tJiIhe  form  of 
;  as  r/iHifienii  Intra 


P*lh-«l;  ■•!•«;,  i>r  PopoUr  EtjMftlafT:  thi 

ral  and  un-n  i<-iilitit-  impiv»ion  conivminic  tho  oh 


,  ef.  Krr 


Hen- 
wor<l 


',  Ui 


y  has  liei-n  i-onieiriil  to 

•■"■n  change"!  aii-oriliiifElT. 
■nii-niK  of  a  (■".ii|«.iirnt  is  rra-lai>l<-<l  to 'a 
ilder  *.r/n,s  v,i  It.   Vt. 
h'rr.Til.  wsiih-towiT.  in  whic-b  the  for- 


.-.1    ' 


I-    to 


.  pr. 


!•  <>.  K>iu'.  "'•'/'.  psiii :  lienn.  h,..i..rl  for  A^.- 
,rf  f,,r  m;ll>r.,rf.  .-tc.  (It)  .\  word  of  ol.~iir.- 
.;  l-.hs-iir-l  -.aslohaNe.e1.-.rvtVmoloKv. 
-..il.-»r"/.V/,V  or  W.(r,a  diri.ali"v«  of  fl. 


ini  aiui'n);  -rn.!- 


F0I>K-U)BB 

The  falie  etvinolo|[ieal  eonntvliiMi  nay.  buwror     '• 
take  plaiv  witlmiit  nwiillant  cluuip-  of  form.     Ii  i.    , 
itself  then  cither  (1)  liy  the  ortbotrrafiby.  a*  m>'»hJ.      ■ 
the  »  shows  a  false  eoiineeliiin  with  ttlr  :  or  i^i.  in  'i-  .• 
tlie  word  in  its  eimleit.  as  when  tttmUit  i-  nm-.i  ■>  .  i 
thing  which  inflames  (Idil.  iitrrndrrrt  in>i'a>l   ■■!  tr  •   . 
thing  which  give*  the  keynote  (L^l.  iiuiiur>i,  cf.  K     > 
Fan  InemUtr  mil 
Pn>Tlde.  pmiOammlititmrUiuiAaiaiw-tr  U.  n.  iu 
or  (3)  in  the  linKUistie  conwioosneanof  the  inlii>t  t.  * 
the  use  of  rutirr  (fnim    1^1.  mlUtlut.  koilr..   w).^  ■.  r 
s|ie«kers  fwl  to  be  conneoteO  with  the  T«rb  In  rmt 

BiBuiKtRirHT. — Palmer,  A.  S..  FiJk-rtv™—''-rf  '"^ 
AndreA'n.  K.  U..  I'rbtr  dmltttir  Volkmlym.J../u  ■*■  m 
1HtS3):  Keller,  ()..  Lalriniirhr  VoIkflym.J.^,*  kO  I 
tntndte»{\W\):  Weise.lK.  Volkirfymiii'.^tmh.  .■^mJ^  H 
whA.  i*i'iVr,T.,«H  fr.:  [IcNiiiui.  S..  ViJL-vlymfJ.^:,  ,t.  .V 
gritfhiiiehrtt.  Buienlt.  Ur%lr„  ii..  StH  fl.,  lo..  -7  i.  a 
Vnrstemann.  M,  ItUr  dnilnrJir  Viitk''lvm.J.v.r .  K. 
2eirsr/ir..  i..  1  ff.,  uiii.,  STA  0. ;  Wei-e,tl..X«r  <  ajt*-. 
k  drr   VolkMlymologif,  Znlackr.  fir   VfJLtrpry^ 


I'olk-lorr  \folk.  u>.sl  in  tbe  sense  <.r  ih.-  i^.-m..  r  ::. 
pie  +  lorr  <  O.  En^t.  Wr  :  Gertn.  LeArt) :  ih»i  c,*»  .' 
Uims,  beliefs,  and  ideas,  pusaessin);  a  pnRiiiix  '&■■ 
which  is  traditionally  cum  muni  cat  ed  from  k"- n:  ■ 
KeneralioD.  The  word,  in  il»  stricter  (wn-r.  n  f^  i-  ■  ■ 
plied  to  the  tratlitions  of  eiviliied  countries  p«{><  .&  ' 
nipean  c(iuutri>«  and  regions  niloniied  from  Kur>  f '  1 
extension  of  this  si^iflcation.  howevrr.  it  i-  t.-"  ■  .— 
cmployeil  in  such  a  manner  as  to  include  all  ti.a-<' & 
similar  character,  although  e 
unciriliicKl  rues;  it  is  com 
Etrrplian.  Hindu.  Aino.  or  Ai 
usage  seems  to  Ih-  justifleil  1>t  the  following  •-■  •.-    -  -. 

(1)  The  traditions  of  Westi-fn  Kuro|*'  a»*  .~  i  ■..- 
thuM  of  other  continents,  and  often  ulrntiiai  ■,. 

(2)  the  progress  of  civilization. even  ami-ng  lni>-*    <  '  - 
t«  lie  ill  a  "primitive"  stage  o[  culture,  u  h>  nt 
ce.ilral  habits  and  opinions  are  rahidly  lirii.g  r<    .t 
the  status  of  superseded  notions  that  i-iin>ti*    le   ' 
Ne\crtlicleiis,  in  order  to  brin^  the  mailer  w .; .  .r.  . 
paiu  of  a  general  treatment  it  will  be  in-' r—.Kri  :. 
mind,  in  the  first  instance,  the  lolk-lon-  of  K..r-  |. 

The  name  originated  with  W.  J.  Th-  n.v  >  t  -  .    t  • 
to  Tht  Alhriurum.  Aug.  23.  IHM.  urgine  H'-  ••     •• 
what   in  England  were  defignatrd   pofmiar  at.' 
popular  literaiurv.  remarkeil  that  the  latiir  "■<■...  • 
aptiv  designated   bv  a  gtHil   .■>ax<in  comi>-u:  d   • '.    . 
the  lore  of  the  is-opV.~      He  incluil.ol  undnr  t:...  ^  . 
ners.  cii«toms.  olisi-rvaneni,  Mit^rstitv-ti*.  l«i;»ilv  *.- 
erbs.    Tbe  term  hw  not  only  taken  n«>i  it.  f.-.  ^    •:   ■ 
hut  has  become  so  far  natural iieil  in  ibr  Ri>iia*i  <*    aj, 
that  it  is  emploved  in  new  tunnBii"ii>,  as  in   Vm 
/ort's/<.  Italian /iJil/on'm.    Tbe  lirnnaa   l'-.ti*v<^> 
fonnation  of  any  kind  in  reganl  to  a  raie.  it  j  r- 
more  inclusive  term,  but  is  now  u>rd  a*  Hl^riwal  «    : 
tore.  VOikfrkundf  Iving  ma'rveil  for  rlAntJ.^if 

The  expansion  in  tike  meaning  ha*  In-n  ■»'  ie:bx 
a  change  in  tbe  lunnotation  of  the  woril  '•  .'i.  1 ;  .>  « 
nned  by  the  makers  of  eariy  Kngli^h  db  i  .■  >i.«nr«  v 
fving  pirbji  or  mlffH*.  -the  iiimmon  iw).>.~  au.: 
ihe  ide«  it  conveynl  to  tk*  authors  wt.o  *rtr  trw 
of  folk-lore,  and  who  had  es)miiil!i  in  ii-^.r  b.  :. 
I>i'asantr7  of  Kurope.  I'nder  tbe  influ<i>-i.  i.  •. 
[■oinpuunds  siiggeKted  by  lJ»e  rieraan  l.«i.  •.^  t.  m 
<l>ee<'h.  folk-art.  f'>lk-mu>ic.fulk-life.  the  Ki«  ^w  • 
lias  shown  a  tendency  to  revert  to  its  •■Id-r  we,**.  ■• 

I  the  members  of  a  community  umioi  i-j  tw> 

d  vicinage.     It  Is  also  true  that  tbe  trail, i..  cm    ;    . 

II  uneducatnl  ;iersons  do  not.  in  Ibr  mui,.  I*     e  ^ 
aclB.v,but  that  the  ilhlentr  ■iiii}..i  rrt«^  v 
[■»  iH'hingnl  t"'  all  claww.      K.-ik-i.^rr    »•(■..; 
long  the  m>M|   intelligent  a*  wril   a*  mm--t   " 

|u.rl   of  the   population:  s..  that    f-'k.  id   !►.-  .,  u* 
'   lie  t^keii  to  include  old-fa*). i  nnl   pn  ,.-r.  ar. 

cotii-i-Uions.      IlTtlH-  toiL-:.iiT  .. 


'^.«>1    Ih.    r-i^.   -...    M. 


r,.]-! 


454 


FOLK-LORE 


or  holy  personage,  (e)  Drolls,  or  jests,  are  of  a  humorous 
nature,  being  generally  broadly  comic  in  their  type.  (/) 
Myths. — The  term  is  often  applied  to  popular  narratives  be- 
longing to  any  of  the  classes  named,  but  in  a  stricter  sense 
is  employed  to  denote  tales  professing  to  give  explanations 
of  the  existing  conditions  of  beings  or  things  (etiological),  or 
to  those  assumed  to  symbolize  the  operations  of  nature.'  {g) 
Examples,  illustrations,  anecdotes. 

C.  Sfinor  Elements  of  Popular  Literature, — (a)  Rhymes, — 
The  designation  includes  a  great  variety  of  forms,  game 
rhymes,  nursery  rhymes  of  different  sorts,  place  rhymes,  and 
personal  rhymes,  what  the  French  call  olason  populaire, 
etc.  (b)  Biddies, — Amusements  now  regarded  as  congenerfc 
the  conundrum,  paronomasia,  etc.,  are  not  very  closely  alUeu 
to  this  ancient  kmd  of  literature,    (c)  Proverbs  and  sayings. 

(d)  Phrases,  not  so  distinctly  expressive  of  a  general  truth. 

(e)  Expressions  and  words  of  a  primitive  character,  when 
regarded  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  folk-lore  which  they 
contain. 

Theobt. — According,  to  the  definitions  above  given,  folk- 
lore makes  part  of  the  subject-matter  of  anthropology,  eth- 
nology, psychology,  history,  aesthetics,  ethics,  music,  and 
many  other  sciences.  For  the  purposes  of  comparative  treat- 
ment it  is  impossible  to  limit  examination  to  the  folk-lore  of 
civilized  communities,  but  the  traditions  of  races  in  a  simple 
stage  of  culture  must  also  be  taken  into  account.  It  might 
seem  that  the  resulting  expansion  of  the  material  would 
make  it  as  impossible  to  deal  with  the  contents  of  folk-lore, 
as  with  the  contents  of  literature.  There  may,  however,  be 
a  science  or  theory,  of  folk-lore,  considered  with  reference  to 
its  distinguishing  characteristics  and  method  of  communica- 
tion. Such  an  investigation,  for  which  materials  are  only 
beginning  to  exist,  might  consider,  besides  a  survey  and  sub- 
division of  the  field,  the  manner  of  collection  of  folk-lore ; 
the  genuineness  of  the  record ;  its  distribution  and  diffusion ; 
the  different  staj^es  and  the  development  of  oral  tradition ; 
the  characteristics  belonging  to  this  tradition  as  inherited 
and  popular ;  the  relation  of  the  ideas  of  the  illiterate  to  the 
literate  classes ;  the  connection  of  oral  and  written  literature ; 
the  manner  in  which  popular  belief  and  fancy  furnish  the 
groundwork  for  productions  of  art,  and  the  reaction  of 
conscious  art  on  tradition ;  the  connection  of  superstition 
with  philosophy  and  poetry ;  and  numerous  similar  topics. 
In  regard  to  such  questions,  which  require  extended  treat- 
ment, only  a  few  remarks  can  here  be  offered. 

(a)  The  Recording  of  Folk-lore. — It  is  now  considered  as 
essential  that  a  popular  tradition,  in  order  to  become  the 
material  of  scientihc  consideration,  should  be  written  down 
exactly  as  repeated  to  the  collector,  without  addition  or 
adornment.  Such,  however,  was  by  no  means  the  practice 
of  early  collectors,  who  regarded  folk-lore  as  mere  curiosities 
which  were  interesting  only  when  singular,  and  which  re- 
quired to  be  ornamented  and  corrected  before  being  com- 
mitted to  print.  For  example,  the  early  gatherers  of  Eng- 
lish ballads  had  no  hesitation  in  adding  an  introduction  or 
conclusion  to  their  material,  or  in  reconstructing  any  irreg- 
ular stanza  or  quaint  idiom.  The  imperfect  understanding 
of  the  true  characteristics  of  oral  tradition  caused  collectors 
of  taie-vS,  even  when  of  distinguished  scientific  attainiiients, 
to  include  pieces  not  really  of  a  popular  character.  As  these 
productions  were  highly  estimated  according  to  literary  merit, 
the  temptation  was  irresistible  to  edit  the  ruder  stories  in 
such  manner  as  to  give  them  an  attractive  dress,  and  this 
practice  of  beautifying  folk-tales  has  continued  down  to  the 
present  time.  To  this  erroneous  procedure  has  been  added, 
in  many  cases,  absolute  forgery ;  the  literary  conscience  of 
the  past  generation  scarcely  considered  invention  in  this 
field  as  anything  more  than  a  justifiable  effort  of  ingenuity. 
A  particularly  flagrant  example  of  this  artificial  prcxluction 
of  traditions  was  furnished  oy  Hersart  de  la  Villeraarque, 
whose  Breton  collections  are  now  known  to  have  been  in 
great  part  fictitious.  Even  at  the  present  moment  this 
methoa  of  creating  folk-lore  has  by  no  means  ceased,  but,  in 
part  from  miscomprehension  and  mistaken  theory,  in  part 
from  deliberate  imagination,  myths  and  stories  wnich  have 
no  real  existence  on  the  lips  of  any  folk  continue  to  be 
added  to  the  stock.  Such  inaccuracy  renders  necessary  par- 
ticular caution,  both  in  the  recorder  and  in  the  critic  of  tra- 
ditional material.  These  remarks  apply  also  to  a  great  part 
of  the  information  to  be  found  in  books  respecting  the 
mythology  and  cuvstoms  of  primitive  races,  and  affect  the 
validity  of  the  general  conclusions  constantly  founded  on 
imperfect  testimony  and  appearing  in  general  treatises  on 
the  theory  of  religions,  mythologies,  and  ethical  notions. 


(b)  Folk-lore  and  Anthropology, — The  popular  traditu>i- 
of  civilized  countries  may  be  considered  from  either  <if  X^ 
different  points  of  view.  The  products  of  oral  traditi.« 
may  be  estimated  accordins^  to  their  value  as  literature,  m  - 
iud^d  according  to  the  rules  of  »sthetics,  or  else  lh»*\  mi} 
be  viewed  especially  as  survivals  of  earlier  conditi<ms?.  nf  «m.:- 
ture,  and  as  calculated  to  throw  light  on  the  progress  of  hi- 
tory  and  the  development  of  intelligence.  As  the  latter 
method  is  the  more  inclusive,  and  as  a  consideration  of  folk- 
lore as  science  is  not  incompatible  with  a  just  estimat*'  <f 
its  interest  as  literature,  the  material  is  usually  regarded  .i* 
coming  within  the  province  of  anthropology.  With  n-cur-j 
to  the  definition  and  limits  of  the  latter  science,  no  Htcr».-»- 
ment  exists,  some  investigators  being  disposed  to  limit  \\i 
inclusiveness  of  the  term  to  the  study  of  man  reganh^^l  Jk> 
an  animal,  or  to  the  review  of  the  characters  of  uncivil!/ <•' 
man,  while  others,  apparently  in  the  majority,  take  in  t  r 
whole  field  of  human  action,  and  include  those  general  qii.-*- 
tions  which  formerly  were  consideretl  to  form  the  provin  •» 
of  philosophy.  Ethnography  consists  in  the  descnptiun  of 
the  characters  of  a  race  or  of  the  racea  of  a  certain  territ«»rT : 
ethnology  in  the  corresponding  theoretical  inquiriea.  Ti- 
folk-lore  of  any  given  country  would  therefore  form  part  "1 
the  ethnography  of  that  country ;  but  as  it  will  be  ssho^i 
that  race  is  a  secondary  question  in  regard  to  folk-lore,  h.i.  i 
as  the  comparative  subject  may  be  viewed  from  a  gen*  rL 
human  point  of  view,  it  must  be  under  general  anthroj  1- 
ogy»  rather  than  ethnology,  that  folk-lore  should  be  broui:!.*. 

(c)  The  Antiquity  of  Folk-lore. — The  persistence  of  ••:... 
tradition  and  tenacity  of  the  popular  memory  are  often  t  i  • 
subject  of  remark,  and  might  be  illustrated  by  numer.  , - 
examples.  Certain  games  are  as  old  as  history,  and  in  >«»r:K 
cases  even  the  formulas  with  which  they  are  played  iui^\ 
be  traced  for  2,000  years.  The*elements  of  folk-tiles  al.-v. 
or  some  portion  of  them,  seem  to  be  prehistx>ric  in  date.  li> 
recent  collections  of  ballads  in  Scandinavian  count riir«  ]t 
was  found  that  many  of  these  had  changed  only  in  langii;i.:- 
or  in  reduction  of  compass  from  the  forms  collecte<l  in  ri'.^r  - 
tiscript  three  centuries  before.  Some  modem  spells  and  <.- 
perstitions  also  have  been  shown  to  be  nearly  iaenticAl  wi*  * 
similar  matter  recorded  more  than  a  thousand  years  a_- 
Observations  of  this  sort  have  led  to  extravagant  aj**er'vi.  •  - 
regarding  the  antiquity  of  all  popular  traditions.  It  Ls  i  r  r- 
tain,  however,  that  no  such  general  principle  can  b«»  e-tsJi- 
lished.  If  some  traditions  are  ancient,  others  are  tlm^U  \- 
There  is  constantly  going  on  a  change  in  the  fashions  ctf  {»  ;- 
ular  tradition,  although  the  alteration  is  much  slower  t-iu: 
in  the  case  of  literature.  The  question  of  the  proliable  <!**- 
of  a  usage  or  story  can  not  be  answered  in  any  universal  n>aT.> 
ner,  but  must  in  each  separate  case  be  a  theme  of  inquiry. 

(rf)  Folk-lore,  Race,  and  Language. — The  questions  w  \     * 
have  been  most  eagerly  debated,  and  on  which  most  tlitT>  -> 
ence  of  opinion  continues  to  exist,  are  those  which  all    * 
the  diffusion  and  distribution  of  folk-lore.     To  Jacol>  ;i-   . 
William  Grimm,  and  other  students  of  the  early  part 
the  century,  tradition,  descent,  and  linguistic  form  w  •  r  • 
parallel.    The  doctrine  of  these  scholars  was  that  the  n  ' 
thology  of  each  pariicular  race  expressed  the  special  wu% 
considering  nature  proj^er  to  that  branch  oi  the  Hutt.* 
family,  and  that  this  information  was  traditionally  Iihi  -i  - . 
down  unmingled  as  a  sacred  treasure  to  descendants :  v   - 
inherited  stock  of  knowledge,  though  affected  by  the  jntv  - 
ences  of  time,  survived  in  the  oral  tradition  of  the  l.i**  ■ 
age ;  thus  folk-lore,  as  the  remainder  of  what  was  esiKv  i  \    - 
national,  indicated  the  true  way  of  feeling  profxjr  to  a  f-    ■ 
and  thus  collection  and  study  went  hand  in  hand  wirh  :~ 
triotic  feeling.    After  comparative  philology  had  estahli^:- 
the  kinship  of  Indo-European  tongues  anU  undertak*  r. 
reconstruct  the  civilization  of  the  original  stock,  by  irt-*    - 
of  linguistic  comparisons,  the  principle  continued  U*  : 
held  that  community  of  popular  tradition  was  proof  of  <.••• 
mon  descent.    This  view,  expressed  in  the  phras<»  •*  An    - 
origins,"  played  a  great  part  in  the  speculations  of  >I    - 
MttUer  and  other  writers.     In  this  methwl  of  research,  1 «  %- 
ever,  ethnology  and  archaeology  had  not   been   ct^nsulv 
The  results  of  recent  investigation  have  been  to  caM  u 
uncertainty  results  which  were  sup|)Ose<l  to  be  secun" :  *  * 
original  habitat  of  the  Aryan  race,  formerly  establislu-. 
Asia,  has  l)een   variously  fixed   in   S^iuthem   Euroj^  .r 
North  Africa ;  the  physiological  characteristics  of  tho  [*»•<•; 
in  question  have  been  shown  to  be  so  mixed  that  at 
present  time  no  certain  opinion  can  be  maintained  r\-vra^  - 
ing  their  original  racial  characters.    Corresponding  to  :t 
debate,  comparisons  of  the  material  of  folk-lore  have  show 


456 


FOLLEN 


POND  DU  LAC 


several  times  arrested,  and  after  fleeing  from  Giessen  he 
went  to  Switzerland.  He  was  appointed  Professor  of  Latin 
and  History  in  the  cantonal  school  at  Chur  (Cbire) :  but  be- 
ing a  liberal  in  theology  as  well  as  in  politics,  his  lectures 
gave  offense  to  the  CaTvinistic  ministers ;  so  that,  finding 
his  position  uncomfortable,  he  resigned  it  and  left.  Next 
he  lectured  on  law  and  metaphysics  at  Basel,  but  his  reputa- 
tion went  with  him ;  the  allied  powers  demanded  his  surren- 
der, and  again  he  fled,  this  time  through  Paris  to  Havre, 
whence  he  embarked  for  the  U.  S.,  where,  thanks  to  influ- 
ential friends — La  Favette  amon^  them — he  found  welcome. 
A  few  months  aft^r  ho  landed,  m  the  autumn  of  1825,  he 
was  made  tutor  of  German  at  Harvard  College.  Three 
years  later,  having  in  the  meanwhile  studied  divmit^  with 
Dr.  Channing,  and  been  admitted  to  the  Unitarian  mmistry, 
he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History  and 
Ethics  in  tne  Cambridge  Divinity  School ;  in  1830  the  pro- 
fessorship of  German  Language  and  Literature  was  conferred 
on  him.  In  the  five  years  he  held  it  he  did  much  to  make 
that  department  attractive.  For  a  short  time  (1836-37)  he 
was  pastor  of  the  First  Unitarian  church  in  New  York,  fol- 
lowing Rev.  William  Ware.  His  freedom  of  speech  about 
slavery  cut  short  his  ministry  there,  and  in  1839  he  accepted 
a  call  to  East  Lexington,  Mass.,  where  he  had  hardly  estab- 
lished himself  when  he  was  lost  in  the  steamer  Lexington, 
which  was  burned  on  Long  Island  Sound,  Jan.  13, 1840.  His 
writings,  with  memoir,  were  published  in  five  volumes  at 
Boston  in  1841. 

Follen,  Eliza  Lee  :  wife  of  Charles  Theodore  Christian 
Follen ;  daughter  of  Samuel  Cabot ;  b.  in  Boston,  Aug.  15, 
1787.  She,  Tike  her  husband,  whom  she  married  in  1828, 
was  an  earnest  abolitionist  from  first  to  last,  and  a  diligent 
writer.  Her  Selections  from  FineloHj  Well-spent  /Tbwra,  and 
Married  Life,  exerted  wholesome  influence  in  their  time. 
The  memoir  of  her  husband  was  from  her  pen.  The  Child's 
Friend  was  under  her  editorship  from  1843  to  1850.  D.  in 
Brookline,  Mass.,  Jan.  26, 1860. 

Folly  Island :  an  island  of  South  Carolina ;  in  Charles- 
ton CO.;  extends  S.  W.  from  Lighthouse  Inlet  to  Stone 
river,  having  Folly  Island  river  on  the  northwest  and  the 
ocean  on  the  southeast.  It  is  in  part  heavily  timbered,  and 
was  the  scene  of  important  operations  during  the  civil  war. 

■'  Folsom,  George,  LL.  D.  :  antiquarian ;  b.  in  Kenne- 
bunk,  Me.,  May  23,  1802 ;  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  1822,  and  studied  law.  In  1830  he  published  a  History 
of  Saco  and  Biddeford^  Me. ;  in  1837  removed  to  New  York 
and  became  a  member  and  librarian  of  the  New  York  His- 
torical Society  ;  in  1841  edited  a  volume  of  its  Collections  ; 
afterward  translated  the  Dispatch^  of  Hernando  Cortis ; 
in  1843  published  the  Political  Condition  of  Mexico ;  in 
1858  Documents  Jielating  to  the  Early  History  of  Maine. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  State  Senate  in  1844- 
48,  and  chargi  d'affaires  to  the  Netherlands  1850-54.  Mr. 
Folsom  was  president  of  the  American  Ethnological  Society. 
D.  in  Rome,  Italy,  Mar.  27,  1869. 

Folsom,  Joseph  L.  :  soldier ;  b.  in  Meredith,  N,  H., 
Mav  19,  1817;  graduate  of  the  U.  S.  Military  Academv, 
and  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  infantry  July  1,  1840; 
served  in  Florida  against  the  Indians,  and  on  the  North- 
em  frontier  1840-44  ;  transferred  to  the  quartermaster's 
department,  with  rank  of  captain,  Sept.  1,  1846,  and 
served  in  California  during  the  war  with  Mexico.  He  was 
among  the  first  to  appreciate  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  communicate  the  information  oflicially  to  his 
Government.  He  was  identified  with  the  early  history  and 
development  of  San  Francisco,  where  he  became  a  large 
property-owner.  Folsom  City,  on  the  American  river,  near 
the  locality  where  gold  was  discovered,  is  named  in  his 
honor.     D.  at  San  Jose,  Cal,  July  19,  1855. 

Folsom,  Nathaniel  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Exeter,  N.  H..  in  1726 ; 
commanded  a  company  at  Fort  E<iward  in  1755,  and  aided 
in  the  capture  of  Baron  Dieskau.  Commanded  a  regiment 
of  militia  before  the  Revolution,  and  as  brigadier-general  of 
the  New  Hampshire  forces  served  in  the  siege  of  Boston 
until  July,  1775.     Was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Con- 

fress  1774-75  and  1777-80;  councilor  in  1778;  and  presi- 
ent  of  the  convention  which   framed  the  constitution  of 
New  Hampshire  in  1783.     D.  at  Exeter,  May,  26,  1790. 

Folsom,  Nathaniel  Smith  :  clergyman ;  b.  at  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  Mar.  12,  1806 ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege 1828,  and  at  Andover  (Mass.)  Theological  Seminary  in 
1831 ;  ordained  at  Bradford,  Mass.,  1831 ;  was  missionary  in 


Liberty  co.,  Ga.,  in  1831-32 ;  was  professor  in  Lane  Semi- 
nary and  in  Western  Reserve  College  from  1833  to  1M6; 
was  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  at  Francebto^n. 
N.  H.,  from  Oct.  12,  1836,  to  Aug.  21,  1838;  then  of  & 
church  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  1838-40;  of  a  Unitarian  chnn  li 
at  Haverhill.  Mass.,  1840-46 ;  edited  The  Christian  RegiMtr 
1846-48  at  Charlestown,  Mass. ;  and  was  Professor  of  Litcrn- 
ture  and  Biblical  Interpretation  at  Meadville  TheoIo^M(.ii 
School,  Pennsvlvania,  from  1848  to  1861.  He  took  up  !.:> 
residence  in  Boston  in  1875.  He  published  an  address  •  i, 
temperance  (1839),  and  an  Interpretation  of  the  Prop/tear ^ 
of  Daniel  (1842),  but  his  most  important  work  was  a  Trarifi- 
lotion  of  the  Four  Gospels  (revised  edition  1885).  D.  Nov 
10, 1890. 

Folwell,  William  Watts,  LL.T). :  b.  at  Romulxis,  Sn- 
eca  CO.,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  14,  1833 ;  graduated  at  Hobart  Colle^ 
1857 ;  was  teacher  in  Ovid  Academy  two  vears,  then  b^i^anie 
adjunct  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  itobart  College;  in 
1860  and  1861  studied  philology  in  Berlin  and  travel«^  ex- 
tensively in  Europe ;  in  Jan.,  1862,  was  commissioned  fiiM 
lieutenant  in  the  U.  S.  Engineers,  with  which  command  he 
served  through  all  the  cam^igns  of  the  Army  of  the  VoUy- 
mac  till  the  close  of  the  civil  war,  attaining  the  actual  rank 
of  major  of  engineers  and  the  brevet  nu^  of  lieutenaut- 
colonel  U.  S.  Vols.  After  some  years  spent  in  business  ht 
became  in  1869  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Kenyon  Col- 
lege, Gambler,  0.,  and  later  in  the  same  year  was  elected 
president  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  and  afterward 
Frofessor  of  Political  Economy  there  and  librarian.  He 
has  published  Public  Instruction  in  Minnesota,  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  National  Educational  Association  (1875). 
and  Lectures  on  Political  Economy. 

Folz,  or  Folcz,  Hans  :  poet ;  b.  at  Worms  in  147B ;  be- 
came a  resident  of  Nuremberg  and  a  Protestant ;  was  bv 
profession  a  barber.  He  was  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  of 
the  German  mastersingers,  and  besides  masterson^  wrote 
dramatic  Shrovetide  pieces  and  rhyming  tales.  His  lyrics 
are  often  spirited,  ^^raceful,  and  of  high  moral  tone'an<i 
much  literary  merit;  but  his  other  writings  are  c>ft«.'n 
marked  by  needless  coarseness  and  a  roughly  vigorous  «tyle 
of  humor. 

Fomentation  [viA  Fr.  from  Lat.  f omenta' tio,  deriv.  of  fu- 
menta're^  foment,  apply  warm  lotions,  deriv.  of  fomt-nlum. 
*fovimentumy  foment,  warm  lotion,  deriv.  otfove're,  wann. 
keep  warm] :  in  therapeutics,  the  application  of  hot  epithvm5. 
wet  or  dry  (wet  fomentation,  dry  fomentation),  to  disea>o*i 
parts.  Fomentations  act  chiefly  by  the  heat  and  moi>t:m 
they  convey  to  the  surface  treated,  out  they  are  sometinlu^ 
medicated.  Fomentation  is  usuallj  a  safe,  and  often  an 
effective,  means  of  treating  many  diseases. 

Fomltes,  fom'i-teez  [Lat.,  plur.  of  fomes,  kindling- W(it>d. 
tinder,  deriv.  of  fove're^  to  warm]  :  in  sanitary  science,  t>b- 
iects,  such  as  clothing,  furniture,  bedding,  wall-paper,  eiv^ 
by  which  the  infection  of  certain  diseases  is  retained,  and 
by  which  disease  may  be  propagated. 

Fonblanqne,  fon  bli&nk',  Albany  William  :  journal i5t : 
b.  in  London,  England,  in  1797;  the  son  of  John  de  Orem^T 
Fonblanque  ri  759- 1887^,  a  famous  equity  lawyer,  and  a 
brother  of  Jonn  Samuel  Martin  Fonblanque  (1787-1 865X  an 
able  writer  on  law  reform.  Mr.  Fonblanque  was  (lS20-46> 
editor  of  The  Examiner,  and  was  distinguished  for  litenftr> 
abilities  and  for  his  useful  labors  as  a  publicist.  Ho  «a> 
(1846-72)  chief  of  the  statistical  department  of  the  Board  of 
Trade,  and  comptroller  of  the  com  returns.  D.  in  Ix)n<lrn, 
Oct.  14,  1872.  11  is  England  under  Seven  Administraium* 
(1837)  is  a  valuable  collection  of  articles  from  2%^  Examiner. 
See  Life  and  Labors  of  Albany  Fonblanque,  by  his  nephew. 
Edward  Harrington  de  Fonblanque,  187^ 

Fonda:  village  and  railway  junction;  capital  of  Mont- 
gomery CO.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Now 
York,  rcf.  4-1);  on  the  Mohawk  river;  42  miles  X,  W.  of 
Albany.  It  has  knitting-mills  and  manufactures  of  flour 
and  carriages.  Principal  busines.s  farming  and  dairying. 
Pop.  (1880)  944 ;  (1890)  1.190. 

Fond  dn  Lac :  city  and  railway  center ;  capital  of  Fi»nd 
du  Lac  CO.,  Wis.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Wi^ct-^n- 
sin.  ref.  6-E) ;  on  Lake  Winnebago,  at  the  mouth  of  Foxid 
du  Lac  river ;  148  miles  from  Chicago,  63  from  Milwaukee, 
65  from  Green  Bay,  and  43  from  Sheboygan,  thus  enjoy  in^^ 
the  advantages  of  four  competing  lake-ports.  The  city  i? 
well  built,  and  is  delightfully  situated  on  a  plain  surroumleti 
by  hills  and  groves.     It  has  a  public  library,  several  puluie 


458 


FONTANA 


POOD 


to  the  Old  Guard.  The  town  is  neat  and  well  built.  It  has 
some  trade  in  wine,  grapes,  garden-produce,  etc.,  and  some 
manufactures  of  porcelain  and  earthenware.  Pop  (1801) 
14,078. 

Fontana,  fon-taa'nak,  Domekico  :  Italian  architect ;  b.  at 
Como  in  1543;  studied  architecture  at  Rome.  Cardinal 
Montalto,  afterward  Sixtus  V.,  commissioned  him  to  build  a 
chapel  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  for  him,  but  the  expense 
being  above  his  means  the  cnapel  was  not  finished  tiU  the 
cardmal  became  pope  and  Fontana  was  appointed  pontifical 
architect.  The  difficulty  of  raising  the  obelisk  on  the  piazza 
of  St,  Pet-er  was  solved  by  Fontana,  who  received  high  hon- 
ors as  well  as  liberal  pav.  After  this  Fontana  was  commis- 
sioned to  raise  three  other  obelisks — ^that  of  the  mausoleum 
of  Augustus,  which  was  placed  on  the  piazza  of  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore ;  another  before  the  basilica  of  St.  John  Lateran ; 
the  other  on  the  piazza  before  Santa  Maria  del  Popolo.  He 
then  added  a  portico  of  travertine  to  the  facade  oi  St.  John 
Lateran,  and  built  a  splendid  palace  of  three  stories  for  the 
5,  and  began  the  Vatican  library  finished  under  Clement 


[I.  Fontana  also  continued  the  pontifical  palace  of  the 
Quirinal,  and  transported  from  the  baths  of  Diocletian  the 
two  colossal  groups  of  demigods  with  horses  which  stand 
before  it.  He  fell  into  disgrace  while  constructing  a  bridge 
in  the  quarter  of  the  city  called  Borghetti,  having  been  ac- 
cused of  misappropriating  money  confided  to  him  for  this 
Eurpose.  The  pope,  jud^^ing  him  to  be  guilty,  dismissed 
im.  Count  Miranda,  Viceroy  of  Naples,  then  offered  him 
the  post  of  architect  and  first  engineer  to  the  King  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  and  Fontana  went  to  Naples  about  the  year 
1592  with  his  wife.    There  he  constructed  several  canals, 

Srotecting  the  province  of  the  Terra  di  Lavoro  from  inun- 
ations,  and  the  royal  palace,  which  is  marred  by  the  ad- 
ditions of  later  architects.  He  made  designs  for  the  port  of 
Naples  and  a  pier.  He  was  greater  as  engineer  than  as  archi- 
tect.   D.  at  Naples  in  1607.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Fontana,  Giovanni  :  architect ;  eMer  brother  of  Domeni- 
co  Fontana,  and  his  assistant  in  several  enterprises ;  was  es- 
pecially successful  as  a  hydraulic  engineer  and  designer  of 
fountains.  D.  1614 — Carlo,  perhaps  related  to  Giovanni, 
b.  1634 ;  d.  1714 ;  assisted  Bernini  in  several  works ;  designed 
the  Palazzo  Torlonia  and  many  other  works,  none  of  first- 
rate  importance.  A.  D.  F.  Hamlin. 

FontaneP  [from  Fr.  fon/oneZZe,  fontanel,  dimin.  of  fon- 
taine,  fountain] :  the  soft  palpitating  spot  upon  the  head  of 
a  young  infant ;  so  called  because  its  throbbing  was  likened 
to  the  welling  up  of  a  fountain.  The  fontanels  are  usually 
from  four  to  six  in  number,  but  only  one  or  two  are  easily 
detected  in  most  cases.  The  great  fontanel  is  at  the  cross- 
ing of  the  coronal  and  sagittal  sutures.  It  is  generally 
closed  by  the  development  of  the  neighboring  bones  within 
two  years  after  birth.  The  smaller  posterior  or  bregmatic 
fontanel  is  at  the  junction  of  the  sagittal  with  the  lamb- 
doidal  suture,  and  closes  in  a  few  months  after  birth.  There 
are  also  two  sphenoidal  and  two  mastoidal  or  Gasserian  fon- 
tanels, but  they  are  very  small,  and  generally  close  soon 
after  birth.  The  two  principal  fontanels  are  of  great  impor- 
tance in  midwifery,  as  they  enable  the  skillful  practitioner 
to  determine  the  position  of  the  fcetus  in  head  presentations. 

Fontanel  is  also  a  small  issue  or  artificial  ulcer  made  by 
the  surgeon  for  its  derivative  effect.  A  common  dried  pea, 
a  lump  of  beeswax,  or  other  hard  mass  is  kept  in  a  smallcut 
under  the  skin,  causing  a  flow  of  pus.  The  fontanel,  though 
a  valuable  therapeutic  means,  is  not  much  employed. 

FontaneFla,  Francesco  :  Italian  educator  and  author ; 
b.  at  Venice,  June  28,  1768 ;  became  a  priest,  and  was  for  a 
time  Professor  of  Grammar  in  Venice,  and  afterward  Pro- 
fessor of  Latin  Eloquence  at  Udine,  but  his  principal  employ- 
ment was  proof-reading.  He  was  author  of  Greek  and  He- 
brew grammars  and  lexicons,  and  of  several  learned  philo- 
logical treatises.     D.  at  Venice,  Mar.  22,  1827. 

Fontanes,  fon'taan',  Louis.  Marquis  do :  poet  and  poli- 
tician ;  b.  at  Niort,  France,  Mar.  6,  1757;  went  to  Pans  in 
1777  and  in  the  following  year  pulilished  La  Foret  de 
Navarre.  This  was  followed  by  several  other  poetical  works 
of  merit,  among  which  may  be'  mentioned  a  translation  of 
Pope's  Essay  on  Man  (1783),  La  Chartreuse  de  Paris.  Le 
Jour  des  Morts  dans  une  Campagtie,  the  latter  a  poem  in 
the  style  of  Gray's  Elegy,  and  L'  6 pit  re  sur  V6dit  en  faveur 
de  non-Catholiqiies^  wjhich  was  crowned  by  the  Aca<lemy  in 
1789.  In  the  early  period  of  the  Revolution  he  edited  the 
Moderateur^  and  opposed  the  growing  spirit  of  anarchy. 


Having  retired  to  Lvons  after  the  death  of  the  kin;:  !. 
dared  to  present  to  the  convention  an  eloquent  ap^R^al  -r 
behalf  of  the  city,  for  which  he  was  proscribed,  hut  hv  i  - 
caped  by  flight.    He  remained  in  hiding  till  after  the  fn''    f 
Robespierre,  when  he  once  more  became  prominent  in  Par.- 
but  an  article  in  the  Memorial^  of  which  he  was  an  a>^  - 
ciate  editor,  displeased  the  Government,  and  ho  wa*  a^-^i  ' 
obliged  to  flee.    He  found  a  refuge  in  London,  where  \\v  Xn-- 
came  a  close  friend  of  Chateaubrian<l.  also  an  exilp.    !(•» 
turning  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  1799  (18th  and  19th  Hrj- 
maire),  he  was  reinstated  as  a  nuMiil)er  of  the  Institute :  \^ 
came  a  member  of  the  legislative  body,  of  which  he  h.i.« 
chosen  president  in  1804;  was  appointed  grand  miiM»'r.f 
the  University  of  Paris  in  1808,  became  a  senator  in  1^:" 
and  was  raisea  to  the  peerage.    During  the  Hundred  Dj>> 
he  was  passive,  and  on  the  second  restoration  he  w&<  oi\  a.^ 
good  terms  with  the  Bourbon  Government  as  he  hail  \»> : 
with  that  of  Napoleon.    He  was  nominated  a  memlj^^r  ^'f 
the  privy  council  in  1815,  and  two  years  later  receive*!  f r- ' . 
the  king  the  title  of  marquis.    D.  at  Paris,  Mar.  17.  1><.'1. 

F.  M.  COLKY. 

Fon'te  Arella^na,  Order  of:  a  monastic  order  e<*  i' - 
lished  in  1001  at  Fonte  Avellana,  near  Faenza,  Italv,  t>y  L  .* 
dolf.  Bishop  of  Iguvium.  In  1570  it  was  unite<i  to  t!i 
Camaldulians.  St.  Peter  Damian  was  its  most  fanaoiL^  m*  il- 
ber. 


I'*' 


Fontenay-le-Comte,  f5n't«-na'le-kont' :  town  of  Fran' 
department  of  Vendee;  on  the  Vendee  (see  map  of  Fn»7."-, 
ref.  6-D).  It  has  great  linen  manufactures  and  tannt  r-  ^. 
On  May  16,  1793,  it  was  the  scene  of  the  victory  of  th»*  re- 
publican army  under  Chabot  over  the  Vendeans.  P««... 
(1891)  8,968. 

Fontenelle,  fon't«!-ner,  Berkakd  le  Boyier.  de :  anth  «r 
a  nephew  of  Comeille;  b.  at  Rouen,  France,  Feb.  11.  ltv*»T: 
admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  1691,  and  to  the  Af.k  :•- 
my  of  Sciences  in  1697,  of  which  he  was  perpetual  ^e*•^•^a'^ 
from  1699  to  1741.  Ris  Dialogues  of  the  Dead  was  ]u,  - 
lishe<l  in  1683,  Discourse  on  the  Plurality  of  Worlds  in  U^^*\ 
and  Essay  on  the  Geometry  of  the  Infinite  in  1727.  AVn  •. 
also  History  of  Oracles^  and  in  forty  years  composed  eu  - 
gies  on  about  seventy  members  of  the  French  Academy  «>f 
Sciences.    D.  at  Paris,  Jan.  9,  1757. 

Fontenoy.  f6n'tc-nw&' :  village  of  Belgium ;  pTovin»>     ' 
Hainaut ;  5  miles  S.  E.  of  Toumay  (see  map  of  Holland  av 
Belgium,  ref.  11-B).    Here  was  fought.  May  11,  1745.  -:  - 
famous  battle  between  the  French  under  Maivhal  Saxo  ;» 
the  allie<l  English,  Dutch,  and  Anstrians  under  the  Duk*- 
Cumberland,  m  which  the  French  won  a  great  victory.    I*i  i 
(1800)  819. 

Fontevranlt  fon'tc-vro' :  town  of  France ;  departmetn    ' 
Maine-et-Loire ;  10  miles  S.  E.  of  Saumur  (see  map  of  Fm : . 
ref.  5-D).    In  its  church  are  the  tombs  of  Henry  II,  n- 
Richard  I.  of  England.    The  church,  now  a  prison/i^  nt  ^'  . 
all  that  remains  of  the  ancient  abbey  of  Fontevranlt..  : 
the  mother-house  of  the  monastic  order  of  Fontevr.-.  . 
founded  1100,  and  broken  up  at  the  Revolution.   Pop.  ( i  ^ 
2,571. 

Fonyielle,  fon'vi-el',  Wilfrid,  de :  aSronaut  and  p*  •!'  . 
scientific  writer;  b.  in  Paris, France,  in  1828;  was  a  t«  ,4    •.  ■ 
of   mathematics,  then  a  journalist,  and  finally  aezN>x..i   • 
During  the  siege  of  Paris  he  escaped  from  the  city  in  &   • 
loon.     Among  his  works  are  Unomme  fostrile  (IH^"*!  ;    f 
merveiUes  du  monde  invisible  (1866) ;  £eJairs  et  tuntt^ . 
(1867;  translated  into  English  by  T.  L.  Phipson  uinier   . 
title  of  Thujider  and  Liahtning);  UAsironomie  fnr»*ir- 
(1868) ;  La  eonqufte  du  pole  nord  (18?7) ;  T^s  saltimlnt  n 
de  la  science  (1884).     Accounts  of  his  balloon  a<c»*'Ti^  . 
were  published  in  1871,  and  translated  into  Engli<th  m 
the  title  of  Travels  in  the  Air.   He  has  written  seveml  t- 
ical  and  polemical  pamphlets;  thus  in  1879  he  ptil-h- 
Comment  se  font  les  miracles  en  dehors  de  r&glise.  in  \i  r  - 
he  reviews  the  claims  of  spiritualist  miliums  from    at     i. 
mon-sense  standpoint. 

Food  [M.  Eng.  fode  <  0.  Eng.  fodn  <  Teuton.  /o<f ~   , ,   ■ 
do-Europ.  pd{t)-\  cf.  Lat.  pasc-o,   feed,  pabulum^  t*^^\^   , 
irdTci(r0eu.  to  eat] :  a  substance  which  sup|x)rts  the  f  im*  : 
and  powers  of  the  body — one  by  which  the  body  niA\    ' 
act,  and  grow  ;  aliment.    It  is  not  one  which  simply  >sjt«  <- 
or  arrasts  appetite,  for  a  nauseous  smell  or  a  roent^t!  ^'. 
will  do  that :  nor  one  simply  which  gives  a  sense  of  >c»*  lo- 
tion at  the  stomach  and  removes  craving  for  fowl,  lik . 
lump  of  clay  which  is  swallowed  by  savages  in  the  aIi?^<  : 


460 


FOOD 


an  earthen  oven  or  on  heated  stones,  and  then  resembles 
wheaten  bread. 

The  carrot  (Daucus  carota\  parsnip  {Pa8tina>ca\  beet 
(Beta  vulgaris),  turnip  (Brassica),  vegetable  marrow,  and 
pumpkin  {Cucurbiia)  occupy  a  position  between  potatoes 
and  ordinary  green  vegetaDles,  smce  they  contain  a  larger 
(][uantity  of  starch  and  sugar,  and  are  therefore  more  nutri- 
tious, than  the  latter.  They  are  nearly  equal  in  nitrogenous 
elements — ^viz.,  about  1*8  per  cent. — but  in  reference  to  sugar 
they  vary  as  follows :  turnips,  2*1  per  cent. ;  parsnips,  5*8 ; 
carrots,  6*1 ;  and  beets,  10*5.  Swedish  turnips  contain  more 
carbonaceous  matter  (starch  and  sugar)  than  the  white  va- 
riety, but  the  flavor  is  harsher,  though  in  the  U.  S.  the  more 
delicate  varieties  are  highly  prized. 

All  the  well-known  succulent  vegetables,  as  spinach,  tur- 
nip-tops, cabbage  {Brasaica),  broccoli,  cauliflower,  sea-kale, 
tomatoes,  nettles,  lettuce,  dandelion,  endive,  chicory,  may  be 
regarded  as  nearly  alike  in  nutritive  value,  while  they  vary 
extremely  in  flavor,  and  are  chiefly  valuable  for  their  fresh 
juices.  They  should  be  well  cooked,  for  if  eaten  in  large 
quantity  they  do  not  readily  digest.  No  part  of  a  dietary  is 
more  valuable  than  the  abundant  supply  of  such  substances, 
but  when  eaten  raw  or  in  salad  it  should  be  in  moderation. 
Cucumbers  (Oucumis)  are  regarded  apart  from  this  class, 
since  they  are  always  eaten  raw,  but  are  difflcult  of  diges- 
tion, and  have  very  little  nutritive  value.  Rhubarb  (Rheum) 
has  the  character  of  a  fruit  rather  than  a  vegetable,  and  has 
juices  that  are  very  valuable.  Wild  lettuce  (Lactuca  sativa) 
is  poisonous,  while  when  cultivated  it  is  both  harmless  and 
agreeable. 

Fruits  may  now  be  considered,  since  the^  are  more  like 
succulent  vegetables  than  any  other  productions  in  the  com- 

fosition  of  their  juices  and  their  uses  in  the  animal  economy, 
t  is  needless  to  cite  them  by  name,  as  they  are  well  and 
widely  known,  and  it  would  be  impossible  to  refer  to  more 
than  a  very  small  proportion  of  them.  No  products  are  so 
universal  and  none  so  agreeable.  All  a^ree  in  having  a 
larger  proportion  of  sugar  and  vegetable  acids  and  salts  than 
occurs  in  ordinary  vegetables,  and  flavors  of  infinite  variety 
and  delicacy.  Some,  as  the  date,  are  so  valuable  as  to  be  a 
chief  support  of  life,  but  the  characteristic  of  the  class  is  to 
afford  agreeable  and  refreshing  rather  than  nutritious  ele- 
ments. It  is,  however,  worthy  of  note  that  in  these  qualities 
the  choice  fruits  of  the  gardens  and  hothouses  of  Europe 
and  the  U.  S.  far  excel  those  of  the  products  of  Eastern  cli- 
mates, while  the  chemist  has  proauced  substances  which 
closely  imitate  the  flavor  of  all  tne  most  appreciated  fruits. 
The  following  table  contains  the  percentage,  quantities  of 
water,  sugar,  and  free  acid  in  ordinary  fruits : 


FRUITS. 


Grapes,  generally 

Kiaubegen,  ripe 

White  Austrian 

Red  Asmannsh&user,  ripe 

Oppenheim,  ripe 

**  overripe 

Johannfsberg 

Mulberries 

Bilberries 

Blackberries 

Cherries,  black 

'*         sweet,  light  red 

Apples,  Enf^lish  golden  pippin 

'*       English  russets 

Pears,  sweet  red 

Strawberries,  wild 

"  cultivated 

Raspberries,  wild 

"  cultivated,  red 

Plums,  green  gages,  yellow 

*'  "  large  and  sweet. . 

Apricote,  large 

small 

Peaches,  Dutch 

Gooseberries,  large  red 

smaU 

Currants,  white 

red 


Watw. 

Sngu'. 

798 

13-8 

.... 

10  59 



1378 

•    ■    k    ■ 

1788 

•    •   •   • 

18-59 

.     .  . 

15*14 

19-24 

»4-7 

9-19 

77-6 

5-78 

86-4 

4-44 

79-7 

10-70 

75-8 

IS- 11 

81-8 

1036 

620 

6-83 

850 

7-94 

870 

4-55 

87-4 

7-57 

83-8 

3-59 

865 

4-70 

80-8 

2-96 

79-7 

8-40 

821 

1-50 

83  5 

2  73 

84-9 

1-58 

85-5 

8-06 

84-8 

8-23 

ftS-4 

7  12 

85-3 

6-44    { 

PVcvadd. 


1-86 
1*34 

ri8 
o-.-se 

0-86 
0-48 
0-S5 
trace. 
1-33 
118 
1-98 
1-35 
0  96 
0-87 
0-76 
1-60 
061 
1-85 
1*58 
253 
1-84 


Seeds. — The  seeds  of  plants  have  so  much  in  common 
that  thtT  may  be  treated  under  one  head,  notwithstanding 
their  infinite  variety  of  flavor  and  diversity  of  production. 
The  most  highly  nitrogenized  seeds  are  peas,  beans,  lentils, 
and  numerous  other  products  of  pod-bearing  plants,  called 
pulses,  or  dahls  and  grain  in  India,  and  frijoles  in  Mexico. 
White  potatoes  contain  about  2  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous 
matter,  peas  have  2H  and  lentils  25  per  cent.,  and  are  the 
most  highly  nitrogenized  natural  foods  known  to  mankind. 
They  are  also  rich  in  starch,  for  peas  contain  55  per  cent. 


of'  that  substance.  Whole  nations  are  largely  indebted  to 
these  foods  for  their  highest  nourishment,  and  it  seems  an 
if  the  nitrogenous  vegetable  food  were  more  suitable  to  the 
body  in  hot  climates  than  meat.  The  4  oz.  of  dalilsi  which 
eacn  inhabitant  of  a  large  part  of  India  eats  daily  is  !<»  the 
rice  accompanying  it  that  which  buttermilk  is  to  the  fKitato 
in  Ireland;  and  it  is  scarcely!  possible  t>o  overestimate  it^ 
value.  The  flavor  is,  however,  somewhat  harsh  as  companMi 
with  that  of  fine  wheaten  flour,  and  with  the  luxurious 
habits  of  the  age  the  latter,  although  affordine^  less  nutri- 
ment, is  preferred.  The  most  agreeable  member  of  thi« 
class  in  Europe  is  the  haricot  bean,  which  is  in  almost  daiU 
use  in  France,  and  is  served  alone  or  with  meat  and  sau<v. 
All  such  foods  require  to  be  well  cooked  by  boiling,  and  Iht- 
skins  should  be  rejected.  They  are  deficient  in  fat,  and 
consequently  demand  an  addition  of  that  food.  When  eaten 
too  abundantly  and  constantly  they  are  liable  to  pri<du(f 
skin-disease  and  indigestion.  The  least  nutritious  !<eed  m 
nitrogenous  matters  in  extensive  use  is  rice,  for  it  conttiio 
but  6*3  per  cent.,  and  the  next  is  millet,  with  9  per  cent. ; 
vet  these  substances  supply  the  chief  food  of  more  than 
naif  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  world.  At  the  same  tiinr 
they  supply  a  proportionally  greater  amount  of  starch^viju 
rice  79*1,  and  millet  74  per  cent.,  as  against  55*4  per  c-enu  in 
peas.  Experience  has  shown  that  whatever  may  be  t  he  u^e 
of  nitrogen,  it  is  most  abundant  in  food  used  in  cold  (ii- 
mates,  while  starch  is  the  reverse.  As  a  part  of  the  dit-t- 
ary  they  are  agreeable  and  valuable.  Ground  rice  can  not 
alone  be  made  into  a  loaf,  but  small  cakes  and  biscuir.«  are 
prepared  with  it.  Parched  rice  made  into  tulpaten  is  in 
common  use  in  the  East. 

The  seeds  which  supply  staple  vegetable  foods  oceupv  a 
position  between  these  and  peas,  and  nave  a  close  siinilanty 
in  their  nutritive  qualities — viz.,  wheat,  maize,  and  oats, 
which  possess  11  to  12  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous  and  75  to  80 
per  cent,  of  carbomuieous  matter.  They  differ  in  flavor,  sr. 
that  both  maize  and  oats  are  said  to  be  rough,  while  wheat 
has  a  softer  and  perhaps  sweeter  flavor,  and  although  wheai 
has  the  preference  wherever  it  is  grown,  each  kind  of  c«»m 
has  its  advocates.  Regarded  simply  as  nutritive  foods,  one 
may  be  substituted  for  the  other. 

l^read  which  is  made  from  wheat  may  have  all  or  any 
part  of  the  husk  or  bran  of  the  grain  in  it.  If  there  U- 
much  it  is  called  brown-bread,  and  as  the  flinty  eoverini: 
of  the  bran  is  indigestible,  it  is  very  apt  to  cause  punrin&;. 
and  is  the  rich  rather  than  the  poor  man's  food.  "NVhii*- 
flour  has  lost  some  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  bran,  but  it  i> 
more  digestible  and  therefore  more  useful,  and  prolial<i% 
the  most  nutritious  kind  is  that  known  as  seconds  or  hou>^- 
holds.  Fourteen  [)ounds  of  fine  white  flour  should  mak^ 
19^  to  20  lb.  of  bread.  Passover  cakes  are  made  tr%>n\  \  h* 
finest  and  purest  flour.  Oatmeal  is  rarely  obtained  entireli: 
devoid  of  the  hard  and  indigestible  skin,  to  which  also  ft 
owes  its  high  percentage  of  nitrogen ;  but  when  the  whoif 
^ain  has  been  decorticated  it  is  Known  as  groats.  >IaL?r 
IS  the  only  grain  under  consideration  which  is  eaten  whole 
in  its  unripe  condition  and  when  full  of  milky  juico,  luii 
whole  ripe  wheat  is  steeped  in  water  to  make  fninienty. 
and  both  the  oat  grain  and  the  skin  of  the  oatmeal  an- 
used  to  make  foods  in  Wales  and  Scotland  under  the  nam* 
of  sowens  and  sa^an  or  slymni.  Very  valuable  prepara- 
tions for  infants'  food  and  puddings  are  made  from  them, 
as  com  flour,  hominy,  and  semolina. 

The  nutritive  qualities  of  all  these  grains  vary  with 
climate  and  season,  so  that  moderately  hot  and  dry  cliraat«'> 
and  seasons  produce  the  best  wheat,  and  the  highlands  Ut- 
ter  oats  than  the  lowlands.  The  tortilla  is  a  ct&e  prepare* 
in  Mexico  and  South  America  with  ground  maize.  whil« 
johnny-cake  and  corn  bread  are  commonly  made  in  thv 
U.  S.  from  the  same  grain. 

Rye  and  barley,  although  inferior  grains,  are  Ian?  i^ 
eaten  by  the  poorer  inhabitants  of  Northern  and  Central 
Europe.  The  proportion  of  nitrogenous  matter  is  onU 
from  7  to  8  per  cent,  and  therefore  but  little  excetniins?  tt».%t 
of  rice  and  millet,  while  the  carbonaceous  is  78  to  st>  (nr 
cent.  An  improved  footl  is  made  by  a  mixture  of  rje  an'i 
wheat  called  maslin,  which  is  in  use  in  Northuniberlanti 
and  North  Yorksliire,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  add  a  litin* 
rye  meal  to  wheat  meal  in  making  bran  bread,  with  a  view 
not  to  increasing  the  nutritive  value  of  the  latter,  but  i*. 
keep  the  bread  moist.  The  Norwegian  flUdegrdd^  tir  cr\Nia 
porridge,  is  made  by  boiling  barley  meail  in  cream,  dunnc 
which  process  it  is  stirred  with  a  grddstick  twisted  betwtt ; 
the  palms  of  the  hands. 


462 


POOD 


the  French  gelatin  commission,  and  in  composition  is 
nearly  identical  with  albumen.  Isinglass  is  the  best  form 
of  it,  but  in  China  certain  birds'  nests,  with  which  soup  is 
made,  have  the  preference.  It  is,  however,  usually  obtained 
from  the  bones,  skins,  and  hoofs  of  animals. 

Casein  is  obtained  principally  from  milk,  but  exists  large- 
ly in  pease  and  almonds,  and  has  the  same  nutritive  charac- 
ter as  albumen  and  gelatin.  As  ordinarily  found  in  cheese, 
it  is  mixed  with  a  protx)rtion  of  fat  (butter),  and  by  drying, 
as  well  as  by  decomposition,  acquires  a  flavor  very  different 
from  that  of  fresh  cord.  While  the  latter  may  be  eaten 
with  impunity,  the  former  is  digested  with  difficulty  and  re- 
quires careful  mastication.  SKim-milk  cheese  contains  a 
larger  proportion  of  nitrogenous  and  a  less  proportion  of 
carbonaceous  matter,  as  shown  in  the  following  percentage 
analysis : 


DESCRIPTION. 

Water. 

NltrogmoiH. 

Fa*. 

Salte. 

New-milk  cheese,  very  good. 
Skim-milk  cheese 

86 
44 

28  4 

448 

611 
6-8 

4-5 
49 

The  proportion  of  fat  varies  much  in  the  best  kinds  ftf 
cheese,  as  from  18*7  in  Neuch^tel  to  32*3  in  Roquefort, 
while  in  an  ordinary  Cheshire  cheese  it  is  26  per  cent.  The 
chemical  composition  of  all  these  elementary  substances, 
and  also  of  flesh  if  perfectly  freed  from  fat,  is  almost  iden- 
tical, and  may  be  illustrated  by  that  of  albumen,  which  is 
C,  53-4 ;  H.,  70 ;  0.,  22-1 ;  and  N.,  15*7.  Hence  the  nitroge- 
nous element  is  somewhat  more  than  one-sixth,  and  the 
carbonaceous  more  than  one-half  of  the  dried  substance. 

Offal. — The  offal  of  animals  is  the  head,  feet,  liver,  lungs, 
and  heart,  while  the  blood  and  bowels  may  be  added  to  the 
list  for  dietetic  purposes.  The  heart  consists  of  muscular 
fiber  or  flesh,  having,  however,  a  firmer  texture,  is  not  so 
easily  masticated,  and  is  much  inferior  to  other  flesh  as  food. 
The  lungs  and  liver  consist  largely  of  albuminous,  and  the 
head  and  feet  of  gelatinous  matter,  and  while  not  equal  to 
flesh  are  very  good  foods,  and  might  be  eaten  by  the  poor 
more  lar^ly  than  at  present  with  advantage.  Tripe  is  pre- 
pared chiefly  from  the  stomach  of  the  ox,  and  contains  much 
fat  as  well  as  albuminous  and  gelatinous  substances.  Its 
filavor  is  delicate,  and  it  is  quickly  digested.  Blood  is  less 
valuable  as  a  food  than  any  of  the  foregoing,  but  as  it  con- 
tains all  the  elements  under  discussion,  besides  iron  and 
other  valuable  mineral  matters,  it  should  be  eaten.  When 
heated  to  212*"  F.  it  loses  any  diseased  taint  that  it  might 
have  acquired.  The  nutritive  elements  in  liver  and  tripe 
may  be  ascertained  from  the  following  percentage  analysis, 
ana  compared  with  a  similar  one  on  vegetable  foods  already 
given : 


SmiSTANCE. 


Ox  liver. 
Tripe . . . 


Water. 

NltrOgMMNU. 

Fat. 

74 
68 

18-9 
13-2 

41 
16-4 

Balte. 


8  0 
2-4 


The  time  required  for  the  digestion  of  these  animal  sub- 
stances was  investigated  by  Dr.  Beaumont,  with  the  follow- 
ing results:  pigs'  feet  and  tripe,  1  hour;  whipped  eggs, 
salmon  trout,  and  venison  steak,  \\  hours;  ox  liver  and 
dried  codfish,  2  hours;  roasted  eggs,  2^  hours;  turkey, 
gelatin,  goose,  sucking  pig,  and  lamb,  2}  hours :  fricasseed 
chicken  and  boiled  beef,  2f  hours ;  roasted  beef  and  boiled 
mutton,  3  hours ;  roasted  mutton,  3^  hours ;  stewed  oysters, 
cheese,  hard-boiled  or  fried  eggs,  3^  hours;  fried  beef, 
boiled  and  roasted  fowls,  roaste<l  ducks,  4  hours ;  and  pork, 
5J  hours.  Similar  investigations  have  since  been  conducted 
by  Smith,  Richet,  and  others. 

i^a^a.-^The  richest  hydrocarbonaceous  food  is  fat.  The 
relative  composition  of  fat,  starch,  and  sugar,  is  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


SUBSTANOK. 

Carbon. 

HydroK«a. 

Osygaa. 

Fat 

77 
44 
42 

12 
6 
6-5 

n 

60 
61-6 

Starch 

Suffar  

It  is  customary  to  reckon  fat  as  equal  to  one  and  three- 
fourths  times  its  weight  of  starch.  All  fats  have  nearly  the 
same  composition  when  freed  from  water  and  the  tissues  in 
which  thev  are  contained,  so  that  one  may  be  substituted  for 
another;  but  they  differ  in  flavor  and  the  temperature  at 
which  they  liquefy.  So  also  oils  remaining  liouid  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures  may  be  eaten  instead  of  solid  fats.    The 


fats  of  meat,  butter,  lard,  and  dripping  are  the  fats  in  most 
general  use,  and  in  their  natural  state  the  last  contains  the 
greatest  proportion  of  the  hydrocarbons,  since  it  ha.s  the 
least  proi)ortion  of  water.  The  fat  of  meat  is  st- let-te<l 
simply  for  its  flavor,  but  butter  varies  with  its  manufactunf. 
since  it  may  contain  ^  oz.  to  3  oz.  of  water,  and  i  oz.  to2  oz. 
of  salt  in  the  pound.  Its  flavor  is  due  largely  to  the  f«Hid 
of  the  animal — as,  for  example,  turnips — ^and  the  nature  «)f 
the  animal,  for  it  has  a  much  stronger  flavor  when  pro<luct^Hi 
from  the  goat  or  the  buffalo  than  from  the  cow.  A  clarified 
butter  called  ghee  is  used  in  India,  but  is  by  no  means  as 
agreeable  as  our  butter.  It  is  prepared  from  milk  (not 
cream)  by  first  adding  dhye^  or  sour  milk,  and  afterwapl 
hot  water,  and  by  churning.  In  a  few  days  it  becomes  ran- 
cid, and  is  again  clarified,  and  then  kept  for  use  in  cK»«'<l 
pots.  Fat  of  every  kind  becomes  rancid,  unless  8ubje<'tiHl 
to  some  preserving  process.  Thus  fine  sugar  is  umhI  m 
condensea  milk,  salt  is  added  to  butter  and  lard  or  ruljbt'tJ 
into  pork  or  other  meat  fat.  The  quantity  which  is  con- 
sumed by  an  adult  daily  is  probably  2  to  4  oz.  in  temperate 
re^ons,  out  in  cold  climates  as  many  pounds  may  be  t*at*'n. 

There  are  no  animal  oils  which  are  avowedly  used  a>  f<  <<! 
in  temperate  climates,  but  in  the  far  north  whale  oil  or  ^^al 
oil  is  taken  either  with  or  without  the  solid  mass  vfax^h 
constitutes  the  blubber.  Lard  oils  and  other  animal  oils 
are  used  largely  to  adulterate  vegetable  oils,  and  fish  oiU 
are  used  as  medicines.  Vegetable  oils  are,  however,  in  gT<'ai 
request  in  all  temperate  and  hot  climates,  and  are  derix-d 
from  the  seeds  of  many  plants,  and  particularly  from  t  he 
pulpy  pericarp  of  the  olive,  and  are  a  much  more  agret-aMe 
ana  convenient  food  than  butter.  The  finest  salad  <>ii. 
expressed  from  the  olive  berry  without  heat,  and  the  oil  of 
cucumbers  are  deliciously  mild  in  fiavor,  and  good  fix  id. 
No  separated  vegetable  fat  is  ordinarily  used  as  food  in  tem- 
perate climates,  but  both  fat  and  oil  are  eaten  largely  in 
certain  seeds,  as  the  Brazilian  nut  {Bertholletia  ercel^Hiu  tlw 
cocoanut  {Cocoa  nucifera),  and  almonds  {Amygdalus).  Fa:.^ 
and  oils  derived  from  various  seeds  are  much  more  commonly 
used  in  India  and  other  hot  countries  than  in  Europe  and 
America. 

Condiments. — Condiments  are  rather  adjuncts  to  food  or 
appetizers  than  food,  although  vegetable  substances  useii 
therein  are  nutritious.  This  term  includes  pickles  an>2 
sauces,  which  are  almost  innumerable,  besides  pepper,  niu^ 
tard,  and  vinegar,  alone  or  in  combination  with  other  >ul>- 
stances.  The  luxurious  habits  of  the  day  lead  to  a  free  u?4 
of  these  substances,  but  he  who  would  retain  a  natural 
taste  for  food  and  a  good  digestion  should  either  esi>he» 
them  or  use  them  in  their  milder  forms  and  in  great  mcxl- 
eration. 

II.  Fluid  Foods. 

Milk  is  the  type  of  nutritious  fluids,  since  it  contains  all 
the  elements  of  nitrogenous  and  carbonaceous  foods  in  a 
fiuid  form.  It  is  therefore  adapted  to  every  condition  of 
man.  but  particularly  to  such  as  require  the  immediate  u>e 
of  food,  as  in  infancy  and  when  there  is  not  time  for  pnw 
longed  digestion.  It  contains  casein  and  idbamen  a>  iT> 
chief  nitrogenous  elements,  and  sugar  and  fat  as  its  car- 
bonaceous, besides  salts  of  the  most  valuable  kinds.  The 
proportion  of  each  varies  in  different  animals  and  with  a^e. 
looa,  and  climate,  while  certain  special  flavors,  due  to  pe- 
culiar fatty  acids,  mark  each  kind.  With  so  much  vari^-ty 
it  is  impossible  to  give  more  than  a  general  analysis,  but 
even  that  has  at  least  a  comparative  v^ue,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


MILK& 

Goat 

Sheep  . . 
Mare  . . . . 

AB8 , 

Woman. 
Cow 


Sp.gr. 

Wfttv. 

SdUk 

NllnHLiawn 

• 

■f  1,000. 

83-6S 

84-49 

16-61 

861 

809 

5-«8 

40  g6 

88-28 

16-77 

697 

8-94 

5- IS 

88-74 

90-48 

9-67 

883 

8  87 

943 

84  57 

890 

10-99 

8-66 

606 

1  » 

82  67 

88-9 

10-92 

898 

4-86 

S-06 

88  88 

86-4 

18-69 

662 

8-8 

8-61 

O  61 

o  n 


o 

o 
o 


&4 

6« 


The  salts  in  milk  are  small  in  quantity,  bat  of  the  utmost 
value  in  nutrition,  and  consist  of  the  following  in  100  part  ^ : 
potash,  23*46:  soda,  6*96;  lime,  17*34;  magnesia,  2^1. 
chloride  of  {>ota.<«sium,  14*18;  chloride  of  sodium,  4*74  * 
phosphoric  acid,  28*40. 

Human  milk  is  the  standard  of  comparison  for  the  fon: 
of  infants,  and  varies  in  quality  with  health,  food,  produc- 
tion, and  anxiety,  but  a  mixture  of  two-thirds  of  ordinmrr 
cow's  milk  with  one-third  of  water  and  half  an  ounoe  c ; 


464 


FOOL 


FOOT 


strength  of  these  wines  is  from  38  to  42  per  cent,  of  alcohol, 
and  tne  objects  of  the  manufacturers  are  to  gratify  a  taste 
for  strong  liquors  and  to  preserve  the  wine.  They  are  pre- 
pared for  particular  markets,  and  not  for  home  consumption, 
80  that  such  port  and  sherry  as  are  sent  to  Great  Britain  are 
not  consumed  in  the  countries  of  their  production.  The 
alcoholic  strength  of  champagnes  varies  very  much,  but  sel- 
dom exceeds  20  per  cent. 

True  champagne  and  other  effervescing  wines  are  pre- 
pared from  ordinary  grapes,  but  the  juice  is  chosen  with 
great  care  as  to  its  flavor,  bouquet,  and  sugar,  and  such  a 
combination  is  made  as  will  produce  the  quality  of  cham- 

Eagne  which  the  manufacturer  desires.  It  is  fermented  in 
irge  vats  or  in  smaller  casks,  after  which  it  is  drawn  off, 
fined,  and  placed  in  underground  cellars.  Here  it  is  frer 
guently  racked  and  fined  until  the  following  April,  when  it 
18  bottleil,  and  for  three  weeks  again  ferments  freely.  It  is 
then  kept  under  watch  for  two,  three,  or  four  years,  during 
which  time  it  is  at  first  turbid,  but  afterwam  deposits  a 
substance  which  by  projjer  inclination  of  the  bottle  is  left 
upon  the  cork;  and  the  latter  being  skillfully  removed, 
aUows  the  deposit  to  escape.  In  this  state  the  wine  is  ma- 
tured, and  called  vm  brut ;  and  if  the  quality  of  the  grape 
was  fine  and  the  subsequent  treatment  successful,  the  wine 
is  very  dry  and  has  the  flavor  of  the  grape.  Rhine  and  Mo- 
selle wines  are  prepared  in  this  state  for  the  market  with 
great  success,  but  it  is  much  more  common  to  add  a  sweet 
compound  of  the  finest  sugar-candy,  champagne,  and  old 
cognac  or  other  liquors,  by  which  the  required  sweetness 
and  alcoholic  strength  are  produced.  The  quantity  of  this 
liqueur  is  usually  from  2  to  6  per  cent.,  but  it  varies  with 
the  natural  richness  of  the  juice  of  the  grape  converted  into 
champagne.  The  effervescence  is  creamy  rather  than  frothy, 
and  rises  in  bubbles  for  hours  rather  than  discharges  the 

Ss  at  once,  and  the  bouquet  and  aroma  are  perfect.  The 
uscadine,  Lemel,  and  Frontignac  grapes  have  special  odors 
which  remain  in  the  champagne,  and  some  of  the  ripest 
bunches  are  allowed  to  hang  in  the  cask.  Red  grapes  nat- 
urally give  a  slight  tin^e  to  the  wine,  but  pink  champagne 
is  artificially  colored  with  cochineal.  It  is  said  that  a  oitter 
principle  is  added  to  certain  kinds  to  modify  the  sweetness. 
There  are  certain  wines,  as  Frontignac,  Cvprus,  and  Tokay, 
produced  from  grapes  which  are  allowed  to  dry  upon  the 
vine,  and  thus  become  raisins.  The  flavor  readily  proves  this 
fact,  and  as  the  resulting  wine  is  never  perfectly  fermented, 
it  is  rich  and  luscious,  and  contains  much  sugar.  From  the 
foregoing  observations  it  will  be  seen  how  readily  fictitious 
wines  may  be  made,  either  with  inferior  wines  or  even  with- 
out grapes.  Revised  by  Edward  T.  Reichekt. 

Fool,  or  Court  Jester :  See  Licensed  Fool. 

Fools,  Festival  of  (transl.  of  Lat.  Featum  Stultorum,  or 
Featum  FcUuorum):  a  mediaBval  Christian  merry-making 
of  fantastic  and  childish  character,  which  fell  especially 
upon  Holy  Innocents*  Day  (Dec.  28),  but  had  more  or  less 
to  do  with  the  whole  period  between  Christmas  and  Epipha- 
ny (Jan.  6).  Exercises  were  held  in  the  principal  cnurch 
edifice  of  the  place ;  a  mock  pope,  archbishop,  or  bishop  was 
chosen ;  and  all  the  most  sacred  rites  of  Christianity  were 
travestied.  The  wild  license  which  reigned  resembled  that 
of  the  old  Roman  Saturnalia.  'The  leading  performers 
were  of  the  lower  clerical  orders,  especially  the  subdeacons ; 
hence  another  name  for  the  festival,  i^e^/um  HypodiOfConorum, 
with  some  reference  to  St.  Stephen,  who  is  commemorated 
on  Dec.  26.  The  aim  professed  was  to  interest  young  and 
ignorant  people  in  the  story  of  tlie  Advent,  but  profaneness 
soon  got  the  better  of  piety  in  the  matter.  This  festival, 
which  is  first  mentioned  by  the  Parisian  ritualist,  John 
Beleth,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth  century,  originated 
apparently  in  France,  and  was  more  popular  there  than 
anywhere  else,  though  observed  also  in  Spain,  in  Germany, 
and  in  England.  In  spite  of  repeateil  condemnations  by 
prelates  and  councils,  it  survived  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion, one  instance  of  its  observance  being  reported  as  late 
even  as  1644 

Fools'  Parsley:  a  poisonous  umbelliferous  plant  (the 
jSthusa  cynapium),  so  called  because  its  leaves  slightly  re- 
semble in  appearance  those  of  some  varieties  of  parsley,  so 
that  people  who  have  bv  mistake  gathered  it  have  been  seri- 
ouslv  poisoned  by  it.  ft  is  a  native  of  Europe,  naturalized 
in  the  U.  S.  It  may  be  distinguished  by  its  acrid  taste  and 
fetid  smell ;  its  general  umbels  have  no  involucre ;  its  minor 
umbels  a  partial  involucre  of  three  leaves ;  in  both  respects 
quite  unlike  parsley.    It  is  an  acronarcotic,  causing  numb- 


ness, faintness,  and  dimness  of  vision.  Give  as  an  antidote 
a  thorough  emetic,  followed  by  wine  or  other  gentle  stimu- 
lant. 

Foot  fM.  Eng.  foot,  fot  <  0.  Eng./o/ :  Icel.  fo/r  :  Goth 
fotus  :  0.  H.  Germ,  fuoz  >  Mod.  Germ.  Fujss  <  Teut.  Jot  ^ 
Indo-Bur.  pod,  pdd-,  pSd  >  Gr.  woCs,  irMs,  foot :  Lat.  pr^ : 
pedis,  footj :  in  anatomy,  the  terminal  part  of  man  or  an 
animal. 

Foot  of  Mammals. — The  foot  (pes)  in  mammals,  and  in 
some  other  vertebrates  in  distinction  from  the  hand  {manu.*-. 
is  the  last  member  or  terminal  segment  of  the  pelvic  girdle, 
or  lower  limb.  The  fore  limbs  are  more  generallj  u^  for 
the  support,  and  the  hind  limbs  for  the  propulsion  of  tLt 
body.  Hence, "  the  manus  is  commonly  shorter  and  brrwl^r 
than  the  pes  "  (Prof.  Otivn),  and  but  few  animals  use  t  h» 
foot  (hind)  for  prehension  or  defense,  save  in  flight.  Th*- 
exception  to  the  rule  that  the  hand  is  smaller  than  the  f^-ot 
is  seen  in  the  mole,  or  in  the  seal  and  walrus,  which  are  de- 
ficient in  the  hind  foot. 

The  foot  is  divided  into  three  portions:  (1)  a  group  <>f 
more  or  less  rounded  bones  called  tne  tarsus  or  instep ;  (2i 
a  row  of  long  bones  placed 
side  by  side  in  front  of  the 
tarsus — the  metatarsus ;  (3)  the 
phalanges  of  the  digits,  or  the 
toes.  The  complete  tarsus  con- 
sists of  seven  bones — the  as- 
tragalus, calcaneum,  navicu- 
lar, internal,  middle,  and  outer 
cuneifonn,  and  the  cuboid. 
The  chief  variations  in  num- 
ber are  from  six  to  eight.  The 
general  arrangement  of  these 
bones  is  in  two  rows — the  proximal,  or  those  articulatinj: 
with  the  bones  of  the  leg,  and  the  distal  row,  thow  joiniiis: 
the  metatarsus.  The  bones  of  the  metatarsus  usually  o>r- 
respond  in  number  with  the  digits,  and  at  their  proxiiiwl 
ends  the  first,  second,  and  third  bones  are  supported  n'?]'*f- 
tively  by  the  three  cuneiform  bones  of  the  tarsus ;  the  cu- 
boid supporting  the  fourth  and  fifth.  Upon  each  joint  \w^' 
tween  the  metatarsus  and  the  toes  are  often  found  a  pair  t>f 
sesamoid  bones,  for  the  mechanical  advantage  of  the  tondtc 
gliding  over  them.  These  are  best  seen  in  the  mole  an«i 
tiger.  The  digits  never,  except  in  abnormal  instances,  ex- 
ceed five  in  number  on  each  foot  in  any  existing  vertebrnt* 
animal  above  the  rank  of  fishes,  and  in  the  class  MammnKi^ 
except  the  Cetacea,  the  number  of  phalanges  is  limited  t' 
two  in  the  first  digit,  and  to  three  in  each  of  the  ofur 
digits  in  both  fore  and  hind  feet  {Prof.  R.  Owvn).  The  lui"- 
lux  or  great  toe,  though  in  man  very  strong,  and  one  of  »» < 
largest  digits,  is  in  many  mammals  entirely  wanting,  ni . 
mentary,  or  inconsiderable  in  length.  In  many  climbi:  j 
animals  it  is  considerably  developed  and  has  prehen'^'t 
characteristics.  This  is  well  shown  in  the  gorilla  and  <>nin:: 
The  other  digits  vary  in  number  from  one  to  five,  a-^  i*  il- 
lustrated respectively  in  the  horse  and  the  elephant  (Fig.  2>. 


Fio.  1.— Forefoot 
of  the  mole. 


Hind 


Fig.  2.— Simplification  of  the  digits  (after  Owen) :  1,  foot  of  th^  e-i^ 
phant :  8,  foot  of  the  hippopotamus ;  S,  foot  of  the  rhinocen* . 
4.  foot  of  the  deer ;  5,  foot  of  the  horse. 

This  modification  of  the  digits  is  accounted  for  bv  th' " 
diminution  and  simplification  in  a  definite  order,  'f  hu5  .: 
a  four-toed  animal  the  great  toe  is  wanting,  as  in  the  hit;-  - 
potamus;  in  a  three-toed  animal  the  outer  or  smaller  die  ' 
and  the  hallux — seen  in  the  rhinoceros;  in  a  two-toe*i  a::;- 
mal,  such  as  the  cow  or  deer,  both  of  those  already  nif  n 
tioned  and  the  second  digit;  and  in  the  one-toed  anima' 
such  as  the  horse,  only  the  third  digit  remains.    That  tla- 


466 


FOOT 


FOOTK 


«nnj,  of  various  rsc^  and  nationalities,  11.000  being  white 
and  the  rest  colored.  The  mean  leii^h  of  the  foot  was 
found  for  no  nationality  to  exceed  10-i*oV  inches,  and  for 
none  to  fall  short  of  l^^Vo  ;  the  mean  value  for  the  total  being 
10^Wflj»  <>''  al>out  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  above  10  inches. 
It  is  probable  that  the  foot-measures  in  use  in  the  later  cen- 
turies have  been  in  general  entirely  arbitrary.  The  ac- 
count commonly  given  of  the  adjustment  of*  the  British 
stanilanl  jard  in  the  year  1101  from  the  arm  of  the  kin^, 
Uenry  I^  is  probably  a  true  one;  and  the  British  foot  is 
simply  one-third  of  the  Britishyard.  But  it  was  doubtless 
otherwise*  in  the  earlier  ages.  The  ancient  Greeks  first  used 
this  measure,  and  their  Olympic  f(M>t  was  said  to  have  been 
determined  by  the  length  of  the  foot  of  Hercules.  This, 
according  to  the  best  authorities,  was  about  equivalent  to 
12i\iS  English  inches.  But  there  were  among  them  other 
foot-measures  materially  differing  from  this.  Thus  the  Mac- 
edonian fcM>t  was  14ii^  inches;  the  Pythian,  &i^  inches; 
and  the  Sicilian,  S^  inches.  In  more  recent  times  the 
diversity  has  been  almost  endless.  In  Italy  the  foot  was, 
not  long  ago,  11^  inches  in  Home,  18^^  in  Milan,  and 
2A^  inches  in  Lucca.  In  France  it  was  9^^  inches  in 
Avignon,  1K^„^  inches  in  Aix-en-Provence,  IOtV^  inches  in 
Rouen,  14^  inches  in  Bordeaux,  while  the  pied  du  rot  of 
Paris  was  12^  inches.  In  Switzerland  it  was  lO^^ftj  inches 
in  Neuchatel,  lli^  inches  in  Rostock,  \\^  inches  in  Basel, 
and  19iV9  inchest  in  Geneva.  In  the  Spanish  peninsula  it 
was  lO^riS  inches  in  Aragon  and  lOr'J^  in  Casiile.  In  (ior- 
many  it  was  9^'^  in  Wt-s*-!,  10,Va  inches  in  Bavaria,  lO^VA 
inches  in  IIei(ieU>erg,  lliVb  inches  in  GOttingen,  and  Vi\^ 
inches  in  Carlsruhe.  And  in  the  Xetherlands  it  was  lOiVlr 
inches  in  Brussels  and  liyo^  in  Liege.  Alexanders  Dic- 
tionary of  Weights  and  j/eiimtres  (Baltimore,  1850)  gives 
more  tnan  100  foot-measures,  all  differing  from  each  other. 
In  Barnard's  Metric  St/stem  (p.  354,  Supplement)  may  be 
found  a  table  containing  no  fewer  than  292,  all  different. 
The  confusion  resulting  from  this  great  diversity  was  in- 
tolerable. The  inconvenience  caused  by  it  in  business  trans- 
actions prepartMl  the  public  mind  of  Europe  early  in  the 
ninet4H'nth  century  to  receive  with  favor  tne  new  system 
of  metroh>gy  called  the  metric,  first  definitely  adopted  in 
France  in  the  year  1799.  The  foot  has  therefore  ceased  to  be 
the  legal  unit  of  length  throughout  Europe  except  in  Great 
Britain  and  Russia,  and  the  meter  has  generally  taken  its 
place.  The  Russian  unit  of  length,  the  sageney  was  fixed  by 
Peter  the  (}reat,  after  his  sojourn  in  Engbind  in  1098,  at  ex- 
actly 7  BritiNh  feet  The  fo«>t  of  the  L.  S.  is  identical  with 
that  of  Grvat  Britain,  from  which  it  is  copied.  In  both  coun- 
tri(*s  the  legal  standard  is  properly  the  yard  of  36  inchea. 
The  copy  of  the  British  8tan<Iard,  by  which  the  U.  S.  stand- 
anis  were  long  adjusted,  is  a  brass  bar  prepared  by  the  cele- 
brated Trougnton,  of  London,  to  the  oruer  of  ^rof.  F.  R. 
Ilassler,  the  first  chief  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  and  super- 
intendent of  the  bureau  of  weights  and  measures  at  Wash- 
ington. It  is  82  inches  in  length,  and  the  36  inches  between 
the  twenty-seventh  and  the  sixty-third  divisions  were  taken 
as  the  prototype  yard  of  the  U.  S.  A  copy  of  the  British 
prototvi^e,  ofllciallv  certified,  has  been  substituted  for  the 
Trougnton  bar,  ana  the  standards  furnished  the  several  States 
are  now  carefully  adjusted  by  this.         F.  A.  P.  Babkaedw 

Fool:  in  mu<ic.  a  name  or  measure  denoting  the  pitch  of 
stofis  in  an  organ.  In  organ  music,  dinH*tions  are  often 
^ivf  n  for  the  u«*e  of  4-foot,  H-foot,  or  16-foot  stofM.  The  mean- 
ing is  this:  the  lowest  note  on  the  keyboard  (C  C)  is  as- 
sumed as  the  Mandani  for  such  des^ignatums.  Now,  to  pro- 
duce the  mtund  4'  4'.  an  ojien  pii>o  8  feet  long  is  required: 
its  (M'tave  ahot^e  will  be  tfiven  »y  a  niiw  4  fe<»t  long;  the 
double  fM^tA>e,  2  fe<»t,  and  *>  on;  ami  for  the  intermediate 
notes  the  pile's  arv  prf»j>erly  gnwluated  in  length.  A  set 
of  pijt««*  of  this  de^Tiptinn  is  therefon*  callwl  "an  S-foot 
iUop'  (lui  the  offen  Jiapti^m,  dutrinno,  trumpet,  and  several 
othi'P*).  Surh  stoiH*  tfive  the  onlinarv,  standanl,  or  con- 
w*rt  pttrh.  If  an-'thiT  rHiiir<*  of  pifw-n  lie  aibhsi,  MUindinir 
an  tff/nty  //>i/vr.  tfiey  will  in*  of  iVuiMe  lenu^h.  and  it  will 
\ie  rallisl  "a  16-f«M.i  Mop"  (as  the  fltnihh  diafntwrn,  «»r  Aowr- 
d^m).  On  iIh'  othrr  huiul,  the  priuri/Hil  in  n.i\  «K'tave  higher 
than  the  i*\H-u  'i\t%\uv**tu:  niriMMjiirntly.  its  pii»«*s  an«  only 
half  as  l<»Ti|f.  and  it  !■»  raliiNl  -a  4-foot  jutop."  The  fifteenth, 
in  like  m.itiner.  U-ioij  tufn'*!  an  ^ntnve  sUive  the  prinei(tal, 
i»  "a2-f<*»t  Mop."  ii^  !Mwe«.t  pifie  U'ing  that  of  length.  In 
a  larce  ortn^n  then*  are  man)  Mojm  U-lunging  to  emh  of 
th»*'»«'  t'ljtftw*"*,  the  larg»*^l  jujic  nf  a  ^J'J-f<"it  sh'p  vmndmg  C 
C  C  ('.  R4'\imh1  by  DiOLiCY  Buck. 


Foot,  Solomon  :  lawyer  and  U.  8.  Senate # :  h  a:  i 
wall,  Vt,  Nov.  19,  IHOd*;  graduated  at  Mi4l<nr(.<irT  < 
Vt,  in  1826;  was  principal  of  Cartlet^m  St-m.'^  . 
and  1H28;  tutor  in  Vermont  University  in  1*<".*T;  \*r  ' 
of   Natural   Philosophy  in   the   Acailemv  of   Uni    - 
Castleton,  Vt.,  182H-ai :  was  admitted  U>  the  t«r  \z 
and   settled   at    Rutland,  Vt.     In    IKU,    IKM-^^.  t- 
1847  was  in  the  Vermont  L^islatura,  and  Stw-ak-r  , 
house  for  his  last  three  terms.      Waa  M.  ('.  IMO^T 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1850  to  bis  deatb,  at  Waf»h:r.ct  c 


•J 


in 


^ 


-1 


r«  ••'•    a: 


Mar.  28,  1866.    Mr.  F(K)t  was  for  some  years  pn  • 
tempore  of  the  U.  S.  Senate ;  was  a  Whig  to  pc>at>  i. 

FooU  Jallon :  See  FtrrA  Jaixov. 

Footbmll :  an  athletic  gmme  of  very  ancient  *  nj  -. 
lieved  by  some  to  have  been  introduce*!  ini4»  Cirr-at  b-  -i 
the  Romans.  From  a  rude  pastime  it  has  l»«-n  •.•  > 
into  a  scientific  game,  and  has  undergone  oon^i«i'  ral .'  i 
fication  since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  tt  nt  ur«  T*^ 
are  two  ways  of  playing  f(M>tt)all:  one  aix^-nlu.^  *  4  *^ 
of  rules  adopted  oy  the  Football  Avin<^  i^tioti  'if  \  ,:  »^ 
formed  in  1863,  and  the  other  aoconiing  u*  tl'-  i 
in  force  at  Rugby  School  The  Ruel>)  gamr  •*•  'i^ 
changed  and  stiU  further  elaborate*]  by  ihr  o-  :♦  j»*  *  I 
U.  S.,  among  which  it  is  very  popular.  F<»41«a*-  *  -  *^ 
every  other  game  in  its  demand  for  a  high  c*  cut  .r.a:  i 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  qualities.  The  Am^^^j-.ts  :^ 
oy,  as  the  game  played  in  the  U.  S.  b  calle<l.  n-  t  -  %i 
Ungular  field  330  by  160  feet,  the  lM>undahr«  U  .  j  ;  .i 
marked  with  white  lines,  as  are  also  chms  lin*^  a* 
of  5  yards.  Goal-posts,  20  feet  high  and  IH  ft.  6 
with  a  cross-bar  lO  feet  from  the  gn>und.  arr  t  m  ' 
middle  of  each  end.  The  liall  is  aiiout  1:2  it  '••  \ 
elliptical  in  form,  and  made  of  inflated  ruMwr  \  r,  •  ■  -| 
a  covering  of  leather.     Upon  each  side  are  eU^t  r  i 

play  offensively  so  long  as  in  pome»ioQ  of  th«*  t«  i 
It  to  their  opponents  only  on  penalty  for  li^'cai  *.  i.  i 
fumbling,  or  on  failure  to  a<lvauce  the  tmll  .'^  la^  •  -  | 
tries  by  running,  or  by  kicking  it.  Point.«  (an  iw  ^  *^ 
three  ways.  Touching  the  ball  down  Ijehin*!  li.*  t-.  .  g^ 
goal  line  counts  four  points.  This  (fives  the  i*n\ .  ■«.-  I 
'*  place  *'  kick  for  goal  from  a  point  in  the  firlii  *rra  ."| 
from  the  touch  down.  Five  points  can  be»x>mi  l «  a  -  .^ 
kick  of  goal  from  the  field,  and  two  mon*  fn^n  a  *  ««J^ 
touch  down.  Two  halves  of  forty-five  mintiir«.  «  *  a 
often  minutes  between  them,  ctmstitute  fui.  y%*  .-  i 
The  players  on  each  side  are  arranged  in  t«-»  i.^- 
the  forwards  and  the  backs,  each  set  bavinjr  ki^r^.^  ••••{ 
duties.  The  forward  line  w)n8i?4?»  of  the  t-rnt^r.  »*  :.• 
puts  the  ball  in  play  by  snapping  it  htu^k  brt««vfi  ^  «  { 
a  guard  on  eacn  side,  with  duties  indieatf^  t*y  i^-*  r.i 
a  tackle  next  to  each  guard,  who  in  defm«M^  p'.a^  'i 
through  the  opposing  line  to  seixe  the  i*'ayrr  ha*  -J 
ball ;  and  two  end  men  freer  in  actioti.  Imtn*-!  »•  •  1 
of  the  center  is  the  ouarter-back,  who  m^tra  •.*»  iml  | 
places*  it  in  the  hanus  of  a  third  man  brforr  an  a^i^ftr  i 
De  made.  Behind  the  quarter-back  are  two  hal'  r^  a.J 
a  full-lwu'k,  who  do  most  of  the  ranning  with  t.s«  tt 
secret  signal  indicates  to  every  playvr  tbe  po  j^  '^ 
Kach  year  develops  systematic  piay.  by  nu)%rn.«Tt» 

Srise  and  stategy,  by'prpcoooerted  tnUriefrot^  :k   •••i 
le  runner,  and  hj  skillful  bloi'kiiij;  oo  the  dt  f*  r.ai«  '  «^ 
English  Ruaby  is  plaved  with  nftren  m^n  (.c  a  »•.«! 
is  slower  and  fens  scientific,  but  not  so  rvKurh. 

Asmciation  football   is  priroanly  a  k^  kin^  C**^ 
liall   being    advanced    in    that    way.  aod    bv   *  hmtml 
••  breasting,"  and  -  kneeing  **  it.    Piv«.  forwara^^  t>  -^  I 
backs,  two  full-backs,  and  a  goal-teodrr  t»tay  •«  #^  - 
Ooals  are  made  by  profiling  the  ball  brtwrvn  xm 
8  feet  apart  and  beneath  a  cnj«»-bar  H  fert  fn  e  tU   ^ 


Foot#,  A JfDEKW  Hixl:  rear-admiral  U.S. tta«?  .  *■■    H 
Flaven,  Conn.,  S«pt  12,  1806;  entnrsl  the  nan   mm    • 
shipman  Dec.  4,  1823;  became  a  hrtitenari  .i    :*«•.   « 
mander  in  1M2.  a  caiilain  in  1861,  a  r*ar-«d»-  *^    .  • 
In  the  fall  of  1861,  tne  civil  war  being  m  pi^v**^        * 
ap|M>inte<l  to  the  command  of  the  Wr^em  ft  ■     a-    ■  "^ 
course  of  ctmstruction  for  the  parpuMr  irf  »if»ci  *^  •*• 
i?ati«m  of  the  Miasiaaippi  river.    On  FrK  €.  I**tt.  F  »  •  | 
Fort  Henry  after  a  most  obi4inat«  fight ;  o«i  t*i*  !  ••*    \ 
same  month  engaged  Fort  I)ooelar>o,  f»v  an  hi-«£*  •-       i 
with  four  ir<»nclail«  and  two  woi«len  ciiiiU«i«  •-*        \ 
int»mli/od  itw  garri*»»n  as  to  in«unr  an  «a»y  w  •  -^        \ 
by  the  army  on  the  folio ww|^  ■tonua^ ;'  smc  -a      ^ 


468 


FORAGE 


FORBES 


in  Sant*  Eustorgio,  one  of  the  most  exquisite  pieces  of  deco- 
ration of  the  fifteenth  century,  is  also  by  him.    D.  in  1492. 

W.  J.  S. 

Forage  [M.  Eng.  foragt,  from  0.  Fr.  fouragt  (>  Fr,  f(mT' 
rag^  deriv.  oi  forrer,  forage,  deny,  of  forre,  fodder,  straw 
<>  Fr.  fevrre),  from  Mediaev.  Lat.  fo'drum,  from  a  Teuton, 
word ;  of.  O.  N.  fbdr  :  Eng.  fodd&r  :  O.  H.  Germ,  fuotar  > 
Mod.  Germ.  Futter.  See  Food]  :  food  or  fodder,  food  for 
animals.  (See  Hay.)  The  word  is  also  used  as  a  verb,  when 
it  means  to  collect  supplies  generally  for  fcNoth  man  and 
beast,  from  an  enemy  by  force,  from  friends  by  impressment, 
but  giving  to  friends  receipts,  to  be  paid  ultimately. 

Forage  may  be  roughly  divided  into  concentrated  and 
coarse  fodders.  The  more  common  concentrated  foods  are 
found  in  the  cereal  grains,  the  by-products  of  their  manu- 
facture into  human  food,  and  the  ground  cake  left  after  ex- 
tracting the  oil  from  certain  see&  as  linseed,  cotton  seed, 
rape,  colza,  etc.  The  coarse  fodders  are  found  in  the  various 
grasses,  the  straws  of  the  various  grains,  the  stover  of  maize, 
and  certain  other  plants,  notably  several  members  of  the  Legu- 
minoscB  (the  clovers,  alfalfa,  pease,  beans,  etc.).  A  plant  to 
be  useful  as  forage  must  not  only  possess  substances  suitable 
for  animal  nutrition  in  a  form  readily  assimilable,  but  must 
be  palatable  to  the  animal,  free  from  acrid  or  poisonous 
qualities,  and  capable  of  easy  cultivation  and  preservation. 
Coarse  forage  is  usually  preserved  in  the  form  of  hay— i.  e. 
sufficiently  dried  to  prevent  fermentation  and  decomposi- 
tion, but  a  method  of  preservation  in  the  greQ^  state  (see 
Ensilage)  furnishes  a  variety  of  available  coarse  fodders. 

The  daily  ration  of  forage  in  the  army  of  the  U.  S.  is  for 
each  horse  14  lb.  of  hay  and  12  lb.  of  grain,  either  oats, 
corn,  or  barley.  For  a  mule  the  daily  ration  is  14  lb.  of  hay 
and  9  lb.  of  grain.  The  blades  of  Indian  corn  are  used  for 
forage  in  the  absence  of  hay.  The  consumption  of  forage 
in  alarge  and  active  army  is  enormous.  Its  weight,  owing 
to  the  number  of  animals  employed  in  military  operations, 
is  about  four  and  a  half  times  as  great  as  that  of^the  sub- 
sistence sujjplies  for  the  same  army.  There  were  issued 
from  the  depot  at  Washington  during  the  war  of  1861-65 
4,500,000  bush,  of  com,  29,000,000  bush,  of  oats,  and  490,000 
tons  of  hay.  Partial  rejxorts  of  the  quartermaster-general 
show  issues  of  forage  during  the  war  as  follows : 

22,816,271  bush,  of  com,  costing $29,879,314 

78,663,799  bush,  of  oats 76,362,026 

1,618,621  tons  of  hay,  costing 48,595,872 

Total $154,837,212 

The  weight  of  these  supplies  in  pounds  was — 

Cora 1,277,711,176 

Oats 2,517,241,568 

Hay 3,037,242,000 

making  a  total  of  6,832,194,744  lb.— numbers  difficult  to 
realize,  but  interesting  as  showing  the  magnitude  of  the  op- 
erations necessary  to  provide  and  distribute  these  few  items 
of  the  expenses  of  war.  Montgomery  C.  Meigs. 

Revised  by  II.  H.  Wing. 
Foraker, Joseph  Benson:  U.S.  politician;  b.near  Rains- 
borough,  Highland  co.,  O.,  July  5, 1846;  at  the  age  of  six- 
teen enlisted  as  the  first  private  in  Company  A,  Eighty- 
ninth  Ohio  Infantry :  his  promotion  was  rapid,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Mission  Ridge  he  commanded  his  company.  He 
was  mustered  out  June  18, 1865,  a  captain,  before  he  had 
completed  his  twentieth  vear.  In  1869  he  graduated  at 
Comell  University,  and  aherwanl  became  one  of  its  trus- 
tees; commenced  practicing  law  in  Cincinnati,  0.,  in  1869; 
in  1878  became  chief  supervisor  of  elections  for  the  southem 
district  of  Ohio ;  in  1879  he  was  elected  to  the  superior  court 
bench  for  five  years ;  in  1883  he  was  nominated  for  Govern- 
or of  Ohio  by  the  Republican  partv,  but  was  defeated  by 
George  Hoadly;  in  1885  Judge  Foraker  was  again  nomi- 
nated for  Governor,  and  was  elected ;  re-elected  in  1887. 
Ho  has  a  national  reputation  as  a  political  orator,  and  is  one 
of  the  prominent  leaders  of  the  Republican  party. 

Fora'men  (plural  ForamMna)  [Lat.,  opening,  deriv.  of 
fora're,  pierce,  bore  :  Germ,  hohren,  bore  :  Eng.  bore  ;  Gr. 
^op^y  plow] :  in  anatomy,  denotes  in  general  any  natural 
opening  through  a  substance ;  more  particularly  an  opening 
through  a  bone.  It  is  especially  applied  to  the  bony  pas- 
sages through  which  the  nerves  and  blood-vessels  enter 
And  leave  the  skull  and  spinal  canal. 

Foraminirera  [Lat.  fora'menyfora' minis  -f-  ferre,  bear] : 
a  sub-class  of  Protozoa  belonging  to  the  Rhizopoda,  and 


better  named  Reticularia.    Most  of  the  species  are  mann* 
and  thev  are  characterized  by  their  ability  to  send  out  rr .' 
esses  of  protoplasm   (pseudopodia)  in  the  shaw  of  V, 
threads,  which  unite  together  to  form  a  network,  wh.^- 
the  name  Reticularia.    A  few  species  are  naked,  but  u.  : 
form  a  protective  shell,  often  of  a  very  complicated  jyiit.  - 
with  either  one  or  two  large  terminal  openings  or  with  i . 
merous  small  pores  for  the  protrusion  of  the  pseudeivi,. 
They  were  formerly  regarded  as  organisms  without  a  i . 
cleus,  but  they  are  now  known  to  possess  one.    Thv  A  . 
may  be  formed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  of  a  horav-like  mait.r 
or  of  particles  of  sand  cemented  together.    Tte  shaijc  ar 
character  of  the  shells  are  used  in  classification.    In  ».ci.  • 
is  simple,  but  in  others  it  becomes  very  complicated  h\  "- 
budding  of  the  protoplasm,  the   separate  charaben.'t!i 
formed  being  connected  together.    Many  families  and  ?n'. 
era  of  recent  fonns  have  been  described. 

As  fossils  the  Foraminifera  hold  an  important  r.osili.  n. .' 
^heir  shells  build  up  vast  beds  of  rock.  Examples  n>H^  i^ 
cited  in  the  chalk  cliffs  of  England,  the  nummulitic  u.^ 
stone  of  Egypt,  and  the  Silurian  beds  of  Russia.  As  f-v 
they  occur  m  the  lowest  fossiliferous  rocks  (the  celeln^^-  . 
Eozodn  is  probably  not  of  organic  origin),  and  a  fonna- 
of  chalk  is  taking  place  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  of  li-,:: 
m  the  so-called  globigerina  ooze,  which  occurs  at  \[j'%. 
a®Ptl^-  J.  S.  KiyGMiv. 

Forbach,  for'brikAh:  town  of  Lorraine,  GennanT:  U 
miles  N.  W.  of  Saargemtlnd  (see  map  of  German  Ei'q  ^^ 
ref.  6-C).  It  has  coal  mines  and  important  raanufactu-  ■ 
Near  here  (Aug.  6, 1870)  the  French  under  Frossani  «,: 
badly  beated  by  the  Germans  under  Prince  Fivde:.  i 
Charles.    Pop.  (1890)  9,575. 

Forbes,  Archibald:  war  correspondent;  b.  in  M  n.t 
shire,  Scotland,  in  1838;  studied  at  the  University  of  A^r 
deen ;  served  for  several  years  in  the  Roval  Dragoons:  vd 
1870  has  been  war  correspondent  of  the  London  7>fli7y  .^'^■ 
in  which  capacity  he  accompanied  the  German  armv  fn^ci  i« 
ginning  to  the  end  of  the  Franco-German  war;  Viirr-^^- 
the  close  of  the  Commune ;  visited  India  during  the  fan  i:,- 
of  1874;  saw  the  Carlist  war  in  Spain,  the  war  in  Sr^ . 
1876,  the  Russo-Turkish  campaign  m  1887,  etc.  Auth-^  .i 
Drawn  from  Life^  a  military  novel ;  My  Exptriencfji  "f"" 
War  between  France  and  Germany ;  Glimpsei*  ihntuQh  •*- 
Cannon  Smoke  (1880) ;  Soldierina  and  ScriWing  {>^: 
Life  of  Chinese  Gordon  (1884) ;  Life  of  the  Emperor  W  .• 
%am  of  Germany  (1889) ;  and  Havelock  (1890).     t\  H.  T. 

Forbes,  Edward,  F.  R.  S.  :  naturalist ;  b.  in  the  \<\*   ' 
Man,  Feb.  12,  1815;  began  the  study  of  medicine  at  K.  . 
burgh  in  1830;  founded  the  Botanical  Society  of  Edinl  iin.T 
in  1836;  visited  Paris  and  the  Mediterranean  in  1W7:  i»f 
naturalist  of  the  expedition  to  Lycia  in  1841;  Proft^'-r* 
Botany  at  King's  (Jollege,  London,  in  1842 ;  F.  L.  S.  r 
1843 ;  assistant  secretarv  to  the  Zoological  Societv  in  N^ 
F.  R.  S.  in  1845 ;  Professor  of  Natural  History  at  tho  S  h 
of  Mines  in  1852,  and  in  the  same  year  president  of  •? 
Geological  Society ;  Professor  of  Natural  H istor?  at  Ki  r 
burgh  1853.    D.  Nov.  18.  1854.    Published  Eistw^f  of  Bn- 
ish  Starfishes  in  1841,  and,  with  Haniey,  History  of  Br.: 
ish  MoUusca  in  1853,  besides  other  important  work>,  :' 
eluding  a  great  number  of  valuable  papers  upon  zikM  .:    • 
botanical,  and  literary  subjects.    See  Memoir  by  Dr.  Gt-ri.- 
Wilson  and  Archibald  Geflde  (London,  1861). 

Forbes,  James  David,  D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.  S.  :  phvsicist ;  K  * 
Colinton,  near  Edinburgh,  Apr.  20,  1809;  was  "Prof ev-^-r .  • 
Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Universitv  of  Edinburgh  in  b  ' 
published  Travels  in  the  Alps  in  1843 ;  made  discovi  n--  ' 
the  laws  of  glacial  motion,  and  in  the  phenomena  of  m'" •  * 
light  and  heat  in  relation  io  polarization;  and  receiv«tl  '^• 
Rumford  medal  and  that  of  the  Royal  Society  of  I/n-! ' 


In  1860  became  principal  of  the  United  College*  in  ih»  T: 
versity  of  St.  Andrews.    Norway  and  the  Glaeins  Vi>- 
in  1851  was  published  in  1853;  A  Tour  of  Mont  Bhnc  »  • 
Monte  Rosa  in  1855.    He  published  many  valu«bl»>  pai+^r^ 
mostly  upon  questions  in  physics.     The  Sixth  Dtssf^rhn  •• 
prefixed  to  the  Encyelowedia  Britannica,  was  his  yiy*^'- 
tion.    D.  at  Clifton,  England,  Dec.  31,  1868. 

Forbes,  John:  soldier;  b.  at  Petincrief,  Fifeshirt.  S.  ' 
land,  1710;  became  a  physician,  but  gave  up  the  proff^- 
to  enter  the  army,  and  became  lieutenant-colonol  in  '' 
Scots  Greys  in  1745.    After  service  in  the  German  war  «*>- 
Dec.  28, 1757,  made  brigadier-general  in  North  America,  at 
was  adjutant-general  in  the  expedition  against  I/>ui*biir; 


470 


FORCE 


to  be  true  by  considering  the  case  of  gravity.  The  incre- 
ments of  velocity  imparted  by  gravity  in  successive  equal 
instants  of  time  to  a  oody  falling  from  rest  are  equal ;  but 
the  minute  spaces  passed  over  in  these  successive  instants, 
being  propoitional  to  the  successive  actual  velocities,  form 
an  arithmetical  series.  (See  Falling  Bodies.)  The  sum  of 
this  series  gives  the  total  space  fallen,  which  is  ^vt.  Now, 
mg  being  the  measure  of  the  static  force  of  gravity,  ^m^vt 
represents  the  work  of  gravity  in  putting  a  body  into  motion 
with  the  velocity  r.  And  as  ^/  =  v,  we  obtain  finally  for 
work(W),  W  =  imv^.  Any  other  constant  force,  as/,  greater 
or  less  than  gravity,  will  generate  the  velocity  v  in  a  time 
proportionally  less  or  greater ;  but  the  work  done  will  in  all 
cases  be  the  same,  and  will  be  independent  of  both  force  and 
time.  For,  as  /^  =  v,  and  as  v  is,  by  hypothesis,  constant, 
ft  is  constant  also,  and  Wz=^mfvt  is  invariable,  whatever 
be  the  value  of  /.  •  In  like  manner,  the  work  which  may  be 
done  by  the  moving  mass  in  overcoming  resistance  to  its  mo- 
tion is  equally  independent  of  time,  while  the  space  through 
which  it  may  move  in  expending  the  force  accumulated 
in  it  will  be  inversely  as  the  resistance  it  encounters.  Thus 
a  heavy  ball  rolling  over  smooth  ice,  being  but  slightly  re- 
tarded by  friction,  will  roll  very  far,  but  a  nammer  or  bullet 
suddenly  arrested  will  exert  an  enormous  and  even  destruc- 
tive pressure. 

We  thus  see  that  the  power  of  a  moving  mass  to  do  work 
is  proportioned  to  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  motion, 
while  the  power  of  a  simple  pressure  to  hold  in  check  an  op- 
posing pressure  is  proportioned  to  the  virtual  velocity  only. 
For  distinction,  the  product  t»v*  is  called  the  vis  viva,  the 
living  force,  or  the  kinetic  energy,  and  mv  the  moment.  By 
energy  is  meant  the  capacity  of  a  body  to  do  work.  This 
may  depend  on  its  position  or  condition,  and  is  then  called 
potential  energy.  The  body  is  doin^  no  work,  but  may  be 
made  to  do  work  by  some  change  in  one  or  both  the  re- 
spects mentioned.  A  clock-weight  wound  up,  the  mechan- 
ism being  at  rest,  is  an  example  of  energy  of  position. 
Gunpowder  is  an  example  of  energy  of  condition.  Actual 
energy  is  that  exercised  by  a  moving  mass,  and  is  equiva- 
lent to  living  force.  A  pendulum  at  the  end  of  its  swing 
possesses  only  potential  energy,  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
swing  only  actual  energy. 

Thus  far  we  have  confined  ourselves  to  the  relations  of 
force  and  energy  in  mechanics.  We  no^  proceed  to  consider 
them  in  their  wider  significations.  The  forces  of  nature 
which  are  characteristically  different  from  each  other  may 
be  stated  as  follows:  1,  gravitation;  2,  molecular  force; 
8,  chemical  affinity ;  4,  heat  and  light ;  5,  electricity ;  6, 
vital  force.  Gravitation,  which  is  tne  attraction  between 
bodies  at  a  distance,  is  proportional  directly  to  the  product 
of  the  two  masses,  and  inversely  to  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance between  them.  Molecular  force  is  the  attraction 
between  the  particles  of  bodies,  and  is  manifested  in  solids 
and  liquids  by  their  cohesion  and  elasticity,  and  in  liquids 
additionally  in  capillarity  and  osmose.  Chemical  affinity 
resembles  the  force  last  named  in  acting  at  insensible  dis- 
tances, but  differs  in  being  manifested  only  between  unlike 
substances.  Heat  is  supposed  to  be  a  mode  of  vibratory 
motion  actuating  the  molecules  of  every  material  substance. 
Elevation  of  temperature  is  explained  as  an  increase  in  the 
energv  of  the  vibrations  and  an  enlargement  of  their  am- 
plitude, whereby  the  volume  of  the  combined  mass  is  ex- 
panded, and  ultimately  the  cohesion  and  even  the  affinities 
of  its  molecules  are  overcome.  These  vibrations  are  sup- 
posed to  be  propagated  from  body  to  body  by  undulations 
m  an  exceedingly  rare  medium  filling  all  space,  called  ether. 
When  these  undulations  fall  within  certain  definitely  as- 
signed limits  as  to  length,  they  have  power  to  affect  the 
retina  of  the  eye,  and  thus  give  rise  to  the  phenomena  of 
light.  Electricity  is  a  very  energetic  force*  the  physical 
theory  of  which  is  still  unsettled.  It  produces,  according  to 
circumstances,  attractions  and  repulsions  between  masses 
and  between  molecules.  Magnetism  is  but  a  form  of  elec- 
trical action.  Vital  force  is  more  obscure  as  to  its  manner 
of  action  than  any  other ;  and  it  is  even  denied  by  many 
physicists  and  physiologists  that  any  such  distinctive  force 
exists,  all  the  phenomena  ascribed  to  it  being  attributed  to 
electricity,  chemical  affinity,  and  heat.  There  is  no  doubt, 
however,  that  there  exists  in  the  nervous  centers  of  living 
animals  a  certain  power  which  can  cause  contraction  of  the 
muscles  of  the  body  by  exciting  the  proper  nerves.  The  ve- 
locity with  which  this  message  is  transmitted  is  by  no  means 
great,  not  exceeding  20  or  30  meters  per  second.  When 
*a  whale  is  struck  by  a  harpoon,  such  is  tne  size  of  the  ani- 


mal that  quite  an  interval  elapses  before  the  brain  can  U 
informed  of  the  fact  and  can  put  the  muscles  of  the  tail  ir 
operation :  so  that  before  this  effect  is  produced  the  whah  r> 
have  time  to  retreat. 

Having  thus  classified  forces,  we  may  still  further  di^riu- 
guish  the  kinds  of  energv  dependent  on  them  as  follow^: 
Kinetic  energy  exists  in  the  four  forms,  A,  of  bodies  in  rur- 
tion ;  B,  of  radiant  heat  and  light ;  C,  of  electricity  in  mot  i<  -n  . 
and  D,  of  absorbed  heat.  Potential  energy  may  be,  E,  |*.  •>.- 
tion  of  the  body  in  regard  to  gravity  or  other  force  actin>:  a\ 
a  distance ;  F,  molecular  separation ;  G,  chemical  separat  v  <r. 
and  H,  electrical  separation.  In  the  first  four  of  these  form- 
work  is  obtained  directly  from  the  motion  of  the  body  or  it« 
molecules ;  in  the  secona  four  it  is  derived  from  an  altera 
tion  of  its  condition. 

Whenever  energy  in  one  form  disappears,  it  reappears  in 
another,  and  this  property  is  known  as  the  transmatatiou  «.( 
energy  or  the  correlation  of  forces.  (See  Enesot.)  For  m- 
ample,  tihe  energy  of  a  moving  body  suddenly  arrested  in  it- 
motion  is  converted  into  heat ;  the  energy  of  an  electric  i-ur- 
rent  may  be  transformed,  in  an  electro-dynamic  encii^f 
into  kinetic  energy  or  into  potential  energy  of  cben.ha. 
affinity  in  electrolysis.  In  general,  such  transformation*^  anr 
not  from  one  form  of  energy  into  a  single  other  form  on'.} 
The  moving  body  arrested  expends  some  part  of  its  eniTi.7 
in  molecular  separation  (fracture  of  the  opposing  biMJv\ 
some  part  in  giving  motion  to  the  fragments,  and  the  rf>' 
in  heat.  The  energy  of  the  electric  current  is  distributc«i 
between  mechanical  motion,  heat,  and  chemical  se{i«iran  ^r^ 
But  if  in  every  such  case  we  could  collect  and  reunite  all  tLt  -^^ 
fractions  of  distributed  energy,  we  should  find  their  >uiij 
just  equal  to  that  which  has  disappeared ;  and  this  leail^:  u- 
to  one  of  the  grandest  generalizations  of  modem  time?>,  tl" 
doctrine  of  the  persistence  of  force,  or  the  oonservatiuii  -.f 
energy,  expressed  in  the  proposition  that  energy,  like  xvh\- 
ter,  is  indestructible,  so  tnat,  however  its  form  may  char^u*-. 
its  total  quantity  is  forever  constant. 

With  the  demonstration  of  this  doctrine  a  fatal  blow  ha> 
been  ^iven  to  an  illusion  which  from  the  earliest  time^  I  i.- 
exercised  a  singular  fascination  over  many  ingenious  mi).  .• 
— the  belief  in  the  possibility  of  a  perpetual  motion.  It; 
this  was  meant,  not  the  eternal  persistence  of  motion  in  .* 
body  which  encounters  no  resistuice  whatever — for  in  tf.- 
sense  the  doctrine  of  the  conservation  of  force  is  also  a  •! --- 
trine  of  perpetual  motion — but  the  delivery  at  one  part  nf  * 
mechanical  contrivance  of  a  greater  amount  of  kinetic  *'T>r- 
gy  than  that  which  is  applied  at  another  to  set  the  coiitr.v 
ance  in  operation.    See  Ferpetual  Motion. 

Measure  of  Forces, — In  order  to  compare  (|aantities  of  a- ' 
kind  it  is  necessarv  that  we  have  some  definitely  fiixed  ui.:- 
of  measure.  By  the  aid  of  such  units  the  relative  ma;n.-- 
tudes  of  quantities  of  the  same  kind  are  expressible  in  n:- 
stract  numbers.  And  when  quantities  of  different  kind-s  s- 
in  the  relation  of  dependent  variables,  the  laws  which  <  r 
nect  them  may  be  expressed  by  comparing  the  abstract  nu:  • 
bers  which  denote  their  relations  of  magnitude  among  th*  r  • 
selves.  For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  t^e  as  a  start  ;r  j- 
point  some  state  of  tne  related  quantities  of  which  the  k-^t- 
ditions  are  definitely  known.    Take,  for  instance,  the  law    ' 

Pressure  and  volume  in  gases,  commonly  called  the  la« 
[ariotte.    If  the  elasticity  of  air  compressed  in  a  c>  hu    : 
by  a  force  of  20  lb.  to  the  sq.  inch  maintains  the  pi>t«  >r.  .: 
the  height  of  4  feet,  40  lb.  to  the  sq.  inch  will  reduce  t  ►  - 
height  to  2  feet.    We  have  here  a  variety  of  units,  anfi  *: 
numbers  are  unnecessarily  large.    It  would  be  simple  r  • 
say  that  if.under  a  pressure  of  1  (unit  of  foree)  the  air  t^  r. 
pressed  occupies  2  units  of  volume,  then  a  pressure  of  5  u:.  :• 
of  force  will  reduce  it  to  1  unit  of  volume.    It  is  tht^txt  -• 
desirable  that,  in  order  to  compare  with  fincility  the  r  •  1- 
tions  of  quantities  of  different  Kinds,  the  units  shall  U   « 
chosen  as  to  have  the  simplest  possible  relations  bet^r^: 
each  other. 

The  centimeter,  gramme,  and  second  have  been  nw  r- 
mended  by  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancemen: 
Science  as  fundamental  units  on  which  to  establish  it'  • 
unit  measures  of  quantitv  and  energy  for  physical  purf  ^-^  - 
called,  therefore,  derived  units.  These  iundamental>  i.- 
sometimes  referred  to  as  the  **  B.  A.  units  "  or  the  *'  C.  G.  '• 
units  "  (centimeter,  gramme,  second). 

Since,  when  bodies  move  uniformly,  s  =  v^  !he  unit  .  * 
velocity  wQl  be  naturally  that  found  by,-^kkin^  tt  ar 
equal  to  the  fundamental  units  C  and  S  "^^Ki  is,  it  w)!!  >• 
that  velocity  which  will  carry  a  body  1  cm.  in  1  second.    ^ 
the  same  way,  if  a  be  put  for  acceleration,  t*  =  a/ ;  and  i  j. 


472 


FORCE 


FORCIBLE  ENTRY  ANT)  DETAINER 


present  loss  for  7,000  years  before  the  whole  mass  would 
nave  altered  its  temperature  by  one  degree  centigrade.  Still, 
enormous  as  this  supply  is,  it  must  eventually  be  exhausted, 
and  then,  by  the  dissipation  of  energy,  be  finally  converted 
into  radiant  heat  and  diffused  through  space.  The  final  re- 
sult, therefore,  would  be  that  all  bodies  would  assume  the 
same  temperature;  there  would  be  no  further  source  of  ener- 
gy ;  physical  phenomena  would  cease,  and  the  physical  uni- 
verse would  be  dead.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  nresent  view  of 
this  stupendous  question.  E.  C.  Pickebino. 

Force,  Peter  :  historian  and  journalist ;  b.  at  Passaic 
Falls,  N.  J.,  Nov.  26»  1790.  In  1820  he  commenced  the 
publication,  in  Washin^on,  of  The  National  Calendar^  a 
volume  of  national  statistics,  which  he  published  annually 
until  1836.     He  also  published  (1823-80)  a  political  news- 

Saper,  The  National  Journal,  which  was,  during  Presi- 
ent  J.  Q.  Adams's  administration,  the  official  organ.  By 
desire  of  the  Government  he  undertook  in  1833  the  prepa- 
ration of  a  documentary  history  of  the  American  colonies, 
a  labor  to  which  he  devoted  thirty  years,  during  which 
time  nine  folio  volumes  were  published,  entitled  Ameri- 
can Archives.  While  thus  engaged  he  accumulated  a  valu- 
able library  relating  to  early  American  history,  consisting 
of  books,  documents,  manuscripts,  maps,  etc.,  which  were 
purchased  by  the  U.  S.  in  1877  for  the  Congressional  Li- 
brary.   D.  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  23, 1868. 

Force  Bill,  The :  the  name  popularly  applied  to  the  bill 
introduced  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  Mar.  15, 1890,  providing  for 
the  Federal  control  of  elections.  It  passed  in  the  House  July 
2,  went  to  the  Senate,  and,  after  a  bitter  struggle,  was  forced 
aside  without  a  decisive  vote  on  Jan.  17, 1891.  The  Demo- 
crats who  opposed  it  made  the  bill  an  important  issue  in  the 
congressional  campaign  of  1891  and  the  presidential  of  1892. 

Forcellinl,  for-chel-lee'nefe,  Egtdio  :  Latin  lexicographer ; 
b.  at  Fener,  near  Feltre,  in  the  Venetian  territory,  Aug.  26, 
1688.  The  poverty  of  his  parents  deprived  him  of  early  ad- 
vantages, but  having  entered  the  seminary  of  Padua,  he  by 
his  marked  abilities  and  devotion  attracted  the  notice  of  Fac- 
ciolati,  then  director,  who  soon  engaged  his  aid  in  carrying 
out  his  own  designs  for  improving  the  Latin  dictionaries 
then  in  use.  In  1705,  under  the  direction  of  his  teacher, 
Forcellini  began  the  revision  of  the  book  called  CcUepinus 
(see  Facciolati),  and  finished  it  at  the  end  of  1718.  Fac- 
ciolati  meantime  had  conceived  the  plan  of  a  complete  dic- 
tionary of  the  Latin  language,  which  should  comprise  all 
the  words  of  existing  authors,  as  well  as  those  found  in  in- 
scriptions and  on  m^als.  The  execution  of  this  great  work 
devolved  entirely  upon  Forcellini,  and  to  him  this  credit 
belongs,  though  he  enjoyed  throughout  the  whole  period 
the  counsel  and  supervision  of  his  old  teacher.  A  brief 
memorandum  by  Forcellini  states  that  he  began  the  task  at 
the  end  of  1718,  and  worked  three  and  a  half  years  on  the 
letter  A.  In  1724  he  was  called  away  to  be  Professor  of 
Rhetoric  and  director  of  the  seminary  at  Ceneda,  and  was 
obliged  to  suspend  work  on  the  dictionary  till  his  recall  to 
Padua  in  1731.  From  this  time  he  labored  for  eleven  years 
without  interruption,  for  the  next  eleven,  with  more  or  less 
hindrance,  till  the  completion  in  1753;  two  years  were 
given  to  revision,  and  eight  years  to  the  transcription, 
which  was  finished  Nov.  13, 1761.  D.  at  Padua,  Apr.  4, 1768, 
one  year  before  Facciolati,  and  three  years  before  the  publi- 
cation of  the  work  that  had  occupied  nearly  forty  years  of  his 
life.  The  title-page  sets  forth  lairly  the  relation  of  the  two 
editors :  Totius  Latinitaiis  Lexicon  Consilio  et  cura  Jacobi 
Facciolati  opera  et  studio  j^gidii  Forcellini  alumni  Sem. 
Patnv.  hictwratum.  The  work,  after  lying  ten  years,  was 
published  in  4  vols,  folio,  under  the  care  of  Coguolati,  who 
wrote  the  preface.  A  new  edition  appeared  in  1805,  and  a 
third,  revised  with  additions  by  Furlanetto,  Padua,  1823-31, 
4  vols.  4to.  The  newest  edition  by  De  Vit,  with  Onomasti- 
con,  1858  ff.  An  edition  with  the  Italian  explanations 
translated  into  English  was  issued  by  G.  Bailey,  London, 
1828,  2  vols,  4to.  See  J.  B.  Ferrari,  Life  of  Forcellini, 
(Padua,  1792).  Revised  by  Alfred  Gudeman. 

Forceps  [from  Lat.  forceps  for  *formicepsi  formus, 
warm  +  ca'pere,  take] :  in  surgery,  an  instrument  for  seiz- 
ing, and  often  for  removing,  bodies  which  can  not  conven- 
iently be  seized  by  the  hand.  Forceps  are  of  many  forms. 
Special  kinds  are  used  for  special  purposes,  as  for  drawing 
teeth,  for  cleansing  sores,  for  seizing  a  bleeding  artery,  for 
extracting  bullets,  for  assisting  in  the  birth  of  the  foetus, 
and  for  many  other  uses. 


Forchhammer,  fdrA;h'haa-mer,  Johan  Geoko  :  geolo^nft ; 
b.  at  Husum,  Schleswig,  July  26,  1794;  became  a  distin- 
guished geologist,  mineralogist,  and  chemist ;  was  the  asw^^ 
ciate  of  Oersted,  and  long  held  the  chair  of  Geology  at 
Copenhagen ;  author  of  works  on  the  geology  of  Denmark 
(1835),  01  Scandinavia  (1843),  and  a  manual  of  chemisitrs 
(1834-35).    D.  at  Copenhagen,  Dec.  13, 1865. 

Forchhammer,  Peter  Wilhelm  :  Greek  arehffolocist 
and  mythologist;  b.  at  Husum,  Schleswig,  Oct.  23,  1?:<03; 
privat  decent  in  Kiel  1828 ;  professor  extraordinary  in  l^f96 : 
professor  ordinarius  in  1843.  His  writings  are  chiefly  th^ 
result  of  his  extensive  travels  through  Greece,  and  pertain 
particularly  to  topography  and  Greek  mythology,  in  th«- 
treatment  of  the  latter  subject  he  has  throughout  his  l<n«: 
lifepersistently  advocated  a  purely  symbolical  interpretat!<>n 
of  Hellenic  myths  and  legends,  regarding  them  as  the  an* 
thropomorphized  embodiments  of  aquatic  phenomena.  Tiii^ 
theory,  which  has  justly  not  been  received  except  in  ^>iOf 
minor  details^  is  brought  out  with  great  learning  and  re- 
markable ingenuity  in  all  his  publications,  of  which  only  a 
few  can  be  mentioned:  AchtlUlBSS);  Daduchos  (l^Triy; 
Wanderings  of  lo  (1880) ;  Erkl&rung  der  Hias.  on  the  bM.*i* 
of  the  topographical  features  of  the  plain  of  Trf»y  (l>c?4i: 
MykenoB  (1881) ;  Uellenika,  vol.  i.  (no  more  published) ;  (M 
Aristotle's  Poetics,  ete.  Alfred  Oudexajt. 

Forcible  Entry  and  Detainer :  in  law,  a  forcible  f i>- 
try  consists  in  an  unlawful  entry  upon  lands  or  tenements 
accompanied  by  the  exercise  of  force  or  by  the  use  of  sut  h 
threats  and  menaces  as  overawe  those  rightfully  in  {idoi-t-w 
sion,  and  prevent  their  resistance.  Forcible  detainer  &jv.- 
sists  in  wrongfully  keeping  possession  of  lands  or  tenemenT^ 
by  force  and  threats,  whether  the  original  entrv  was  for- 
cible or  peaceable.  Entry  and  detainer  are  usually  incladt^i 
in  the  same  act.  The  remedy  for  a  forcible  entry  and  <lt  - 
tainer  is  twofold,  the  law  affording  both  a  criminal  and  u 
civil  remedy.  The  common-law  remedy  is  criminal  in  it^ 
nature,  while  the  statutes  afford  a  civil  remedy.  The  <i<  >if 
object  of  the  civil  action  is  the  recovery  of  the  posst-s^Ni*  .i. 
which  has  been  invaded,  the  judgment  being  that  xh- 
plaintiff  have  restitution  of  the  premises  of  which  he  titi> 
been  unlawfully  deprived.  The  civil  and  criminal  nnie- 
dies  can  not  both  be  pursued  in  the  same  proceeding. 

From  the  time  of  tne  Norman  Conqueror  until  the  siatut< 
of  5  Rich.  II.,  c.  8,  the  common  law  of  England  permit  ti'd 
one  having  a  right  of  entry  to  enter  with  force  and  arms  arid 
to  retain  his  entry  by  force  when  his  entry  was  lawful.  Hut 
experience  showing  this  to  be  prejudicial  to  the  public  (H-a^t^, 
as  it  enabled  the  powerful  to  tyrannize  over  their  less  for- 
tunate neighbors,  it  was  deemed  proper  to  restrain  by  severe 
laws  all  persons  from  themselves  taking  possession  by  fi  *rvr. 
and  the  statute  referred  to  was  enacted.  This  statute*  has 
been  followed  in  England  by  others  of  like  import,  and 
similar  statutes  have  been  enacted  in  the  U.  S.  Ttiese  st.:it- 
utes  generally  declare  that  ''no  entry  shall  be  made  urH>n 
lands  except  in  cases  where  entry  is  given  by  law,  and  tna: 
in  such  cases  it  shall  be  made  only  in  a  peaceable  niannt>r. 
not  with  strong  hand,  nor  with  multitude  of  people/*  Ir 
most  of  the  States  jurisdiction  over  the  action  is  oonfemru 
upon  the  justices  of  the  peace.  They  have  no  juristliction, 
however,  in  cases  where  tne  title  to  real  property  is  in  que-i- 
tion.  But  the  limitation  of  the  jurisdiction  of  justices  </ 
the  peace  to  actions  where  the  amount  in  dispute  does  n«*T 
exceed  a  certain  amount  does  not  deprive  tnem  of  jurL-j- 
diction  in  actions  of  forcible  entry  and  detainer. 

1.  In  order  to  maintain  the  action,  the  complainant  mu^t 
show  that  he  was  in  the  actual  and  peaceable  possession  •  f 
the  premises  at  the  time  of  the  ouster  complained  of.  The 
action  does  not  involve  the  right  to  possession,  but  only  tiit- 
fact  of  possession. 

2.  The  person  who  may  bring  the  action  is  the  person  vh>» 
was  deprived  of  the  possession.  A  landlord  can  not  brine 
the  action  while  his  tenant  is  in  possession,  but  the  a<'tii'r- 
should  be  brought  by  the  tenant.  In  some  States,  howt*ver. 
the  statute  gives  the  landlord  the  right  to  maintain  the  ac- 
tion against  his  tenant. 

3.  The  person  against  whom  the  action  may  be  brought  i> 
the  person  who  is  in  possession  at  the  time  of  the  c»»ni- 
mencement  of  the  action.  It  may  be  maintained  against  th( 
representatives  of  the  dis8eizor,*and  against  those  in  po&^ 
session  under  him. 

When  entry  is  made  by  one  who  seeks  to  justify  his  act 
by  a  plea  of  ownership,  as  by  a  landlord  against  a  tenant 
holding  over  after  his  term,  it  is  generally  held  that  the  tei»- 


474 


FOREKNOWLEDGE 


FORESTRY 


court  within  the  U.  S.  by  the  attestation  of  the  clerk 
and  the  seal  of  the  court  annexed,  if  there  be  a  seal,  to- 
gether with  the  certificate  of  the  judge,  chief  justice,  or  pre- 
siding magistrate,  as  the  case  may  be,  that  the  said  attesta- 
tion IS  in  due  form.  And  the  said  records  and  judicial 
proceedings,  authenticated  as  aforesaid,  shall  have  such 
faith  and  credit  given  to  them  in  every  court  within  the 
U.  S.,  as  they  have  by  law  or  usage  in  the  courts  of  the 
State  from  whence  such  records  are  or  shall  be  taken."  If  a 
judgment,  therefore,  would  be  conclusive  in  the  State  in 
which  it  was  rendered,  it  is  conclusive  in  every  other  State. 
It  is  not,  however,  put  upon  the  same  footing  m  all  respects 
as  a  domestic  judgment.  No  execution  can  issue  upon  it 
without  a  new  suit  in  the  courts  of  the  State  where  it  is 
sought  to  be  enforced.  It  is  moreover  established  that  the 
above  statute  does  not  prevent  an  investigation  into  the  ju- 
risdiction of  the  court  m  which  the  judgment  was  rendered, 
or  an  inquiry  as  to  the  point  whether  it  was  obtained  by 
fraud. 

Some  special  remarks  should  be  made  as  to  judgments 
affecting  the  status  of  a  person  or  thing,  commonly  called 
judgment  in  rem.  An  illustration  of  such  a  judgment  as 
to  a  thing  is  a  proceeding  in  a  prize  court  to  ascertain  the 
title  to  a  ship;  of  such  a  judgment  as  to  a  person,  a  di- 
vorce from  the  marriage  contract.  The  peculiarity  of  such 
a  judgment  is  that  of  its  own  force  it  establishes  the  fact 
which  it  announces.  A  judgment  in  a  prize  court  that  a 
ship  is  a  U.  S.  ship  makes  it  a  U.  S.  ship  everywhere,  even 
though  the  court  may  have  proceedea  on  an  erroneous 
principle  of  law.  In  this  respect  such  a  judgment  differs 
widely  from  one  between  persons  (in  personam),  as  that  re- 
quires an  act  of  the  executive  power  to  carry  it  into  effect. 

As  to  the  effect  of  a  decree  of  divorce,  there  is  a  diversity 
of  opinion.  The  English  courts  hold  that  no  foreign  court 
can  dissolve  an  English  marriage  in  such  a  sense  that  its 
decree  will  be  recognized  in  England.  In  the  U.  S.  a 
divorce  granted  in  any  StAte  between  parties  who  are  domi- 
ciled there  will  be  recognized  in  every  other  State,  if  the 
court  had  jurisdiction  over  the  parties  and  there  is  no  fraud. 
The  same  rule  prevails  if  the  plaintiff  be  domiciled  in  a 
State,  and  the  other  party  makes  due  appearance  either  in 
person  or  by  attorney  to  defend  the  action.  For  this  pur- 
pose it  is  held  that  a  married  woman  may  acquire  a  differ- 
ent domicile  from  that  of  her  husband.  But  if  a  person 
residing  in  one  State  goes  into  another  and  obtains  a  di- 
vorce without  the  presence  of  the  other  party,  the  decree 
will  not  in  general  be  respected  in  the  State  of  the  latter's 
domicile.  The  reason  is  that  the  court  is  not  considered  to 
have  jurisdiction  over  the  absent  defendant.  See  Divorce, 
Married  Women,  etc.  Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwioht. 

Foreknowledge :  in  theology,  God^s  absolute  knowledge 
or  Omniscience  {q.  v.)  from  eternity — his  knowledge  con- 
ceived of,  as  in  aavance  of,  before,  the  thing  known.  All 
human  knowledge  is,  strictly  speaking,  simultaneous  with 
the  object  it  contemplates,  or,  in  a  looser  sense,  may  be  sub- 
sequent to  it.  In  tne  doctrine  of  Predestination  (q.  v.) 
foreknowledge  is  regarded  in  its  relation  to  the  salvation  of 
men.  It  is  admitted  by  all  thorough  theologians  that  the 
foreknowledge  of  God  is  dialectic<Uly  distinct  from  his  fore- 
ordination  or  eternal  purpose,  but  as  to  the  question  whether 
or  how  an  absolute  (that  is,  an  infallible)  foreknowledge 
(which  is  conceded  by  both  sides)  can  be  consistent  with  a 
conditional  foreordination,  they  answer  differently.  It  is 
also  admitted  on  both  sides  that  there  is  no  interval  of  time 
between  the  foreknowleclge  and  the  foreordination  of  God  ; 
both  are  alike  eternal.    The  question  is.  Which  is  properly 

Sut  first  in  the  system,  in  the  order  of  nature  and  of  lo|^c  f 
'ut  of  the  different  answers  to  these  questions  have  arisen, 
in  large  part,  the  conflicts  between  Arminianism  {q.  v.)  and 
Calvinism  {q.  v.).  The  Calvinists  make  the  foreknowledge 
subsequent  to,  and  dependent  on,  the  foreordination  ;  the 
Anninians  invert  the  relation,  and  make  the  purpose  or  or- 
dination of  God  dependent  upon  what  he  foreknows.  In 
the  one  system  the  two  are  distinct,  but  not  separable ;  in 
the  other  they  are  separable  as  well  as  distinct. 

C.  P.  Krauth. 

Foreland,  North  and  Honth  :  two  promontories  of  Eng- 
land, on  the  east  coast  of  Kent,  16  miles  apart.  Thev  con- 
sist of  chalk-cliffs  200  feet  high,  on  which  are  lighthouses 
to  warn  the  ships  from  the  Downs  and  Goodwm  Sands, 
which  extend  along  the  coast  between  them.  Lat.  of  North 
Foreland,  51"  23'  N.,  Ion.  r  27'  E.;  lat.  of  South  Foreland, 
5r  8'  N.,  Ion.  r  22'  E. 


Foreordination:  ordination  or  decree  in  advance,  the 
eternal  appointment  of  all  ends,  and  of  all  men  to  t  Ik  em- 
ends, by  God.  When  predestination,  as  some  of  the  Fathers 
and  some  of  the  Calvinistic  divines  have  used  the  term. 
covers  all  the  acts  of  God's  will,  it  is  synonymous  with  f(»n^ 
ordination.  When  predestination  is  confined  to  the  pur- 
pose of  God  in  regard  to  salvation,  foreordination  is  rtlait^d 
to  predestination  as  a  whole  to  a  part.  See  Foreknowl- 
edge. C.  P.  Kraltb. 

Forerlns,  fo-ree'ri-iis, or  Foreiro, fd-ra'i-ro,  Fran<i*4<xs: 
b.  of  noble  stock  at  Lisbon  in  1523  ;  entered  the  Dominicao 
order  1539 ;  studied  at  Paris,  and  acquired  a  brilliant  n^im- 
tation  as  a  linguist,  theologian,  preacher,  and  writ^^r ;  W- 
came  instructor  of  the  Prince  Antonio  and  preacher  in  t^.* 
King  of  Portugal ;  was  prominent  in  the  Council  of  Trmt 
1561-64 ;  was  one  of  the  committee  which  revised  the  mi>-A: 
and  breviary  and  prepared  the  Trident ine  catechism :  t***- 
came  confessor  to  Carainal  Borromeo ;  and  in  15^  provin- 
cial of  the  Dominicans  of  Portugal.  His  chief  work  i^  a 
translation  into  Latin  of  Isaiah,  with  a  commentary  (1563l 
D.  at  Almeida,  Jan.  10, 1587. 

Foreshortening :  in  drawing,  painting,  and  engraving, 
the  representation  of  objects  as  if  turned  endwise  or  part  It 
endwise  to  the  spectator,  the  whole  length  being  expres!^e<i 
or  represented  by  means  of  the  drawing. 

Forestalling :  a  common-law  offense  which  oons^iste^l  in 
buying  or  contracting  for  any  merchandise  or  victuaN  •  rj 
their  way  to  market  with  the  intent  to  sell  them  again  at  ^i'. 
increased  price,  or  in  dissuading  persons  from  brin;r:::j 
their  goods  or  provisions  to  market,  or  in  persuading  thiic 
to  enhance  the  price  when  there.  Any  device,  practice,  az 
conspiracy  to  enhance  the  market  price  of  merchandise  i^  a 
forestalling  of  the  market.  The  law  against  forestall  in  l' 
was  repealed  in  1773,  but  it  retained  its  penal  character  »: 
common  law  till  1844,  when  it  was  abrogated  by  stAt  utv  T 
and  8  Vict.,  c.  24.  In  the  U.  S.  forestalling  the  market  u.-^ti- 
ally  takes  the  form  of  "trusta"  or  "comers,"  being  an  »•- 
tempt  to  enhance  the  price  by  monopolizing  an  articl**  of 
trade  or  by  reflating  the  supply.  Whether  such  apn-*- 
ments  are  crimmal  or  not  in  the  U.  S.,  they  are  clearly  il]«- 
gal,  and  an  agreement  in  pursuance  of  such  an  object  l>> 
certainly  void.  Henbt  Wade  Rogers. 

Forest  Fly:  a  name  g[iven  to  those  insects  of  the  fainiU 
Ilippoboacidi,  order  Dipiera,  which  have  weU-devcl(  .^ >-•: 
wings.  This  family  includes  many  of  the  ticks.  All  ar- 
parasitic.  The  larvae  are  hatched  in  the  oviduct,  &n<i  turri 
to  pupae  just  after  birth.  The  Hippohosea  equitha  is  a  Eu- 
ropean horse-fiy. 

Forest  Grove:  town ;  Washington  co..  Or.  (for  locatit-:. 
of  county,  see  map  of  Oregon,  ref.  1-B);  on  the  South*-': 
Pacific  Railway ;  24  miles  W .  of  Portland.    It  is  the  st-at » '. 
Pacific  University  and  Tualatin  Academy  (Congregation a' 
and  has  a  canning-factory  and  grain  elevators.     Pop.  (I.n^' > 
547 ;  (1890)  668. 

Fores'ti,  Eleutario  Felice,  LL.  D.  :  patriot  and  soht^hr 
b.  at  Conselice,  near  Ferrara,  Italy,  about  1793;  graduati-. 
at  the  University  of  Bologna;  practiced  law  at  Ferram 
was  pnetor  of  Crespino  in  1816;  was  arrested  Jan.  7,  IM* 
as  one  of  the  Carbonari,  and  imprisoned  at  Spielberg  unt 
Aug.,   1836,  when  he  was  permitted  to  go  to  the   U.  >. 
Was  Professor  of  Italian  in  Columbia  College,  New  York 
and  a  teacher  for  more  than  twenty  years.     He  was  t^.- 
pointed  in  1858  as  U.  S.  consul  at  Genoa,  and  die<l  in  t\ .> 
city  Sept.  14  of  that  year.    Published  Chreatomazia  J:^^> 
iana  (1846),  and  edited  an  edition  of  OllendoHTs  ItAli»: 
grammar  (New  York,  1846). 

Forest  Laws :  laws  preventing  injury  to  the  soil  or  trr-? 
of  a  forest  or  to  the  game  sheltered  within  its  limits.     A 
forest,  under  the  ancient  English  law,  was  a  tract  of  w«^  -i^ 
country  in  which  the  sovereign  enjoyed  an  exclusive  rv' : 
to  hunt  game.    Forests  were  not  necessarily  incl<«»d.  bu* 
they  were  under  the  special  protection  of  certain  ci>ur.a' 
termed  "  forest  courts,"  and  a  particular  system  of  law*  «»- 
established  to  prevent  any  violation  of  the  king^s  rii:*  ** 
Both  these  courts  and  laws  have  now  fallen  into  com p let*: 
desuetude.  Revised  by  T,  W.  Dwiudt. 

Foreston,  111. :  See  Forreston. 

Forestry :  that  branch  of  arboriculture  which  conwrtk* 
itself  with  the  growing  and  management  of  trees  in  roa^^f^m 
called  forests.    It  is  the  art  of  systematically  utilizing:,  re^ 
producing,  and  improving  in  productive  eflSciency  natur^^ 


476 


FORESTRY 


its  best  financial  results,  acting  as  the  economic  regulator  of 
the  productive  technique. 

There  is  greater  need  for  such  a  systematic  orgcmization 
in  forest  management  than  in  other  pursuits,  because  a  long 
time  elapses  between  the  sowing  and  the  reaping,  and  be- 
cause, since  the  crop  may  be  utilized  at  various  stages  of  de- 
velopment, it  becomes  a  matter  of  considerable  study  when 
it  is  most  profitable  to  take  it.  In  a  comprehensive  forest 
management,  it  is  also  difficult  to  determine  how  much  is  to 
be  left  as  working  capital  or  stock,  and  how  much  of  the 
growth  is  to  be  considered  as  interest  or  accumulated  accre- 
tion to  be  harvested.  If,  furthermore,  it  is  desired  to  make 
the  revenue  as  nearly  as  possible  equal,  or  to  harvest  equal 
amounts  of  material  from  year  to  year,  a  further  complica- 
tion arises.  In  Europe  this  side  of  the  science  has  been  very 
thoroughly  elaborated,  a  considerable  amount  of  mathemat- 
ics being  applied  in  this  elaboration.  The  matter  can  be 
dismissed  here  with  a  simple  enumeration  of  some  of  the 
problems  that  require  solution  in  the  four  subdivisions  in 
which  this  part  of  the  science  is  generally  presented ;  namely : 
(1)  forest  surveying ;  (2)  forest  valuation ;  (3)  forest  regula- 
tion ;  (4)  forest  administration. 

In  order  to  secure  a  systematic  and  regular  procedure  in 
the  management  of  a  forest  property,  it  is  above  all  things 
necessary  to  find  out  what  its  annual  yield  is  or  can  be 
made,  its  normal  sustained  increment,  its  capability.  This 
depends  of  course,  in  the  first  place,  upon  the  soil  and  cli- 
matic conditions,  next  upon  the  kinds  of  trees  composing 
the  forest,  and  finally  upon  the  condition  of  the  forest  and 
its  management.  These  matters  being  ascertained  b;^  a 
forest  survey,  forest  regulation  then  proceeds,  depending 
upon  a  thorough  knowl^ge  of  the  laws  of  accretion  or  an- 
nual growth,  involving  a  study,  not  only  of  the  mass  and 
form  development  of  the  single  tree  under  varying  condi- 
tions, but  also  that  of  the  forest  growth  as  a  whole,  its  mass 
increment,  and  the  distribution  of  the  same  through  various 
ages.  Besides  the  mass  accretion,  there  is  also  to  be  deter- 
mined a  quality  increment,  and  dependent  upon  both  a  value 
increment.  It*  then  is  possible  to  determine  how  much  wood 
may  be  harvested  from  time  to  time,  and  how  much  must 
be  left  as  normal  stock,  upon  which  the  normal  increment 
can  take  place.  It  is  then  also  determined  with  what  rota- 
tion the  forest  is  to  be  cut,  i.  e.  how  long  a  time  may  elapse 
until  a  full  crop  can  be  most  profit^iblv  cut,  also  the  system 
of  sylviculture,  whether  coppice  or  timber  forest  is  more  ad- 
vantageous. As  further  basis  for  such  regulation,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  determine  by  the  methods  of  forest  valuation  the 
money  value  of  the  propertv,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether 
the  capital  represented  in  the  soil  and  in  the  gi'owth  does 
yield  or  promise  to  yield  a  satisfactory  interest,  and  what 
kind  of  management  might  be  most  advantageous.  Closely 
connected  with  those  financial  problems  is  the  consideration 
of  expenditures  for  administration.  All  these  problems,  to 
be  sure,  are  of  greater  importance  in  a  large  and  complicated 
forest  economy,  such  as  the  various  government  administra- 
tions represent,  and  become  of  less  and  less  importance,  and 
are  less  complicated  as  the  area  of  the  forest  to  be  placed 
under  systematic  manai^ement  decreases. 

In  a  well-conducted  forest  administration  the  forest  is  di- 
.  vided  not  only  into  districts,  sub-districts,  ranges,  etc.,  which 
serve  as  units  of  organization  each  under  a  competent  man- 
ager, but  each  of  these  divisions  is  divided  again  into  blocks, 
compartments,  groups,  and  age-classes,  which  serve  as  units 
of  management.  The  management  is  carried  on  upon  a  care- 
fully prepared  working  plan,  revised  from  time  to  time,  which 
indicates  for  years  to  come,  perhaps  a  century  and  more,  the 
operations  to  be  performed  m  each  compartment  or  group, 
the  annual  or  periodical  cut,  which  is  kept  as  nearly  equal 
as  possible  in  area  or  mass,  and  the  metnods  of  regenera- 
tion, etc. 

Under  the  name  of  sylviculture  may  be  comprised  all  the 
manipulations  in  the  field  which  have  for  their  object  the 
best  cievelopment  of  the  crop,  and  which  may  readily  l)e  con- 
sidered in  three  divisions,  namely :  those  concerned  with  the 
improvement  and  cultivation  of  the  crop;  those  insuring 
properties  against  fire,  insects,  and  other  damage ;  and,  lastly, 
those  which  have  reference  to  a  well-regulated  method  of 
harvesting  or  exploitation,  such  method  tletermining  in  part 
the  system  of  reproduction  or  regeneration.  Artificial  fores- 
tation  or  forest-planting  is  practiced  either  where  the  origi- 
nal forest  has  been  cut  away  without  regard  to  natural  repro- 
duction or  where  there  was  no  forest,  as  in  the  treeless  plains. 

The  considerations  which  require  attention  in  forest-plant- 
ing are  the  selection  of  plant  material  adapted  to  soil  and 


climate,  and  with  reference  to  the  value  of  the  product :  the 
manner  of  disposing  it  on  the  ground :  the  method  of  plant- 
ing it.  All  operations  must  be  considere<l  fnmi  the  hvlvi- 
cultural  standpoint  as  well  as  with  reganl  to  the  financiaJ 
result.  Whether,  therefore,  to  sow  the  seed  or  to  plant  m**^- 
lings  grown  in  a  nursery,  whether  to  plow  and  thoroughly 
prepare  the  ground  or  only  to  open  trenches  in  which  t4> 
plant,  or  to  use  the  dibble,  as  well  as  the  selection  of  plant 
material,  are  questions  both  of  sylviculture  and  finano* 
which  can  only  be  discussed  with  reference  to  given  IfH-ttl 
conditions  and  special  cases.  Only  the  leading  prin(i[»U>< 
in  forest-planting  may  be  stated  here.  Mix^  growths  are 
preferable  to  those  of  single  species  (by  themselves),  becauM 
they  may  be  made  to  yield  lar^r  returns,  and  offer  beiler 
soil  protection  and  greater  resistance  to  damage  by  v^  indN 
fire,  and  insects.  In  the  selection  of  species  for  mixt-d  pLmi- 
ing,  besides  their  adaptability  to  soil  and  climate— tho$%^  mo- 
tive in  a  region  deserve  first  consideration — and  tlu*  valuf 
and  rapid  development  of  their  product,  their  behavior  t<. 
each  other,  and  their  relative  development  must  be  c<>n>i<l- 
erecf,  which  are  predicated  by  their  relative  dependt^nc*-  f»r 
development  on  light  and  shade,  their  relative  rate  of  height 
growth,  and  their  relative  capacity  for  preserving  and  in- 
creasing favorable  forest  conditions.  Out  of  these  con<i<i- 
erations  the  following  rules  to  be  observed  in  mixe^l  [ilant- 
ing  arise : 

1.  The  main  growth — i.  e.  the  one  that  occupies  the  larcer 
part  of  the  ground — must  be  of  a  kind  that  improves  v*»i: 
conditions,  namely,  a  densely  foliaged,  shade-enduring  k inc. 
which  does  not  lose  its  shading  capacity  with  age.  2.  Dens  - 
ly  foliaged  kinds  may  be  grouped  together,  if  the  slow  grow- 
er will  endure  the  shade  of  the  rapid  grower,  or  can  hv  pn- 
tected  against  its  supremacy  by  being  planted  in  la^|;^•^ 
specimens,  or  in  advance  of  the  former,  or  in  larger  no  ru- 
bers, or  if  its  gradual  killing  out  after  it  has  serve<l  its  func- 
tion of  soil  cover  is  not  objected  to.  3.  Thinly  foliapd 
kinds  should  never  be  grouped  together  where  soil  huniitl- 
ity  is  to  be  preserved,  unless  no  shady  tree  can  be  found  t<  > 
fit  the  locality.  4.  In  grouping  light-needing  with  shailt^ 
enduring  kinds,  the  former  must  be  more  rapid  growei>,  or 
must  otherwise  be  given  an  advant^e.  A  mixture  of  ih^ 
ciduous  trees  with  conifers,  where  the  latter  are  otherwise 
adapted  to  soil  and  climate,  gives  ideal  conditions,  the  coni- 
fers  furnishing  more  continuous  cover,  developing  best  wirh 
the  deciduous  trees  as  neighbors,  and  yielding  mos^t  valanK*!'' 
material.  Since  the  first  object  to  be  attainecl  is  to  crent*- 
as  quickly  as  possible  a  soil  cover,  dense  planting  is  the  nil« . 
6,000  to  8,000  plants  per  acre,  and  even  10,000  where,  as  in 
the  prairie,  evaporation  is  rapid  and  the  need  of  a  soil  cnAcr 

freater.  This  dense  planting  obviates  aft«r-cultivatir»n. 
'or  nursery  practice  and  general  practice  in  handling  pljiTit 
material,  see  Nurseby,  and  the  various  plants  under  tht- ir 
respective  heads. 

While  it  is  mostly  cheaper  to  sow  the  seed  in  the  fi^^l 
place  where  it  is  to  grow,  sowings  are  apt  to  come  up  un- 
evenly, require  more  aftercare,  and  the  loss  in  time  and  il«- 
velopment  often  makes  planting  of  seedlings  more  profitaM'' 
in  the  end.  Young,  well-rooted  seedlings,  two  t(»  thnr 
years  old,  are  preferable  to  older  plants,  because  clieaf^r 
and  more  successfuUv  handled.  Cuttings  of  various  kin*K 
like  cottonwoods  an^  willows,  can  also  be  utilized,  but  thiv 
kind  of  plant  material  is  not  advisable  where  long-livt-i 
timber  trees  are  wanted.  Only  sufficient  preparation  t»f  \\i% 
soil  to  give  the  plants  a  successful  start  the  first  year  b> 
needed,  since  it  is  impossible  to  keep  up  cultivation,  ami 
the  labor  expended  at  the  first  soon  loses  its  effe<.*ts.  Ir. 
sandy  soils  planting  with  dibbles  of  various  sha^ies  is  f»r»<.- 
ticed  in  Germany,  one  man  setting  1,200  plants  in  a  day. 
Various  methods  of  planting,  adapted  to  different  soil  <>•»- 
ditions,  are  practiced  in  Europe— bunch-planting  (si*venil 
plants  in  one  hole),  top  or  mound  planting  (setting  plants 
on  top  of  ground  in  wet  localities),  sod-planting  (takintr  u; 
and  setting  plants  with  ball  of  earth),  notching  with  hatciu  : 
or  spade,  furrow-planting,  etc.  Various  plant ing-t4H>ls  an 
also  in  use.  An  ingenious  mechanic^il  planter,  which  pn  - 
pares  the  soil  and  plants  the  seedlings  in  trendies  in  <»r.f 
motion  at  the  rate  of  20,000  per  day,  has  been  patent***!  in 
the  U,  S.  On  the  prairies  thorough  cultivation  and  sonu*- 
times  several  years'  cropping  of  the  soil  l)efore  planting  ha.** 
been  practiced,  with  cultivation  between  the  widely  set 
rows  of  trees  afterward.  It  is  questionable  whether  this  i* 
necessary'  or  even  desirable.  Cultivation  may  be  avoide^l  1>t 
dense  planting.  To  establish  forest  conditions  must  be  thi^ 
first  aim  of  the  forest-planter. 


478 


FORESTRY 


are  fit  for  hoop-poles,  removing  the  less  desirable  growth ; 
afterward  the  golden  rule  is  to  return  often  and  not  to  thin 
too  severely. 

Forest  protection  is  especially  needed  against  fire  and 
insects.  Running  fires  aestroy  the  vegetable  mould  and 
underbrush;  top  fires  lay  low  the  trees.  To  reduce  this 
danger  not  only  great  care  in  the  use  of  fire  is  required,  but 
in  order  to  confine  and  control  any  that  has  started  the 
forest,  especiallv  in  the  pineries,  is  divided  into  blocks  and 
compartments  bv  cleared  rides  or  roads  regularly  laid  out 
and  crossing  each  other,  kept  clear  of  underbrush,  proceed- 
ing from  which  the  fire  mav  be  fought.  Running  fires  are 
beaten  out  with  brush,  checKed  bv  ditching  or  by  counter- 
fires  ;  top  fires  are  stopped  by  felling  strips  of  timber,  and 
thus  preventing  further  spreading. 

Caterpillars  aestroy  the  foliage  of  healthy  trees,  the  larvsB 
of  beetles  destroy  the  wood  and  the  buds  of  young  trees, 
and  injure  the  roots  of  young  growths.  Many  methods  of 
defense  are  practiced,  the  annual  outlay  for  which  by  the 
Prussian  Government  forests  averages  $60,000  per  year. 
Prevention  again  is  better  than  cure.  It  consists  in  grow- 
Ingmixed  forests,  and  keeping  them  as  shady  as  possible. 

JExploitation  consists  in  the  proper  felling  and  most  eco- 
nomical adaptation  of  the  various  woods  and  dimensions  to 
their  most  profitable  use,  providing  means  of  transportation, 
etc.  A  good  road  system  well  laid  out  and  well  kept,  sup- 
plementeid  by  other  means  of  transportation,  is  the  keynote 
of  profitable  forestry,  for  only  where  all  material  can  be 
reaaily  marketed  does  the  cost  of  production  and  the  de- 
sired interest  on  the  capital  result.  The  harvesting  of  by- 
products, which  sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  tan- baric  in  t&e 
tan-oak  coppice,  becomes  the  main  product,  also  requires 
special  attention. 

History  and  Statistics. — The  history  of  the  forest  has 
been  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  progressing  accord- 
ing to  the  cultural  development  of  the  people.  First  it  was 
valued  as  the  harbor  of  game ;  then  it  appeared  as  an  im- 
pediment to  agricultural  development,  and  relentless  war 
was  waged  against  it ;  then  the  value  of  its  stores  made  it 
an  object  of  greedy  exploitation,  and  only  in  a  highly  civi- 
lized nation  does  the  idea  of  the  relation  of  forests  to  the 
present  and  future  welfare  of  the  community  lead  to  a 
rational  treatment  of  the  forest  cover  and  the  application 
of  the  principles  embodied  in  the  science  of  forestry.  Mod- 
em forestry,  such  as  is  more  or  less  practiced  now  bv  all 
European  people,  is  of  modem  and  mamly  Teutonic  origin. 
There  existed  some  knowledge  as  to  the  nature  of  forest 
CTOwth  and  the  advantages  of  its  systematic  use  among  the 
liomans  and  Greeks,  The  consecration  of  forests  to  the 
g[ods  may  be  considered  as  a  means  to  prevent  their  devasta- 
tion. Ancus  Marti  us,  the  fourth  King  of  Rome  (about  64 
B.  c),  claimed  the  forests  as  a  public '  domain,  and  placed 
them  under  special  ofiicers ;  later,  under  the  republic,  they 
were  in  special  charge  of  the  consuls.  Subsequent  wars, 
however,  seem  to  have  wiped  out  not  only  the  administra- 
tive features,  but  most  of  the  forests  themselves. 

To  Germany  in  the  first  and  France  in  the  second  place 
belongs  the  palm  for  the  beginning  as  well  as  for  the  sci- 
entific development  of  rational  forestry  systems.  The  first 
attempts  in  this  direction  seem  to  antedate  even  Charle- 
magne's time.  At  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the  "  ban 
forests"  (foresta)  had  been  established — L  e.  woods  in 
which  the  king  had  the  right  reserved  to  exercise  the  chase. 
(Afforesting  and  disafforesting  are  terms  having  reference 
to  the  establishment  and  discontinuance  of  such  forests.^ 
After  a  time  favored  vassals,  ecclesiastics,  and  others  had 
such  rights  reserved  for  them,  and  gradually  the  "  forest " 
included  not  only  woods  but  fields  and  other  open  territory, 
and  under  the  plea  of  guarding  the  chase  regulations  in 
the  use  of  the  wood  were  enforced.  But  long  before  this 
those  communistic  villagers,  aggregated  in  the  "  Mark,"  had 
themselves  regulated  the  methods  of  using  the  communal 
forest.  These  regulations,  originating  among  a  crude  peo- 
ple six  or  seven  centuries  ago,  were  indeed  wise  and  rational 
when  compared  with  the  irrational  methods  pursued  at  the 
present  time  in  the  U.  S.  The  amount  of  wood  to  be  har- 
vested was  determined  beforehand,  the  better  kind  of  tim- 
ber being  more  economically  cut.  For  firewood  the  dry 
and  inferior  timber  was  assigned.  Charring,  boxing  for 
resin,  etc.,  were  carried  on  under  precautions.  The  number 
of  swine  to  be  allowed  in  the  oak  or  beech  forests  was  de- 
termined according  to  the  mast.  The  damage  by  sheep  and 
goats  was  recognized,  and  their  pasturing  in  the  woods  pro- 
ibited  as  early  as  1158.    Even  aa  arbor  day  was  anticipated 


in  some  parts,  each  man  having  to  plant  under  8uper\'ihic>D 
of  the  appointed  forester  a  number  of  trees  pruportiouiitt 
to  his  consumption  ;  in  1368  the  citv  of  Nuremberg  W^rHn 
reforestation  on  a  larger  scale  with  conifers,  which  u^s 
imitated  by  other  communities ;  and  in  1491  a  regular  arti- 
ficial reforestation  hy  annual  sowings  of  oDdc  was  uDdcr- 
t^ken  by  the  community  of  Seligenstadt.    The  end  of  tht 
fifteenth  century  also  witnessed  ouit-e  a  systematic  rcpil.^ 
tion  of  the  annual  cuttings  by  tne  communal  authohtit^^s 
the  cities  and  villages  having  increased  their  boldiDgs  by 
large  forest  properties  given  by  or  bought  from  the  kiiij,^ 
and  princes,  and  also  fully  organized  administrations  of  the 
forests  belonging  to  the  latter  were  instituted.    The  law 
punished  with  heavy  penalties  trespasses  of  all  kinds.    Tht> 
Thirtjr  Years'  war,  which  extirpated  many  of  the  vilki.'.-^ 
and  cities,  and  other  causes  increased  the  holdings  of  the 
princes  and  nobility,  and  gradually  the  communal  ffnv>t 
was  to  a  large  extent  supplanted  by  the  royal  and  lt»ni:\ 
forest,  or  (by  partition)  by  private  forest  of  the  farmoni. 
These,  however,  remained  encumbered  with  servitudes— i.  e. 
right  of  adioiners  to  certain  use  of  the  forest  and  its  prod- 
ucts— for  which  use  counterservice  was  demanded,  such  a^ 
aid  in  extinguishing  fires,  dropping  and  hauling  of  wcmxI  or 
other  assistance  in  forest  culture.    Fires  devastated  hrp- 
areas  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  a 
period  of  neglect  and  bad  management  reduced  the  Um-A 
area  to  poor  conditions,  upon  which  the  many  regul&iin.? 
and  orders  of  the  princes  against  devastation  had  little  ef- 
fect.    Under  these  circumstances  the  development  of  tb- 
technical  part  of  forestry  was  naturally  slow.     Yet  iTihi,y 
methods  oi  forestry  practice  still  existing  in  modified  furiuV 
date  from  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  while  :ii 
the  latter  part  oi  the  same  century  the  foundation  fur  tb-- 
present  system  of  management  and  policy  was  laid,  anc 
forestry  science  in  all  directions  built  up  with  remarkal  I. 
activity,  becoming  one  of  the  branches  taught  at  &cvrrd. 
universities,  besides  a  number  of  special  forestry  sch(«!U. 
Yet  the  forest  conditions  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteentfj 
century  were  deplorable,  and  the  same  reformatory  uwy*^ 
ment  now  beginning  in  the  U.  S.  was  necessary  to  bnii.: 
about  the  improvement  of  modem  times.    Among  the  nn-^: 
active  writers  of  that  time  and  as  fathers  of  modem  {on-y 
try  may  be  named  G.  L.  Hartig,  whose  treatise  on  sylvi- 
culture, the  first  forestry  book  on  a  scientific  basis,  isVt:.. 
authority  in  many  directions,  H.  von  Cotta,  F.  W.  I^  Pft  ii. 
Hundeshagen,  Konig,  and  Carl  Heyer. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  forest  prop- 
erty comprised  three  classes:  first,  the  forests,  formeri} 
princely,  which  have  become  state  property ;  second,  llw  '^• 
remaining  the  private  property  of  roywty,  private  individ- 
uals, or  institutions ;  and,  third,  the  communal  forests,  tte- 
longing  to  cities,  towns,  villages,  or  merely  associatioo* 
The  first,  representing  about  35  per  cent,  of  the  total  forest 
area, are  entirely  under  the  jurisdiction  and  management  if 
the  state,  with  special  forest  departments;  the  commune 
forests  (about  15  per  cent,  of  the  forest  area)  are  under  m<>n- 
or  less  strict  supervision  of  the  state  authorities,  with  a 
view  to  preventing  devastation;  but  the  private  forests,  ctn.- 
taining  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  forest  area,  are 
almost  entirely  without  such  supervision,  yet  from  pruden- 
tial reasons  are  generally  managed  systematically  acix^nlin^* 
to  conservative  principles.  Lately,  however,  the  fuller 
recognition  of  the  protective  character  of  forest  cover  h^ 
created  the  tendency  to  restrict  private  owners  from  such 
use  of  their  property  as  may  endanger  adjoining  interests 
and  at  the  present  writing  (1893)  a  law  is  under  discussicro 
to  further  extend  such  re^rictions. 

With  well-established  forest  administration  of  Govern- 
ment forests,  with  forestry  schools  or  chairs  of  forestry  at 
universities,  and  twenty  periodicals  devoted  to  forestry  alone. 
Germany  is  the  exponent  of  the  most  advanced  ideas  in  th> 
branch  of  economic  science  and  art. 

The  policy  of  the  Government  is  to  increase  its  forrsi 
area  by  the  acquisition  and  replanting  of  waste  lands,  ani 
tuming  over  to  agricultural  use  such  tracts  of  forest  lano 
as  are  profitably  so  emploved,  so  that  finally  the  lajid  oc^cu- 
pied  by  forest  growth  shall  in  the  main  represent  such  as  r«^ 
not  useful  except  for  timber  crops.  In  this  direction  tht  iv 
wei-e  spent  during  1883-93  over  $3,000,000,  increasing  th- 
holding  of  the  state  by  over  200,000  acres,  besides  exchant:- 
ing  some  30,000  acres.  During  the  same  time  the  Govern- 
ment spent  in  subventions  to  private  enterprises  in  recl&ii:  - 
ing  waste  lands  the  sum  of  about  $30,000  per  annum. 

The  following  figui*es,  from  official  sources  of  the  Pnl5^i.>^ 


480 


FOREY 


FORFEITURE 


well  as  for  unoccupied  and  waste  land,  whether  capable  of 
profitable  use  or  otherwise,  reliance  has  been  placed  upon 
the  census  returns.  The  per  capita  estimates  are  made  upon 
the  basis  of  population  in  1880,  viz.,  50,000,000. 

Reliable  statistics  for  the  IT.  S.  are  absent,  but  the  situa- 
tion may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows :  The  estimated 
area  of  woodlands  comprises  in  round  numbers  500,000,000 
acres,  or  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  land  area :  the  annual  con- 
sumption of  wood  of  all  description  is  in  the  neighborhood 
of  22,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  of  which  the  larger  part,  over 
80  per  cent.,  is  firewood ;  the  value  of  all  forest  products  in- 
creased from  $500,000,000  in  1860  to  over  $1,000,000,000  in 
1890.  The  exportations  of  forest  products  and  manufactures 
of  wood  in  1890  amounted  to  $46,006,781,  with  importations 
to  the  amount  of  $18,634,273.  Forest  fires  destroy  annually 
thousands  of  square  miles  of  standing  timber,  or  aestroy  the 
forest  cover.  The  U.  S.  Government  retains  about  50,000,- 
000  acres  of  woodlands,  mostly  situated  in  the  West«m 
mountain-ranges,  and  without  administration,  excepting 
some  regulations  by  the  land-ofiice. 

Apparently  the  forest  policy  of  the  Government  has  been 
to  get  rid  of  the  land  and  that  of  the  people  to  get  rid  of 
the  timber.  The  first  forest  reservations  from  tne  public 
domain,  for  forest  purposes  in  part,  were  made  in  1891.  No 
administration  of  tnese  is  as  yet  provided.  In  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  however,  there  exists  a  bureau  of  re- 
search and  advice  without  administrative  functions  called 
the  division  of  forestry.  The  only  State  attempting  a  man- 
agement of  its  public  woodlands  is  New  York  with  a  forestry 
commission  exercising  control  over  the  Adirondack  forest, 
some  700,000  acres  in  extent,  an  area  which  is  to  be  extend- 
ed. Forestry  commissions  exist  in  various  States,  but  mostly 
of  an  advisory  character.  No  real  forest  management  by 
private  owners  seems  to  exist.  Rapid,  wasteful,  and  unsys- 
tematic exploitation  is  the  rule.  Forest-planting  on  a  small 
scale  and  with  onl^  partial  success  has  been  practiced  mainly 
in  the  treeless  plains,  the  Government  until  lately  encourag- 
ing such  by  the  granting  of  proportionate  areas  of  land,  m 
fee  simple,*  under  the  so-called  Timber  Culture  Act,  now 
repealed. 

Other  means  of  encouraging  a  more  rational  use  of  the 
forest  resources  consist  in  tne  establishment  of  arbor  days, 
now  celebrated  in  almost  every  State,  the  formation  of 
societies,  amon^  which  the  American  and  the  Pennsylvania 
Forestry  Associations  are  most  active  in  trying  to  change 
the  for^  policy  in  the  U.  S.  and  to  introduce  more  rational 
systems.  Instruction  on  forestry  matters  is  being  given  at 
various  agricultural  colleges.  B.  E.  Fernow. 

Forey,  fo'ra',  £lie  FrI^d^bic  :  general ;  b.  in  Paris, 
France,  Jan.  10,  1804  He  was  educated  at  the  military 
school  of  St.  Cyr ;  distinguished  himself  in  Algiers ;  became 
general  in  1848,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  coup  d'Hat  of 
Dec.  2,  1851.  In  the  Russian  and  Italian  wars  he  held  im- 
portant commands.  In  Aug.,  1859,  he  was  made  senator, 
and  in  July,  1862,  was  placed  in  command  of  30,000  men 
destined  for  the  invasion  of  Mexico.  Landing  at  Vera  Cruz, 
Sept.  27,  he  issued  a  conciliatory  proclamation,  but  shortly 
after  ordered  the  sequestration  of  goods  of  those  who  op- 
posed the  French.  Puebla  surrendered  after  a  severe  siege, 
May  17, 1863,  and  he  occupied  Mexico  city  soon  after,  form- 
ing* a  provisional  government.  On  July  2  he  was  made 
marshal  of  France.  In  Oct.,  1863,  he  turned  over  the  com- 
mand to  Bazaine,  and  after  a  short  diplomatic  visit  to  the 
U.  S.  returned  to  France.    D.  in  Paris,  June  20, 1872. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Forfait,  for'fa',  Pierre  Alexandre  Laurent  :  engineer ; 
b.  at  Rouen,  France,  in  1752 ;  studied  mathematics  and  hy- 
drography, in  which  departments  he  won  several  prizes  of- 
fer^ by  the  academy  of  his  native  city ;  and  in  1783  ob- 
tained an  appointment  as  engineer  in  the  navv  by  the 
influence  of  the  Due  de  Penthievre.  He  distinguished 
himself  before  Cadiz  and  at  Brest,  published  several  scien- 
tific treatises  {Sur  les  vera  marins,  Sur  une  machine  propre 
d  curer  et  creuaer  lea  eanaux,  rivierea  et  porta^  etc.),  and 
was  charged  with  the  construction  of  large  transport- vessels 
destined  to  mn  regularly  between  France  and  her  colonies. 
Elected  a  member  of  the  Tjegislative  Assembly  in  1791,  he 
had  a  seat  in  the  committee  on  naval  affairs  and  exercised 
great  influence  on  its  proceedings.  But  he  had  little  sym- 
pathy with  the  Revolution ;  he  was  not  re-elected,  ana  he 
was  even  imprisoned  for  a  short  time  as  suspected.  The 
Directory,  however,  again  employed  him,  and  charged  him 
with  the  construction  of  the  so-called  Seine  boat.    (See  his 


ESlatiofia  des  experiences  fatten  sur  la  navigation  de  In 
Seine  in  the  Trar^sactions  of  the  Institute,  17JJ8.)  Witli 
Napoleon  he  was  for  a  long  time  a  great  favorite,  and  hi 
was  at  the  head  of  the  preparations  for  an  invasion  of  Enir- 
land  ;  but  after  the  Peace  of  Amiens  he  resigned  his  jMxi- 
tion  in  the  navy,  and  shortly  after  he  retired  into  pnval*- 
life.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  treatises,  he  publisher!  u 
great  number  of  papers  on  military  and  civil  engineering  in 
various  scientific  periodicals.    D.  at  Rouen,  Nov.  8, 1807. 

Forfar,  Forfarshire,  or  Angas :  a  maritime  countv  of 
Scotland  ;  bounded  by  the  German  Ocean,  the  Frith  of  Tay. 
Kincardine,  Aberdeenshire,  and  Perthshire.  Area,  880  ^^. 
miles.  It«  surface  is  very  varied,  ranges  of  hillis  the  Sid  law 
and  the  Oatlaw,  alternating  with  valleys,  the  Vale  of  St  rath - 
more,  and  the  plain  along  the  Tay,  ana  its  soil  is  fertile  and 
well- watered  by  the  Tay,  the  North  and  South  Esk,  and  th»' 
Isla.  The  climate  is  mild  and  favorable  to  agricultural  pur- 
suits. The  manufacture  of  coarse  linen  is  a  very  important 
industry  in  which  many  thousands  find  employment.  Pop. 
(1891)  277,788. 

Forfar:  tow|i;  capital  of  Forfarshire,  Scotland;  situ- 
ated in  the  Vale  of  Strathmore ;  14  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Dun- 
dee (see  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  9-1).  It  has  important  manu- 
factures of  neavy  shoes  and  coarse  linens,  and  is  connectHJ 
with  Aberdeen  by  the  Scottish  Midland  Junction  Railwav. 
It  has  fine  public  buildings.    Pop.  (1891)  12,844 

Forfeiture  rfrom  0.  Fr.  forfeturSj  for  failure  <  Ijow  I^t. 
foriafactu'ra,  aeriv.  of  fonsfa'cere,  act  beyond,  transgn^ : 
fo'ris^  out  of  doors  -I-  fa' cere,  do,  act] :  a  loss  of  projxrrty  to 
the  state  or  an  individual  as  a  penaltjr  for  the  eonuni^^i*  n 
of  some  offense.  Forfeiture  is  either  civil  or  criminal.  In 
civil  forfeiture  the  property  passes  into  the  possession  (>f 
some  individual  who  has  been  injured  by  the  violation  <>( 
his  rights  through  some  neglect  or  transgression  of  duty  on 
the  part  of  the  property-owner.  There  are  several  claNM- 
of  cases  in  which  this  penalty  might  be  incurred  at  eomin<  i^ 
law,  and  in  some  of  them  it  is  still  retained.  Thus  in  formt^r 
times  if  an  owner  of  a  limited  interest  in  real  property,  a^  a 
tenant  for  life  or  for  years,  attempted  to  convey  a  larcf  r 
estate  than  he  himself  possessed  by  making  a  feoffment  in 
fee  simple,  not  only  did  the  grantee  receive  nothing,  but  ih^ 
grantors  entire  interest  was  forfeited  to  the  reversioner  cr 
remainderman.  But  at  the  present  day  this  rule  has  no  a|- 
plication,  and  an  excessive  grant  is  operative  as  a  valui 
transfer  of  the  grantor's  actual  interest,  and  of  nothing 
more.  In  like  manner,  a  tenant  might  forfeit  his  estate  by 
disclaiming  the  title  of  him  under  whom  he  held,  or  th>- 
commission  of  waste  might  entail  a  like  result  as  the  effei-t 
of  a  judgment  in  an  action  of  waste.  The  effect  of  i\i>- 
claimmg  the  title  would  be  to  enable  the  landlord  to  treat 
the  tenant  as  a  disseizor,  and  thus  to  forfeit  his  estate.  Ir. 
the  U.  S.  the  action  of  waste  has  been  discarded  in  a  n am- 
ber of  the  States,  and  even  iq-those  which  still  retain  it  an 
action  to  recover  merely  the  damages  sustained  is  more  usu- 
ally brought  than  one  for  forfeiture.  One  very  im porta  n* 
case  of  civil  forfeiture  is  that  which  occurs  when  the  brea«  K 
of  the  condition  in  a  grant  has  been  committed.  Tl.r 
grantor  may  re-enter  upon  the  premises  and  recover  tb»-m 
as  his  own  property.  (See  CoNDmoN.)  This  form  of  f' r- 
feiture  depends  upon  the  stipulations  of  the  {xarties,  whi;** 
other  forms  are  referable  to  rules  of  law  applying  irre5pt-t - 
tive  of  any  agreement. 

Criminal  forfeiture,  under  English  law,  was  the  gs>nerr;! 
penalty  inflicted  for  acts  of  felony  and  treason,  the  off*  i..;- 
er's  lands,  chattels,  or  both,  being  confiscated  by  the  on>wn 
(See  Felony.)  The  same  penalty  has  been  retained  until 
the  present,  but  with  considerable  relaxation  of  its  former 
severity.  Attainder  for  felony  entails  the  entire  lc»ss  ol 
goods  and  chattels,  but,  except  in  the  case  of  munler.  the 
forfeiture  of  the  criminal's  interest  in  lands  in  such  ch"^'^ 
only  extends  to  the  profits  accruing  during  his  life,  ainl 
afterward  restoration  of  the  land  is  made  to  relativt-* 
When  murder  is  committed  the  right  of  retaining  and  en- 
joying the  profits  of  theTand  continues  in  the  estate  a  yi-ar 
and  a  day  after  the  wrong-doer's  death,  with  power  to  f^»ni- 
mit  waste.  The  only  offense  which  now  results  in  a  cx>ni- 
plete  confiscation  of  the  offender's .  propertv,  to  be  forevtr 
vested  in  the  crown,  is  that  of  treason.  ^There  are  a  frw 
minor  offenses  to  which  this  kind  of  punishment  is  aIm^  at  - 
tached.  For  instance,  striking  a  person  in  the  supfn.-r 
courts  at  Westminster,  or  drawing  a  weapon  upon  a  judirt 
there  presidin?,  causes  a  forfeiture  of  the  profits  of  the  »  f- 
femler's  land  uuring  his  life.    Forfeiture,  in  all  case«i  afttr 


482 


PORGET-ME-NOT 


FORGING 


It  is  not  necessary  that  any  actual  injury  should  result 
from  the  offense.  It  is  sufficient,  at  common  law,  that  the 
writing  has  such  a  deceptive  character  that  if  once  put 
into  circulation  it  will,  according  to  natural  and  reasonable 
anticipation,  entrap  and  mislead  those  to  whose  hands  it 
comes,  to  the  injury  of  their  lawful  interests.  Whether  the 
person  whose  writing  is  imitated  or  whose  name  is  assumed 
be  immediately  affected  by  the  forgery,  or  loss  is  occasioned 
to  third  persons,  is  entirely  immaterial.  The  offense  is 
complete  without  regard  to  the  persons  affected. 

Besides  forgery  prejudicial  to  the  rights  of  individuals, 
there  exist,  both  at  common  law  and  by  statute,  varieties 
of  this  offense  more  immediately  affecting  the  public.  Of 
this  nature  are  frauds  and  fraudulent  alterations  of  any  mat- 
ter of  record  or  of  any  authentic  matter  of  a  public  nature, 
as  a  parish  register,  etc.  Various  statutes  in  Great  Britain 
have  specified  numerous  other  instances  in  which  fabrica- 
tion or  alteration  of  public  documents  is  made  punishable. 

In  the  U.  S.,  Confess  and  the  State  Legislatures  severally 
have  enacted  special  laws  against  forgery.  This  crime 
cu^nst  the  general  Government  can  be  punished  only  under 
the  acts  of  Congress ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  held  that 
the  State  statutes,  unless  inconsistent  with  the  common  law, 
do  not  supersede  the  principles  of  the  common  law,  so  that 
an  offender  may  be  prosecuted  either  under  the  stiatut^  or 
not,  as  may  be  thought  desirable.  Some  States,  however, 
have  discaraed  the  common-law  procedure  entirely. 

The  offense  of  utterine  forgea  instruments — i.  e.  of  at- 
tempting to  effect  a  fraudulent  deceit  by  making  actual  use 
of  them — was  not  a  necessary  ingredient  in  the  crime  of  for- 
gery at  common  law,  but  was  specifically  provided  for  by 
statutory  regulations.  In  some  of  the  States  uttering  has 
been  made  an  essential  element  in  this  offense,  while  in 
others  it  is  still  considered  a  distinct  crime.  (The  statutes 
of  the  separate  States  must  be  consulted.)  The  word,  as 
used  in  extradition  treaties  between  the  U.  S.  and  forei^ 
nations,  would  have  a  signification  confined  to  that  in 
which  the  word  was  employed  in  the  general  jurisprudence 
of  the  respective  nations.  It  would  not  include  the  special 
statutory  definition  of  forgery  in  one  of  the  States.  See 
ExTKADiTioN.  Rcviscd  by  T.  W.  Dwioht. 

Forget-me-not  [cf.  Germ.  vergissmeinnicM,  which  is  ex- 
actly equivalent  both  etymologically  and  in  literal  and 
transferred  meaning] :  the  Myosotis  pcduatris  of  Europe,  a 
plant  of  the  Borage  family,  sparingly  naturalized  in  the 
IT.  S.,  and  prized  b^  people  of  many  nations  as  the  emblem 
of  constancy  in  friendship  and  love.  Manv  other  species 
of  the  genus  are  known,  cniefly  European ;  the  above  is  the 
typical  species.  The  U.  S.  has  a  number  of  forget-me-nots, 
mostlv  common  to  the  two  hemispheres.  They  generally 
have  brilliant  blue  flowers.  Mouse-ear  and  scorpion-grass 
are  popular  names  for  this  genus.  Many  varieties  appear 
in  cultivation ;  one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  them  is  the  dark- 
blue  forget-me-not  of  the  Azores  (Myosotis  azorictira),  now 
widely  cultivated  in  both  Europe  and  the  U.  S.,  but  always 
in  hothouses. 

Forging :  the  reduction  of  iron  or  steel  at  a  high  temper- 
ature to  any  desired  shape  bv  means  of  blows  of  a  hammer 
or  the  like.  Originally  all  forging  was  done  by  hand,  but 
now  most  kinds  of  work  is  done  by  the  steam-hammer,  and 
finished  by  hand  in  some  cases.  The  roUinp^-mill  has  also 
superseded  the  forge  to  some  extent,  doing  its  work  much 
more  rapidly,  and  generally  quite  as  well.  In  hydraulic 
forging  the  powerful  and  continuous  pressure  of  a  hydraulic 
press  is  substituted  for  the  repeated  blows  of  a  hammer  in 
shaping?  the  iron  or  steel.  A  swedge,  or  mold,  of  the  desired 
object  is  necessary,  and  under  the  proper  conditions  of  tem- 
perature the  metal  may  be  forced  into  every  angle  and 
recess  us  perfectly  as  if  made  fiuid  by  fusion  and  cast ;  but 
objects  so  made  are  very  much  stronger  than  castings,  and 
are  claimed  to  be  even  superior  to  forgings  made  in  the  or- 
dinary way.  The  process  has  been  carri^  to  great  perfec- 
tion, after  years  of  patient  experimenting,  bv  Mr.  uaswell 
at  the  machine-shops  of  the  Imperial  State  liailway  Com- 
pany of  Austria,  in  Vienna.  It  is  used  there  chiefly  for 
forming  such  parts  of  locomotives  as  cross-heads,  link-bars, 
axle-box  frames,  and  for  ear-wheels  and  various  other  intri- 
cately formed  parts  of  railway  rolling-stock,  where  superior 
strength  and  lightness  are  important.  It  is  also  used  in- 
stead of  heavy  steam-hammers  for  drawing  down  large  in- 
gots of  Bessemer  steel.  The  results  appear  to  justify  the 
conclusion  that  ingots  so  treated  give  stronger  and  more 
homogeneous  bars  than  are  obtained  by  hammering.    At 


Vienna  two  large  hydraulic  presses  were  in  uae— one  with  & 
piston  24  inches  in  diameter,  giving  1,200  tons  pressure,  and 
one  with  an  18-inch  piston,  working  up  to  600  tons  presMirv. 
The  pressure  in  the  pumps  is  600  atmospheres.    The  aitiun 
is  vertical ;  the  piston  descends  upon  the  work,  and  for 
forging  ingots  ha^  a  hammer-like  head  opposed  to  an  anvj 
of  the  usual  form  below.    In  drawing  down  an  ingot,  f>aT  of 
one  ton  weight,  of  soft  Bessemer  steel,  the  work  begins;  ai 
one  end,  and  after  each  squeeze  by  the  descending  pi'^tort 
the  mass  is  pushed  along  until  the  first  half  of  the  len^^h  «>f 
the  ingot  has  been  acted  on,  when  it  is  turned  end  for  end 
It  is  then  turned  over  and  back  and  forth,  as  is  usual  under 
a  hammer,  until  the  whole  has  been  drawn  down  to  the  re- 
quired size.    In  this  operation  there  is  no  noise  or  jar.    The 
piston  descends  slowly,  but  irresistibly,  and  forces  the  hot 
metal  each  way  as  if  it  were  a  mass  of  soft  putty.    Thr 
work  is  effectively  performed,  and  it  requires  less  time  Diau 
ordinary  forging  or  rolling.    The  pressure  affects  the  vtn 
center  of  the  mass  of  the  ingot    Its  action  is  by  no  meari'^ 
superficial,  and  it  is  far  more  effectual  in  modifying  the 
structural  condition  of  the  bar  than  blows  on  the  surfaiv 
can  be.    There  is  no  distribution  of  the  force  of  the  blow 
through  the  anvil  to  the  foundation,  as  there  is  in  the  \'v^ 
lent  impact  of  a  steam-hammer.    The  ingot  yields  gra<l- 
ually  to  the  pressure,  and  bulges  out  at  the  sides  and  end  a^  in 
Fig.  A,  and  is  not  drawn  over  more  at  the  surface  than  at 

the  center,  so 

as  to    give  a  f 
ragged  hollow  V                 ^ 
-  (Pip.  B),  ^^^ 


end 


such  as  is  usually  formed  under  hammers  and  rollers. 

Before  the  forging  of  an  ingot  is  completed  a  distinci 
structural  arrangement  of  the  steel   is  aevelope<i,  and  L^ 
seen  most  distinctly  when  the  hot  st>eel  sinks  aown  undt^r 
the  pressure.    As  the  piston-head  descends  into  the  mn'-^. 
and  squeezes  it  upon  the  anvil,  the  lines  of  structure  viMlit 
in  the  sides  of  the  ingot  bend  downward,  and  are  comprt'Sfr«^i 
as  shown  in  the  annexed  cut,  the  move- 
ment extending  to  the  very  center  of 
the  mass.    This  structure  or  "  fiber  *'  is 
doubtless  the  result  of  a  difference  in 
chemical  constitution  in  planes  approxi- 
mately parallel  to  the  squeezing  sur- 
faces, and,  so  regarded,  the  process  may 
be  considered  to  be  more  favorable  to  the  development  <'f 
structure  or  "grain"  than  ordinary  forging.     But,  fr<.Tf 
whatever  cause  it  originate  this  grain  is  an  important  fai  - 
tor  of  strength  in  pressed  lorgings,  and  characterizes  thi  ri 
in  a  remarkable  manner,  as  was  beautifully  exhibited  at 
Vienna  in  a  series  of  forged  objects  which  bad  been  savr. 
asunder  and  etched  so  as  to  show  the  grain.    These  si  r;.«  - 
tural  peculiarities  are  most  distinct  in  the  pressed  for^^ii-r.^ 
made  from  piled  iron  masses,  and  are  beautifully  shown  ir. 
etched  sections  of  irregular  angular  objects  like  crftei>-h»M.:>. 
as  in  the  figure,  a  section  of  a  cross-head,  about  one-tMct  ::^ 
natural  size,  after  twenty-four  hours'  etching  in  aqua  n  >ra  - 


The  lines  of  the  prain,  it  will  be  seen,  conform  in  a  remark* 
able  degree  to  the  form  of  the  mass,  winding  in  and  •  :.' 
around  the  curves  and  angles  in  such  a  manner  as  t«>  jr:^ 
the  greatest  strength  where  it  is  most  needed.      The>^*  :i:  • 
show  in  a  very  interesting  way  the  flow  or  movement  of  * 
viscid  metal  when  underpressure.    Experience  has  tan  ^   ' 
that  very  sharp  angles  in  some  parts  of  molds  interf  on^  u  •  r 
the  proper  flow  of  the  metal.    This  difficulty  is  avoKitni  \ ; 
rounding  off  the  angles,  or  by  building  them  out  s<>  as  u 
give  more  space  for  the  metal  to  move  m.    The  sui^erflr.. .  i- 
metal  is  cut  away,  leaving  the  internal  curves  of  the  ^n*..: 
in  the  best  shape'  for  the  strength  of  the  object* 

In  forging  such  objects  as  the  parts  of  machines  ireicbi:  t 
from  50  to  150  lb.  or  more,  a  mass  or  ball  of  metal  is  «mt  ^ 
nearly  as  possible  of  the  required  weight  from  the  ezid  of  ^ 


484 


FORMAL  CAUSE 


Robert  Greathead,  for  example,  who  wrote  commentaries 
on  Aristotle,  distinguished  three  kinds  of  forms — form  im- 
manent in  matter,  abstract  form,  and  immaterial  form. 
Albertus  Magnus  held  that  form  existed  potentially  in  mat- 
ter ;  and  Thomas  Aquinas  recognized  a  forma  subatantialis^ 
or  obiective  universal,  and  formce  accldentales^  or  subjec- 
tive abstractions.  With  him,  as  with  Aristotle,  God  is  pure 
form — immaterial,  as  being  entirely  actual,  without  poten- 
tiality. 

Bacon,  the  most  successful  of  the  opponents  of  Scholas- 
ticism, flattered  himself  that  he  had  broken  with  antiquity 
more  than  he  realljr  did.  He  identified  form  with  law  or 
mode,  and  even  maintained  that,  as  far  as  thought  is  con- 
cerned, the  form  of  a  thing  is  the  very  thing  itself.  {Nov. 
Org,,  ii..  13.)  The  philosophy  of  Bacon  and  Locke  came  to 
a  standstill  with  Berkeley  and  Hume,  and  the  reaction 
called  forth  on  one  hand  the  Scotch  or  common-sense  phi- 
losophy—on the  other,  the  Kantian  or  critical  philosophy. 
In  nie  latter  the  word  form  has  a  purelv  transcendental 
meaning — that  is,  the  forms,  whether  of  intuition  or  of 
thought,  are  regarded  as  native  to  the  mind  and  prior  to 
experience.  Tne  forms  of  intuition  are  space  and  time. 
The  forma  of  thought  are  (Proleg.,  pt.  ii.,  §  20) : 


1.   QUAJH'ITT. 

Unity, 

Plurality, 

Totality. 


2.   QUALFTY. 

Realitjr, 

Negation, 

Limitation. 


3.  Relation. 
Substance, 
Cause, 
Reciprocity. 


4.  Modality. 
Possibility, 
Existence, 
Necessity. 


These  categories  of  the  understanding  stand  opposed  to 
the  transcendental  object  or  Ding  an  sich  (thing  m  itself), 
which  corresponds  to  the  Aristotelian  0\iy,  but  is  treated 
less  philosopnically.  Since  Kant,  this  has  been  the  mean- 
ing otform  in  German  philosophy,  except  that  since  Hegel 
form  has  been  conceived  as  obiective  as  well  as  subjective, 
pure  knowing  being  identical  with  its  object.  In  the 
Scotch  and  modern  materialistic  and  cosmic  schools  the 
word  has  no  true  philosophic  meaning.  Thomson  calls 
form  "the  means  of  viewing  objects  presented  to  the 
mind."  Outline  of  Laws  of  Humght,  2d  (English)  ed., 
p.  34.  Thomas  Davidson. 

Formal  Cause :  in  philosophy  (Aristotle,  Metaphya.^  v., 
2),  the  form,  archetype,  idea,  or  pattern  of  anything.  Thus 
tne  intention  or  design  (ide-a)  of  the  artist  is  a  formal  cause 
of  the  statue.  The  formal  cause  is  the  quidditaa  of  the 
Schoolmen. 

Formates :  salts  of  formic  acid. 

Formation :  in  geology.    See  Bed  and  Geology. 

For'meB,  Karl:  singer;  b.  at  MQlheim-on-the-Rhine, 
Aug.  7, 1810;  made  his  nrst  appearance  on  the  stage  Jan.  6, 
1841,  at  Cologne  as  Sarastro  in  The  Magic  Flute,  He  sang 
with  great  success  in  Vienna,  London,  and  other  European 
capitals.  In  1857  he  went  to  the  U.  S.  and  led  a  wander- 
ing life,  dying  in  San  Francisco,  Dec.  15,  1889.  His  voice 
was  a  deep  and  powerful  bass  of  high  culture  and  great 
flexibility.  D.  E.  Hervey. 

For'min :  a  city  of  ancient  Italy,  on  the  site  of  the  town 
now  called  Formi'a,  Its  origin  is  unknown.  It  was  on  the 
Appian  Way  and  on  the  Sinus  Caietanus,  and  has  always 
been  famed  for  its  beautiful  situation.  Cicero  and  many 
other  Romans  had  villas  here,  and  at  Formiie  the  great 
orator  was  murdered.  A  structure  called  the  tomb  of  Cicero 
is  still  shown. 

Formic  Acid  [formic  is  from  Fr.  formique,  deriv.  of 
fourmi,  ant  (but  subjected  anew  to  the  influence  of  its  origi- 
nal), Lat.  /ormtca,  ant]:  HCHOi,  the  simplest  member  of 
the  fatty  series  of  acids,  derives  its  name  from  the  ant 
(formica),  from  which  it  was  first  prepared.  It  occurs  in 
the  juice  of  the  stinging  nettle  and  in  other  plants ;  in  the 
ant,  especially  the  red  ant,  and  is  projected  by  it  as  a  means 
of  defense;  in  some  caterpillars;  in  human  blood,  urine, 
flesh-juice,  and  perspiration ;  in  some  waters.  It  is  formed 
by  a  great  variety  of  chemical  reactions.  Potassic  hydrate 
heated  in  carbon  monoxide  is  changed  to  potassic  formate — 
CO  +  KHO  =  KCHOi.  Potassium  spreaa  on  the  inner  sur- 
face of  a  jar  of  carbon  dioxide  over  water  is  converted  into 
a  mixture  of  potassic  formate  and  acid  carbonate — COj + 
K,  +  n,0  =  KCHO,  +  KIU^O..  Wood-spirit  (wood-naphtha 
or  methylic  alcohol)  is  oxidized  in  presence  of  platinum  black 
into  formic  acid— CH4O  +  O,  =  liCHO,  +  H,0.  It  is  pre- 
pared (1)  by  distilling  red  ants,  previously  mashed ;  (2)  by 
distilling  10  parts  of  tartaric  acid,  14  parts  of  manganese 
dioxide,  and  85  parts  of  water ;  (3)  by  distilling  1  part  of 


FORMOSA 

starch  with  4  parts  of  water,  4  narts  of  manganese*  dioiid**. 
and  4  parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  added  in  small  quant  itii's:  u> 
by  gently  heating  10  parts  of  oxalic  acid,  with  10  of  jrlycinij 
and  2  of  water,  to  about  212**  F.  for  twelve  or  fifteen  h(»iir> 
then  adding  5  parts  of  water  and  distilling.  The  ad^liti*!. 
of  water  and  aistillation  are  repeated  till  60  part^of  t!^ 
dilute  acid  have  been  distilled  off.  The  pure  concent ra;'-<i 
acid  is  prepared  by  saturating  the  impure  dilute  aiid  wnii 

{)lumbic  carbonate,  crystallizing  the  plumbic  formate,  fiii<] 
leating  it  in  a  current  of  siuphuretted  hydrogen.  The 
formic  acid  distills  over,  and  may  be  freed  from  sulphu- 
retted hvdrogen  by  a  current  of  carbon  dioxide.  The  r^.n- 
centrated  acid  is  a  thin,  transparent,  colorless  liquid,  sf>.  ^r 
1*22,  boiling  at  about  212°  F.  It  fumes  in  the  air,  and  l« 
very  corrosive,  a  single  drop  placed  on  the  skin  causing  va- 
tolerable  pain  and  producing  a  f)ainful  ulcer.  It  (or  it^ 
salts)  reduces  the  oxides  and  many  of  the  salts  of  mennin. 
silver,  and  gold,  forming  metaUic  precipitates. 

C.  F.  CHA5DLE1L 

Formication  [from  Lat.  formica' tip, deriv.  of  formim  rr. 
crawl  like  ants,  deriv.  of  formica^  ant]:  one  of  a  group  'f 
unnatural  sensations  felt  in  the  skin  to  which  the  p-iur^; 
term  parcesthesia  is  applied.  Formication  is  so  called  f n  n 
the  resemblance  of  tne  sensation  to  that  produced  by  t!> 
crawling  of  ants.  It  is  freouently  experienced  as  a  n'>ult<-l 
pressure  on  the  nerves  of  the  leg  or  arm,  the  foot  or  luit..i 
being  said  to  be  ^*  asleep."  It  may  also  be  present  a>  » 
temporary  symptom  in  poisoning  by  aconite.  As  a  ir.<  ^ 
permanent  symptom  formication,  together  with  other  fin:!- 
of  par8esthesu^  such  as  burning  sensation,  feeling  of  «&!'': 
running  over  the  skin,  etc.,  occurs  in  various  forms  of  j^pi:  j^ 
disease.  All  of  these  symptoms  may  or  may  not  be  asstx-uite^j 
with  ancesthesia,  the  loss  of  sensation,  in  the  skin. 

WiLUAM  Pkppxu. 

Formo'sa,  or  Bermejo :  a  territory  of  Argentina ;  cppatrri 
in  1884  from  the  northern  part  of  the  old  territory  of  (  hw  •  . 
bounded  N.  E.  and  E.  by  the  rivers  Pilcomayo  and  Paracua. 
separating  it  from  Paraguay,  S.  W.  by  the  river  Bern..^ 
separating  it  from  Chaco,  W.  by  Saita,  and  N.  by  \V\ 
via.    Area,  44,654  sq.  miles.    Physically  it  is  entirely  <••  ir- 
prehended  in  the  great  plain  of  tne  Gsan  Chaco  {a.  vX  t.v ! 
the  interior  is  very  imperfectly  known.  Pop.  less  than  S/f*- 
exclusive  of  wild  Indians.     Villa  Formosa,  the  ea)>ital  an  : 
only  civilized  town,  on  the  Paraguay,  has  1,000  inhabitaLi^ 
ana  is  the  center  of  an  agricultural  colony. 

Herbert  H.  SiirrB. 

Formosa:  a  large  and  important  island  belonging:  t< 
China.  It  lies  about  90  miles  E.  of  the  province  of  Yil- 
kien,  of  which  it  was  a  foo  or  department  until  1H86.  wK>' 
with  the  Pescadores  and  other  adjoining  islands,  it  vri- 
erected  into  a  separate  province.  Among  the  Chin**sf  i:  .• 
called  Taiwan,  or  "  Terrace  Bay,"  the  name  Forrru^sa,  *•  t^ 
beautiful,"  by  which  it  is  known  to  foreigners,  having  I-  . 
given  to  it  by  the  Portuguese,  the  first  Europeans  to  vl'^i;  .;. 
near  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Area,  Topography,  etc. — The  island  stretches  in  a  gi'n'-- . 
N.  E.  and  S.  W.  direction  from  25'  19'  to  21*  54'  N.  lat.     . 
is  237  miles  in  length,  has  an  average  breadth  of  70  m    - 
and  an  estimated  area  of  about  15,000  sq.  miles.    The  :<«  v 
em  half  lies  within  the  tropics.    It  has  two  weU-nll«.^^  . 
physical  divisions:  (1)  a  plain  about  20  miles  in  bn.-ti- 
extending  along  the  west  coast  for  nearly  the  whole  \v\.z' 
of  the  island,  and  (2)  ag^reat  forest-covered  mountain-<>^''.  • 
which  occupies  the  rest  of  the  island.    Through  the  it:/  • 
of  this  region  runs  a  chain  of  loftv  peaks,  of  which  Ml.  ^^ 
via  (11,500  feet)  and  Mt.  Morrison*  (12,850  feet)  are  the  <  t  • 
The  east  coast  is  bold  and  precipitous,  the  moiintai'i^   - 
some  places  rising  sheer  out  of  the  water  to  a  height  of  K.'  ■  • 
to  7.000  feet.  The  water  oflf  shore  is  consequently  ver>  -k 
while  on  the  west  coast  it  is  remarkably  shalfo^w.     T'l    • 
are  no  harbors  and  few  good  anchorages  on  either  of  t\-  -< 
coasts. 

Tamsui  and  Kelun^  in  the  north,  at  the  mouths  of  t- 
Tamsui  and  Kelung  rivers  respectively,  afford  the  ln>>t  b  tr 
bors. 

Geology. — Little  is  known  of  the  geology  of  the  i^!-.- 
The  mineral  products  include  coal,  sulphur,  and  |H»tr.  'Ii  •.: 
and  iron  ore,  gold,  and  silver  are  also  found.  Tht'  i-. 
which  is  a  soft  bituminous,  is  abundant  and  of  g<xx]  i^iiu*.  * 
Since  1877  it  has  been  extensively  mined  near  Kelunir  t»>  * 
Chinese  Government,  under  foreign  superintendent*'.  *'; 
petroleum  wells,  also  found  in  the  north,  are  still  undo  wl*  ;  v 

Soil  and  Productions. — The  soil  is  rich  and   Terj-   J  r 


486 


FORXICATIOX 


FORRKSTON 


Conicrraa.  At  the  opening  of  the  civil  war  in  1861  he  urged 
the  vigorous  prt)flwution  of  the  contest  by  the  Northern 
States^  and  acted  with  the  R4*publican  partr  until  the  nom- 
ination of  Mr.  Greeley,  who8e  eliH^tion  ne  advocated.  From 
186I-(IH  he  was  secretary  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  and  corre- 
nionding  iMlit4>r  of  the  /Vvm;  started  during  this  time  the 
Washingitm  (I>.  C\)  Chronicle^  weekly,  which  became  a 
daily  in  Oct,  1H62;  visited  Kurope  in  1868,  publishing  his 
letters  to  the  Presa  and  ChranicU  as  Letters  frrnn  Europe 
<1H69).  Sold  his  property  in  the  Chronicle  in  1870,  but  was 
ooonected  with  the  Pres^,  and  later  established  Progress^  a 
we«kly  journal    D.  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  9,  1881. 

FomiCfttioB  [from  Lat.  fomiea'iio^  deriv.  of  fornix, 
vault,  brothel] :  unlawful  carnal  knowledge  by  an  unmar- 
ried person  of  another,  whether  the  latter  be  married  or  un- 
mamed.  It  is  usually  a  misdemeanor,  punishable  by  fine 
or  imprisonment  or  both. 

Forrest,  Edwik :  actor;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Mar.  0, 
1806.  When  a  mere  l)oy,  not  twelve  years  old,  he  performed 
as  an  amateur,  taking  female  and  luvenile  pans.  Toung 
Norval  in  Uome*s  play  of  Douglas  being  partiouiarly  re- 
memlN*red.  His  first  appcaram*e  on  the  public  stage  was  at 
the  Walnut  Street  theater,  in  the  rdle  oi  Douglas,  on  Nov. 
27.  IH'iO.  A  long  profe*«ional  toar  in  the  Wt^em  cities, 
during  which  he  undert<M>k  characters  in  Shaksfieare,  gave 
him  experience  and  reputation:  so  that,  after  filling  en- 
gagements in  Albany  and  PhiUdelphia,  he  preM>nted  him- 
self before  the  New  York  public  at  the  Park  theater  in  the 
character  (»f  Othello.  This  was  in  1826.  His  success  was 
signal,  owing  both  to  his  natural  genius*  and  to  his  superb 
form  and  noble  presence.  At  the  Bowery  he  was  a  s))ecial 
favorite.  There  and  at  the  Park  he  playcnl  long  engage- 
ments, but,  not  satisfied  with  lo(^  fame,  visited  allthe  prin- 
cipal cities  of  the  U.  S.  His  chief  characters  were  Othello, 
Macbeth,  Hamlet,  Richard  111.,  varie*!  by  parts  like  Meta- 
mora  and  Spartacus,  which  his  fine  ph)'sique  and  immense 
energy  made  effective  and  kept  popular.  In  1835  Mr.  For- 
rest made  a  professional  visit  to  England  and  the  C-ontinent, 
finding  warm  friends,  conspicuous  among  whom  was  Mr. 
Macn^idy,  to  whom  he  was  indebted  for  much  kindness.  In 
1887,  on  the  occasion  of  a  second  visit,  he  married  Catharine 
Sinclair,  daughter  of  the  popular  ballad-singer.  After  1845 
two  years  more  were  s|)ent  in  England.  During  this  vLnit 
his  nieodly  relations  with  Mr.  Macready  were  broken.  His 
partisans  entered  zealouslv  into  the  quarrel,  which  broke 
out  in  the  bloody  riot  of  May  10,  1840,  when  Macready  was 
playing  at  the  Ast4>r  Plac**  theater  in  New  York.  Mr*  For- 
rest announced  his  retirement  from  the  stage  in  1858,  but 
playt^  at  intervals  till  1871,  when  compelled  by  ill-health 
t4>  desist.  Aft^T  this  he  ap()earpd  as  a  public  reader  of 
Shakspeare.  He  was  a  man  of  fine  literary  taste  and  ac- 
cumulated a  large  library  rich  in  Shaks|>eariana.  He  died 
in  PhUadelphia.  Ik^',  12,  1K72.  A  large  ciart  of  his  peat 
fortune  wan  left  by  him  to  establish  an  asylum  for  ai;ed  and 
indigent  actora.  II is  litmiry,  with  its  Inwt  treasures,  was 
destroyed  by  fire  Jan.  15,  1878.  See  the  Life  by  W.  R. 
Alger  (1H75),  and  the  biography  by  I^awrenoe  Barrett  in 
the  American  Actor  S«Ti«*H  (Boston,  1883). 

FoTTNit,  FRENca  :  naval  officer:  b.  in  Maryland  in  1796; 
bet^ame  a  mi(lshii»man  IKll;  lieutenant  Mar.  5,  1817;  com- 
mander Feb.  0,  ]H:{7;  (*aptain  Mar.  lU),  1844;  and  was  dis- 
miAted  Apr.  19.  INOl.  He  di^ttiigui^theil  hims4*lf  in  the  war 
of  INTi  on  liflkc  Krii*.  and  in  the  fight  between  the  Hornet 
and  the  Pfa<-«¥k  Feb.  24,  1H13.  In  the  Mexican  war  was 
adjutant'griieml  of  the  land  and  naval  torve^.  Followed 
the  State  of  Virginia  when  she  s*»<vdt»d  fn)m  the  Union, 
and  wa^  ai'ting  a*««i'*tant  He<*retary  of  the  (*onfe<lerate  navy. 
1).  at  (if«»rk'<'town.  D.  ('..  IKh-.  22,  1H66, 

ForrrsI,  Jamkm:  «nHrctarv  of  the  Institution  of  (^ivil  En- 
gim^eni  of  Grvat  Bntain  :  b.  in  I>>n(lon,  Nov.  30,  1825.  He 
n^*4Mred  an  onlinary  H<htMil  (Niucation,  and  at  the  age  of 
Kixtei'n  wa«  artU'U»*l  t4>  .Mt-nnr^.  hMwanl  and  John  Manbv. 
ci\il  engin«N'n.  and  wht-n  thrir  ofTl^v  wa**  rernovM  to  Pans 
he  was  trani^fiTn'^i  to  tluit  of  Mr.  ('harli>^  .Manby,  at  that 
litne  wN'n-tarv  **t  thi*  Institution  of  ('nil  Kngim'cr*.  Fn>iu 
l**45  to  1H4>*  Porrwt  vt  i*  ruiptizt^l  \i]nn\  the  l^-tvlx  and  D<»w«». 
Imry.  the  l>i<<Ni«  «tifl  I'lurHk  K»ilvin\'s  th«*  hlnnt  and  WVm 
York^hif>'  Iiii*-*  find  othi-r*,  «n«iiT  Sir.  'I'hMimw  (JrainpT. 
In  \xix  hr  rrttinit-*!  to  Mr.  Maii^v.  fi^-i-^tmi;  him  in  th** 
Work  of  the  iii-t  It  ut  lofi.  In  lsr>S  }n'  unn  iiuule  H>''i'»tHnl 
«»^T»  tary  of  the  N-iriv  of  Ar!^:  in  l*vVJ  -(mreiMiiMi  Mr. 
M«nh>  as  secretary  of  tin*  iiistitut)i»n.  He  h.i*«  Um-ti  intni'^t- 
«l  mlh  the  m*»-«l  n^i^-n^ibli-  ajiil  t>»nfitlentiiil  work.snd  ha^ 


> 


brought  into  the  institution  many  impTDvement^    iK^'i 
his  incumbency  the  membership  has  ri^Mi  fn>m  Kts  u  4..> 
and  the  income  from  £3,000  to  £25,0ua     It  hwl  U<t     . 
policy  of  the  older  members  to  limit  memti^nh^  l  t    • 
engaged  in  the  constructive  branch  of  engimrrmic.  w 
ing,  for  instance,  men  who  were  occupied  tn  tb«  ii<«;«-*  h- 
construction  of    machinery.     This   e\cla4i«mr<w  «v  •» 
sented  and  led  to  the  formation  of  the  InMU'^tt'Ci   •'.  \ 
chanical  Engineers.    Mr.  Forrest  set  hini5w4f  t4i  tmij* 
council  to  take  the  broader  view,  so  that  the  m^^r.-  • 
might  become  the  representative  of  the  wb4»te  erct^r*; 
profession,  a  result  which  was  not  fully  artonip:i*r-«s  u'  . 
1886.    He  balso  the  actual  treasurer.' libranan  M  t^-  -s 
tensive  library,  and  personal  editor  of  the  Frwwt^tm.^ 

W.  R.H.T-t 

Forrest,  Nathan  Bkdpordu  soldier;  b.  in  B-i'  **  ■ 
Tenn.,  July  18, 1821.  In  1834  his  father  rvmoi.^]  t.  V  «  . 
sippi,  and  in  1837  died,  leaving  a  large  familt  t^fw  z\ 
upon  Nathan,  who  devoted  himself  to  fanning. '  H«  t.cv**! 
in  business  at  Hernando,  Miss.,  in  1H42;  m  \<(S  kw%,  i 
real-estate  broker  and  dealer  in  slaT»;  in  W'tfi  iu*-fjiB<i 
extensive  plantations  in  Coahoma  co^  Mis^.,  and  i»«&%-  t 
cotton-gn)wer,  and  acquire<l  a  large  f«trtune-  T^  -^i  ^ 
posetl  to  disunion,  he  was  an  ardent  State*  nj:*>t»  r  e  i 
politics,  and  when  war  became  inevitalilr  he  <>«f « •.«  > 
Southern  cause  with  his  usual  energy.  In  Jut^,  ;««'  V 
joined  the  Tennessee  Mounteil  Riflei*'as  a  pn«at4>.  r.  \ 
July,  at  the  request  of  Gov.  Harris,  of  Tennr-p*^  f»-w-i  i 


re^ment  of  cavalry,  equipping  them  largvh  fr-cn  t..*  «1 
pnvate  means.  On  the  organiiation  of  tftr  tt^-:---'  .\ 
October  he  was  chosen  lieutenant-coloneL  At  F-  r*  l*  --I 
son  Forrest  bore  a  conspicuous  part,  and  («i  '^x  li»  at 
termination  to  surrender  he  remonatt rated,  and  «m  a  «i 
to  attempt  an  escape  with  his  men  l>efore  a  llac  <>f  m-  <  n 
sent.  In  this  he  was  8uc<*e.st»ful,  reaching  Na^ht  i.if  « .*  \  'a 
main  part  of  his  force  Feb.  18.  On  Mar.  10  hi«  r^^-  :-i 
reassembled  at  Huntsville,  and  a  few  da%>t  Utrr  irar  t-<  \ 
luka.  Miss.  His  force  was  now  incrraaerl  to  trn  ««  'j  :«:  H 
of  which  he  was  chosen  coloneL  Kngage<i  at  t^^  t&*  <  \ 
Shiloh  (Pittsburg  Landing)  Apr.  6-7, 1862 :  wourid««i  *  ■ 
bat  Apr.  8.  In  the  following  June  he  was  ^^i^^i  *  '1 
command  of  cavalir  at  ChattancN>ga.  and  vmrt  u  -.^m't^i  *J 
attack  on  Murfreesboro  July  13 ;  appointr«l  ttfijribi  r-«--  -  ^ 
Julv  21, 1862,  and place<l  in  command  at  Mnrfr«v«K  '•  ^t 
18^ :  in  commana  of  brigade  Dec.  4,  INSS,  an«i  -n^w* . 
the  action  of  Parker's  CroAs-roads  Dec.  31.  !*«£.  %z  .  mS 
of  Chickamaugn  Sept  19-20,  1863.  Trmiv*frm*i  t  \  ^ 
Mis^issippi  in  Kov.,  1868.  he  was  appotntnl  a  ir.k;  r-t^^m 
the  following  month,  ana  aamgned  to  the  c«^nmai.«:  '  ti 
restV  cavalr>'  department;  in  commatMl  <-f  f<  t^*  »:  i 
capture  of  Port  Pillow  Apr.,  1H64;  i>r<«n«»i#«i  •<  ►•  s 
tenant-general  Feb.,  1865;  surremlenra  at  daar.^^  .«  V 
0,  1865;  was  subMHjuently  pret^ident  of  Nrlma.  Man  *  fl 
Memphis  Kailrowl  (Vmipanv  until  1874.  I>.  ml  M«v*4 
Tenn.,  (Kt.  29,  1877. 

Forrest  CIIt  :  town  and  railway  jun«*ti<*n ;  r^f  •*■.  ' 
Francis  co..  Ark.  (for  location  of  wmnty,  srr  n.*(  < .' 
sa^  ref.  &-E) ;  45  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Mrtnphiv  1  •-r  •. 
6  churches,  2  free  M.>hools  (one  for  black!*  i,  aii«l  a  'ar  • 
tory.  Princi[>al  industrie«,  agnmlturr  ami  *t.mk. 
Pop.  (1880)  903;  (1890)1,021;  (l8Ma>e«4inial«^l  «;*' 
1.800.  Kiimift  <w  -  T  »i» 

Forrc«ter,  Altrko  Hcioit  {Alfred  <'r««y««:*  ^ 
and  comic  writer;  b.  in  Lfomlon,  knirland,  in  l^r.  ^ 
cated  at  Islington;  was  a  n<»tary  in  the  Ki'TkI  £&•".« 
but  retired  alM>ut  1839;  began  contnbatin<  *.  | v  •  4 
at  the  age  of  siiteen,  and  afterward  drrw.  is- «>*•*•  i 
engraved  on  steel  and  W(m«1  to  illualrate  hk«  i*w%  «-  i 
Leax'ee  from  my  Memoramium'hfttii  (l*Ci0»  w^  *  «^ 
Errrntric  Tales  (same  year.)  In  IKJH  be  <<  -ri-»-,  . 
Humorist  in  Colbum*s  Jtagaxine,  wi»h  T '•#•••  -•  -"i 
Disraeli,  and  other*;  then  to  Benth*^'*  Ji^»r^.  -««  .vi 
7^e  Illustrated  Ijundon  .\>ir«. etc.  lleriKi*.:*fi:  »-.  y 
and-ink  drawinir<  at  the  Koval  Aratlrmv  a-,  i  c*  ^*.  « 
repute  as  a  designer  and  nKxIeIrr,  Wamd0^^*  •«  ■•  « 
nnd  I^nril,  The  Comir  Anthtmettr,  I%amtamm  ■.•^'^^  | 
eti'.,  are  among  his  works.     D.  in  l^od««,  Ma«  ji^  >'« 

Porrestoa:  village  (f<mnded  tn  1H54-:  « •c  ■     ^ 
I'H-at  ion  of  county,  w'e  map  of  Illinois,  r>rf    j-J  -^ 

W.  of  Chicago*,     it  i*the  tenninu«i»f  t*i.  in.   **  :  Ia.  <  n 
of  the  (Ml..  B.  and  Q.  Railroad,  ami  the  )uni  *  »  ■    . 

Mil.  ami  St.  P.  and  the  111.  (ent.  lUi:«^«k.i«       f:    ^a.  « 
churche.%  a  public  school  with  an  attnhdan«^      '  a«      4 


.  1 
it 


488 


PORT  ADAMS 


PORTESCTK 


cations  of  any  kind.     For  further  information  as  to  Forti- 
ncATioxs,  siH*  that  title.  James  Mkrcur. 

Fort  Adans:  a  fortification  constructed  on  Rrenton*s 
Point,  entrance  to  Newport  harlM)r,  K.  I.  This  work, 
planne*!  and  built  1828-^J8  by  (Jen.  Josn'ph  (i.  Totten,  sub- 
sequently chief  enjfinwr  V.  S.'army.  is  (»ne  of  the  few  works 
of  the  Hj^tein  of  *H»«coast  defense  in  the  U.  S.  di»siffn^  to 
sustain  a  rej^ular  sieype.  Its  land  fronts  are  elaborately  ar- 
raIl>^Ml  acconlin^  to  the  principles  of  the  art  as  then  re- 
ceivtHi. 

Fortalesa,  ftlr-taa-U  zaa  (often,  but  incorrectly  calleil 
(^EARi) :  a  city  of  Northeastern  Brazil ;  capital  of  the  state 
of  iVani :  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  in  lat.  3  42  S.  (see  map  of 
South  America,  rvf.  3~H).  The  coast  at  this  point  forms  a 
slight  liay,  but  the  shores  ure  expose<l  to  heavy  surf,  and  ves- 
sels anchor  2  miles  out  in  an  open  roadstead  ;  passengers  and 
fri'ight  to  and  from  the  land  are  generally  carried  on  janya- 
rf/w  or  sailing-rafts.  The  town,  built  on  a  low  bluff,  is  regu- 
hirly  laid  out,  and  the  principal  stnM»ts  are  lined  by  substan- 
tial buildings,  but  with  little  urchite<-tural display.  The  heat 
is  m(Mlifie<l  by  hea-l»n»ezes,  especially  during  the  dry  sea- 
son, and  the  t4>wn  is  g<Mier»lly  healthy,  though  it  has  been 
visitisi  by  s«»veral  severe  epitiemics  of  yellow  fever  and 
smallpox.'  The  country  immediately  back  is  a  Iwuren  waste 
of  sand  and  scrub  ;  a  railroad,  extending  inland  to  Baturit^, 
c<mnei*ts  the  port  with  the  rich  grazing  and  agricultural 
district*  of  the  interior.  Fortaleza  is  the  princiiial  port  of 
CeaWL,  and  has  a  large  trade,  exporting  sugar,  hitles,  rubber, 
etc  The  name,  meaning  a  fortress,  is  derived  from  the  old 
fort  of  Amjjaro,  built  here  in  1611.  Pop.  (18t>3)  about  20.- 
000.  Herbert  II.  Smith. 

Fort  Atkinson  :  city  ;  Jefferson  co..  Wis,  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-E) ;  on  railway  and  on 
K^K'k  river,  near  I^ake  Koshkonong ;  24  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
Janesville.  It  contains  a  large  manufactory  of  furniture, 
wagons,  buggies,  anti  cutters,  two  foundries,  an  extensive 
manufactory  of  dairy,  creamery,  and  cheese-factory  appa- 
ratus, and  maimfactures  of  harrows,  brooms,  and  steam 
whi>ell>arn>ws.  Pop.  (18H0)  1,WJ9 ;  (1H90)  2,283,  locally  as- 
certained to  be  2,iWJ0. 

KurroR  op  **  Jeppersox  County  Uxiox.** 

Fort  B«miBCA8 :  a  small  work  in  Flori«la,  on  the  north 
side  of  PensAcola  Bay.  In  1H61  this  fort  was  garrisoned  by 
a  small  UhIv  of  artillery  under  command  of  Maj.  Adam 
Slemmer.  \Vhen,  in  Jan.,  1H61,  Com.  Armstrong  of  the 
navy  surremlen»d  the  navy-yard  to  the  Confetlerates,  Maj. 
Slemmer  altandoned  this  work  and  transferred  his  com- 
mand to  the  more  im^iortant  work.  Fort  Pickens,  on  Santa 
R^Ma  island,  opposite.  Barrancas  was  held  by  the  Confed- 
erate's until  the  evacuation  by  them  of  Pensacola. 

Fort  Bowjor :  See  Fort  Morgan. 

Fort  Bradj  :  a  military  post  (occupie<l  by  two  comjjanies) 
at  Sault  Ste.  Jfarie,  Mich.  It  Is  an  im[M)rtant  military  posi- 
tion, commanding  the  St,  Mary's  nver  and  canaL  See  also 
St.  Mary's  River. 

Fort  Brown  :  a  military  poot  at  Brownsville.  Cameron 
CO.,  Texas ;  half  a  mile  from  the  site  of  the  old  Texan  Fort 
Brown  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  8-H). 
It  hab  quarters  for  a  regiment,  but  owing  to  the  unhealth- 
fulne^  of  the  |>lm*e  the  garris<m  is  u'«uaTly  small.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  Hio  (irande  is  the  Mexican  town  of  Matm- 
moras. 

Fort  Canby :  one  of  the  defenses  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Colurahia  river;  siiunt4N|  on  C«|)e  Hancock  or  DLsapfwint- 
ment,  Paritie  c*».,  Wiwshington  (for  l(»cation  of  county,  see 
mnp  of  WxHhinct«)n,  n'f.  4- A).  The  fort itlcat ions  are  on  a 
bluff  aJjout  2<M)  feet  hii;h,  the  quarters  near  the  water. 

Fort  CoIIIbb:  town  and  railway  junction;  capital  of 
I^nin«*r  c<»..  Col.  (fMf  ItH-nHon  of  i^otinty.  *hh*  map  of  Colo- 
ra-lo.  r»*f.  1-I)» ;  tm  thi*  t  'luhr  la  PiMidre  river :  70  miles  N.  of 
UenvtT.  It  hn*  exr»||riit  wHt«T-iM»vker  antj  s^iuie  nianu- 
fmtim-^  An<l  1*.  tin*  ijle  of  th«'  C«»loriido  Airricultural  Ci»l- 
Ifgf.  Priih-ij»*il  lmNiiH-%«*,  rtcnMillun-,  tlft)r\  iiiiT.  and  ntm-k- 
nu^lMk'.       I'«'p.    (1*^»)    l.itVl;   tiStHh  2,011;   ('lH!>;t)  ..^l  U!i«ti'<l. 

2,7.>i.  KinioR  OK  '*  CoiRita." 

Fort  Coflnirton:  *iIUl'..  ;  Kmnklin  ct,.,  N.  Y,  (for  hn-a- 
titin  of  ei.tiiit  V, -M-**  ninp  of  N,  w  York.  nf.  l-l);  \^  milt's 
N.  W.  of  M.i)tini>:  on  r.tiUii\  nnd  tin-  nHM;riil>le  Snlinon 
river,  5  nuN-^  fnun  it*  mouth  Atnl  a  iinli'  fn»m  the  (  anada 
linr.  It  h*^  an  a4-ail«-(ii>  ;  tininiiii;  anti  fanning  arc  the 
Icatling   tiit«rr»tM.      Kurt  Covmgiou  u  memorable  for  the 


/  " .. 


1 


sufferings  which  the   V,  S.  armr  endorNl  at  t^>  p  .n 
during  the  winter  of  181»-14.     Pop.  <1HM»)  fltU  ;  \\*^t  ^^ 

Fort  de  Fninoe  (Fr.  pron.  Mr  d^-fr»aii«  k  U>niM  rl}  i  »? 
Royal  :  capital  of  Martinique,  French  We^  Itni^-^  ;     .  •  « 
flat  land  bordering  Port  Royal  Bay.  near  the  m>u:'*   m  •«•: 
of  the  island  (see  map  of  West  Indies,  rrf.  7-M  l     It  »»• '  • 
merly  the  princifial  port,  bat  has  l)e*-n  »ui»plAnw-.;     ,  m 
Pierre.    The  bay  is  aefended  bv  Fort  St,  U•ul^  ar    ■  •- • 
tant  post  during  the  French  ana  English  wart.    T*  -       •  « 
regularly  laid  out,  with  subsitantial  hi»ui*«K,  grneni'iji  •■' «  -a:^ 
and  the  surroundings  are  exceedingly  picturr**<ur.    T* -^ 
is  a  small  park  containing  a  monument   to  im    F/     -H 
Josephine,  who  was  bom  near  the  placo.     P*^',   I  •flri  »  .  ^ 

15,000.  UCRBLRT  II.  .s«:Tt 

FortDodgr^:  city  and  railway  center;  r«f atal  ff  «  ^ 
ster  CO.,  la.  (for  location  of  county,  sre  mat- < if  !>  «a,  f*{J 
4-F) ;  situated  on  I)«»s  Moines  river,  90  mili-»  X.  • '  I*^ 
Moines.  It  has  a  college,  a  large  graded  «*  b<ad  «  'a  iij 
cellent  ward  schools,  a  Catholic  seminary,  fiur  t4«ar*-'i  ^ 
building-stone,  large  deposits  of  gypcum,  o«l.  trr^  «a«.  ;•  '^ 
ter's  clay,  and  water-lime,  various  manufaicturvk,  kc  '  '-i^ 
largest  oatmeal  milU  in  the  State,  gan-work*,  ele»-tr*-  ^'d 
and  water-works.  Pop.  (1880)  8,5m6;  <!««»>  4.**:i  nq 
estimated,  6,000.  PrBLisHKR>  or  **(*aa*>«.  .  i  ' 

Fort  Bonelson :  See  Fort  IUnrv  axu  Fort  iKivtub^ 

Fort  DnqnesBO :  See  PrrrsBrRo. 

Fort  Edward:  Tillage;  Washington  cn^  X.  Y.  tf  - 
tion  of  county,  see  map  of  New  Y<jrk,  ret.  4-K  ;  -t  r» 
and  on  the  east  bank  of  Iludsim  river;  2H  tuilr^  X 
A  dam  000  feet  long  and  27  feet  high  crvvN^ni  th«>  h 
and  affords  great  water-iwwer.    The  viUa<pr  »•  fr- 
uated,  has  a  seminary  and  collegiate  institute,  mr-i  •  t 
manufactures,  incluaing  iron,  lumlter,  machinrn .  mt. . 
ware.    The  first  fortification  here  was  built  in  17^v>.  * 
and  larger  one  calle<l  Fort  Lyman  was  Imilt  tn  1 7**S  * 
present  name  was  soon  sufistituted  in  hon<ir  •<«   K:a.H 
I)uke  of  York.    Some  remnants  of  the  fort    •■:  .*. 
Fort  Kdward  was  a  point  of  iroportamT  dunrr 
French  and  Indian  wars,  and  during  the  Rev«*tut;-  r. 
cupie<l  in  turn  by  British  and  Americ^iA.     Pi*f  t  ■  ;»<>4 
(1890)  not  separately  returned. 

Fort  Erf© :  post-village  of  Wetland  or*^  t>iit«i"' .  <  *ra| 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  t^tant^  rvf.  .V  t  \ 
two  railways  and  on  iJike  t^ie,  at  the  hew)  «>r  thr  ^  .w* 
river  opposite  Buffalo,  N.  Y..  with  which  it  m  o^-.r-*  •  1 
a  railway  bridge.    Pop.  1,000. 

Fort  Ethan  Allen:  amilitarr  ptxt  r«taM;«t^-j    -   V^ 
1893;  situated  near  Kssex  Jnnction,  Yi..  al«iai  r»  -      *  r 
Burlington   (for  location,  nee  map  of  Yern*-  -.t,  rri    4 
It  is  designe<l  for  the  at^cttmmodation  of  a  La*'j<»  c^r^  * 
and  to  form  one  of  the  cordon  of  posts  al<>nc  *    -    -    • 
frontier  of  the  U.  S.  Jaxi*  ^la 

For'tescae,  Chichester  Samicl  PARai>««t».  >m 

INSON-FORTESCI'E,  CHICIllStTRR  SaJU'RU 

Fortescae,  Rt,  Hon.  IIuob,  Kari:  Kncli^^h  mmi*^ 
and  author;  b.  Apr.  4,  1818;  educated  at  Harri»«  a  T« 
ity  College,  Cambridge;  entered  ParIiaiD«-tit  m  .  «h 
I>ec.,  1854,  was  chosen  for  Maryleliuoe :  nwurriwl  «e 
called  to  the  up[>er  house  for  his  father's  hanci^  ,  ^  '»  ^ 
cue  Deo.  5,  1859,  succee<ling  a»  thin!  eari  >»r|<  1 4  :««*  1 
1846-47  was  a  Ijord  of  the  Trea«iry,  •errptmri  -.f  •-.  t»*r 
board  1H47-51,  U»Hides  U^ing  chainnan  of  V»«  r 
metropolitan  commissions  of  sewers,  Rrtir«^l  f*  — ■  .as 
ment  after  1858  in  cimsequence  of  ophtbalirua.  •-  '  *-« 
visiting  a  hospital  with  a  view  to  his  ^u«xr^f  .i  f^-. 
tary  motion  for  sanitanr  reform.  Ur  hiw  «r 
Health  of  Totms{\H44);  hfficuU  Salmr%es  ,\<k:   .   ,.    .— ^ 

mentary  I^fform   (1859);    Fubiu    ScAimU    ^ «-    rw    MJ 
riiiMes  (1864). 

Forteseae,  Sir  JoHK :  English  chief  ju«tHY  .-f  t«-  % 
U>neh;  b.  prol»ably  alM>ut  IJflM;  bnmmc  irf-  « 
U..*9:  one  df  the  king's  ivrgeanta  in  KftMrr  1441  «  .  * 
tire  Jan.  25,  1443,  U»  Kastrr  1400;  e^*a(«nil  «  li;  li  -^ 
into  Sit  »t  land  alt  he  end  of  Mar^  1441 ;  w^  at  !*.--•• 
treason  146;<;  eMUped  with  (^urrn  Mar^mr^ '  •  ,  i-  -  .  | 
nent  ;  wa-^  |»anlnned  by  Kilward  lY.  « vt..  14TX,  ».-  .  w  «{ 
ing  in  Fib.,  1476i.  Wrote /M  /A«  itntm9  ^f  f^^  ^^^ 
I^itrs,  in  l^tin,  lietween  1441  and  14 Tit,  a  uia^.  *  -  -t 
tinriof  Kngli4i  Uw,and  The  Oovernaiuw  *  *  A'%^ 
wise  called  Tht  D%jfertne$  Ut 


-J 


1 


490 


PORT  HOWARD 


FORTIFICATION 


damaee  sustained  by  the  gunboats,  Gen.  Grant  on  the  12th 
movea  with  his  army  toward  Fort  Donelson,  arriving  before 
that  work  the  same  afternoon.  In  the  meantime  the  garri- 
son at  Fort  Donelson,  consisting  mainly  of  those  who  had 
escaped  from  Fort  Henry,  had  been  re-enforced  on  the  0th 
by  tne  command  of  Gen.'  Pillow,  and  on  the  12th  bv  that  of 
Cfen.  Buckner  from  Bowling  Green,  and  on  the  following 
day  by  the  brigade  of  Gen.  John  B.  Floyd,  who,  being  the 
senior  officer,  assumed  command  of  the  entire  force  of  about 
16,000  men.  This  work,  while  it  commanded  well  the  river- 
front, was  in  the  rear  commanded  by  high  ground,  which 
was,  however,  secured  and  fortified  before  the  arrival  of  the 
Union  forces-  Gen.  Grant  at  once  proceeded  to  invest  the 
Confederate  lines,  and  early  on  the  morning  of  the  13th 
opened  a  vigorous  cannonade,  followed  in  the  afternoon  by 
an  assault  by  a  part  of  McClemand*s  force,  which  was,  how- 
ever, repulsed  with  considerable  loss.  On  the  14th  re-en- 
forcements to  the  number  of  10,000  reached  Grant,  bringing 
his  land  forces  up  to  about  27,000  men,  together  with  the 
fleet  of  Com.  Foote,  and  a  combined  attack  was  determined 
upon.  Being  unable  to  get  the  new  troops  in  position,  the 
fleet  opened  the  attack  alone  in  the  afternoon,  but  after  an 
hour  and  a  half,  during  which  time  every  gunboat  was  dis- 
abled and  54  men  kill^  and  wounded,  the  fleet  was  com- 
pelled to  retire.  Gen.  Grant  now  proceeded  to  complete  his 
line  of  investment  and  await  the  re-enforcement  of  his 
army.  The  Confederate  commanders,  however,  realizing 
their  danger,  had  agreed  upon  a  vigorous  attack,  by  which 
it  was  hoped  to  secure  an  avenue  of  retreat  to  Nashville, 
which,  intended  as  a  surprise,  was  commenced  at  5  a.  m.  on 
the  15th,  but  was  met  by  a  fire  from  the  Federal  force,  and 
a  battle  ensued  with  varying  success  until  about  3  p.  m., 
when  a  final  advance  was  ordered  by  Gen.  Grant  along  the 
whole  line,  which  drove  the  Confederates  back  to  their  own 
lines,  while  on  the  left  a  position  was  gained  within  the 
Confederate  works.  The  loss  on  each  side  during  this  day*s 
conflict  was,  in  killed  and  wounded,  nearly  2,000.  Gen. 
Grant  now  made  his  preparations  for  a  general  attack  the 
next  morning,  which,  however,  was  not  executed,  for  dur- 
ing the  night  the  Confederate  commanders,  finding  the 
Union  line  of  investment  completely  restored,  had  deter- 
mined upon  a  surrender.  Pillow  refused  to  consent  to  a 
capitulation,  while  Floyd  acknowledged  that  "personal  rea- 
sons "  prevented  him  from  acceding  to  such  a  decision,  thus 
devolving  the  surrender  upon  Buckner.  During  the  night 
Floyd  managed  to  escape  by  steamers  with  some  1,500  of  his 
own  command,  as  did  Pillow  and  his  staff,  also  Gen.  Forrest 
with  300  or  400  men,  by  the  river-road.  At  dawn  of  the 
IGth  Buckner  addressed  a  communication  to  Gen.  Grant, 
asking  the  appointment  of  commissioners  to  settle  upon 
terms  of  capitulation  and  an  armistice  until  noon,  to  which 
Grant  sent  his  famous  reply :  "  No  terms  except  uncondi- 
tional and  immediate  surrender  can  be  accepted.  I  propose 
to  move  immediately  upon  your  works."  Buckner,  having 
no  alternative,  accepted  these  terms.  No  exact  statement 
of  the  captures  can  be  given ;  the  most  reliable  estimates 

?lace  them  at  65  cannon,  about  17,000  small-arms,  and  about 
4,000  prisoners,  many  of  whom  were  wounded.    The  total 
Union  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing  was  2,832. 

Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Fort  Howard:  city  and  railway  center;  Brown  co.. 
Wis.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref. 
5-F) ;  on  the  west  side  of  Fox  river,  near  its  mouth,  oppo- 
site the  city  of  Green  Bay  ;  114  miles  N.  of  Milwaukee.  It 
has  9  churches,  5  brick  school-buildings  (including  a  large 
high  school),  numerous  and  extensive  lumber-manufactories, 
the  G.  B.,  W.  and  St.  P.,  and  the  Ch.,  M.  and  St.  P.  Railway 
machine-shops,  sash,  door,  and  blind  factories,  canning-fac- 
tories, brick-yards,  machine-shops  and  boiler-works,  electric 
lights,  sewers,  water-works,  etc.,  a  fine  harbor,  and  an 
extensive  trade.     Pop.  (1880)  3,083 ;  (1890)  4,754. 

Editors  of  **  Review." 

Fortification  [from  V v.  fortification  :  Ita,].  fortiftcazione 
<  Low  Lat.  fortification  deriv.  of  Lat.  fortifica're,  make 
strong,  fortify;  fortia,  strong  '\-  fa  cere,  make]:  the  art  of 
rendering  a  military  position  defensible  against  the  attacks 
of  superior  numbers ;  also  the  work  or  works  erected  for 
this  purpose.  The  art  of  fortification  is  usually  divided  into 
two  tranches — permanent  fortification  and  field  or  tempo- 
rary fortification.  Permanent  fortifications  are  constructed 
to  defend  a  position  of  permanent  iniportanrc,  and  are  made 
of  durable  materials.  Field  fortifications  are  intended  to 
serve  a  temporary  purpose,  and  the  materials  employed  are 


those  found  most  ready  at  hand.  Ths  principles  of  the  an 
are  essentially  the  same  in  both.  Permanent  fortificatK^ri^ 
being  the  more  elaborate,  it  will  be  convenient,  in  a  bni  f 
exposition  of  the  subject,  to  consider  that  branch  fin»t.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  assume  that  the  reader  is  acquainti'i 
with  the  elementary  terms  employed. 

I.  Permanent  Fortification. 

General  Definitions, — A  modern  fortress  usually  consist- 
of  an  inclosure  of  earth  and  masonry,  called  the  enctinu* 
or  bodv  of  the  place,  secured  by  a  citadel  within«  auii 
strengtnened  by  works  on  the  exterior,  called  outworkij. 

The  mass  of  earth  employed  to  cover  the  bodies  of  th- 
defenders  while  in  action  from  the  enemy's  pn>jeciilef  i- 
called  the  parapet.  It  is  raised  upon  anotner  maN<  ••/ 
earth  called  the  rampart,  R  (Fig.  1). 


Fio.  1. 

Outside  the  rampart  is  the  ditch,  D,  which  is  madt>  x\^\> 
and  wide  enough  to  offer  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  emtur . 
and  beyond  the  ditch  the  glacis,  c. 

If  the  plan,  or  trace,  of  the  enceinte  should  hare  \\\^ 
form  of  a  simple  polygon  with  only  salient  angle>.  ii.- 
ditch  would  not  be  under  the  fire  of  the  work,  and  hl 
enemy  having  reached  it  would  there  find  shelter.  The  ar- 
rangements by  which  the  exterior  slope  and  bottom  of  ihf 
ditcn  are  brought  under  fire  are  called  Hanking  arranp- 
ments.  In  general  terms,  they  consist  in  arranging  \\.r 
sides  of  the  polygon  so  as  to  make  both  re-entrant  ai:i 
salient  angles.  In  small  works,  having  only  salient <:,  pi) 
lerics  are  sometimes  built  behind  the  counterscarp,  hiwuz 
a  fire  upon  the  ditch.  When  the  flanking  arrang^ni'  r.r- 
are  imperfect,  the  space  left  unexposed  to  the  fire  of  ni>- 
work  is  called  a  dead  space. 

Systems  of  Fortification, — The  main  points  to  be  attairul 
in  any  fortification  are — 1,  to  offer  an  obstacle  to  th»-  in- 
vance  of  the  enemv  to  a  hand-to-hand  conflict;  2.  U' 
cover  the  defenders  from  his  projectiles;  and  3,  to  thor- 
oughly sweep  with  its  fire  all  the  ground  within  ranije  it 
the  exterior,  including  its  own  ditches.  A  vast  numUr  c? 
different  methods  of  securing  the  above  ends  have  been  j-r.'- 
posed.  There  are  three  principal  systems,  however,  wf.i  r 
these  methods  approach  more  or  less  closely,  and  which  wu. 
alone  be  noticed.  These  are  the  tenailled  (Fig.  2),  the  I  Mo- 
tioned (Fig.  3),  and  the  polygonal  systems  (Fig.  4).  1  h* 
figures  represent  the  systems  on  a  perfectly  horizontal  f-it--. 
wnere  there  is  nothing  to  cause  irregularity.  To  avuiti  un- 
necessarily complicating  the  figures,  only  the  magistral,  in- 
terior crests,  rear  lines  of  terrepleins,  and  foot  of  ra>n]Hr 
slopes  are  shown.  The  heavy  olack  lines  are  the  inter  t 
crests;  the  stippled  portions  are  the  bottoms  of  the  ditrn- 
In  Fig.  2  only  the  magistral  and  interior  crest  of  thr  m 
ceinte  are  shown. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  lines  are  straight  in  nil    f 
them.    To  make  them  curved  would  either  scatter  th»ir  t"r^ 
or  concentrate  it  upon  a  single  point,  since  the  dirtiti'n  • .' 
the  line  of  fire  is  always  assumed  to  be  perpendicuUr  t 
the  interior  crest,  this  being  the  most  natural  directi<.»n  f •  •' 
the  soldier  to  fire  in,  and  the  one  which  he  will  alway:^  t  u 
ploy  at  night.    Moreover,  if  the  lines  were  curved,  it  w.i;  ■ 
not  be  possible  to  flank  them,  since  the  path  of  the  pn»je<t:.'. 
is  a  straight  line. 

Before  describing  these  systems  it  should  be  noticed  thu* 
the  mere  inclosing  a  given  space  by  a  rampart  of  the  U'^j  . 
height  will  not  necessarily  of  itself  afford  the  reouired  tn^-^t* 
to  tlie  defenders.    If  the  direction  given  to  the  lines  is  ^'i- ' 
that  the  enemy  can  place  himself  upon  the  prolongatio»i    • 
them,  he  c^n  land  his  projectiles  atone  end  of  the  temj "'  ■ 
and  sweep  it  to  the  other;  fire  striking  a  line  in  such  a  d. 
rection  is  called  enfilade  fire.    Should  the  enemy  be  al'K\  i* 
I  take  up  a  position  from  which  he  can  fire  over  one  |»<>rti-  - 
of  the  inclosure,  and  strike  in  rear  the  parapet  licyond.  !» • 
latter  is  said  to  be  exposed  to  reverse  fire.     Lines  plat  <  )  ^ 
as  to  be  exposed  to  enfilade  or  reverse  fires  are  faulty  ;  hi  • 
though  it  is  not  always  possible  to  avoid  ao  phicing  thom.  • 
account  of  the  necessity  of  giving  their  fire  a  suitable  tli lo- 
tion, it  is  evident  in  comparing  the  different  systems  f- 
the  one  which  will  least  often  require  this  fault  will.  s»">  I.i' 
be  the  best. 

Tenailled    System, — The  tenailled    trace  is  shown    • 


-TBii»lUed  system. 


'0  be  40  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  it  can  Dot  strike 
lui:;  U.'ttiifo  nt  a  distnace  li:ss  than  240  feet.  Hence  there 
3-  a,  L-uusiUerable  dead  space  at  each  of  the  reentrant  angles. 
K'lr  ihf  same  length  of  parapet  this  trace  tncloxcs  less  space 
r'iiin  eithiTof  the  other  traces.  The  great  number  and  the 
-:.'Lr|tTi<-ss  of  its  salients  render  its  faces  peculiarly  liable  to 
■■iilliii'Ic  and  reverse  fires. 

[t't.-ili(ined  Syttem. — Fig.  3  shows  the  biistioneil  trace.  It 
u.ii  III-  ub»orved  that  the  great  distance  between  tlie  tknkN 
ii.\:i\  tliu  opposite  glacis  will  expose  the  masonr;  scarp  of  the 


i  t^e  curved  Are  of  tiie  enemy.    To  partiafly  n 
"iv  this  defect,  and  to  cover  the  masonry  ol  the  curtain, 

■■  tiiiiaille,  T,  was  introduced.  It  is  a  low  outwork,  so  eon- 
-.  ni'ivii  us  not  to  interfere  with  the  lire  of  the  flanks  upon 
■■M-  ditch  ia  front  of  the  bastion  face?,  and  is  armed  with 
ijD-kT'try,    U  creates,  however,  a  considerable  dead  space. 

In  the  attack  of  this  enceinte  the  enemy  would  make  his 
i;.';>ri  loihes  along  the  capital  of  the  tiastion.  and  the  greater 
,-Ttiun  of  the  fire  which  can  be  brought  to  bear  in  this  di- 


.  in  is  comparatively  distant,  since  it  cnmes  from  the 
■irnt  liaslions.  This  weak  point  is  strenglhenpcl  bv  the 
-rtic'tion  of  the  demilune.  D.  Two  adjacent  dcmi- 
.  thr'iwihe  bastion  br'tween  them  into  a  strong  riM'n- 
I.  and  add  enormously  to  the  streneth  of  the  front. 
'It'ttiilune  serves  also  to  mask  the  shoulder  angles  of 


tween 

counti., 

largely  used  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century ;  in  very 

rough  sites  it  is  entirely  inapplicable.     The  flanks  being 

situated  at  a  consideraOle  distance  from  the  facex  to  be 

flanked,  a  portion  of  the  range  of  their  guns  is  lost.    The 

height  of  the  parapet  is  limited  by  its  length  of  front. 

Polygimal  Si/slfm. — In  this  system  the  faces  are  but  little 
eiposea  to  enfllaiie  or  reverse  fires,  since  the  enemy  in  plac- 
ing himself  upon  the  prolongation  of  one  of  them,  will  place 
himself  within  short  range  of  the  adjacent  ones;  and  it  is 
easy  to  cover  these  prolongations  by  adjacent  outworks. 
For  the  same  length  of  parapet  more  ground  is  inclosed 
than  in  either  of  the  other  systems.  The  length  of  a  front 
what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  of  the  lines  of  defense 
— may  be  greater 
than  in  the  bas- 
tioned.  since  the  foil 
range  of  the  flank- 
ing guns  is  made 
available.  This  sys- 
tem adapts  itself  bet- 
ter to  irregular  sites. 
Each  of  these  sys- 
tems has  had  its  [Ar- 
tisans. The  contest 
between  those  of  the 
bastioned  and  those 
of  the  polygonal  has 
been  espec  iai  1  y  sharp, 
and  has  n'sultcd  in 
the  adoption  of  the 
polygonal  system  by 
all  great  nations. 
The  other  systems 
are  mainly  of  inter- 

isting  fortifications, 
built  prior  to  the 
modem  development 
of  firearms,  tnough 
they  may  find  occa- 
sional application  in 

posed,  as  in  the  gorge 
of  an  inclosed  work. 
IVinriplee  of  For- 
tificalioji.—Tiie  more 
imjiorlanl  funda- 
mental principles  in 

1.  Tlify  must  have 
good  flanking  ar- 
rangements. 

2.  The  lines  of  de- 
fense must  be  as  long 
as  possible,  iiuppos- 
ing  the   dimensions 

of  the  fortress  to  permit  it,  in  order  to  avoid  short  frontsaiid 
a  ni\dlitude  of  flunks.  Tlicir  length  is  liinilcd  by  the  range 
of  thp  wea[>ons  nsi'd  tor  flanking;  and  these  weapons  must 
lie  such  as  will  throw  a  large  number  of  pri'jecliles  heavy 
enoiisrh  to  disable  men.  Rifled  arlillcrj-  is  not  suilable; 
machine-guns  and  howitzers  are  generally  useil.    The  how- 


492 


FORTIFICATION 


itzer  is  used  for  occasionally  throwing  shells  to  destroy  any 
temporary  cover  the  enemy  may  erect. 

8.  The  enceinte  must  have  a  considerable  command  over 
the  surrounding  country  and  over  the  outworks.  The  height 
of  the  interior  crest  is  limited  by  the  necessity  of  thoroughly 
sweeping  the  ground  on  the  exterior,  and  of  not  offering  too 
great  an  object  to  the  direct  fire  of  the  enemy.  It  is  rarely 
more  than  25  or  30  feet  above  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground. 

4.  Masonry  is  not  to  be  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the  enemy. 
In  seacoast  fortification  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  con- 
centrate a  large  number  of  guns  upon  a  confined  space,  and 
they  are  placed  in  tiers  of  casemates,  one  over  tne  other. 
These  works  bein^  subject  onl^  to  fire  from  ships,  the  mason- 
ry was  exposed  with  comparative  impunity,  since  this  fire  is 
so  unsteaay  as  not  readily  to  strike  the  same  spot  many  times 
in  succession.  But  a  single  shot  from  the  powerful  artillery 
now  in  use  will  do  as  much  execution  as  a  series  of  the  old 
ones.  Hence  it  becomes  necessary  to  substitute  iron  or  steel 
for  masonry  where  earth  can  not  be  employed.  When  prac- 
ticable the  guns  are  placed  in  cupolas,  with  roof  of  spherical 
form  (a,  a,  a,  Fig.  4),  or  mounted  on  disappearing  carriages. 
A  cupola  is  a  hollow  revolving  structure  of  steel  or  iron,  con- 
taining one  or  two  guns,  buried  in  a  mass  of  concrete,  which 
in  turn  is  buried  in  the  parapet. 

5.  The  nearer  the  general  direction  of  the  fronts  forti- 
fied shall  be  to  a  straight  line  the  better,  since  thus  a  large 
amount  of  fire  can  be  concentrated  upon  the  approaches. 

6.  The  arrangement  of  the  works  must  be  such  that,  as 
far  as  possible,  the  prolongations  of  the  parapets  shall  not 
be  attainable  by  the  enemy,  and  the  terrepleins  be  covered 

Xinst  vertical  fire.     The  first  is  secured  by  a  proper 
3ing  of  the  lines,  and  the  second  by   casemates  and 
bombproofs. 

7.  The  outworks  must  be  so  arranged  that  their  capture 
must  necessarily  be  successive,  thus  introducing  the  element 
of  time  into  the  defense.  If  two  outworks  can  be  attacked 
simultaneously,  their  capture  may  require  more  material, 
but  not  more  time,  than  if  there  were  only  one. 

8.  All  parts  of  a  fortification  should  be  eaually  strong. 
Hence  if  one  part  is  the  stronger  by  nature,  the  others  will 
demand  more  from  art.  This  sometimes  leads  to  the  multi- 
plication of  works  upon  one  or  more  of  the  fronts. 

Accessory  Defenses, — The  advance  of  an  enemy  is  very 
seriously  retarded  by  a  judicious  use  of  countermines.  (See 
MiLiTAKT  Mining.)  In  addition  to  the  works  exterior  to 
the  enceinte,  works  are  sometimes  constructed  within  it, 
.  called  the  reduit,  the  object  of  which  is  to  defend  the  breach 
when  made,  and  to  furnish  the  garrison  a  point  of  retreat 
whence  the  defense  may  be  prolonged. 

When  the  face  of  a  work  is  exposed  to  enfilade  fire,  the 
destructive  effects  of  the  latter  may  be  much  diminished  by 
raising  masses  of  earth  at  intervals  along  the  terreplein. 
These  masses  are  called  traverses  (y,  y,  y,  Fig.  3) ;  they  ex- 
tend across  the  terreplein  in  a  direction  nearly  perpendicular 
to  the  interior  crest.  When  a  parapet  is  exposed  to  reverse 
fire,  a  mass  of  earth  is  thrown  up  behind  it  and  its  defenders; 
this  mass  is  called  a  parados.  Both  the  parados  and  trav- 
erse may  be  utilized  for  the  purpose  of  bombproofs,  maga- 
zines, and  cupolas.  They  are  both  essential  to  limit  the 
action  of  the  modem  explosive  projectile. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  reuove  all  obstacles  which 
could  afford  cover  to  the  enemy  anywhere  within  range  of 
the  guns.  Forests  and  buildings  are  cleared  away,  and  in- 
equalities of  the  ground  graded  off. 

Economy  of  Fortification, — In  determining  upon  the 
amount  of  money  that  can  be  assigned  to  the  construction 
of  fortifications,  the  latter  should  be  regarded  as  so  much 
insurance,  and  insurance  not  only  against  pecuniary  loss, 
but  also  against  national  dishonor.  Their  extent  at  any 
given  point  must  therefore  depend  upon  the  importance  of 
the  point  and  the  risk  of  its  capture.  Among  a  warlike 
people  the  risk  of  capture  will  be  less  when  the  population 
IS  dense  and  re-enforcements  in  materials  and  men  can  readily 
be  procured.  Hence  an  isolated  point,  with  but  a  sparse 
population  in  its  vicinity,  will  require  the  maximum  per- 
centage of  its  value  for  fortification,  supposing  always  that 
the  facilities  for  attack  are  the  same,  and  that  the  site  offers 
no  great  natural  advantages  to  the  defense.  The  points  of 
greatest  value  with  a  nation  having  powerful  neighoors  are 
.  the  great  strategic  pivots,  the  occupation  of  which  by  an 
enemy  would  endanger  the  life  of  tne  nation ;  such  are,  in 
Europe,  the  capital  and  great  commercial  centers.  A  very 
small  percentage  of  their  value  will  give  very  large  sums 


H'i 


t-- 


for  their  defense,  and  European  nations  expend  these  sum^ 
without  hesitation. 

The  size  of  the  works  is  not  always  an  indication  uf  th«  ir 
strength,  nor  is  their  cost  always  proportionate  to  the  valut 
of  the  point  defended,  though  their  strength  must  be. 
Everything  varies  with  the  loealitv. 

Perma/nent  Fortifications  in  the  tl,  S, — The  frontiers  whuh 
are  exposed  to  attack  being  principally  maritime,  the  fom- 
fications  of  the  U.  S.  consist  almost  entirely  of  battenps  *•[ 
heavy  guns  adapted  to  a  contest  with  ships.  To  secure  th*-^- 
batteries  from  a  land  attack,  they  are  inclosed  in  rear  by  & 
land-front,  traced  according  to  the  principles  above  la.<] 
down,  and  made  strong  enough  to  hold  an  enemy  in  chi.f  k 
until  re-enforcements  can  arrive.  These  land-hx>nts  are  ^ti- 
dom  designed*  to  resist  a  regular  siege  for  a  great  length  ■  f 
time,  it  being  assumed  that  the  vast  resources  in  men  a:;! 
material  that  are  available,  and  the  system  of  railroail  ai.  1 
water  communication,  will  enable  a  superior  force  to  k 
brought  to  meet  an  enemy  at  any  point,  provided  timf^  -.> 
allowed  to  assemble  them ;  it  is  to  gain  this  time  that  tb*- 
land-fronts  are  constructed. 

The  essential  feature  of  these  works  is  the  9ea-fn>nt, 
Where  space  is  available  th^  guns  are  spread  out  in  a  sin^'W- 
tier. 

Where  the  space  is  contracted  it  has  been  usual  to  m«»iir/ 
guns  in  masonry  casemates  built  tier  over  tier.  S»m«'  ••' 
the  works  in  the  U.  S.  built  prior  to  1860  have  three  Xwr^ 
of  casemates,  and  a  barbette  battery  on  top.  This  meth«  A  ■  *. 
building  was  recognized  throughout  the  world,  and  wa-*  t  li' 
one  generally  adopted  in  the  U.  S.,  up  to  the  date  of  miwi^Ti. 
developments  in  tne  construction  of  guns  and  ships,  by  whi.  h 
the  caliber,  range,  and  power  of  the  first  were  immenM . 
increased,  and  almost  impenetrable  ironclad  vesselt^  Mij-r 
seded  wooden  ones.  The  method  is  now  discarded,  ami  iLt 
question  of  adapting  casemates  to  seacoast  batteries  ha^  n< 
come  to  a  practical  solution. 

The  maiority  of  the  present  fortifications  in  the  F.  S.  !• 
long  to  what  is  known  as  the  third  system,  the  fir^^t  f-n'- 
prising  those  built  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  FnM- 
Revolution  in  1789,  and  the  second  tJiose  built  just  l*^fn-^' 
the  war  of  1812.    The  works  of  the  first  and  seconti  ^^  *- 
terns  were  small  and  weak.    The  third  alone  was  systenia:- 
icallv  planned  after  a  comprehensive  study  of  the  fl)a>i  m'. 
northern  frontier;  aboard  of  engineer  and  naval  on.i-f- 
was  convened  for  the  purpose,  of  which  the  celohmt'^-! 
French  engineer  Gen.  Simon  Bernard  and  Gen.  Jos«}.h  <i 
Totten  were  prominent  members.    It  was  commenet-*!  i:. 
1816,  and  notwithstanding  the  vast  extent  of  the  c*i«is»    i 
was  until  about  1865  in  a  very  fair  state  of  defense.     Ti  .- 
third  system,  founded  upon  broad  geneml  principles  mhi.  : 
are  perennial,  is  now  much  behind  the  demands  of  tlie  tim-  - 
as  regards  methods  of  construction.    A  new  one  has  U-' : 
planned  by  a  mixed  board  of  armv  and  navy  officers  &r. : 
civilians,  presided  over  by  Hon.  William  C.  Endicott,  St-^  r.- 
tary  of  War.    The  report  of  the  board  was  made  in   1*<^'\ 
It  proposed  the  use  of  turrets,  armored  casemates,  barl^  t: 
batteries,  mortar  batteries,  floating  batteries,  and  subiimru.- 
mines.    The  estimated  cost  of  fortifying  the  en  I  in*  =^ov- 
coast  and  lake  frontier  was  $126,377,800,  or  less  than  #2  |* : 
head   of  population,  truly  an  insignificant  burden.     '1 !  - 
execution  of  this  project  has  made  a  fair  beginning.     G>m  . 
progress  has  been  made  in  the  preparations  for  maiiuf.^- 
luring  ^ns,  securing  sites,  and  at  some  of  the  more  izn(^>''- 
tant  points  in  the  construction  of  batteries. 

The  scheme  of  defense,  of  which  fortifications  con«tiTi:Tr 
one  element,  comprises  a  navy,  fortifications,  interior  ct.n 
munications  by  land  and  water,  and  a  regular  amiy  a:  <. 
well-organized  militia.    In  the  language  of  Gen.  Jo>«^ph  <\. 
Totten,  for  many  years  chief  of  the  engineer  corps  t»f  ir: 
U.  S.  army,  "  The  navy  must  be  provided  with  saita.Mo  e^ 
tablishraehts  for  construction  and  repair,  stations,  harU  r- 
of  rendezvous,  and  ports  of  refuge.     All  these   niu-^t   N. 
covered  by  fortifications  having  garrisons  of  regular  tn«M  - 
and  militia,  and  be  supplied  with  men  and  materials  thn»u^> 
the  lines  of  interior  communication.    Not  being  requireii  * . 
remain  in  the  harbor  for  their  defense,  the  navy,  pr^-t^r 
nent  as  an  offensive  arm,  will  be  prepared  to  transfer  •  "•  •• 
war  to  distant  oceans  and  to  the  snores  of  the  enemy,  ai  .* 
to  act  the  great  part  which  its  early  achievements  have  f  i»r«- 
told,  and  tb  which  its  high  destiny  will  lead. 

♦The  few  works— e.  jf.  Fort  Adams,   Fort  Monroe,  etc— wbfh 
form  the  exception  were  designed  aod  built  before  the  jrear  icOii.  ^» 
fore  the  resources  and  means  of  inland  communication  of  tbe  U  b 
had  been  developed. 


494 


FORTIFICATION 


lines  of  low  command  and  easy  construction  for  the  defense 
of  an  army's  front ;  2,  the  constant  use  of  intrenchraents  on 
the  battle-field,  thrown  up  in  a  few  moments  whenever  the 
troops  halt ;  and  3,  the  greater  care  in  the  planning  and  con- 
struction of  inclosed  works  when  such  are  employed. 

The  works  alluded  to  under  the  first  headmg  are  called 
rifle-trenches,  popularly  known  in  the  U.  S.  during  the  civil 
war  as  rifle-pits,  which  term  is  technically  applied  to  an- 
other work.  (See  Siege.)  Those  under  the  second  heading 
are  used  by  armies  something  as  the  individual  formerly 
employed  tne  buckler  and  cuirass,  and  are  called  shelter- 
trenches.  Rifle-trenches  and  shelter-trenches  receive  the 
generic  name  hastj  intrenchments.  Those  under  the  third 
eading  have  received  the  appropriate  name  semi-permanent 
works. 

Hasty  Intrenchments, — In  modem  warfare  the  first  duty 
of  the  troops  upon  halting  after  a  march,  when  near  the 
enemy,  is  to  intrench  themselves.  During  the  varying  tides 
of  battle  a  point  gained  is  at  once  intrenched.  Cover  for 
infantry  is  most  rapidly  obtained  by  excavating  a  trench 
about  \\  feet  deep,  and  throwing  the  earth  to  the  front  to 
form  a  parapet.  This  can  be  widened  in  a  few  minutes,  so 
as  to  afford  cover  to  men  lying  down  (Fig.  6). 


Fio.  6. 

There  should  be  ready  means  of  getting  in  and  out  of 
these  trenches,  both  to  the  front  and  rear ;  the  troops  should 
be  able  to  march  straight  over  them  when  necessary.  At 
intervals  of  about  100  yards  ramps  should  be  formed  or 
breaks  be  left  in  the  lines,  which  may  here  overlap,  to  en- 
able artillery  and  cavalry  to  pass.  The  trace  given  to  these 
trenches  is  evidently  the  same  that  would  be  occupied  by  a 
line  of  battle.  No  attention  is  paid  to  flanking  arrange- 
ments, properly  so  called.  .  Should  the  position  be  long  oc- 
cupied, the  most  important  points  are  sometimes  secur^  by 
inclosed  works.  Should  the  ground  be  occupied  for  a  pro- 
longed period,  the  trenches  are  deepened  and  widened  until 
they  become  rifle-trenches.  A  trench  8  feet  deep  and  a 
parapet  4^  feet  high,  giving  a  total  cover  of  7i  feet,  is  the 
greatest  vertical  dimension  generally  given  them.  The 
natural  surface  of  the  ground  forms  the  banquette,  the  para- 
pet being  thrown  forward  sufllciently  far  for  that  purpose. 
In  wooded  regions  a  revetment  of  the  interior  slope  is  fre- 
quently formed  of  logs  laid  one  over  the  other.  Further 
strength  is  given  to  the  line  by  some  of  the  obstacles  previ- 
ously descrioed,  placed  about  50  yards  in  front. 

It  is  natural  for  men  lying  behind  breastworks  exposed 
to  fire  to  crouch  low,  and  thus  to  raise  the  muzzles  of  their 
muskets  while  they  lower  the  butts,  and  fire  too  high.  It  is 
therefore  important  to  provide  loopholes  along  the  parapet, 
to  cover  the  neads  of  those  firing.  A  log  about  a  foot  in 
diameter  is  sometimes  laid  on  top  of  the  parapet,  notches 
being  cut  on  the  lower  side  about  6  feet  apart.  Loopholes 
may  also  be  made  of  boards  or  of  sandbags.  A  screen  of 
any  kind,  even  if  not  bullet-proof,  is  valuable ;  branches  of 
trees  are  therefore  sometimes  employed. 

At  suitable  points  the  artillery  is  posted,  the  terreplein 
being  widened  and  embrasures  cut  for  the  purpose.  If  a 
position  can  be  secured  where  the  artillery  could  enfilade  an 
attacking  line,  it  would  of  course  be  occupied,  as  in  posting 
troops  for  battle.  This  is  not  strictlv  a  flanking  arrange- 
ment, as  the  term  is  employed  in  fortification. 

Woods  in  front  of  the  works  are  cleared  away  and  ditches 
filled  up,  these  clearings  being  extended  by  degrees  to  the 
full  range  of  artillery,  should  the  position  "be  long  enough 
occupied.  Ditches  and  similar  obstacles  running  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  general  direction  of  the  defenses  may  be 
left,  as  they  will  obstruct  the  circulation  of  the  enemy's 
troops  from  one  part  of  his  line  to  the  other.  In  long  lines 
of  rifie-trenches  branches  should  be  run  back,  at  intervals 
of  500  or  600  yards,  in  a  direction  nearly  perpendicular  to 
the  main  line,  to  shut  off  the  enemy  in  case  of  his  forcing 
his  way  through,  and  prevent  him  from  turning  the  whole 
line  by  his  advantage  at  a  single  point. 

The  employment  of  inclosed  works  upon  these  hastv  in- 
trenchments is  exceptional,  since  the  labor  and  materials  re- 
quired to  construct  them  in  accordance  with  the  demands 
of  modern  war  can  not  usually  be  provided. 


Semi-permanent   Works, — At   the  breaking  out  of  thf 
civil  war  the  strategic  points  of  the  U.  8.  were  entirely  un- 
provided with  land  defenses.     It  became  necessary*  ti»  con- 
struct strong  fortifications,  with  some  durability,  for  lar*^ 
cities,  in  a  short  time.    These  circumstances  gave  ri>e  to  » 
new  kind  of  fortification,  combining  certain  of  the  arran^rr- 
ments  of  permanent  with  those  of  neld  works,  and  called  b\ 
U.  S.  engineers  semi-permanent  works.    It  is  in  this  foriii 
that  inclosed  field  works  will  generally  be  emploved  in  th* 
future ;  and  these  must  always  be  employed  for  the  land  •!«- 
fenses  of  cities  in  the  U.  S.    The  most  remarkable  example 
of  their  application  was  in  the  fortification  of  Washing- n 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war.    (See  Prof,  Paper  C.  A'„ 
No.  20.)    This  citv  was  very  much  exposed,  was  of  vital  im- 
portance to  the  Union  cause,  and  was  loosely  6«atten?d  (i\fr 
a  wide  area.    It  was  necessary  not  only  to  keef>  out  th«» 
enemy,  but  to  keep  out  his  artillery  projectiles,  which  ha<J  & 
range  of  8  or  4  miles.    The  first  defenses  constructed  wert> 
of  the  old  field-work  type,  with  thin  parapets  arid  stcv}* 
scarps,  and  unprovided  with  bomb-proofs.    They  were  !•>- 
cated  at  the  points  most  immediately  rec|uiring  them.    A« 
some  of  them  were  laid  out  by  the  eye,  the  distances  beice 
measured  by  pacing,  their  weaJtness  was  recognized.    A< 
time  and  experience  were  gained,  a  system  of  great  strenctb 
was  developed,  the  defenses  at  the  close  of  the  war  con^i>T- 
ing  of  68  inclosed  forts  and  batteries,  having  an  ag;gn'^te 
perimeter  of  22,800  yards  (13  miles),  and  emplacements  frr 
1,120  guns,  807  of  which  and  98  mortars  were   actually 
mounted;  of  88  unarmed  batteries  for  field-guns,  bavinL* 
401  emplacements ;  and  of  85,711  yards  (20  miles)  of  rifl- 
trenches,  and  3  block-houses.    The  permanent  garrison  wa^ 
about  18,000,  though  it  was  expected  that  this  would  ^ir 
greatly  re-enforced  in  case  of  a  persistent  attack.     Th*- 
length  of  the  line  occupied  was  about  87  miles.     '*  Evert 
prominent  point,  at  intervals  of  800  or  1,000  yards,  was  i«  - 
cupied  by  an  inclosed  work ;  every  important  approach  <*x 
depression  of  ground  unseen  from  the  forts  swept  by  a  l>at- 
teiy  of  field-guns,  and  the  whole  connected  by  rifle-trencher  * 
These  inclosed  works  were  the  semi-permanent  works:  thft 
were  located  upon  the  principles  of  lines  with  intervals,  lb 
intervals  being  afterward  closed,  as  an  additional  pret  au- 
tion,  by  lines  of  rifle-trenches. 

In  these  detached  works  bomb-proofs  were  provided  f  (^r  thf 
men  and  material,  embrasures  for  the  guns,  and  well  v*-!- di- 
lated magazines,  lined  in  a  substantial  manner  with  hex\\\ 
timber,  tor  the  ammunition,  space  being  allowed  for  l^n) 
rounds  per  gun.  The  depth  of  the  ditches  was  usually  6  f^^-t. 
their  width  being  regulated  by  the  amount  of  earth  require  ^i 
for  the  parapets.  Glacis  were*  thrown  up  to  bring  the  grr>in'.  i 
in  front  unaer  the  musketry-fire  from  the  parapets.  Trav- 
erses were  erected  wherever  a  line  was  exposed  to  enfilttiit  «  t 
oblique  fire.  Great  care  was  taken  to  provide  each  of  tt.« 
larger  works  with  fianking  arrangements.  When  this  <•<  .u :  i 
not  be  otherwise  secured,  counterscarp  galleries  were  ♦  ir.- 
ployed.  In  many  cases  advanced  works,  in  the  shape  of  nr%  - 
trenches  connected  with  the  main  works,  were  eonstrui't-  .. 
Wells  were  dug  to  supply  the  garrisons  with  water.  In-tt .- 
of  a  steep  scarp,  liable  to  erosion,  the  exterior  slope  of  i ; ' 
parapet  was  continued  to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch. 

But  the  most  remarkable  improvement  upon    the   • 
methods  was  in  the  structures  within  the  works.   In  addit  i  - 
to  the  substantial  and  roomjr  magazines  already  referr^ti  r  . 
the  larger  works  were  provided  with  filling-rooms,  inif>- 
ment-rooms,  service  magazines,  and  guard-rooms,  eitJuT  :  . 
the  traverses  or  in  separate  structures,  while  nearly  all  de- 
tained capacious  bomb-proofs.     The  latter  were  "gen «^Ta'l» 
arranged  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  parados,  or  t ravers-,  ♦•.- 
interior  retrenchment,  m  addition  to  their  primary  obj.    t 
and  were  provided  with  a  banquette  along  the  rear,  fn«n 
which  musketry-fire  could  be  delivei-eii  upon  an  assault  ii.. 
party  which  hail  succeeded  in  mounting  the  front  pami'-  • 
See   Gen.  J.  G.  Barnard's   Defenses  of  Washinqton,    p"  jr- 
lished  as  Professional  Paper  Corps  of  Engineers  C  S,  A  m.  v 
No.  20,  in  1871. 

Block-houses, — The  case    frequently  arises  when?    it    :> 
necessary  for  a  point  of  considerable  importance   x<*    \t 
guarded  by  a  small  detachment  of  men,  ana  where  ciri'iitn- 
stances  do  not  permit  the  construction  of  a  semi-perman^-r  . 
work.    Such  would  be  a  bridge  upon  a  line  of  communis  na- 
tions passing  through  the  enemy's  country  which  it  is  ni-^x— - 
sary  to  guard  against  cavalry  raids.    In  this  case,  instead  i.f 
the*  redoubt  often  employed,  engineers  sometimes  u<4*    »'. 
block-house.    This  is  a  building  of  which  the  sides  art*  o.  x*i 
posed  of  heavy  timbers  placed  vertical  in  juxtap^nsit  i.  -i 


496 


FORT  McHENRY 


FORT  PULASKI 


■ftdes  of  the  Haditon  river,  oppcwite  160th  Street,  New  York 
citjT.  It  wan  once  a  military  station,  and  fell  Nov.  18, 1776, 
into  the  hands  of  Gen.  ComwalliH,  who  here  captured  large 
amounts  of  military  storea. 

Port  McHenry:  an  inclose<]  bastioned  pentagon,  with 
exterior  batteries,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Patajiseo  river, 
forming  one  of  the  defenses  of  the  channel  of  approach  to 
lialtimore,  Md.  It  is  an  old  work  (second  system),  built 
prior  to  1812;  an  attack  during  the  war  of  1812-15  fur- 
nished the  theme  for  the  well-known  words  of  The  Star- 
tpangled  Banner,  by  F.  S.  Key. 

Fort  Madison:  citv  and  railway  center;  capital  of  lice 
CO.,  la,  (for  l(K*ation  of  county,  stu*  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  7-K); 
situateil  on  Mississippi  river,  23  miles  below  Burlin|?ton  and 
237  miles  S.  W.  of  Chicago;  connei-ted  with  Illinois  by  one 
of  the  finest  wagon  and  railway  briclgi^s  on  the  ri%*er.  It 
has  numerous  churches  and  sch<M>ls,  a  busine^  college,  a 

Bublic  library,  three  parks,  a  State  jH'nitentiary,  shops  of 
le  A^  T.  and  S.  F.  Railway,  foundries,  tanneries,  large 
packing-houses,  and  manufactures  of  agricultural  imple> 
mentA,  ma<'hmery,  railway-car  wheels,  boots  and  shoes,  flour, 
brick,  lumber,  sash,  doors,  blinds,  and  furniture.  The  city 
is  the  site  of  a  fort  built  in  1808,  and  captured  by  the  Indians 
in  1818.    Pop.  (1880)  4,679 ;  (18U0)  7,901. 

KDrroB  OK  **  Plaiv  Dealer.** 

Port  Marion :  an  inclosed  work  at  St  Augustine,  Fla., 
befpm  by  the  Spaniards  almut  1650  and  completed  in  1756. 
It  is  the  oldest  fort  in  possession  of  the  U.  S.  Government, 
and  is  from  its  antiquity  an  object  of  attraction  to  strangers 
visiting  St.  Auoustixe  {q,  r.).  It  is  not  of  much  value,  but 
is  carefully  preserved  as  an  object  of  historic  interest. 

Fort  Minin:  one  of  the  inner  line  of  defenses  of  the 
port  of  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  on  Mud  island,  Delaware  river, 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill.  It  is  one  of  the  older 
(or  sec<md)  system  of  works.  It  was  attacked  by  a  British 
man-of-war  Oct,  23,  1777,  and  after  a  spirited  resistance 
was  taken  on  Nov.  16.  The  fort  has  been  modified  and 
repairetl. 

Port  Hoaroe :  a  fortification  looattnl  on  Old  Point  Com- 
fort, Va.,  for  the  defense  of  Hampton  Roads  and  the  water- 
approach  to  Norfolk  and  the  Gosport  navy-vard.  It  stands 
on  the  north  side  of  the  channel.  Fort  WtK>l  (formerly  Fort 
(^alhoun)  being  on  the  south  side,  about  a  mile  distant. 
Fort  Monroe  might  properly  be  called  a  fortress  or  fortified 
place,  as  it  incloses  a  utrge  area,  and  (H)ntains  within  it  a 
number  of  detached  buildings,  such  as  officers*  quarters, 
offices,  barracks  for  soldiers,  storehouses,  a  portion  of  the 
workshops  of  an  arsenal,  the  artillery  8ch<M>l  of  the  service, 
a  cha|>el,  etc.  It  was  commence<l  in  1817,  and  was  originally 
designed  to  mount  371  guns  in  casc^mati^s  and  en  barbette, 
inclusive  of  mortars,  field-piei'es,  and  flanking  howitzers. 
In  plan  it  is  an  irrt^gular  hexagon,  on  two  sidt^s  of  which, 
comprising  the  three  channel  fronts,  the  armament  is  ar- 
ranged in  two  tiers,  one  in  casemates  and  one  in  l>arbette. 
On  the  other  four  sidt*,  each  being  one  front  the  rain[iarts 
an*  iM»lid.  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  flanks,  which 
are  casemate<l.  The  work  is  bastioned,  although  unaccom- 
(NiniiHl  by  the  usual  outworks  of  the  regular  lMl^ti4me<l  sys- 
tem. It  is  MjrroundM  bv  a  tide-water  ditch,  8  feet  dei»p*at 
high  wat«T.  exterior  to  wfiieh  there  is  a  casematetl  l»attery 
on  the  channel  fnmt  to  the  left  of  theca^'inates  of  the  main 
Work,  and  a  quail ri lateral  re<loiibt  on  the  north  side.com- 
mantiing  the  approafh  d<»wn  the  |M>ninsula.  This  retloubt, 
like  the  main  work,  is  surroundetl  by  a  wet  ditch.  The 
•i*r|>-»Hll  of  the  main  work  rises  t4»  the  height  of  17  ftH*t 
alxtve  hich  water.  The  en  tin*  fort  covers  an  area  of  80 
ai'H's,  aiitl  the  di'«tan<*e  around  it,  exterior  to  the  dit<*hes  of 
niam  Work  and  r»Nloubt,  is  1|'„  miles.  In  its  construction 
th«Tv  man  exiK-ndiMl  f-2,HlK,0<K>.  This  fort  is  (181»:{)  lK»ing 
nitNlifltil  to  fit  it  t«»  the  re<niin'iiients  of  iiKMlern  defens**,  an 
efiit  init  ariiimiifnl  of  nxHlrm  st<M'l  rifl»'<l  eaiinon  and  mor- 
tar* pn)j^-ily  protit-tiNj  lM>ing  iiroviilcfl,  siip|)]emt'nt4Ml  bv  a 
S)Htfiii  of  luhiiuinni*  mifH'S,  liinHrDuch  a«*  tht*  ex<*<'ptional 
inngintudr  of  port  M-mro**.  a*  ronnuinMl  with  «»t her  works 
of  Ji.-i^t  and  i*hftiin»'l  •lifm'M'  in  thr  I*.  S..  hH*>  In-i-n  the  sub- 
jift  of  fnt|ii.iit.  «n*l  jMrh.i(H*  not  unjust,  cTitii'i^m.  it  may 
IT*  %n\*\.  m  f\jilaimtion.  I  hut  ihi*  w<irk  was  di'sii»7HHl  under 
tlie  in*ttirutj«»n  of  inn,  ^^nn•»n  Henmnl,  a  f*»r»'iirn  engin»»«»r 
of  cniifM'ihT.  fnlltij  into  tli«»  •uT*  i<  *' of  th«' r.  S.  "Mxin  after 
th«»  i  |.i*4«  of  till'  war  of  1HI2-14.  with  hII  thr  e\au';:»*rnt»M] 
ld»'a*  of  wnrfitn*  wlih  h  thi«  rUr^*  proxnuily  «»f  ln'lli;:i*r»'nl 
natii'ii<t  lu   Ktin'iie  hiMl  pr<Hluiiii  aiid   n^inK'nil  orth^Miox. 


r   M 


I 


H 


There  is  no  other  work  at  all  like  it  in  the  t*.  S  *r. 
sential  particular,  and  the  error  in  thu  muai.'* 
solely  to  magnitude,  not  to  stn^ngth. 

Rcvi>ed  by  JaMK^  Mta  *  a. 

Fort  Horran :   an  inclo9p<l  casemated  an'l   >%^'   -i 
pentagon  of  brick,  with  exterior  Imttene*;  l<«fti«-.  I 

west  end  of  Mobile  Point,  Ala.,  at  the  entraiM^  t«  mi.  'm^ 
in  Mobile  Bay;  t>egun  in  1H19  on  the  site  of  oiij  fr  r  K  i 
yer.  An  historic  interefit  attaches  to  the  latt-r  w  -i  i 
having  borne  an  important  fiart  in  the  war  of  l**li-*' 
then  consisted  of  onlr  a  small  redoutrt.  In  f*.r^.^  • 
the  plan  adopti^d  by  the  British,  *■  to  dr*tr»ty  ar-i  ^f  ^mi 
all  towns  and  districts  of  the  U.  S^"  the  lr.<tiAfi  »**  ^\ 
renewe<l  on  the  southern  frontier,  and  oo.N*f<  \%  :■*  i^ 
combined  naval  and  land  attack  wa^  m»lr  b|-  r  •  i 
Bowyer,  then  but  a  small  redoubt  monntmc  :>*  c  *•  at 
with  a  garrison  of  120  men,  offiwrs  im*luilr«L  Tl»*  li-  \ 
force  comprised  4  armed  vessels,  590  men,  and  W»  ir.*  •  ■! 
a  land  force  exceeding  700  men,  of  whirh  600  w»rr  I:  «j 
The  British  lost  a  ship  and  232  men.  The  wort  «•>  tMi 
by  the  British  Jan.  11, 1815.  It  waa  canturrd  fr*a  ti-  \ 
federates  by  Admiral  Farragnt  Aug.  32,  18(4. 

Fort  Moaltrle,  mdltre^:  a  fortificatmo  on  ^ 
island,  entrance  to  Charleston  hartM>r,  S.  V.  A  ru«i'  « 
palmetto  logs  and  earth,  mounting  SiS  gnns  wa»  u:.« 
fully  attacked  in  1776  by  the  Britudi  flert  of  n.*- 
(270  guns),  under  Sir  Peter  Parker,  and  t  hrn.  *  ?  - 1  rn 
the  name  of  the  commander.  Col.  William  M.-ultrv  1-  i 
subsequently  rebuilt  in  masonnr  with  an  imprrf" '  i  *i 
tioned  trac^,  and  described  in  olftcial  reiMirt«  a»  a  ~  «  '%\ 
some  strength,  but  with  scarp-wall  wi  low  aa  u*  •  --^ 
serious  obstacle  to  escalade.*'  And  such  it  waA.  r*-  - 
at  the  time  when  (Dec.  26.  I860),  abandoned  by  M*; 
ders<m,  it  fell  into  Confe<lenite  hands,  and  ti*g^Oi*rw 
batteries  on  Morris  island  fired  the  first  gun*  of** 
war  upon  the  Star  of  the  West,  Jan.  9,  INSl.  i^^r* 
ScMTER.)  In  Confederate  hands  the  work  wai*  r*^' 
by  earthen  Imtteries  extending  the  whole  ItLC^fa  <-f 
van's  island.  Since  the  civil  war  it  baa  hrrn  v*n 
modified  to  adapt  it  to  receive  mo«lem  h*-ttTi  f-. 
tected  by  earthem  travers**  and  narado^.  T*^  "^ 
warrior  Osceola  is  buried  just  outride  the  walU  *4.  :i. 

Fort  Niarara:  an  inclosed  work  in  N 
at  the  mouth  of  Niagara  river,  the  entraiM^ 
commands.    The  old  work  of  this  name  Ump 
part  in  the  war  with  (ireat  Britain  in  lHld>l5, 
scene  of  stirring  eventa,  being  Burfin<«'<l  an«i    raf '  • 
1813,  when  most  of  its  garrison  wer^  siain. 

Fort  OaUirlo :  See  Oswkoo. 

Fort  Pajno:  city;  capital  of  De  Kalh  rrv,  Ala. 
tion  of  county,  see  map  of  Alabama,  rvf.  2-K> ;  ^r.  rv 
50  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Chattanooga,  Trnn. ;  tn  a  o^  a.- 
mining  region.     It  has  rolling-mill*,  an  ir\*ck-furcA* 
clay  works,  and  sawmilU.     Pop.  (1H0O)  2.6UN. 

Fort  Pickens:   an   inclosed  casemat<«l    ar^l   fm0 
pentagonal  brick  work,  on   Santa  R^vw  t^laniO.  I*'  « 
narbor,  Fla.,  which  harbor  and  the  l".  S.  naTT-yar.  a. 
rington  it  is  intended  to  defend.     In  Jan^  1*^1,  M*     s 
Slemmer  abandoned  the  small  work,  F^rt  IWrrMk  v 
site,  and  transferred  his  commaml  to  Ft^rt    P*-kf-» 
he  suci-eeded  in  holdmg  until  re-enf«nTsnl. 

Fort  PUIb  :  vilUge  (»«ttle<l  aUmt  1715  ;  trx^***  -%^ 

1833);  Montgimiery  co.,  N.  Y.(for  locatt>ib 
map  of  New  Vork,  ref.  4-1) ;  siluat/^  on  tb^  M<  ^a**  r 
on  the  Krie  Canal,  and  on  the  N.  V.  C.  a&d  II  E.  a- .  ^ 
Shore  Railways  ;  58  miles  W.of  Albany  It  ha*  ^j  '■  -H 
the  Clinton  Lil»era]  Institute  (rniven*ii*t  *, 
est  soring  and  axle  works  in  the  C  ^v.  a  « 
ture-iactory,  knitting-mill,  silk-milL  ««iiMl.t 
lishment,  etc.,  and  is  the  center  of  an  imj- 
and  dnirving  section,  A  strong  f«»rt  «i 
177H,  and  a  blt»ek-house  in  17*<K  Pof  U****!. 
2.H64 ;  ineluiiing  Nelli.««ton,  acmw  th<  M.  hawk, 
estimat<Ml.  4,000.  Foht**  t>r  *  fe^t-  ••i 

Fort  Pvlmn'ki :  a  fortification  oonan::-  t^^^l 
island.  Oa.,  for  the  defense  of  Ttl>ee  Rti^U  mr 
nah  river  approach  to  the  city  vi  Savanr»»h 


i 


r.        \ 


1 


n  i 


«  . 


^,  •* 


'   \a 


rar 


PI 
and  fini^ihiHl  at  the  begmnmg  of  the 

at  a  coHt  of  nearly  a  million  dollars.     l~|«« 

(tiH)rgia  fr«>m  the'  Union  her  military  t«H  k  |»i 

fort,  but  on  Nov.  2y.  l«6l.  Cirn,  V*"***  ▼    A.  »!   .:    - 

engineer  to  the  expeditionary  ctirpa  t^i 


498 


FORT  SCHUYLER 


Fort  Sotaniler:  the  name  ^ven  in  1770  to  the  old  Fort 
Stanwii  whieB  stood  on  the  site  of  the  presenleity  of  Rome, 
N.  V.  It  waa  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  SI.  Leger's  Tories 
and  Indiana  in  1777.  and  was  destroyed  by  Bre  and  freshet 
in  1781.  Fort  Stanwii  was  built  in  1768,and  cost  the  Brit- 
ish Government  £60,000. 

Fort  Scott :  city  and  railway  center ;  capital  of  Bourbon 
CO.,  Kan.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref. 
7-K) :  situated  on  the  Marmaton  river ;  300  miles  W.  of  St. 
Louis  and  9S  miles  S.  of  Kansas  City,  Mo.  It  is  the  seat  of 
a  normal  college,  and  has  an  iron-foundry  and  macbine- 
wo^l(^  grain  elevator,  large  flour-mills,  woolen-inills,  paint 


and  cement  works,  window-glass  works,  anda  large  sor^hi 
sugar  factory.     Coal  and  fla^  paving-stone  are  found  ■" 


vicinity,  ani^  large  quantities  are  shipped  from  the  city. 
Hydraulic  cement  and  mineral  paints,  umbers,  _  yellow 
ocners,  Spanish  brown,  Indian  red,  etc.  are  found  in  large 
quanlities.     Pop.  (1B80)  3,372 :  (1890)  U,84«. 

Editor  op  "  Tbibunb." 

Fort  Smith :  city  and  railway  center ;  one  of  the  capi- 
tals of  Sebastian  co..  Ark.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  Arkansas,  re(.  S-A) ;  situated  at  the  confluence  of  Arkan- 
sas and  Potcau  rivers ;  158  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Little  Hock. 
It  has  sawmills,  planing- mills,  furniture-factories,  cotton 
compress  and  oil-seed  muls,  ice-factory,  etc.,  and  an  impor- 
tant trade  in  coal,  cotton,  grain,  lumber,  hides,  and  furs. 
Pop.  (1880)  3,090 ;  (1890)  11,311,  besides  a  suburban  popula- 
tion of  about  2,000.  Eortoa  of  "  Times." 

Fort  SnellinK:  village;  Hennepin  co.,  Minn,  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Minnesota,  ret.  9-E) ;  on  the  Ch.. 
M.  and  St.  P.  Railway,  at  the  junction  of  the  Minnesota 
and  MissisBippi  rivers,  opposite  Mendota,  and  S  miles  below 
the  Minnehaha  falls.  It  was  founded  in  1830,  is  an  old 
U.  S.  military  post,  and  the  olde.it  settlement  in  what  is  now 
Minnesota.    Pop.  (1880)  352 ;  (1890)  550. 

Port  Snmt«r:  Charleston,  S.  C;  noted  (or  being  the 
place  where  the  U.  S.  civil  war  was  begun,  Apr.  13,  1881, 
and  as  the  scene  of  several  severe  luilitary  and  naval  con- 
flicts during  that  war.  The  work,  begun  in  1829.  is  located 
upon  a  shoal  on  the  south  side  of  ttie  entrance  to  the  inner 
harbor,  distant  about  a  statute  mile  S.  W.  from  Fort  Moid- 
trie,  and  3i  miles  from  Charleston  city.  The  land  nearest 
the  work  is  Cummings  Point,  on  the  north  end  of  Morris 
island,  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  distant,  in  a  southerly 
direction.  The  fort  was  built  of  brick  on  a  rip-rap  founda- 
tion, the  exterior  wall  l)eing  38  feet  high  and  7^  feet  thick, 
and  was  designed  to  mount  130  guns  arranged  in  three  tiers. 
two  in  embrasure  and  one  en  barbette.  It  never  received 
its  entire  armament,  as  none  of  the  embrasures  of  the  sec- 
ond tier  were  finished  when  the  civil  war  broke  ouL  The 
openings  left  for  them 

were  therefore  walled  _,._    ^. 

up  with  brick,  in  order 
to  render  the  work  as 
strong  as  possible  to 
resi^it  the  threatened 
attack  of  the  Confed- 
erates. L'p  to  that 
time  a  little  more  than 
$1,000,000  had  been 
expended  upon  it,  and 
its  armament  com- 
prised 6  ^pounders, 
41  32-mninders.  10  8- 
inch  Holnian  guns.  10  .. 
42-poundi'rs.  3  lO-inch  .! 
ciilum Iliads,  and  8  8-  ^ 
inch    seai-oHSt  howitz- 

Houth  Carolina  for- 
mally seceded  Dec.  20.  View  of  Fort 
1860.  in  the  midst  of 

the  wildest  rejoicing  and  exultation  throughout  the  South. 
The  entire  force  of  V.  S,  troops  in  Chark'ston  harbor  at 
the  time  consisted  of  two  companies  of  the  Firs!  IJ.  S.  Ar- 
tillery and  nine  musicians,  a  total  of  seventy-five  enlisted 
men,  uniler  the  command  of  Maj.  Robert  Anderson.  This 
handful  o(  men,  which  hud  hitherto  rK^cupieil  Fort  Moul- 
trie in  consequence  of  the  unfinished  eoniiition  of  Fort 
Sumter,  was  uuietly  transferred  to  the  last-naineil  work 
during  the  night  of  Dec.  28 — an  event  at  once  followed  by 


FORT  SUMTER 

bouse  in  Charleston  city.  The  construction  of  batteries  rin 
Morris  island  was  begun,  the  coast  and  harbor  lichts  w.r.- 
extinguished,  and  the  buoys  removed  from  the  channt'I  r.. 

ent  the  sending  of  re-enforcements  and  supplies  In  V'-r 

ter.  On  Jan.  0,  1861,  the  steamer  Star  of  the  W.- 
arnved  in  the  harbor  with  provisions  and  250  Federal  ».  - 
diers.  In  attempting  to  reach  Fort  Sumter  she  wan  fin^L 
into  and  struck  from'  batteries  on  Sullivan's  and  M'.i- 
ris  islands,  and  abandoned  the  enterprise.  As  Maj.  An- 
derson's provisions  would  be  exhaust^  on  Apr.  15.  oflinu, 
notice  was  conveyed  to  Gov.  Pickens,  of  South  Carolina,  "r, 
the  8th  that  supplies  would  be  conveyeil  to  the  fort  at  t'.: 
hazards.  Its  surrender  was  demanded  by  Confederate  irriL- 
eral  Beauregard  at  2  P.  M.  on  the  Uth.  and  refujit^  ?■' 
another  corotnunication  of  the  same  date.  Maj.  Andrr^ii 
replied  that  the  work  would  be  evacuated  on  the  15th  unl<-« 
"controling  instructions"  or  "additional  supplies"  i--^ 
received  by  that  time.  This  response  not  bt-ing  dti-r::'.-, 
satistactoiT,  Maj.  Anderson  was  notified  at  3J20  a.  n,  t'l 
the  12th  tuat  fire  would  be  opened  on  the  fort  in  one  h.'U'. 
and  the  cannonadine  began  at  the  appointed  time.  A', 
noon  on  the  same  day  a  fleet  of  vesaefa  from  New  Yi  rl. 
with  provisions  for  the  garrison,  appeared  oti  the  harl-^i 
and  exchanged  signals  with  the  fort,  but  made  no  fttteiii|it  l< 
land  any  supplies,  without  which  the  contest  must  iie<  i  -.-jir- 
ily  be  of  brief  duration.  On  theaftemoonof  the  13th  Wni^ 
were  arranged,  under  which  the  rarrison  niarcheU  <>ut  "i 
the  14th  with  the  honors  o(  war.  saluting  the  U.  S.  flag  r;xu 
fifty  guns. 

"fhe  brick  buildings  erect«d  inside  the  fort  for  i[U«rt-r- 
and  barracks  were  oumed  down  during  the  action  bv  h'' 
shot  from  the  Confederate  batteries,  but  the  wurii  itself  hn^ 
received  no  material  injury.  Contemporaneous  ojiliiir.. 
outside  a  somewhat  restricted  military  circle,  very  penerslli 
conceded  the  difficulty,  if  not  the  impracticabtlitT  ot  thr"*- 
ing  re-enforcements  and  supplies  inte  the  fort  durini:  :i- 
attack,  but  in  the  light  of  suDsequent  events  such  an  I'li:*'- 
prise  loses  most  of  the  elements  of  extreme  hazanL  Tl,'- 
lower  embrasurcH.  fortj-one  in  number,  and  each  nearly  S 
feet  wide  and  3  feet  high,  were  only  4  feet,  in  iDany  i<liii  ■-- 
not  over  S  feet,  above  the  enrockment  at  the  foot  il  t),<- 
outer  wall,  and  not  more  than  10  feet  distant  from  Ihi-  ■•- 
ter.  which  encircled  the  fort  on  every  side.  If  thirty  or  f^  r^y 
small  boats  carrying  rations  and  soldiers,  and  manntil  \-\ 
such  men  as  a  call  for  volunteets  would  bring  out  in  aTi< 
fleet  of  U.  S.  merchantmen,  had  attempl«d  to  make  a  Uii:- 
ing  simultaneously  on  all  sides  of  the  work  darine  the  rti;1i; 
of  the  12th.  a  large  proportion  of  them  would  doubtti-^  hn^' 
succeeded.  The  opposition,  it  any.  would  have  ci>nn-  (r  c 
boat-parties  similarly  organized,  which,  at  the  woi^t,  *<>'il' 
only  place  the  combatants  on  a  fooling  of  theoretic  njiiiti 


thi 


iimter  from  Morris  isiaud.  Aug.  IB.  1SS8. 

ity.   in  which  the   best  men  and  the  best  weapon<i  w.->i 

The  Confederates,  upon  getting  [losscsBioii  of  K.>ri  Si. 
ter.  at  once  proceeded  to  augment  its  olTcnsivi.  and  d.-f. 
sive  strensth.  Rille-guns  were  addml  lo  thi'  nnimmi'i 
many  of  the  caiiemates  were  filled  up  with  sanil  ;  sbihI  i-- 
erses  were  cimstnicted  between  the  liarlielte  Kur>v,  iin.l 
magazine  walls  were  strengthened.  They  held  uriiljvi  nrl 
possession  for  a  perioil  of  two  years. 

On  Apr.  T,  1863,  a  gallant  attack  was  made  upon  ihc  { 
by  a  U.  S.  naval  force  of  nine  ironcladH,  carrTini;   twee 


500 


FORTUNY  Y  CARB6 


Fortnny  y  Carb6,  for-too'nee-ee-kaar-bo',  Mariano: 
genre-painter;  b.  at  R@us,  Catalonia,  Spain,  June  11,  1838. 
Pupil  of  Palan,  Olaudio  Lorenzalez,  and  of  the  Barcelona 
Academy ;  Prix  de  Rome,  Barcelona  Academy,  1856 ;  went 
to  Morocco  in  1859  to  paint  pictures  of  Gen.  Prim's  cam- 
paign ;  went  to  Paris  in  1866,  but  spent  almost  the  whole  of 
nis  life  in  Rome.  His  pictures  are  notable  for  brilliant 
qualities  of  color  and  extreme  cleverness  of  manipulation. 
They  sold  for  high  prices  during  his  lifetime,  and  are  much 
sought  for  by  collectors  in  Europe  and  the  U.  S.,  where 
many  of  his  principal  works  are  owned.  Camels  at  Rest  is 
in  the  Wolfe  collection,  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York ; 
Arab  Fantasia  and  Court  Jester  in  the  collection  of  Mrs. 
W.  II.  Vanderhilt,  New  York.    D.  in  Rome,  Nov.  21,  1874 

William  A.  Coffin. 

Fort  Valley :  town  and  railway  junction ;  Houston  co., 
GttL  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Georgia,  ref.  5-H) ; 
29  miles  S.  W.  of  Macon.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  fruit,  cot- 
ton, and  other  agricultural  products.  The  surrounding  re- 
gion is  of  the  very  first  ranlc  in  the  production  of  peaches 
and  pears.    Pop.  (1880)  1,277 ;  (1890)  1,752. 

Editor  of  "  Leader." 

Fort  Wadsworth :  a  casemated  stone  fort  with  outlving 
batteries ;  situated  at  the  entrance  to  New  York  upper  har- 
bor.   See  New  York  (city). 

Fort  Wagner :  See  Morris  Island. 

Fort  Washington :  a  former  suburban  village  of  New 
York,  now  in  the  city  limits;  on  Hudson  river;  in  the 
north  part  of  Manhattan  island.  The  fort,  of  which  some 
remains  still  exist,  stood  between  what  are  now  181st  and 
186th  Streets,  on  the  highest  land  upon  the  island,  and  dur- 
ing the  Revolution  it  was  an  important  point.  It  was 
taken,  with  2,600  prisoners,  by  the  British  Nov.  16,  1776, 
after  a  gallant  defense.  It  was  attacked  at  once  by  Gen. 
Knyphausen  with  six  Gennan  regiments  moving  up  from 
the  nats  along  the  rough  hills  nearest  the  Hudson ;  by  Lord 
Percy  with  a  division  of  English  and  German  troops  on  the 
southern  side ;  and  by  Gen.  Matthews  with  the  guard  and 
Col.  Sterling  with  a  body  of  Highlanders,  crossing  the  Har- 
lem river  at  two  different  points.  See  E.  P.  Dwancey,  On 
Fort  Washington  (1878). 

Fort  Wayne :  city  and  important  railway  center ;  capital 
of  Allen  CO.,  Ind.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Indi- 
ana, ref.  8-G) ;  on  the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  St.  Mary's  and  St.  Joseph  rivers,  which  here  form 
the  Maumee ;  94  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Toledo,  0.  The  city  is 
regularly  laid  out  in  well-paved  streets,  and  covers  an  area 
of  nearly  10  sq.  miles.  It  is  the  seat  of  Concordia  College 
(Lutheran)  and  Fort  Wayne  College  (Methodist  Episcopal), 
and  has  35  churches,  20  public  and  parochial  schools,  2  well- 
appointed  libraries,  2  hospitals,  an  orphans'  home,  and  3 
puolic  parks.  The  handsome  Government  building  cost 
f  200,000.  Three  national  and  two  private  banks  represent 
a  capital  of  $2,500,000. 

Manufactures^  etc. — There  are  extensive  railway-shops, 
foundries,  machine-shops,  flouring-mills,  and  manufactures 
of  baking-powder,  wagons,  lumber,  etc.  The  wheel-works 
employ  130  persons ;  a  manufactory  of  walnut  lumber  em- 
ploys 200.  The  city  has  over  12  miles  of  street  railways,  an 
excellent  system  of  sewerage,  and  electric  lights. 

The  town  originated  in  a  fort  built  by  Gen.  Anthony 
Wayne  in  1794.  The  first  city  charter  was  granted  in  1839. 
The  place  is  surrounded  by  a  fine  agricultural  community, 
and  is  one  of  the  leading  cities  of  Northern  Indiana.  Pop. 
(1840)  1,200;  (1880)  26,880;  (1890)  35,393. 

Fort  William:  an  important  railway  and  shipping 
point  on  Thunder  Bay,  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  in 
Western  Ontario  (see  map  of  Canada,  ref.  9-J).  It  has  the 
elevators  and  terminal  shops  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way, and  is  a  favorite  summer  resort.     Pop.  2,800. 

M.  W.  H. 

Fort  William  Henry :  a  fortress  in  Warren  co.,  N.  Y., 
near  the  head  of  Lake  George;  erected  in  1755  by  the 
British  forces  under  Sir  William  Johnson.  It  became  an 
important  strategic  point  in  the  last  French  war  in  the 
colonies,  and  was  captured  by  the  French  and  Indians  in 
1757.  The  fort  was  garrisoned  by  about  3,000  English 
troops  under  Col.  Munro,  and  at  only  15  miles'  distance 
stood  Gen.  Webb  with  4,000  men.  In  July  Montcalm  left 
Ticonderoga  at  the  head  of  nearly  9,000  men,  of  whom 
about  2,000  were  Indians,  and  moved  against  the  fort. 
Munro  applied  for  aid  from  Webb,  but  as  none  was  fur- 


FORUM 

nished  he  was  finally  compelled  to  surrender.    The  fort  wa> 
then  destroyed. 

Fort  Worth :  city  and  important  railway  center ;  eajatal 
of  Tarrant  co.,  Tex.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Te\A\ 
ref.  2-H);  situated  on  Trinity  river,  32  miles  W^.  of  DalU.> 
and  210  miles  N.  of  Austin.  It  has  17  churches.  y*>n 
Worth  University,  Polytechnic  Institute,  Watson  PVinal. 
Institute,  high  school,  12  public  schools,  8  private  schooK 
and  a  fine  board  of  trade  building.  Among  its  chief  id- 
dustrial  establishments  are  5  grain  elevatora  4  flouring-- 
mills, a  cracker-factory,  2  foundries,  2  tanneries,  a  cottoo- 
mill,  excelsior-factory,  car-works,  shops  of  the  Fort  Wortli 
and  Denver,  the  Texas  and  Pacific,  and  the  Rio  Grande 
Railways,  large  stock-yards,  and  one  of  the  largest  packini^- 
houses  m  the  Western  U.  S. 

The  U.  S.  census  for  1890  shows  311  industrial  ^tahiL^b- 
ments,  with  a  capital  of  $3,184,872,  giving  employment  to 
2,649  persons,  at  an  annual  wage  of  $1,^2,116.  The  cost 
of  materials  used  was  $3,379,519,  and  the  value  of  prod- 
ucts $6,691,621.  The  city  has  200  artesian  wells  for  driok- 
ing  water,  besides  water- works  for  sewerage  and  fire  puipuM^ 
It  has  60  miles  of  macadamized  streets,  C3  miles  of  sewers,  5i) 
miles  of  electric  railways,  and  a  complete  system  of  elec'tii^ 
lights.  Pop.  (1880)  6,663 ;  (1890)  23,076 ;  (1892)  estimated. 
28,000.  Editor  op  "  Gazette-" 

Fo'rnm  [of  uncertain  etymology,  perhaps  connected  with 
foris  (fores),  Gr.  ;^pa] :  seems  originallv  to  have  been  aj)- 
plied  to  any  open  space  in  front  of  buildings  or  sum>undHi 
DV  them,  and  so,  for  example,  to  the  area  in  front  of  a  sepul- 
cher,  as  appears  from  a  fragment  of  the  laws  of  the  TveU*- 
Tables.    The  term  was  usually  applied  to  an  open  platx*  r 
Rome,  like  the  Greek  iyapd,  for  tne  assembly  of  the  citizen^ 
for  business,  for  legal  transactions,  for  the  administration  «>' 
justice,  and  for  the  sale  and  purchase  of  goods.    With  ihr 
growth  of  the  city  the  necessities  of  the  people  required  m'^n 
than  a  single  forum,  and  convenience  separated  them  in* 
those  devoted  to  public  affairs  and  those  which  were  m-n 
strictly  markets  or  bazaars.    The  most  celebrated  and  t[< 
most  important  of  the  fora  of  the  former  class  wa.'^  tb 
Forum  Romanum,  sometimes  called  Magnum,  and  f  n:>ni  it  - 
pre-eminence  simply  Forum.    This  was  the  earliest,  and  f  r 
a  time  the  only  one,  and  was  situated  in  the  valley  bet^t  . 
the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  hills,  and  with  it  is  assot-bt'- 
very  much  of  the  interest  of  the  public  and  prii-ate  lift'  "f 
early  Rome.    It  was  the  very  heart  of  the  city,  the  center  • ' 
all  its  life  and  activity,  and  in  it  were  gathered  daily  th<>^ 
whom  business  summoned,  the  orators  and  public  men  • 
the  day  with  their  bands  of  clients,  as  well  as  the  idlers  « .f 
sought  only  to  be  amused,  with  trains  of  quacks  and  iuc*uri:" 
bauKs,  so  pleasantly  described  by  Horace.    (For  a  descrijt  i. « 
of  the  building  in  and  around  the  Forum,  see  Rome.)     Ic  - 
mediate! V  adjoining  this  a  new  forum  was  erected  at  >n<  ^: 
expense  by  Julius  Ciesar,  which  was  called  from  him  F^tk  • 
Julium.    It  contained  a  temple  of  Venus  Genitrix  (in  a 
lusion  to  his  descent  from  the  goddess),  which  was  vowfHi  \  . 
Ceesar  after  the  victory  at  Pharsalus,  and  was  dedicatt^l  - 
46  B.  c.    This  still  failing  to  accommodate  the  increasing  pr- 
sure  of  the  business  of  the  courts,  Augustus  construct e<i  ^' 
another,  which  received  from  him  the  name  Foniin  AuiTJ-'^ 
It  contained  within  it  a  temple  of  Mars  Ultor.  whiih  .\y- 
gustus  had  vowed  to  erect  on   avenging  the  death  <>f  K. 
adoptive  father.    This  forum  was  more  contract etl   ihv 
Augustus  had  designed  on  account  of  the  refusal  of  >4 1< 
owners  of  houses  to  part  with  their  property.    Still  •ti- 
fora  were  erected  by  tne  later  emperors,  partly  to  faoia:.. 
business,  but  chiefly  to  adorn  the  city.     Among  the?*?  nu- 
be  named  the  Forum  Nervae  or  Forum  Transit orium    - 
called  because  it  was  an  important  thoroughfan*  fr«»rn  t:> 
Carinae  and  the  Subura  to  the  Forum  Romanum),  be^n  ^  ; 
Domitian  and  completed  by  Nerva ;  and,  the  most  inatn   r 
cent  of  all,  the  Forum   Trajan  i,  immediately  adjoin  in  :r  d. 
Forum  Julium  and  Forum  Augusti,  and  having  ecrnDtrt' 
with  it  the  Basilica  Ulpia  and  the  famous  Culumna  TruJH' . 
still  standing.     The  second  class  of  fora  was  derote«i  • 
market  transactions,  and   they  derived  their  naiue9«    fn> 
the  articles  sold  in  them — e.g.  forum  oHtorium^  the  vt  .•' 
table-market ;  forum  piscarium,  the  fish-market ;   /*>«-.  ■ 
hoarium  (cattle),  forum  suarium  (swine),  etc.      The'  w   - . 
forum  was  applied  (in  the  latter  sense  of  a  markets  an^i  a.^ 
of  a  place  at  which  the  pnetor  held  his  circuit,  ad  in  in  i^'  - 
ing  justice)  to  villages  or  stations  in  the  provinc**s  of  It  a  ' 
(like  the  use  of  the  term  "  court-house  "  in  Virginia),  tr 
which  grew  up  in  time  even  flourishing  towns;   such  Mr«r 


602 


FOSSIL  INVERTEBRATES 


name,  as  tbey  generally  consist  of  trees  which  have  been 
carried  far  from  their  place  of  growth,  buried  in  earth,  there 
sillcifled,  and  subsequently  exposed  by  the  washing  away  of 
the  material  which  once  surrounded  them.  Among  cele- 
brated fossil  forests  there  are  those  of  Egypt  near  Cairo,  of 
Nubia,  of  Silesia,  and  of  the  island  of  Antigua  in  the  West 
Indies.  Other  accumulations  of  silicifled  wood,  occur  in  the 
interior  of  Chili,  in  New  Zealand,  and  in  Abyssinia,  while  in 
the  U.  S.  there  are  as  great  and  remarkable  collections  of 
silicifled  tree-trunks  as  any  found  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  On  the  banks  of  the  Little  Colorado,  in  Arizona,  are 
silicifled  treo-trunks  of  all  sizes  up  to  6  feet  in  diameter,  per- 
fectly and  beautifully  preserved,  but  none  in  positions  or 
places  occupied  in  life.  Sometimes  they  are  simply  replaced 
fey  white  silica,  which  shows  the  woody  structure  as  dis- 
tinctly as  it  could  have  been  seen  in  the  living  tree ;  in  other 
cases  the  trunks  are  masses  of  solid  jasper,  looking  like  hu^ 
sticks  of  red  s&aling-wax ;  in  other  cases  still,  the  wood  is 
opalized  or  agatized,  or  filled  with  chalcedony  or  crystallized 
quartz,  stain^  with  the  most  brilliant  colors.  In  this  re- 
gion the  history  of  the  vast  accumulation  of  silicifled  tree- 
trunks  is  easily  read,  and  probablv  it  will  serve  to  explain 
many  similar  cases.  The  banks  ol  the  Little  Colorado  are 
formed  of  Triassic  marls,  here  more  than  1,000  feet  in  thick- 
ness. As  the  marls  are  very  soft,  they  have  been  extensively 
eroded,  leaving  the  silicifled  wood  either  on  the  surface — 
where  trees  40  to  60  feet  in  length  may  often  be  seen,  with 
all  their  parts  in  contact— or  accumulated  at  the  bottom  of 
the  slopes  bordering  the  valleys  from  which  the  marls  have 
been  removed.  Hot  water  has  much  greater  power  than  cold 
to  dissolve  silica;  and  it  is  probable  that  thermal  waters 
have  had  much  to  do  with  the  siliflcation  of  the  tree-trunks 
in  the  localities  where  they  are  found  in  ^reat  numbers.  In 
the  U.  S.  volcanic  phenomena  have  been  displayed  on  a  grand 
scale  throughout  all  the  region  where  fossil  wood  is  found, 
and  it  is  also  a  district  in  which  thermal  springs  carrying 
large  quantities  of  silica  are  numerous,  and  are  still  dis- 
playing their  petrifying  powers.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  in  the  later  geological  ages  hot  springs  were  even  more 
abundant,  and  probably  they  were  more  potent  than  they 
now  are.  What  is  known  of  the  geology  of  the  island  of 
Antigua  is  confirmatory  of  the  view  that  thermal  waters 
have  played  an  important  part  in  the  siliflcation  of  the  fossil 
wood  found  there.  In  the  Bad  Lands  of  the  Little  Missouri 
thousands  of  silicifled  tree-trunks  are  scatteretl  over  the 
surface,  where  they  have  been  exposed  by  the  washing  awav 
of  the  sandstones  and  shales  of  the  Laramie  group,  in  which 
they  were  formerly  buried. 

A  remarkable  group  of  silicifled  trees,  some  of  which  are 
12  feet  in  diameter,  was  discovered  in  Napa  co.,  Cal.,  and  is 
described  by  Prof.  Marsh  in  the  Am,  Jour,  Sci.  (1871,  p. 
266) ;  and  a  veritable  fossil  forest,  in  which  the  trees  are 
standing  erect,  surrounded  by  volcanic  dibria,  in  large  num- 
bers ana  at  several  levels,  is  described  by  W.  H.  Ilolmes  in 
his  report  on  the  geology  of  Yellowstone  Park  (Hay den's 
Report  for  1878,  p.  48). 

In  the  drift  deposits  of  Southern  Ohio  is  found  an  old  soil 
in  many  places  thickly  strewed  with  interlaced  prostrate 
trunks  of  trees  which  grew  u[)on  it ;  and  in  a  few  cases  these 
are  found  buried  erect.  This  old  forest  was  plainly  sub- 
merged by  the  sinking  of  a  land-surface  or  the  elevation  of 
the  water-level  over  it,  resulting  in  its  burial  beneath  many 
feet  of  gravel  and  sand.  The  trees  here  are  not  mineralizea, 
and  have  the  ai)|)ea ranee  of  partially  decayed  wood ;  but  if 
the  subsidence  had  been  occasioned  by  volcanic  action,  and 
hot  water  had  been  poured  out  freely,  undoubtedly  the 
trunks  would  have  been  silicifled,  as  they  are  at  the  Cascades 
of  the  Columbia  river,  where  a  volcanic  outburst  at  a  much 
later  date  buried  (|uantities  of  trees  and  changed  them  to 
of  silica.    See  Fossil  Plants.       J.  S.  ^E^^'BERRY. 


masses 


Fossil  Invertebrates :  the  remains  of  invertebrate  ani- 
mals found  in  stratifled  rocks,  including  the  species  of  Pro- 
tozoa^ OcBlenferata^  Echinodermata^  \ermeH^  JfoUuscoideay 
Mollusca,  Arthropoda,  and  Tunicata.  The  fossil  inverte- 
brates already  described  and  named  reach  a  total  of  about  40,- 
000  species.  There  are  also  probably  5,000  species  of  fossil 
plants,  and  of  fossil  vertebrates  nearly  5,000  species.  Upon 
fossil  invertebrates  therefore  the  science  of  paleontology  is 
largely  founded.  The  fossil  invertebrates  are  also  of  great 
importance  from  a  geological  standpoint,  because  the  ma- 
jority of  all  the  stratified  rocks,  upon  wliich  historical  and 
formational  geology  are  founded,  were  formed  under  the 
surface  of  the  ocean,  and  the  fossil  remains  preserved  in 


POSTER 

them  are  mainly  the  remains  of  the  invertebrates  that  \\svA 
along  the  shores  in  the  ocean. 

Some  invertebrate  remains,  on  accoant  of  their  g^ai 
abundance,  constitute  the  basis  of  rock  formatious--e.  ^. 
limestones  from  corals  and  from  crinoids,  called  theref<-r^ 
coral  and  crinoidal,  or  encrinital  limestones.  Protozw.  &> 
in  the  case  of  the  Fumilina  of  the  Carboniferous,  and  rb' 
Nummulites  of  the  Tertiary,  form  the  main  part  of  tlnk 
deposits;  in  the  latter  case  reaching  a  thickne^  of  s^^em! 
thousand  feet ;  and  the  white  chalk,  so  conspicuous  on  t!.< 
two  coasts  of  the  English  Channel,  is  composed  of  conr 
minuted  shells  of  other  animals,  but  chiefly  of  the  minu' 
shells  of  Foraminifera.  The  abundance  of  fossils  of  (•:.• 
kind  and  another  has  suggested  the  names  of  Lingula  tljij, 
Graptolite  shales,  Pentamerus  limestone.  Product  us.  ('•  '-u 
Encrinital,  Crinoidal,  Cephalopod  or  Brachiopod  liinest*":. 
and  many  others  for  the  rocks  containing  them. 

Invertebrate  fossils  are  chiefly  composed  of  the  liard  juit* 
secreted  when  living  by  the  animals  which  they  reprt'^ri. 
In  the  case  of  Gastropods,  Cephalopods,  Pteroprxis.  h' 
Lamellibranchs,  they  were  the  outer  calcareous  shells  wL;  * 
protected  the  soft  animal  which  secreted  them.     In  the  c%<* 
of  corals  the  secretion  is  also  calcareous,  but  was  made  ui.<:> :. 
and  at  the  base  supporting  the  polyp,  and  lifting  it  fr-r 
the  bottom  to  whicn  the  coral  was  attached ;  the  rttjf-fnnu- 
in?  corals  continued  to  grow  upward  till  large  masses  of  tr.< 
calcareous  secretions  were  formed.    Crinoids,  (Histoids,  B'..t- 
toids,  and  Echinoids  are  represented  b^  calcareous  coat  in  j^ 
made  up  of  polygonal  plat«s  inclosing  m  a  cup  or  ehe^t  I  h 
body  the  more  active  soft  organs  of  the  animal.    The  bn«x 
ing  up,  in  part,  and  burying  of  the  unbroken  calcanT.* 
fossils  of  tnese  kinds  furnished  the  material  of  the  ii!:- 
stones  which  in  the  aggregate  reach  a  thickness  of  in.vit 
thousand  feet.    The  fossils  of  Brachiopods  are  both  i'a1<  i- 
reous  and  chitinous,  and  were  very  perfectly  preM-n-j 
often  revealing  the  microscopic  structure  and  the  doliu' 
internal  supports  for  the  brachia,  after  being  fossilizt-<l  !  ' 
millions  of  years.     The  hard  parts  of  Crustacea  and  Tr: 
bites  are  the  outside  chitinous  coverings  of  the  anini.^ 
which,   on   account  of   their  jointed  nature   and  fni..: 
after  the  animal  is  dead,  are  often  broken  and  fragii.ti' 
tary. 

On  account  of  the  presence  of  these  fossils  in  the  stratif-; 
rocks  of  the  whole  series  from  the  base  of  the  CamlrMi 
upward,  the  paleontological  history  of  organisms  is  r^^. 
more    fully  respecting  the  invertebrates  than   resist  t:L. 
plants  or  vertebrates,  the  remains  of  which  were  pn^^rv* 
only  rarely  and  under  exceptional  circumstances.    T\w  ^^> 
eral  discussion  of  fossil  invertebrates,  in  their  relation-  ♦• 
the  laws  of  organic  history  and  as  indicative  of  the  chHrs* 
teristic  life  of  the  various  geological  ages,  will  theref<'r'  ^-'■ 
found  under  Paleontology.    K^mark  is  also  made  of  s  ■ 
of  the  more  interesting  groups  of  fossil  invertcbrate>  uwi-' 
their  generic,  family,  or  ordinal  names. 

Henry  S.  William-*. 

Fossil  Plants:  plants  or  vegetable  impressions  preM-rvv^ 
in  the  earth  by  natural  a^ncies,  such  as  inhumation.  p:r- 
f action,  carbonization,  or  mcnistation.    See  Plants.  F«)>>.: 

Fossil  Yertebrates :  See  Veetebrates,  Fossil. 

Foster,  Birket:  landscape  and  genre  painter:  b.  ii 
North  Shields,  England,  Feb.  4, 1825.  PupU  of  E.  Land-  >. 
an  engraver;  member  British  Water-color  Society.  Ilf 
paints  principally  in  wat^r-colors,  and  many  of  his  pictur  - 
nave  been  engraved.  His  work  is  very  popular  in  Cir-- 
Britain.  He  has  drawn  a  great  deal  for  illustration  • ' 
books  and  periodicals.    Studio  in  London.  W.  A.  <  - 

Foster,  Charles  :  merchant  and  banker ;  b.  near  Tiflir  '  > 
Apr.  12,  1828;  received  his  etlucation  in  the  public  siIk'  - 
in  the  academy  of  Norwalk,  Ohio,  and  under  private  tMi"-- 
in  what  is  now  Fostoria,  to  which  his  father  nad  reiiu^vr 
was  engaged  continuously  for  fifty-six  years  in  mercai.t: 
and  banking  business ;  on  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  «  •* 
appointed  colonel  of  the  101st  Ohio  Regiment,  but  »«^  -' 
able  to  accept;  was  elected  to  the  42d,  43d,  44th.  and  l":* 
Congresses;  was  a  member  of  the  committee  and  chairn  j. 
of  the  sub-committee  appointed  in  1875  to  inquire  into  |>« .  'i 
cal  affairs  in  Louisiana;  was  elected  Governor  of  hi?  Si;»'' 
in  1879,  and  re-elected  in  1881 :  was  appointed  by  Pre>Uh :. 
Harrison,  in  May,  1888,  chairman  of  a  commission  to  nee  " 
tiate  a  treaty  with  Sioux  Indians;  received  the  voU*^  of  U' 
Republican  members  of  the  Ohio  Legislature  in  1H9<>  f • ' 
U.  S.  Senator ;  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Treasun  ^  7 
President  Harrison,  Feb.  7,  1891.  "    C.  H.  Thirber. 


504 


FOSTER 


ChurcJt  and  Cl^gy  (1843),  and  many  articles  on  the  slavery 
question.     D.  near  Worcester,  Mass.,  Sept  8,  1881. 

Foster,  Mm.  Thkodosia  Toll,  better  known  as  Fayf 
HaaliB^toB :  a  writer  of  books  for  children  and  older  peo- 
ple; b.  in  Oneida  Caittlc.  N.  Y.,  1838;  fn^uatod  at  the 
Oneida  Seminary  (1860);  engaced  in  teaching;  principal  of 
the  Home  School  for  Uirhi,  Verona,  N.  Y.  She  has  pub- 
lished the  following  volumes:  In  EameM  (1867);  Aittie 
Famham's  T^tterM(\mS);  Through  Patience  {\m9):  Allan 
Phillips  (18?2);  Thotie  Boys  (1874);  Mr.  MeKemies  An- 
mttr  (1875);  Louisa's  JfM/aJt4?  (1875);  Fred  Robert's  Start 
in  Life  (1875);  Mrs,  I)eane*s  Way  (1875);  Jiipley  Parson- 
a^(l877);  Echoing  and  He-echoing  (1878);  Susie's  Opin- 
ions (\im)i  Millerton  People  {\>m);  Competitive  Workmen 
(1HH4);  Transformed  (1^W5);  SL  PauFs  Problem  (1889); 
What  Fide  Hemembers  (18H7);  A  Modem  Exodus  (1891); 
A  Baker*s  Dozen  (1892).  Wilus  J.  Beecher. 

Foftto'lia:  city  and  railway  center;  Seneca  co.,  O.  (for 
location  of  count  v,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  2-E);  situated  35 
miles  S.  by  E.  of  'Toledo.  It  has  one  of  the  largest  flouring- 
mills  in  o)iio,  glass- works,  and  numerous  other  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  and  is  supplied  with  natural  gas.  Pop. 
(18K))  3,569 ;  (1890)  7.070.  Editor  of  **  Review." 

FoQcanlt,  foo  k6 ,  Jean  Bkrxard  L^)N  :  natural  philos- 
opher; b.  in  Paris,  France.  Sept.  18,  1819.  In  1844  be  in- 
vented an  apparatus  by  which  electric  light  is  used  in  opti- 
cal experiments  microscopic  researches,  etc.;  in  1845  he  oe- 
oame  scientific  eclitor  of  tne  Journal  des  D^bats,  He  dem- 
onstrate<l  the  earth's  rotary  motion  on  its  axis  by  the 
pendulum  and  gyros(M)[)e  in  1851,  was  physicist  to  the  Im- 
perial Observat*»ry  (IKil),  and  a  memlier  of  the  French  In- 
stitute. In  1855  obtained  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  for  measuring  the  velocity  of  light.  D.  in  Paris, 
Feb.  U,  1868. 

Poncaalt  Cnrreiits  (or  eddy  currents):  in  electricity, 
are  currents  named  fr«>m  FoucArLT  (a.  r.),  the  French  phys- 
icist. Thev  are  electric  currents  in  the  iron  or  other  metal- 
lic parts  o(  a  dynamo,  motor,  or  other  machine,  inducinl  by 
the  movement  of  the  parts  in  question  through  a  magnetic 
field,  or  by  fluctuations  in  the  field  (as  in  the  transformer, 
etc.).  Within  the  masses  of  metal,  closed  circuits  of  low 
resistance  are  afforded,  so  that  the  currents  generated  are 
tretiiiently  of  considerable   magnitude.     The  energy  thus 

Srodu(*ed  l)eing  converted  into  tnermal  form  is  apt  to  result 
I  injurious  heating,  to  say  nothing  of  the  serious  losses  of 
work  involved.  Loss  of  energy  through  Fouc^ault  currents 
is  prevented  by  lamination  of  the  parts  subje<aed  to  induc- 
tion ;  layers  of  metal  lying  at  right  angles  to  the  path  of 
the  induced  currents  being  usetl,  with  insulating  strips  be- 
tween them.  See  DvNAMo-ELEfTRic  Machine,  hLEcnucmr, 
lMOimo!T,  Maonetism,  Teanskormer,  etc. 

E.  L.  Nichols. 

Fonehf,  foo  shA',  Joseph,  Duke  of  Otranto :  politician ;  b. 
May  29,  1763,  in  Nantes,  France;  member  of  the  convention 
1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XM.;  infamous  for 
his  share  with  Collot  d*Herbois  in  the  butcheries  at  Lyons; 
Minister  of  Police  1799 ;  dismissed  by  Na(>oleon,  but  recalled 
IMM;  created  Duke  of  Otranto  18()6;  again  dismissed  by 
NafioltNin  1^10;  made  by  him  governor  oi  Illyria  1813,  and 
Minister  of  Police  for  the  third  time  on  his  return  from 
Kllta;  heail  of  the  provisional  government  after  second  ab- 
dication of  Na()oIeoD;  again  made  Minister  of  Police  by 
I>»uis  XVUI.;  ambama^ior  to  Dresden  1815;  exiled  and  de- 

>nvwi  of  office  by  thf  diM-reeof  Jan.,  1816,  against  regicides. 

).  at  TrieHte,  Dei-.  25.  1820.  Ois  Memoirs  (1828-29.  4  vols.) 
an>  Hpurious. 

Fooif^rvii,  ftio  zhir  :  town  of  France ;  department  of  Ille- 
et-Vilain»*,  at  lh«*  junction  of  the  Nan<,'on  and  theCouesnon ; 
23  mil«"s*  bv  mil  N.  »>f  Vitn-  (mh*  map  of  France,  ref.  4-(*).  It 
is  faniou't  for  it«  dyeing.  c^iMMially  c»f  scarlet,  wh<»^  delicate 
tint^aivdur  toivrtain  qualities  of  the  waters  of  the  Nanyon. 
It  ha«  «]-«»  tnn!»pn#*^  gmnite  quarries  and  manufactures  of 
saili  Ii'th  and  ^h^M  maker*'  •supplies.     Pop.  (1H91)  17;{Hl. 

FobMr.  fo«  ia:  a  •Militarv  island  in  the  Atlantic.  l)elfmging 
to  thr  Shetland  gr-^up;  lat.  6<)  9  N..  Ion.  2  6  W.  It  is  li 
granitr  hl<«k  n^iii;:  I. .169  fi-d  al>ove  the  "M-a,  and  inhabite<l 
t»y  'i'd)  (Mi>« )[!<«.  nho  iikrvj  on  »«>n»e  finlnug,  fanning,  and 
bunting  of  wild  fi>«U.  It  in  •tupiNM-d  Ut  \*e  the  ancient 
/  Utrntt    ThuU. 

Foalar^,  Fr.  pnm.  V***  laar  (  Fr.  fouJnni ;  orijrin  ol>**rurr] : 
a  hirht  fabric  of  »*i!k.  ■witut  titne^  ^'oniaitung  o»ttnn.  and  umhI 
|tn[K*i(jally  for  latlitV  dreamrs.    It  iichietl)  i)f  Kr^'ncb  umnu- 


1' 


FOUNDATION 

facture,  but  a  similar  claaa  of  goods  is  largely  iii«ir  ^i  j^.*^ 
India,  etti. 

Fonld,  f(K),  Achille:  statesman ;  b.  in  Panv  Frv-*  ••« 
81,  1800;  of  Hebrew  parents;  was  in  the  ChamUr  .f  >, 
tii«  in  1842  and  1846,  in  the  (Vm^tituent  AwmiW 
and  in  July,  1849,  was  a  member  of  the  lf;.'i^ljiM*  t* 
Prin(*e-President  Louis  Na|M>leon  raa<ie  him  ><ir.>%*  ' 
nance  Oct  81,  1849.  but  he  retimi  in  tM^  IWI,  t    ■ . 

SMisition,  however,  for  a  second  j>erio<l  fn»m  I>«.  t  :*' 
'an.  25,  1852;  then  made  senator,  MintMer  of  Natr  r 
the  House  of  the  Emperor  in  1852 ;  commander  of  \U  I  , 
of  Honor  Dec.  8,  1852;  then  a  third  time  Fman<«>  M  • 
from  Nov.  12, 1861,  to  Jan.  1,  1867.     D.  dmt  Tart»^.  •••. 
1867. 

Foal  In  the  Foot :  a  conta^ous  diva^e  of  tb**  f    *  in 
terized  by  ulcers  and  granulations  between  thr  Uw*. 
and  stimulant  applications,  such  as  od  «>f  tur^w;* 
lowed  by  tarry  applications,  are  generally  run:.. 
cause  and  nature  of  this  diseaw  are  not  well  utKi^r^*  ->i 

FonHs,  fowlz,   KoBBBT  and   Ajtdbew  :    pnntJT* :  K 
Glasgow,  Scotland — Robert,  Apr.  80.  1707;  Aruir»« 
28,  lil2;  Robert  was  a  barber  by  prt>fevMoo  ainl  Ar,  -■• 
tended  to  enter  the  ministry,  but  in  1740  tlw  f.^T  "  « 


:i 


\ ;  Robert  was  a  barber  Ly  prt>fe* 

to  enter  the  ministry,  but  in  17h 
lished  a  printing-press ;  three  rear*  later  Ijrtantr  ( 
the  University  of  Gla^gow,  anu  in  1743  the  bn-<Ur 
into  partnership.  Andrew  died  Sept.  IH,  1775,  a->i  U  "^ 
in  17^6.  They  ma<le  fortunes  by  pnnttnj;.  an«i  i<<  *  j  j 
founding  an  academy  of  painting  and  «-ui|iCurv  m  \*jt^% 
the  collection  of  paintings  lieing  sold  byauiti-r.  71 
Their  editions  of  Greek  and  Latin  cUaftii-s.  e^w^  ^  .  '^^ 
of  Homer  and  Horace,  were  noted  for  acvun«;  •;•.  tk 
gance. 

Foal  weather,  Cape:  See  Cafe  Foixwuithul 

FoaadatloB  [from  O.  Fr.  fondai%on  :  Ital  fimda  -  -«*« 
Lat,  funda'tio^  deriv.  of  funda  re,  found.  drn%  of  *»m 
bottom! :  in  law,  in  its  most  enlargttl  Irgal  «iArT.:ti«m*  "i 
establisnment  of  a  corporation  of  anv  kind,  auti 
sense  the  sovereign  or  state  in  said  to  (>e  the  it^nw 
cor[K>rations,  since  their  original  creation  t«  di.* 
charter  or  legislative  grant,  ex pnp»  *>r  impUrtl.  Ir.  •••j 
rower,  yet  more  usualand  important,  mrmntuc.  f-^~*  -J 
refers  to  the  establishment  oi  ele«*miMk>nar7  •<  •  t^r  *a 
corporations  or  institutions  by  |trivate  «*nd«»wnf* r  t .  a*  'j 
sometimes,  though  less  c«>mmonly,  by  a  natural  xrwti*''* 
application,  used  to  indicate  the  end4>wnirnt  itiv.f  A  ^ 
variety  of  charitable  institutions  have  ownl  tk^ir  c^^-  -  m 
maintenance  entirely  Uy  private  munificpm-r.  T>i^*r*  » t-^ 
at  common  law  in  the  creator  of  such  in«titutM  r.*  xt^  ^^ 
to  exercise  a  power  of  sufiervision  over  the  nai.ac«7  -^ 
the  corporate  revenues  and  the  metbtaU  of  r(>rf«c%**  m^j 
and  |fovemment.  This  is  called  •  a  |K>wrr  *i  »>  **■  i 
Charitable  purposes  may  also  be  actN^mpli^hnl  «."  -.*  « 
corporate  authority,  through  the  metlium  of  trm<mm  i 
pointed  by  the  founder  either  by  ileed  €»r  wil".  TV-w  n 
are  under  the  supervision  of  the  courts  of  f  hax«r*'^  1 
same  remark  is  applicable  to  the  fun«k  of  rhanuftp*  n 
porations,  which  may  be  called  to  accoont  fur 
trust    See  CoapoaATioii  and  Taisrrs. 

Revised  by  T.  W.  Dw 

Foaii4atioa:  the  substmctuiv  of  a  buiVlin^.  tt»  4-4 
courses  upon  which  the  whole  «iu()en4rQrtor»  r*^*  >• 
ject  is  to  furnish  an  unyielding  base  whtth  •Iha..  t**« 
the  building  from  unequal  •rttlmg  ami  r'^rtm%^'^"  -^ 
and  dislocations  or  ultimate  c<»llai»e.  Thr  *  ^t- »  '  •  ta 
tions  is  one  of  the  most  irop«>nant  lir»n«-**r«  m  t 

architectural  engineering,  and  pment*  ma^«  i*-*  •-% 
great  interest  and  frequently  of  ^rri  dilf.f  ult^  T—  ji 
ciplos  are  simple,  and  may  be  briefly  •iati<«{ :  «^  j  «i*- 1 
tion  has  to  be  made  under  such  rannl  cood*  >•»■*- 
quire  in  ^nerml  a  new  solution  for  each  (wt4  j»«k  1*^4 
(MMsible  m  a  short  sorvey  of  the  subjart  U>  «acr  t  k«#«  ^^m 
principl<*s  with  some  of  their  mocv  c*itmmtm  tvi  .-m^  «.  •! 
tions,  explaining  the  metlMnU  and  pr« 
illustrating  them  by  actual  exampk*  fnioi  b»i«t.s^ 
eral  different  kinds. 

The  construction  of  a  foandalioa  nisprw*  tbr  p 
tlon  of  the  bed — that  is,  of  the  bottom  vi  ifc*  vm-aawi 
the  laying  of  the  footings^  as  tha  foundati*  «m  fw*^^*  .  *  i 
courses  of  the  structure  are  oallrd ;  and  tfar  1%,  -'^i^  m 
the  ftfundation  walls  from  the  f<«o(inic»  «(•  t>^  r  nw*  < 
the  li*vel  of  the  grtmnd,  where  the  afvfiarmt  ar  r»^  -  «^ 
turr  begius  (sometiroet  called  **Drai«««k*  k^ 


■  "^ 


FOUNDATION 


on  either  aide  of  the  trench,  penetrating  2  or  3  feet  below  its 

hottam  (Fig.  3),  and  laid  up  in  cement    (juite  bb  efttcient 

and  less  expensive  is  the  employment  of  sKtet  piling.     This 

consists  of  planks  <lrivcn  verticitllj  close  together,  edge  to 

edg^  into  the  ground  to  the 

desired  depth,  and  spiked  at 

!  the  top  to  string-pieces  of 

'  timber.    To  resist  the  up- 

I   heaval  of  sandf  soils  outside 

''   of  retain  ing-walls,  as  in  the 

esse  of  fortifications,  a  tira- 

t  ber  platform  or  "grillage" 

. . _...      may  be  extended  some  dis- 

Fia.  4.— Ia<(:rt«d  arcb  IQ  crench.  t^nce  beyond  the  wall  and 
loaded  with  masonry  (Fig. 
8),  or  an  inverted  arch  may  be  constructed  abutting  eiter- 
nallj  beneath  another  wall  or  other  load,  as  shown  in 
Fig.t 

FoMndaiiona  on  Quicksand. — The  most  treacherous  of 
all  beds,  however,  is  ouicksand,  or  sand  permeated  by  iqot- 
ing  wHl«r.  Though  E>elonging  properly  in  the  category  of 
compressible  soils  it  will  be  treated  nere  for  the  sake  of  eon- 
venience.  The  whole  site  of  the  building  should  be  sur- 
rounded by  sheet  piling,  and  the  structure  erected  on  a 
platform  of  concrete  eiteniling  under  its  whole  area.  Some- 
times a  grillage  of  heavy  timbers — i.  e.  a  platform  of  logs  or 
squared  timbers  laid  in  successive  courses  crossing  at  right 
angles  and  bolted  together — is  first  laid  over  the  area  ex- 
cavateil,  and  the  voids  filled  up  with  concrete.  In  either 
case  the  water  must  be  carefully  excluded  while  the  con- 
crete is  setting,  lest  it  wash  out  and  disintegtate  the  con- 
cret«  before  it  has  had  a  chance  to  harden.  To  this  end 
the  water  is  drained  into  a  trench  or  well,  and  pumped  out 
continually  until  the  concrete  is  firm  and  solid.  The  foot- 
ings and  foundation- walls  must  in  such  cases  be  laid  up  in 
strong  hydraulic  cement,  and  be  protected  externally  against 
the  percolation  of  the  water  by  a  liberal  coating  of  asphalt 
or  tar.  Unless  this  precaution  bo  taken  inSltration  ia  sure 
to  take  place.  Subterraneous  springs  in  the  foundation -bed 
have  b^n  known  to  break  through  concrete  3  feet  thick, 
and  if  confined  or  plugged  at  one  point,  to  burst  through  at 
some  other  point.  In  building  the  foundations  of  the  great 
dry  dock  in  the  Brooklyn  navy-vard  this  difficulty  was  met 
with,  and  the  engineer,  J.  W.  McAlpine,  finally  overcame  it 
only  by  driving  two  tiers  of  piles,  one  over  the  other,  in  a 
space  of  1,000  sq.  feet  around  the  spring,  and  laying  upon 
these  a  heavy  floor  of  brick  and  cement,  with  vent  holes  to 
allow  the  escape  of  the  troublesome  spring  (1B41-51).  The 
foundation  of  a  water- works  pumping-atation  at  Clear 
Stream,  near  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  designed  by  the  wnter  con 
sisted  of  an  "area"  or  platform  of  concrete  i  feet  thick 
under  the  whole  building,  with  another  independent  plal^ 
form  for  the  chimney.  The  whole  region  o^erlleia  a  subtir 
ronean  stream  of  fresh  water  flowing  through  the  sand  18 
inches  below  the  surface,  and  the  excavation  was  faiily 
honeycombed  with  springs.  These  were  drained  into  a 
trencn,  and  pumped  into  a  neighboring  brook  ,  but  the  flow 
of  water  through  the  sand  underlying  the  platform  carried 
with  it  so  much  sand  that  before  the  masonry  of  the  walls 
was  fairly  begun  the  whole  platform  had  settled  from  3 
inches  at  the  end  farthest  from  the  pump  to  5  inches  at  the 
end  nearest  to  it.  "Flowing"  sand  must  be  treated  pre- 
cisely as  though  it  were  water,  and  indeed  in  many  casefi 
thesimplefit  and  safest  solution  of  the  problem  ibpresents  is 
to  excavate  through  it  to  solid  bottom  or  to  use  piles  reach- 
ing to  a  firm  soil  beneath  it. 

Foandaliona  on  Compremibh  SoiU. — The  means  em- 
ployed to  prepare  foundations  on  compressible  soib  divide 
.1 1. —     ,„..    j^^^Q    general    classes— jre'fe   foundati-- 


3  of  a  multitude  of  rigid 


themselve  .. 

which  provide  support  by  n 

piers  or  posts  penetrating  through  the  soft  stratum,  and 
ofo/form  foundatiom  which  distribute  the  sujierincurnlwnt 
load  over  an  area  sufBcient  to  reduce  the  pressure  per  s([uare 
foot  within  the  safe  limit  tor  the  soil  in  question.  This 
safe  limit  or  bearing-power  can  only  be  accurately  deter- 
mined by  actual  tests,  and  these  should  always  be  resorted  to 
in  the  case  of  all  important  and  heavy  structures.  The  tables 
given  by  Kankine  and  other  authorities  can  only  be  treated 
as. rough  approximations,  not  to  be  relied  on  in  special 
cases,  owing  to  the  wide  range  of  strength  in  soils  ap[iar- 
ently  of  the  same  class. 

Pile  fousditions  are  of  two  princi[ml  kinds. "  sand  piles ' 
and  rigid  piles  made  of  wood  or  iron.  To  these  may  be 
added  a  species  of  pile  sometimes  used  under  special 


ditions and  termed  "concrete  piling."    These  will  be  \aii--- 
up  in  the  above  order. 

Semd  Piles.^-ln  soft  or  boggy  soils  where  the  moistun  ; 
not  suIBcient  to  cause  the  saud  to  work  into  the  surroui^'i 


sand  well  rammed.  The  sand  distributes  the  vertical  pr— 
sure  of  the  load  equally  in  every  direction,  Uternlly  as  v. 
as  vertically,  instead  of  downward  only,  as  is  the  cbm' "im 
wooden  piles.     It  is  not  therefore  necessary  to  penetrat'-  i< 


spaced  farther  apart  than  wooden  pCes,  and  care  Ik  (uL- 
to  prevent  upheaval  of  the  soil  between  them.  Thi?  ma 
be  done  by  laying  a  solid  platform  of  wood  or  concrete  o>c 
the  whole  bottom  of  the  trench. 

Timber  Pilino. — The  principle  involved  in  wooden  p: 
ing  is  entirely  different  from  the  above.     The  fuiii-ti<>ii 
a  wooden  pile  is  either  (a)  to  transfer  the  downwanl  [.r>- 
sure  of  its  toad  directly  to  a  stratum  capable  of  beuriii^  .i 
by  penetrating  through  the  softer  overlying  straliu  '>r  '' 
to  support  its  load  by  the  friction  of  its   lateral  iiurfBi' 
against  the  soil.     It  is  commonly  considered  that  a  frii-t:.  t 
pde  will  safely  bear  one-fifth  the  safe  load  of  apiledriren  t-.., 
solid  bearing.    Yet  the  experience  of  certain    raOway  f  r.- 
gineers  in  the  U.  S.  tends  to  show  that  this  is  much  ti»i  1  * 
an   estimate  of  the  relative  supporiing  power  of   triin  i. 
piles,  as  will  be  shown  later.     Piles  are  ui^ualtv  round,  fri>ni 
8  to  18  inches  in  diameter,  and  SO  to  35  or' 40  fwi  l.i.j 
or  even  longer.     They  should  be  of  slnight  timlvr.  f:"- 
from  knots  and  fiaws,  and  should  be  driven  with  the  I  ii,'> 
on  when  used  in  tide-water  or  wet  soils.     Pine  is  the  nn- 
terial  most  commonly  used  in  the  U.  S.,  white  pine  in  x..- 
North,  and  the  long-leaved  yellow  pine  in  the  South.    Oak  •• 
also  used  in  some  localities,  though  it  can  not  be  obtainrd  ii 
such   lengths  of  straight   timber  as  can   pine.      (Vj-rr?- 
apruce.  chestnut,  and  other  woods  are  also  somctinie^  riL 
ployed.     The  piles  are  driven  with  ihe  small   end  dii»i, 
ward;   this  end  should  be  laperei)  forS  or  3  feet  to  a  ti.  •- 
met«rof  Sor  6  inches  and  cut  on  square,  as  it  is  then  le?»  lik'> 
to  be  deflected  by  bowlders  or  other  obstaclesL     ftTieri  it  t- 
required  to  penetrate  very  stiff  clay  or  marl,  the  small  enil 
may  be  shod  with  an  iron  "shoe     (Fig.  5)  to 
prevent  splitting  or  "brooming."    The  upper 
end  or  "  butt "  should  also  be  cut  off  square  and 
bound  with  a  heavy  wrought-iron  ring.     For 
heavy  work  all  these  preparations  should  be 
executed  with  particularcare.     Piles  are  driven 
in  rows  by  the  use  of  a  "  pile-driver."  having 
veriical  guides  in   which  slides  a  hammer  or 
weight  of  iron,  weighing  from  1,000  to  3,000  or 
4,0()0  lb.,  hois1e<l  by  a  cable  and  winding-en- 
gine, and   released  at   any  convenient  hei^t  ^ 
either  automatically  or  by  hand,  the  whole  pile-   2™ So*  pu-- 
driver  and  engine  t>eing  moved  alon^  on  rollers 
or  floated  over  the  water  to  the  position  of  each  sun-f-i-n^- 
pile.    The  spacing  of  the  rows  of  piles  and  of  the  pil<^  v 
each  row  is  regulated  by  the  width  and  weight  of  ih*-  -i.' 
perstructure.    Thus  if  each  pile  is  to  be  alloWM  a  weifchi  '  '. 
15  tons,  two  rows  3  feet  apart,  with  piles  spaced  Zi  fm-t   i: 
each  row,  would  be  required  to  support  a  wait  3  feet  th:   > 
at  the  base,  and  weighing,  with  its  shate  of  the  fiiH>r>  ai.': 
mof  fully  loaded,  13  tons  to  the  running  foot.     When  tl.- 
piles  have  been  driven  to  the  requisite  depth,  they  are  i-i.' 
off  to  a  level,  and  the  footing-stones  Uid  dii^etly  npon  lh,':i, 
(as  is  done  lor  light  and  ordinary  work),  or  upon  hcaM 
stringers  bolted  to  the  head  or  butt  of  each  pile.     Sometiu'i'- 
a  solid  platform  of  heavy  timbers  or  planking  is  built  iij-  :. 
the  piles,  on  which  the  masonry  is  set;  in  some  casei.'  a!-i'  s 
filling  of  concrete  between  the  heads  of  the  piles  takt-r-  1 1., 
plac-e  of  the  platform. 

Fig.  8  illustrates  the  construction  of  the  sea-wall  ailopt.-.i 
and  in  part  carried  out  along  the  North  river  front  of  Now 
York  city,  showing  the  use  of  piles  where  the  rock  hoiti.ir 
is  too  deep  to  allow  of  excavating  to  i(.  The  pHv^  arv 
driven  to  a  solid  bearing  and  cut  off  15  feet  below  1i>t  kk- 
ter,  and  upon  them  is  laid  a  timber  platform  which  cam.-- 
the  inasoniy  of  granite  facing  and  concrete  backing. 

Various  formulas  have  been  devised  for  determining  thr 
loads  to  be  safely  borne  by  piles  under  different  conditi-.i:^ 
For  piles  driven  to  a  solid  bearing,  Rankine  allows  l.ia>. 
lb,  per  square  inch  of  head-surface.  This  would  give  s<<iii..- 
what  over  106,000  lb.  for  a  la-incb  pUe,  and  348.000  (or  an 


508 


FOUNDATION 


compounding  of  the  concrete,  and  in  its  being  thoroughly 
rammed  in  layers  not  over  18  inches  to  2  feet  thick.  The 
wide  spacing  of  the  piers  subjects  each  one  to  a  heavy  load, 
with  no  help  from  its  neip;hbors  in  case  of  failure  or  settling 
from  any  cause.  Such  piers  should  rest  on  a  solid  stratum, 
as  the  proportion  of  f  rictional  area  to  load  is  so  small  (in 
comparison  with  wooden  piles)  as  to  offer  little  resistance  to 
sinkage.  A  conspicuous  example  of  this  sort  of  founda- 
tion is  the  great  votive  Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Mont- 
martre,  Paris,  which  stands  on  a  treacherous  soil  of  clay 
and  sand  of  varying  depth,  over  the  substratum  of  gypsum 
which  underlies  the  whole  city.  See  Architectural  icecord, 
vol.  iii.,  No.  1. 

Platform  Foundations. — The  function  of  the  platform, 
whether  of  timber,  concrete,  or  other  mat-erial,  is  to  dis- 
tribute the  pressure  over  a  wider  area  than  that  of  the 
foundation  walls  themselves,  and  at  the  same  time  as  far  as 
possible  to  prevent  any  one  portion  of  the  building  from 
settling  more  than  another  part.  Platforms  are  of  four 
principal  kinds :  those  of  concrete,  of  masonry,  of  timber, 
and  of  iron  and  concrete ;  these  will  be  considered  in  this 
order. 

Concrete  Platforms, — Concrete,  already  so  frequently  al- 
luded to,  is  an  artificial  material  consisting  of  oroken  or 
crushed  stone  or  coarse  gravel,  consolidated  by  a  mortar  of 
hydraulic  cement  mixed  with  sand  and  water  in  definite 
proportions,  varying  with  the  requirements  of  each  case. 
A  common  rule  is  to  use  one  barrel  of  Portland  cement  to 
three  of  damp,  loose  sand  and  five  of  broken  stone;  or 
where  s^reater  strength  is  required  these  proportions  may 
be  mB&  one,  two,  and  four  respectively.  Great  care  is  re- 
(}uired  in  supervising  the  measuring,  mixing,  and  deposit- 
ing of  the  concrete,  but  a  full  discussion  of  the  subject  is 
out  of  place  here.  (For  details,  consult  Gen.  O.  A.  Gill- 
more's  Ltmes,  Hydraulic  Cements,  a/nd  Mortars  (New  York, 
1872) ;  Patton*s  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations,  pp. 
^23;  also  articles  Congeete  and  Masonrt.)  To  estab- 
lish a  concrete  platform  the  excavation  is  made  over  the 
required  area  and  to  the  necessary  depth,  always  below  the 
frost-line,  and  the  bottom  brought  to  a  level.  The  concrete, 
mixed  close  to  the  place  of  its  using,  is  dumped  from  the 
barrows  where  required,  spread  evenly  in  layers  of  from 
9  to  12  or  18  inches  thickness,  and  thoroughly  rammed. 
Each  layer  is  allowed  to  set,  and  its  surface  is  then  picked 
to  afford  a  "  key  "  for  the  next  stratum  of  concrete  to  hold 
by,  and  thoroughly  sprinkled  before  the  next  layer  is  applied. 
Concrete  platforms  or  **  areas  "  are  used  under  structures 
of  limited  area  but  considerable  height  and  weight,  such  as 
towers,  chimneys,  and  bridge-piers,  and  under  large  build- 
ings having  many  piers,  the  spread  of  whose  footings  leaves 
comparatively  narrow  spaces  oetween  them.  Such  a  plat- 
form consolidates  the  wnole  structure  into  a  unit,  and  settle- 
ment of  one  portion  of  it  apart  from  the  rest  becomes  im- 
possible except  by  the  breaking  or  crushing  of  the  concrete 
itself.  Concrete  platforms  are  also  useful  where  buildings 
are  to  be  erected  on  quick  or  springy  sands,  and  on  wet 
soils  where  it  is  necessary  to  exclude  water  from  the  base- 
ment or  cellar  of  the  building,  as  already  illustrated  in  the 
caae  of  the  puraping-station  near  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  ahready  al- 
luded to. 

Masonry  Platforms, — The  only  way  in  which  masonry  of 
brick  or  stone  can  be  employed  for  platform  foundations  is 
by  the  use  of  inverted  arches.  When  in  a  building  sub- 
jected to  heavy  loads  isolated  piers  are  substituted  for  con- 
tinuous walls,  as  is  practically  the  case  in  the  modem 
American  system  of  "  post-ana-girder  "  construction,  even 
when  the  exterior  walls  are  apparently  continuous,  two 
methods  of  providing  a  foundation  are  available.  One  is 
the  method  of  "  isolated  foundations,"  to  be  described  later ; 
the  other  is  that  of  the  continuous  platform,  of  which  the 
concrete  platform  just  described  is  but  a  special  case.  In 
such  buildings  the  turning  of  a  series  of  inverted  arches 
between  the  several  piers  secures  a  continuous  pressure  upon 

the  continuous  footing  under 
e€ich  line  of  piers.  By  turn- 
ing inverted  barrel-vaults  be- 
tween each  line  of  inverted 
arches,  the  various  loads  are 
distributed  over  the  whole 
area  of  the  building,  as  by  a 
FiQ.  10. -Inverted  arches.         concrete  platform  or  grillage 

(Fig.  10).  All  the  arches  and 
vaults  should  be  calculated  precisely  as  if  they  were  ordina- 
ry upright  arches  with  a  distributed  load  equal  to  that  on 


the  piers  they  connect,  since  the  total  reaction  upwani 
against  the  arch  is  equal  to  the  total  load,  and  U  ^hj/. 
distributed  over  all  its  surface.  Such  arches  should  V  •.; 
segmental  curvature,  and  laid  in  cement  mortar  with  t^i 
greater  care  than  if  they  were  visible  parts  of  the  sujir-r- 
structure. 

Inverted  arches  are,  however,  oftener  used  to  (iujtriltiir 
the  weight  of  rows  of  piers  over  the  longitudinal  f(H)tnjr> 
than  to  form  actual  platforms  over  a  whole  area. 

Timber  Platforms, — Another  method  of  establishing^ « 
wide  bearing-area  on  which  to  construct  the  ma.sonn-  t^f  ih^ 
superstructure  is  by  the  use  of  what  is  commonly  eall^^l  & 
grillage,  composed  of  timber,  either  squared  or  in  the  ii-;. 
When  laid  in  a  constantly  wet  soil,  or  completely  burioi .. 
sand,  the  timber  is  practically  indestnictiole.    A  ship  -f 
the  Viking  period  (tenth  or  eleventh  century),  excavateil  ir 
Norway  in  l875,  was  found  to  beperfectly  sound  after  in 
burial  of  over  eight  centuries.    Wnen  employed  under  w- 
lated  walls  the  pieces  of  timber,  in  the  form  of  S-in" 
planks  or  of  4  bv  6  inch  stuff,  are  laid  across  the  tnnch  i. 
close  order,  and  longitudinal  strin^picces  spiked  to  ti:  r 
Where  considerable  spread  is  reqmred  under  heavy  >trut 
tures,  as  in  the  case  of  a  chimney  or  bridge-pier,  or  (»f  * 
grillage  under  a  whole  building,  the  timber  is  laid  in  f'  v- 
eral  successive  layers,  the  pieces  of  each  layer  crossing  ^^- 
one  below  at  right  angles,  and  the  whole  securely  Uj\\< 
through  together.    When  laid  with  interstices  between  'h 
pieces  of  each  layer,  it  becomes  necessary  to  lay  over  ih* 
topmost  timbers  a  heavy  planking  on  wnich  the  iocAw.:^ 
are  begun ;  the  hollow  spaces  being  also  filled  up,  a<«  tn 
construction  of  the  grillage  progresses,  with  sand,  or,  -■  i 
better,  with  concrete.    The  wnole  platform  should  be  i-  rr- 
pletely  buried  after  the  completion  of  the  foundation  na.'- 
The  successive  layers  above  the  two  or  three  lowest  »rv 
often  diminished  in  size  up  to  the  footings  of  piers  or  «a'!\ 

Timber  grilla^e^  have  been  frequently  usea  for  foun  :* 
tions  both  of  bridge-piers  and  of  tall  buildings.    The  N'^ » 
Orleans  custom-house  (built  1848-1860)  stands  u()on  a  tim- 
ber grillage  laid  on  a  plank  flooring  7  feet  below  the  9\n-^\- 
leveL    The  soil  is  exceedingly  soft  and  treacherous-^  siia: . 
clay  saturated  with  water — and  firm  bottom  can  not  U 
reached  except  at  an  excessive  depth,  so  that  even  pilin;'  * 
not  to  be  trusted.    The  grillage  consists  of  logs  12  inclir?  .r 
diameter  laid  in  close  contact,  and  crossed  by  a  second  ih^  • : 
of  similar  loss  3  feet  apart.    The  interstices  are  filled  "*'.- 
concrete,  and  the  whole  grillage  covered   with  a  Vi-w^' 
layer  of  the  same  material.    The  building  settled  gradu.i  .> 
during  its  construction,  some  2  feet  in  all,  the  settlen.t:; 
diminishing  from   year  to  year,  but  the  settlement  »ii> 
unequal  in  different  parts  of  the  bnildinflr.    The  Audita  inu:: 
Building  of  Chicago,  a  ten-stoir  builoin^  coverini;  v\-' 
60,000  square  feet,  with  a  tower  240  feet  high,  rests  m\^.'X  s 
grillage  24  inches  thick,  over  which  is  a  concrete  platfo-" 
5  feet  thick,  in  which  are  imbedded  tluree  layers  of  ^^^ 
rails,  one  layer  of  15-inch  V-beams,  and  one  of  ri-:n 
I-beams,  securing  a  perfect  distribution  of  the  load  •>¥.: 
the  whole  platform. 

Platforms  of  Iron  and  Concrete, — A  system  of  foucca 
tions  somewhat  similar  to  the  above  has  come  into  q^i^-' 
^neral  use  in  the  U.  S.,  having  been  employed  with  sik^<^^ 
m  Chicago,  where  the  soil  is  soft  and  treacherous,  a  «»' 
clay  overlying  quicksand  (as  is  generally  supposed),  with  n 
sohd  bearing  short  of  60  or  60  feet  deep'    This  great  d^-i 
has  generally  forbidden  the  use  of  piles,  although  therv  ar 
engineers  wno,  distrusting  the  results  of  test-boring  cUt  i 
that  the  soft  soil  covers  a  heavy  bed  of  compact  clay  o>'^' 
hard  gravel,  which^  should  carry  heavily  loaded  piles  w:f 
safety.    By  the  Chica^  system  the  bearings  are  spreati  I' 
means  of  platforms,  either  of  grillage  or  of  concrete,  \i^  &" 
area  which  reduces  the  pressure  to  between  3,000  and  4.'>  * 
lb.  per  souare  foot.     Upon  the  concrete  base  are  pile<l  t^ 
or  tnree  layers  of  steel  rails  (70  to  75  lb.  to  the  yard>  I... 
close  together,  the  layers  crossing  each  other  at  right  aR;:lr^ 
and  topped  off  with  15-inch  (up  to  20-inch)  I-beams.    ' 
which  the  masonry  or  the  iron  column  rests^    The  w^■ ' 
is  buried  in  concrete,  and  the  sides  plastered  heavily  «  '* 
cement  to  protect  the  ends  of  the  beams.   Such  fonndati  r  ^ 
although  somewhat  more  expensive  to  construct  than   ' 
built  up  in  dimension-stone  from  the  concrete  base  or  f-^ 
ing,  are  more  economical  in  the  end.    Figs.  11  and  12  p^* 
sectional  views  of  the  two  systems  for  comparison.    It  «.. 
be  seen  that  the  dimension-stone  footings  in  Fig.  12  oi*»mi 
much  valuable  space  above  the  cellar-floor  unless  the  rv  ^ 
vation  be  made  much  deeper  than  that  ^own  in  Fig.  l^- 


51U 


FOUNDATION 


•heetini-pi' 


raiddll 


nngei  , 

The,v  &re  thoroughly  braced 
by  cross-pieces,  e,  to  resist 
the  water- pressure  after  the 
dacnmed  area  is  pumped  nut. 
The  outer  row  of  sheet  piles 
is  then  driven  llrmly  into  the 
bottom  soil  and  spiked  to 
the  strinepieceB  framing  the 
pi]e-hea(£.  A  second  row  of 
piles  is  theo  driren  inside 
the  proposed  inner  row  of 
sheet  piling;  or  strong  posta, 
b,  are  set  in  their  place, 
framed  to  string  -  pieces  se- 
er dam-  o  f^uf*"!  ^7  U"'  cross-pieces  t, 
:  b,  stroDs  ^nd  to  Wales  n  n,  against 
reBpondlog  which  are  driven  the  interior 
b^^""  series  of  sheet  piles.  The  in- 
■oBs-pl*^!  tervenine  space,  A,  is  then 
sabuUreM-  fllled  witn  tTie  puddling  ma- 
<  terial.  rammed  as  thorough- 
'  Ij  OS  ma;  be  in  the  water, 
and  the  water  in  the  interior 
inclosed  space,  B,  is  then  pumped  out.  As  its  level  de- 
scends strong  struts,  o  o,  are  fitted  across  from  wall  to  wall 
of  the  dam  to  prevent  Its  bulging  inward  froni  the  external 
water-pressure.  As  the  masonry  rises  they  are  removed,  and 
short  struts  inserted  between  the  masonry  and  the  dam  in 
their  places.  There  is  always  considerable  leakage,  especial- 
ly where  the  area  is  excavated  to  a  considerable  depth  below 


Fia.  14.  — CoHer-dun,  tihowing  detail. 

the  natural  bottom ;  and  the  pumps  must  be  kept  in  con- 
stant operation,  with  renewal  of  the  puddling  when  this  is 
little  by  little  washed  out  into  the  inclosare  by  the  leakage. 
It  is  economical  to  make  the  interior  area  from  6  to  10  feet 
wider  each  way  than  the  proposed  structure,  as  this  allows 
suffieient  room  for  the  workmen  and  for  repairs  on  the  dam. 
The  Open  Crib,  or  Caisson. — Coffer-dams  are  practicable 
only  in  water  of  moderate  depth,  and  on  sit«s  requiring 
but  little  excavation  to  prejwre  the  bed.  WLere  these  con- 
ditions do  not  exist,  and  especially  in  the  case  of  bridge- 
piers  in  rivers  of  considerable  depth,  the  "open  crib"  or 
"open  caisson"  is  frequently  employed.  This  is  on  open 
iKix-like  structure  of  timber  or  iron,  provided  with  a  partial 
flooring  or  shelf,  upon  which  is  liwded  a  sutHcient  weight 
to  sink  it  wlien  it  has  been  floated  U>  the  proper  jiosition, 
the  height  of  the  crib  being  sufficient  to  reach  above  the 
water  when  so  sunk.  The  bottom  of  the  area  it  incloses  is 
then  dredged  out,  and  the  crib  sinks  gradually  down  into 
the  excavation,  successive  sections  being  added  'to  its  height 
as  it  descends  so  as  to  reach  constantly  above  water.  In 
this  way  a  species  of  coffer-dam  maybe  finally  established 
from  which  the  water  may  be  pumped,  and  the  bed  pre- 
pare<l  for  the  foundations  in  the  usual  manner.  More 
often,  however,  the  excavation  having  been  carried  down  to 
rock  or  to  a  firm  bearing,  the  crib  is  filled  with  concrete, 
and  the  piers  built  up  on  this  material  without  pumping 
nut  the  water.  Iron  cribs  have  been  frequently  employed 
for  structures  of  this  kind,  remaining  as  a  permanent  part 
of  the  founilation  up  to  the  water-line,  from  which  level  the 
pier  or  other  construction  is  carried  up  in  masonry.  The 
crib  is  usually  built  on  shore  and  launclied  and  floated  into 
position,  though  sometimes  begun  on  sliore  and  completed 
after  launching;  it  has  double  walls,  and  if  of  large  size  the 
open  area  is  divided  into  cutnjiartments  by  double-walled 
longitudinal  or  transverse  pariitions.  These  double  walls 
are  maile  to  converge  to  a  cutting  edge  at  the  bottom,  and 
this  converging  portion  is  built  up  solid  if  the  crib  be  of 
timber.  Usually  the  lower  part  of  the  crib  is  given  a  cer- 
tain spread  or  "batter";  the  utility  of  this  has  been  ques- 


tioned by  some  engineers.  The  Poughkecpde  bridKP"i.r 
the  Hudson  river.  New  York,  rests  on  four  piers  tminl^. 
on  cribs  of  hemlock,  with  white-oak  cutting  edges;  ih  • 
measure  60  bv  100  feet,  and  are  104  feet  high.  The  <loi.l.. 
walls,  of  13  bv  12  inch  hemlock,  are  about  10  feel  iliu  >. 
the  total  depth  reached  is  about  135  feet  below  loV'iilii 
level,  the  crib  Anally  resting  on  a  layer  of  bard  gravrl  4f:'i 
passing  throuKli  silt,  clay,  and  sand.  Another  remaAitl- 
example  of  crib  foundations  is  the  railroad  bridge  at  Hi*k<-> 
bury.  New  South  Wales,  in  which  the  crihe  are  of  iroD..'i: 
by  34  feet  at  the  bottom,  48  by  30  feet  at  the  top.  and  <r.  ~ 
sunk  to  various  depths  up  to  IIH  feet  below  the  riter-lr.. 
Each  crib  was  divided  into  three  compartmenla,  in  cmti  ■■; 
which  was  an  iron  well  8  feet  in  diameter  with  a  flarin(;l>;- 
tom.  The  cribs  were  sunk  by  filling  with  concrete  thur-T. 
spaces  or  comers  around  these  wells,  which  wer«  also  fil.^; 
with  concrete  after  the  sinking  of  the  crib,  and  servtnl  i- 
foundations  for  masonry  piers  built  up  to  43  fe«t  lin'e  1<  >- 
water.  For  the  Victoria  tubular  bridge  at  Motitml  ni'- 
caissons.  shaped    as    in    Fig.   15.   were    employed:   *'\r:. 


n  pins 


space  D  was  then  pumped 
out  and  the  pier  built  up 
within  it  Fig.  17  shows  a 
variety  of  open  crib  some- 
times used  in  small  work  in 
shallow  water  where  the  nat* 
ural  bottom  is  firm  and  level ; 
it  is  merely  an  open  box  sunk 
into  position  bv  the  weight 
of  the  masonry  tiuilt  up  with- 
in it.  This  is  primitive  and 
elementary:  amorese'     ■-'' 


Flo.  IT.— Oprn  crih 

_ __ which  such  a  box-crib  is  ci>inbineti  m'' 

pneumatic  caisson,  as  will  be  later  describcil. 

7%«  Pneumatic  Caiaaon. — This  is  the  device  miM  <■■ 
monly  employed  for  sinking  foundations  in  wal--r.  -.i: 
etc.,  to  depths  varying  from  80  to  100  feel.  It  is  ii-<d 
many  forms,  in  all  of  which  the  principle  of  the  div  iri;.--) 
is  made  use  of  to  expel  the  water  from  beneath  a  sji-ii'- 
crib  or  caisson,  and  thus  permit  of  excavation  by  hand, 
air-tight  caisson  or  inverted  box,  constructed 'with  ?(r. 
walls,  usually  double,  and  having  a  cutting  edge  at  ihv  \ 
torn,  is  float«d  over  the  destined  site,  and  sunk  eiihtr 
loading  with  sti>ne  and  gravel  or  concrete,  or  by  the  wii. 
of  the  masonry  built  up  upon  it.  its  walls  being  con^in' 'If 
added  to.  bb  in  the  opitn  crib,  so  as  to  extend  ahovf  ^■.' 
and  allow  the  mason-work  to  be  executed  at  any  !i ' 
The  caisson  forms  a  diving-bell,  and  serves  as  b  workii 
chamber,  in  which   tlio   labor  of  excavating  bencalli  : 


FOUNDATION 


{lementarr  lock  is  sometimes  connected  with  the  main  lock. 
t  is  shoirn  in  Fig.  19,     The  rubbish  is  placed  in  the  inclined 
spolit-like  supplementary  look  through  tfae  door  a,  which  if 
then  closed,  anci  b  n[iencd,  al- 
lowing the   rubbish   to   slide 
out  into  the  water. 

There  sre  many  cariatioiis 
of  detail  in  the  pneumatic 
caissons  employed  in  bridge 
and  lif^hthouseDuilding,  most 
of  which  combine  the  essen- 
tial features  of  the  crib  and 
caisson.  The  walla  of  the 
caisson  continued  upwanl, 
form  an  open  erib  above  the 
working  cnamber ;  this  ex- 
cludes the  water,  permits  the 
masonry  to  be  built  irrespec- 
tive of  the  rate  of  sinkage, 
and  allows  the  air-lock  to  be 
placed  close  to  the  roof  of  the 
caisson.  Fig.  20  illustrates 
the  caisson  and  crib  of  the 
east  pier  of  the  St.  Louis 
bridge,  designed  by  James  H. 
rta.  «i.-PiiBumatJc  pier.  Soda.     It  shows  the  air-locks 

at  A,  and  the  open  well  in  the 
center.  This  foundation  is  sunk  U>  a  depth  of  110  feet  be- 
low the  water-level,  throngh  clear  sand,  which  was  excavated 
by  sand-pumps,  operating  by  the  pressure  of  the  compressed 
air,  and  discharging,  as  shown,  at  D.  In  this  case  tne  crib 
walls  were  removed  above  low-water  level  when  the  pier  was 
completed.  In  many  cases  the  crib  is  a  permanent  circu- 
lar structure  of  boiler  iron,  which  is  lined  or  filled  solid 
with  masonry,  or,  when  of  small  diameter  (as  8  feet  or  un- 
der) with  concrete.  The  air-locks  are  often  in  such  cases 
placed  at  the  top  of  the  tube  or  crib,  and  removed  alter- 
nately from  one  crib  to  the  other  as  the  cribs  are  extended 
upwaj^l.  Such  tubes  are  sometimes  called  pneumatic  piles, 
and  are  illustrated  by  Figs.  21  and  23.  The  latter  repre- 
sents the  piers  of  the  first  Tay  bridge  across  the  Firth  of 
Forth.  Scotland.  Each  pier  was  composed  of  two  iron 
columns  or  cylinders  of  iron  S^  feet  in  diameter,  built  up 
in  sections  about  4  feet  high,  rising  above  a  single  work- 
ing-chamber, 32i  feet  long,  lOt  feet  wide,  and  about  8  feet 
high.  The  whole  of  both  columns  opened  into  this  cham- 
ber, forming  together  a  single  caisson.  Each  was  sur- 
mounted by  an  air-lock,  and  the  whole  pier  was  sunk  by 
lining  the  cylinden>  with  masonry  2^  feet  thick,  supported 
on  a  sort  of  shelf  on  the  interior  near  the  base,  and  leaving 
a  well  in  the  center  of  each  and  opening  up  to  the  air-lock. 
Fig.  23  i«  a  transverse  section  of  the  snore-pier  at  the 
French  end  of  the  Kehl  bridge  over  the  Khine,  showing 
the  dredging  well  in  the  een&r  and  the  two  compres-sea 
air-shafts  leading  to  the  air-locks  at  the  top.  These  air- 
shafts  were  used  alternately,  one  being  lengthened  while 
the  other  was  in  use.  The  caissons  were  quadruple,  giving 
four  wells  and  eight  air-shafts  for  each  pier,  the  masonry 
being  built  around  the  shafts  as  fast  as  they  were  sunk. 
This  bridge  dates  from  1859.  Pig.  24  is  a  section  of  one  of 
the  cyliudrical  pneumatic  piles  or  caissons  of  the  Szegedin 
brid^  over  the  Theiss.  Hungarj'.  Each  pier  consists  of 
two  columns  or  piles,  which  were  filled  with  concrete  when 
the  final  bearing  was  reached. 

These  examples  sufficiently  illustrate  the  general  form 
and  applications  of  the  pneumatic  caisson  to  bridgc-huilding. 
It  was  for  the  first  time  applied  to  the  foundations  of  an 
office-building,  that  of  the  Manhattan  Life  Insurance  Com- 

Kny  in  Xew  York  city.  Fifteen  caissons  were  used,  of 
iler  sleel,  eleven  of  these  being  rectangular  in  plan  and 
four  circular,  the  sizes  varying  from  15  by  25  feet  to  26  by 
2(1  feet  for  the  former,  anJ  from  10  to  16' feet  diameter  for 
the  latter.  The  fifteen  caissons  were  put  into  position  at 
the  same  time  and  sunk  to  bed-rock,  50  feet  below  the 
street-grade  and  25  feet  below  the  proposed  cellar-floor. 
Upon  them  were  built  footings  o(  hard  brick  in  cement, 
capped  with  several  courses  of  granite,  on  which  rest  the 
bed-plates  of  the  metallic  columns  of  the  building,  some  of 
whicn  sustain  a  load  of  1,500  tons. 

Many  details  of  the  science  of  pneumatic  foundations 
have  been  necessarily  omitted,  as  these  will  be  more  projier- 
ly  looked  for  in  the  standanl  works  on  engineering  and 
bridge-building.  So  also  must  be  pas-sml  by,  with  only  brief 
mention,  some  of  the  more  special  and  unusual  proce«»e^ 


for  sinking  shafts  for  foundations  in  quicksand.  Ohf  '<' 
these  is  the  PoelAch  freoiing  process,  which  freezes  Ih^qiw; 
sand  so  that  it  can  be  cut,  dug.  or  excavated  like  any  s,  h  : 
Pipes  6  or  8  inches  in  diameter  are  driven  down  iii  iii 
necessary  depth  in  a  circle  around  the  proposed  exiaiati  r. 
and  brine,  cooled  by  an  ammonia  freeiing-machint,  i-  -i: 
culated  through  them,  freezing  the  quicksand  gnvliui., 
tor  several  feet  in  every  direction.  Another  very  iap'i. - 
ous  process  employed  with  success  is  that  invent^l  t< 
Robert  L.  Uarris.  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Kiii- 
neors.  Pipes  are  driven  at  short  distances  apart  to  the  ^-  i 
quired  depth,  and  a  current  of  water  forced  through  1)i>  »! 
temate  pipes,  scouring  a  passage  out  from  each  to  t)ip  ii'm:  I 
est  adjacent  pipe,  through  which  il  escapes,  carrTin);  \i.- 
sand  with  it.  In  this  way  channels  are  cut  from  )ii[''  i 
pipe,  and  eventually  a  species  of  chamber  is  formed,  at'-' 
which  liquid  cement  is  introduce*!  through  the  piper  ir- 
the  channels  or  chambera.  in  which  it  mingles  with  ihr  ui:: 
and  solidifies,  forming  ultimately  a  wall  or  a  floor  of  •■'■: 
Crete,  according  to  the  way  the  pipes  arc  distriliutin)  a.: 
manipulated.  By  this  process  a  sewer-channel  4.U0O  f,-: 
long  and  10  wide  has  bivn  excavated  25  feet  deep  Ibn'^,'! 
very  fluid  quicksand,  and  great  claims  are  made  for  im- 
practicability in  all  similar  cases. 

It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  an  article  like  this  to  enter  fw 
ther  into  the  practical  and  scientific  details  of  founditi't,- 
building;  for  these  the  reader  should  consnlt  the  pp'>'-  i 
sional  text-books  on  engineering.     A  few  historical  i.b^r- 
vations  are  proper  in  conclusion. 

The  Egvptians  appear  to  have  taken  small  pains  ■ ':>  I 
'  ■■  '     compact  soil,  the  dry  climat*.anii  It- 


their  foundat 


Fio.  21.— Tar  bridge  pier ;  Slnklnfc  Ih 

absence  of  frost  made  deep  excavations 

massive,  but  ordinarily  not  very  lofty,  masonrj'  of  Ibrir  ttr 

file- walls  rests  in  most  cases  on  a  species  of  platform  i>r  ■»  i. 
onting  composed  usually  of  stone,  but  sometimesnf  sv.; 
dried  bricks,  and  laid  in  trenches  excavated  hut  5  or  6  tr-i- 
Mas[)ero  testifies  that  in  all  c«se.>  under  his  obaerrMt, 


514 


FOUNDER 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS 


books,  such  as  the  engineering  and  architectural  handbooks 
of  Trautwine,  Haswell,  and  Kidder ;  Rankine's  Civil  Efvgi- 
neering ;  Patton's  Practical  Treatise  an  Foundations,  and 
Baker^  Masonry ;  also  to  the  articles  Bridges  and  Light- 
houses in  this  work.  A.  D.  F.  Hamlin. 

Fonnder  [deriv.  of  founder ,  go  lame  <  M.  Eng.  foundren, 
from  0,  Ft.  fondrer  in  effondrer,  fall  in,  sink,  founder,  deriv. 
of  fonder,  fall,  deriv.  or  fond,  bottom  <  Lat.  fundus,  bot- 
tom] :  an  inflammation  primarily  attacking  the  laminae  of 
the  horse's  foot  (Laminitis),  This  disease  may  follow  over- 
driving, exposure  to  cold  when  perspiring,  overfeeding,  or 
giving  food  or  drink  too  soon  after  nard  work ;  long-con- 
tinued driving  on  pavements  or  on  frozen  ground  and  bad 
shoeing  are  fruitful  causes.  The  fore  feet  are  usually  af- 
fected alone,  but  the  fore  legs  and  chest-muscles  sometimes 
share  in  the  disease,  and  these  muscles  undergo  a  sort  of 
atrophy  (chest-founder)  in  consequence  of  its  long  contin- 
uance. The  disease  resembles  rheumatism  in  many  respects. 
Like  that,  its  acute  form  is  attended  by  great  fever  and 

Sain.  Bleeding  is  admissible  in  a  young  strong  horse  sud- 
enly  foundered.  The  shoes  should  be  taken  off,  the  hoof 
covered  with  a  hot  poultice,  the  stall  littered  heavily,  and 
in  severe  cases  the  horse  slung  up  from  the  floor.  After  the 
acute  sta^e  is  over  the  horse  should  be  put  to  pasture  if  pos- 
sible, and  allowed  to  run  as  long  as  he  can  be  spared,  except 
in  severe  weather,  when  he  should  be  housed.  A  foundered 
horse  can  be  detected  bv  his  mincing  gait,  by  his  resting  his 
fore  foot  upon  the  toe,  oy  a  hot  or  contracted  hoof,  and  by 
delicate  signs  recognized  with  difficulty  by  any  except  prac- 
ticed observers.  For  an  established  founder  there  is  no  pos- 
sible cure.    See  Farriery. 

Foundling  Hospitals:  institutions  for  the  reception 
and  support  of  infants  and  children  that  have  been  aban- 
doned by  their  parents  or  guardians.  Such  institutions  are 
maintained  by  government  appropriations  or  bv  private 
or  sectarian  associations.  Chilaren  found  abandoned  are 
known  as  foundlings,  and  the  cause  of  their  desertion  is  in 
most  cases  illegitimate  birth,  though  not  a  few  are  bom  in 
wedlock  and  are  abandoned  by  parents  unable  to  provide 
for  them.  The  necessity  of  providing  for  such  cnildren, 
and  restraining  infanticide,  led  to  the  establishment  of 
foundling  institutions  by  most  civilized  nations. 

As  early  as  the  sixth  century  a  species  of  foundling  hos- 
pital existed  at  Treves,  where  a  marble  basin  was  located  in 
front  of  the  cathedral,  in  which  parents  could  deposit  chil- 
dren they  wished  to  abandon,  the  care  of  such  foundlings 
being  given  by  the  bishop  to  members  of  the  church.  In 
Rome  also,  in  the  sixth  century,  public  institutions  existed 
for  the  reception  of  foundlings,  called  by  Justinian  hrepho- 
trophia,  ana  in  the  seventh  century  similar  ones  existed  at 
Anjou  in  France.  One  was  established  at  Milan  in  787  by 
an  arch-priest  named  Datheus,  for  the  object  of  preventing 
infanticide.  In  1070  a  foundling  hospital  was  established 
at  Montpellier,  and  a  second  one  in  1180,  known  as  the  Hos- 
pital of  the  Holj  Ghost.  In  1200  one  was  established  at 
Eisenbeck,  and  m  1212  one  in  Rome.  In  Florence  a  mag- 
nificent one,  the  Spedale  degli  Innocenti,  was  established  in 
1317.  Similar  institutions  were  founded  in  Nuremberg  in 
1331,  in  Paris  in  1362,  and  in  Vienna  in  1380.  The  Hotel 
Dieu  of  Lyons,  founded  in  1523,  was  one  of  the  first  in 
France  where  foundlings  were  not  only  received,  but  were 
educated,  and  in  1536  a  similar  one  was  established  by  Fran- 
cis I.  In  Paris  in  1563  a  foundling  hospital  was  established 
by  the  Church,  and  managed  by  an  association  of  priests. 
In  this  children  received  a  careful  education,  many  of  the 
boys  being  trained  for  the  priesthood.  Recognizing  the  ne- 
cessity of  providing  for  abandoned  infants,  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  collected  funds  sufficient  to  establish  a  new  foundling 
hospital  in  1640.  In  1670  this  hospital  was  converted  into 
a  public  one  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  subsequently  it  was  en- 
larged. After  1789  the  French  republic  assumed  the  charge 
of  foundlings,  and  in  1793  the  terrorists  declared  them  all 
to  be  enfants  de  lapairie.  An  imperial  degree  in  1811  con- 
tinued the  arrangement  by  which  foundling  hospitals  had 
become  Government  institutions  and  the  foundlings  children 
of  the  state.  It  further  ordered  the  establishment  of  such 
hospitals  in  each  arrondissement  of  France,  the  children  to 
be  kept  in  them  until  six  years  of  age,  when  they  were  to  be 
intrusted  to  respectable  persons,  who  received  a  stipend  for 
their  support  and  education.  This  stipend  is  yearly  reduced 
until  the  children  attain  the  age  of  twelve,  when  the  able- 
bodied  boys  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Minister  of  the 
Marine,  while  delicate  ones  are  provided  with  suitable  work. 


Prior  to  1811  the  reception  of  foundlings  was  publip.  hiit 
by  the  decree  of  that  year  each  hospital  was  providi^  wr  ^ 
a  turning-box  in  which  the  child  could  secretly  be  dep»«it.:. 
In  most  of  the  Roman  Catholic  countries  of  Europe  th^ 
same  system  as  that  in  force  in  France  was  adopted,  an'i  :l 
many  of  them  it  still  prevails.     In  Belgium  and  FruDcr 
the  turning-boxes  have  oeen  abolished  since  1834.  and  .L 
secret  reception  of  foundlings  has  been  declared  illcp.  n. 
the  latter  country.    Since  1§B6  children  are  admitted  \o^\^ 
foundling  hospital  at  Paris  under  a  system  which  aiixur.'^ 
to  indiscriminate  admission,  it  being  possible  to  It-nM  o.- 
infant  without  giving  any  particulars  relating  to  it.    1 1 . 
same  institution  admits  incorrigible  children,  who  ahm  »    ; 
moralement  abandonnes, in  distinction  from  enfant  am^s- 
as  those  of  all  other  classes  are  designated.     In  1784  a  Lir:-. 
foundling  hospital  was  established  in  Vienna  by  Jo.«  pb  'i 
In  1762  a  foundling  hospital  was  founded  in'  Mos(u^  >  \ 
Catharine  II.,  being  aft-erward  greatly  enlarged,  so  a5  t" ::. 
elude  a  lying-in  department  and  schools.    The  Vtispitatr  Ij.. 
Dom  in  St.  Petersburg  was  founded  in  1772,  also  byU* 
arine  II.,  as  a  branch  of  the  one  in  Moscow,  and  like  it  :u^ 
since  been  greatly  enlarged,  and  has  a  lying-in  depart n   . 
and  a  school.    According  to  the  laws  of  Russia,  all  foui '. 
lings  are  the  property  of  the  Government,  and  the  annj  i* 
navy  are  largely  recruited  from  this  class.    Owing  t4.   i 

Prevalence  of  the  crime  of  infanticide  in  Cliina,  a  fouti-i".  - ; 
ospital  was  established  about  1856  in  Canton.     lo  the  <    > 
of  Mexico  there  has  long  been  a  cuna  or  foundling  ho^yr 
maintained  by  private  means,  and  receiving  the  suf^ervi-.  - 
of  certain  ladies.    The  infants  are  kept  in  the  institut. 
one  month,  and  are  then  sent  to  the  country  or  villaee>  \i 
charge  of  a  nurse,  who  is  responsible  to  somebody  in  tb 
neighborhood.    These  children  after  a  certain  age  are  <!•  r. 
erally^  adopted  by  res^^ectable  persons.    In  the  fouwi    . 
hospital  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  all  the  male  children  are  a[ [r  i. 
ticed  at  maturity  to  trades,  and  the  girls  are  edw-atfl  <  - 
make  able  and  useful  wives.    The  great  hospital  of  Nih*  < 
Spirito  in  Rome  has  a  foundling  department  capnt  1* 
holding  3,000  children,  and  farms  out  tne  most  of  its  iw'i^:.'^ 
At  Naples  the  foundlings  receive  more  attention  th«;i 
any  other  Italian  city.    The  Dei  Trovatelliale  Annunz:./  . 
which  was  founded  m  the  thirteenth  century,  has  a  v^ 
educational  establishment  also.    Every  foundling  rt-^ii^-.- 
has  a  number  fastened  around  its  neck  to  aid  in  future 
ognition.    Two  infants  are  given  in  charge  of  one  out- 
wet-nurse,  and  on  attaining  tne  age  of  eighteen  moiul 
intrusted  to  the  nuns  for  further  care.    Every  in  fan 
ceived  in  the  foundling  hospital  of  Florence  is  farm  id  ••.' 
the  wet-nurses  receiving  ten  francs  a  month,  and  a  f wr ' 
gratuitv  if  they  retain  the  foundlings  until  their  eighth*'  r 
year.    The  girls  on  being  married  receive  235  fraiK-s. 
the  Madrid  hospitals  the  infants  are  also  farmed  (»ut  \.' 
seven  years  of  age,  when  they  are  transferred  to  the  I**.* .- . 
of  the  "Forsaken"  (Desamparados)  to  be  educatnl. 
Portugal  the  Santa  Casa  de  Miscricordia  in  LisU>n  cniiUH 
an  immense  foundling  department,  conducted  in  a  ika* 
similar  to  those  in  Spain.    The  foundling  hospitals  \u  ^ 
enna  and  Lower  Austria  receive  infants  on  the  fidl<  vs  - 
conditions :  Declaration  of  the  community  to  which  it:  • 
fant  or  mother  belongs,  of  her  reli^on,  and  proof  of  il- 
legitimacy in  case  it  is  to  be  received  permanent  1  v.    A 
mission  is  free  to  infants  bom  in  hospitals.     Adml^'^'  ' 
granted  to  illegitimate  children  on  payment  of  a  stip^*:i<. 
the  relatives  or  townships  of  the  mothers.    The  institu'i 
provide  for  the  children  until  their  tenth  year,  after  ** 
their  support  must  be  assumed  by  their  native  villnj- 
town.   In  the  Prague  foundling  hospital  the  children  art  • 
kept  a  short  time,  and  are  then  farmed  out  in  the  c>^\i>  ' 
only  those  being  kept  in  the  institution  who  are  fvelil«.. .' 
for  whom  nurses  can  not  be  found  outside.    Those  giv» . 
charge  to  out<«ide  parties  are  claimed  by  the  instit4Jti<>n. .. 
at  their  sixth  year  receive  a  free  schooling.     At  the  .«iL 
ten  years  the  institution  relinquishes  all  ckim  to  the  i  >: 
when  the  village  or  town  of  the  mother  must  provid*  f<  .' 
support,  or  its  own  mother  may  reclaim  it  on  prs>vii.c  . 
ability  to  provide  for  it.    In  Munich  the  following  nja-  . 
the  care  of  illegitimate  children  are  strictly  enforot-1 :  I: 
a  misdemeanor  to  tak^  charge  of  such  chilaren  under  t  ^ 
years  of  age  without  approval  of  the  police  aathontie^.  % 
such  permission  is  refused  unless  the  character,  i;r. 
stances,  and  locality  oT  the  petitioner  are  satisfactory, 
infants  given  in  charge  of  nurses  are  first  examine^i  [>v  i-  • 
ical  men,  and  no  women  are  allowed  to  receive  founi 
to  the  neglect  of  their  own  children.    The  managt^ruei  • 


I' 


r  •  - 


llJ   «' 


r- 


516 


F0C<JUIER-T1N  VILLK 


FOUR  LAKES 


pApen  found  in  hU  |ialaoe,  be  was  finally  sent  to  the  Bas- 
tile.  He  showe<l  fi»rtitude  in  his  iropriaonnient,  and  replied 
with  spirit  to  his  lux* useni,  but  the  verdict  was  a^inst  him, 
and  he  waA  sentenced  to  perpetual  banishment  and  confisca- 
tion, a  iientence  which  the  kme  cHtmmuted  to  imprisonment 
tor  life.  He  was  confined  at  the  fortress  of  Pi^nerol  under 
the  care  of  Saint-Mars,  afterward  the  jailer  of  the  Man  with 
the  Inm  Mask,  with  whom  Fouquet  is  sometimes  wrongly 
identitlfMl.  He  wrote  a  number  of  devotional  works  during 
his  imprisonment,  and  died  at  Pignerol,  Mar.  28, 1680. 

F.  M.  Colby. 

Fonqnier-TiftTllle,  -tin  vee\ .  Antoink  y dentin  ;  re%-olu- 
tiooist;  b.  at  U^rouel,  France,  1747;  studied  law  in  Paris, 
where  he  became  prvcureur  (attorney)  to  the  Chitelet,  an 
office  which  the  ruin  resulting  from  spendthrift  and  licen- 
tious habits  forced  him  to  sell ;  was  reduced  to  the  extremes 
of  want,  but  secured  a  humble  position  in  the  bureau  of  po- 
lice as  a  reward,  it  is  said,  for  some  flattering  and  common- 
place versi«  addressed  to  the  king.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
lU^volution  he  joinetl  the  violent  faction,  was  conspicuous 
on  the  dav  of  the  storming  of  the  Bastile,  and  was  s*)on  after- 
ward ma4le  eomminsaire  of  his  district  (St.-Merry).  Danton, 
R4>lM>spierre,  and  other  pn eminent  radicals  became  his 
friends,  and  in  the  spring  of  ITWi  he  was  ap(>ointe<l  a  juror 
to  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  where  his  effei'tiveness  in  car- 
rying out  the  will  of  the  comniittei*  of  public  safety  caused 
his  wlvancement  to  the  p<»silion  of  director  of  the  jury  and 
then  of  public  prosecutor.  lU'garding  himself  as  an  instru- 
ment of  the  Terror,  **  the  axe  of  the  ctmvention,"  as  he  after- 
wanl  said,  he  was  absolutely  pitiless  in  the  administration  of 
his  office,  condemning  his  friends  and  patnins  with  the  rest 
and  htMMling  neither  briUvn  nor  entreaties.  Hec^ondemned 
both  lleU^rt  and  Danton,  but  did  not  long  survive  Robes- 
pierre. By  order  of  the  convention  he  was  imprisoned  Aug. 
1, 1714,  charged  with  having  caused  the  <leath  oi  a  great  num- 
ber of  persons  without  reganl  to  the  principles  or  even  the 
forms  of  iust ice.  Judgment  had  been  passed  on  sixty  or  eighty 
tiersons  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  hours  without  observ- 
mg  the  legal  forms,  and  many  were  s<*nt  to  the  guillotine 
against  whom  no  detMisition  ha^l  been  matle.  Fouquier  re- 
plied that  he  was  but  the  instrument  of  the  convention, 
which,  atHHirdingly,  was  responsible  for  his  acts.  He  was 
guUlotined  May  7,  1799.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Fonreror,  foor'krwah,  Antoine  FEAXvots,  Comte  de: 
chemist  anu  politician;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  June  15,  1755; 
became  M.  I),  in  17H0;  from  17H4  t<»  1809  was  Professor  of 
Chemistry  at  the  Janlin  du  Roi;  in  17H5  was  admitted  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences;  was  a  meml>er  of  the  National 
ConreiiLion  m  1792,  and  of  the  Committ4»e  of  Public  Safety 
in  1794;  of  the  Council  of  Ancients  in  1795;  appointed 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction  Sept.  15,  1><02.  I),  at  Paris, 
Dec.  16,  1809.  System  of  Chemistry  (11  vols.  8vo)  was  is- 
sued in  1801,  The  Philomphy  of  Chemistry  in  1792. 

Foniier,  foo  ri-A ,  Fran<,x)is  Marie  Charles  :  the  founder 
of  the  social  system  calleil  Fourierism;  b.  in  Besan^tm, 
France,  Apr.  9,  1772,  and  e«lucate<l  in  the  college  of  his  na- 
tive citr.  He  had  lH)th  talent  and  inclination  for  studies, 
e<t}MH'iaIly  for  matheniatii-s.  music,  geography,  and  natural 
history,  but  when  he  was  eightt'en  yeara  old  nis  father  put  him 
into  th«'  officv  of  a  merchant  in  Lyons  as  a  clrrk.  and  com- 
m«*n*e  lie^'ame  hi^  busine^  in  lifi\  very  much  against  his 
will.  In  17U:i  he  inherittil  a  fortune  from  his  father,  but 
lost  it  lUv  same  year  «>n  m<-ount  of  the  ri'volutionary  disor- 
ders in  liVtui''.  in  whi<h  he  UsHUie  entan^Usl.  He  was  im- 
pnsoritHl  ilrvt  m  Lyons,  I  hen  in  B^^sani.-on.  ami  he  es<»ape<l 
onl*  by  U»<iMiMng  a  dra;:«>»»n  in  the  Revolutionar)*  annv. 
Ifavjiig  Uvii  tli'^hnr^f'*!  from  the  military  s»'r\'ice  in  17t55 
<»n  ttt^'Mutit  of  ill-h«'Hlth.  he  r«>tuni<'<l  to  his  (H>mmercial  pur- 
Bu^{'^.  He  |ii|  a  vrry  n-tireii  lifr.  held  always  inferior  jnm- 
tiuns,  ami  hml  only  ihimthMi'  wilnnes.  In  his  few  leisure 
hjMir*  he  wn>te  liiH  iNN.kn,  and  with  hi»*  waniv  Mmrp  monev 
h»'  pMhli^lh**!  thtin.  ThfV  ma<le  im  scn««tion;  thev  hanllv 
attra«*Ml  niiv  attention,  and  \el  ••\erv  single  daV  of  hi.s  life, 
•  HI  n'ltjrmni;  li«iiiif  fr»im  hi*  nrti«i\  he  eX|Hs*t«sl  to  find 
•wune  etiihu-' t^iir  iniiliuiiaire  waiUnu  f«»r  Inm.  reaily  t<»  in- 
Xf^X  his  niiili<»n«»  in  a  jmhisI  i'\|MTiriM'nt  ae<'<»niiinf  t<»  thi' 
firw  th"''»n.  \\\*  Ur^X  lt«>«»k.  Tft'*'r*f  titM  ifuntrr  rnouiYmenttt 
ei  ti^n  ii**tit%^rn  *;/«t/rri/*-«.  w.t"  puhlisfn-^l  \\\  IM^W;  hi**  SiK'ond 
ami  m<**t  irii{x>rtafit.  Tni*t^'  iit  l\iAAi^utttitn  domrHtutue  ng- 
r%ctiif.  III  IH'JJ:  anil  a  "ort  of  i*i»fnf««'rj«lmrn  of  lM»th.  .Noiirvrifi 
mttt%*if  tnHutifrt^i  ft  m*rtt'/ntrr.  in  I'^^M*:  luit  the\  found  tUllv 
\*T}  fen  n-a  l«'r»  It  mtv*  not  (ill  lJ<t|.  whi-n  the  «i«»fial 
•chrme*  of  >Aint-Mmon  ami  of  I^^U'^  o«fn  wen*  inmh  «lis- 


hH 


cussed,  that  Fourier  attracted  any  at  tent  mn  f or  h  *    «- 
ideas  by  his  savaffe  attacks  on  thean*  two  r«*f4irm<-ri,  h'.  "* 
Vharlataninmr  aes   Ihuj   Series    Saint'Sttmm    #/    f»    % 
prometianis  IWssociation  et  FrogreM,     Fm«n  that  t;n,-  « 
eral  talented  disciples  gat henMl  around  him — Mailm-    t  » 
risse  Vigoreaux,  \  ictor  Considerant.  i*antairnL  11*  li.'*-. 
and  Mennier.    A  monthly  paper,  Ijo  I'halatufe^  •»•  i«-. 
and  later  on  even  a  weekly,/^  drmorratt^  pnrt%^-%* 
En^rland  and  the  U.  S.  Fourierism  found   mmnv.  »:*^r  ••• 
in  Ilugh  Doherty  and  Albert  Bristtane.  an<l  tiracV'a.  m-»* 
iments  which  hml  but  short  life  were  made  U4h  in  Fra*  • 
and  America,  the  community  of  Beook  Karji  ly-  '    ^-  ** 
the  most  noti^l  of  these  attempts  in  the  C  S.  tr* ta  't'  • 
inence  of  many  of  its  member^i  and  adriH^tc^    T;  * 
most  of  such  ex()erimenta,  ppored  a  failure.    F« hi nrr ,: 
Paris,  Oct  10,  1887. 

The  negative  side  of  Fourier's  writing*,  hi«  rr.?-  -• 
very  brilliant.  It  is  bitter,  but  it  is  acute,  uftm  ttr  « 
true,  and  always  full  of  noble  sugire*ttionj^  But  *:  ;««-i 
tive  side  of  his  system  is  the«>retically  a  failurr,  ar.«i  «  -i 
it  also  has  pro  veil  a  failure  practically  the  rra**^  a»  •  i-  | 
that  the  experimentii  have  lieen  tnade  with  it.^K^  H 
means,  but  that  the  fundamental  idea  i*  im^onif**'  '  «  I 
human  nature  and  human  de>tinY.  Founer  iim.-  •.•  -«  .| 
izatitm  in  its  present  form  as  the  mut  of  all  %M<t-«  «-  ■  ^ 
cause  of  all  miseries;  and  his  views  and  anrum*  r  t«  c  :i4 
point  carry  a  kind  of  conviction  with  them  in  all  tt  t  -i 
ical  details.  But  the  remedy  be  prestTilM-s,  hi*  MUa  fi 
new  civilization,  his  social  system,  is  fantaMi< .  ax.«l  «&«t  I 
worse,  no  remedy  at  all.  Its  sfieculattvr  |«rt,  l.^**  f  .  "4 
tion  of  the  system  in  the  nature  of  the  uni^env  auti 
man  soul,  is  awkward  and  insufficient,  ami  it%  prw  •  a.  ,«.<i 
the  phalanstery,  where  1,800  |>eople  lire,  ««iHi.  a.- 
together  in  one  building,  is  a  dream  «hu-h  rwr^.aci 
do  away  with  much  vice  and  misery,  txit  whf  ti  i -ra 
would  also  do  awav  with  much  virtue  and  all  Ur*  --  | 
order  to  gain  freeaom  in  a  comfortablr  iKJt  nam  >«  «  « 
the  wonl,  Fourier  cuts  it  off  in  its  lann*  »«•!  iU-*-  ^ 


« . 


•.  —  ,1 


'_  » 


but  inspiring  sense.-    In  order  to  securt*  t«»  «*■  ^  :- 
a  certain  amcmnt  of  enjoyment,  he  cuts  «*1T  fn^m 
the  pnispect  of  an  infinite  degree  of  happm«-«»      I- 
to  get  rid  of  the  errors,  crimes,  and  h<»rT»»n«  in  w  t     •  r 
destiny  is  involved,  he  lowers  thi»  de:«tirii    t**  *r    -^ 
drinking,  dancing,  and  sh'eping  medi<<-nt%.     H*    r*  - 
war  with  morals  and  religion,  but  be  ha^  m-  «*r  *  -  •   H 
He  a<'knowle<]ges  pro|>ertjr  a^  a  rewanl  to  iat«  r  a*     ".^ 
but  does  not  umlerstand  it  as  a  nect*«««n  t^  m\   .< 
human  riersonality.     His  phalan»tery  U  thr  n 
the  Mithlle  Ages  i^vivt^l.     To  some  (M<«ii|t  it  »■.• 
lum,  but  to  others  an  iron  cage.     As  a  irr  -^ 
however,  the  value  of  the  works  of  F«««nrr  ar**!  * 
is  consiilerable.    See  his  complete  work*  i6  »• . 
new  e<l.  1870);   als*)  Victor  (  on»idermnt.   /ap*/i-.*    **  . 
(1885);  PelUrin.  Charles  Fourier,  m»  r%e  r/ mi   r«-  -■ 
ed.  1871).  ReM^Ml  hi  F.  M   «     ^ 

Fonrier,  Jeak  Baptiste  J(»^eph,  Banm*  niM&tsf'sm:  i 

and  natural  philosopher;  Uat  Auxerrt* .  Frmrni .  Mar  V 
was  a  moilerate  friend  of  the  popular  cauv  txi  xu*  Kr  % 
but  was  twice  imprisoned  by  the  ruling  part^.     \U  v 
pn>fesM»r  in  the  Polytenhnic  ScIm***!  17iH-l^    »■«-  — 
Bona)iarte  to  Kgypt  as  savant  in  17VH ;  wn»  ^  **  'x  - 
at  (Grenoble  Jan.,  18ai<-15;  in  lH]6waf>  a.ln..M.^i  • 
stitute.  in   1817  to  the  Academy  of  ^ft^ntv*    aa-. 
Aca^iemie  Fran^is<«  in  1827.     The  samr  irar  ..-    mm    iH 
dent  of  the  (Hmm^l  of  the  Polvtwhnir  .*^  hi»         !•  a:    n 
May  16,  XKVi).     His   Theorie  AmUyttq^  J*  i,t  t  k^a. 
publishe«l  in  1822,  and  he  left  an  Am*§Jfms  ti*  /v- 
Eifuations^  publUhe<l  in  1K81. 

Fonii^r,  Pierre,  known  as  The  Rl»%^iti  Petib  F 

b.  at  Mirecourt,  in  I^rraine,  N'»v.  Al,  l.\CV,  \*^ 
monstratensian  monk,  and  in  15115  («n«h  fc*r«: 
(.x>urt.  when*  he  founded  the  (^mgnfratn^i 
(M*4>  NtiTEK  Dame,  C*o!cueeuatio:%  of  «  iir 
Congregation";  and  wxm  aflrr  inMit'i'^i 
Preinonstratensian  ufder.  D.  at  (ini%.  |)^ . 
U*atitle<l  17.10. 

Fonr  LakM:  a  chain  of  lakrs  m  r>ai»»  .^  .    «  . 
charvinp  their  waters  into  Cat fl«h  n%»r      T**  i  af*  •- 
in  a  ts-aiitiful  and  fertile  rpgion.     Fin*  l^k*  r^  \  t    -» 
and  2  miles  wide.     Se<'ond  IjUcf,  thr  nrit  al«  «•     •    *  ^ 
lontrer.     Third  I^ake  (I^ake  MoMma'  *•  4^  r    #•  .  — ,r    m\ 
linoul.     Fiuirth  I^ake  (Lake  MeodoUn  i»  ibr  r  r^MC  | 

mili^s  K>ng  ami  4  broad.     Betwr>rn  thr  kM(  t«.  lak^*   «d 


- 1-*  -     -^ 


518 


FOWLER 


FOX 


yet  constructed,  upon  the  completion  of  which  he  was  made 
a  baronet.  In  1855  he  was  made  a  commander  of  the  order 
of  SS.  Michael  and  Oeorge  "  for  important  services  to  Uer 
Majesty's  Government  in  K^ypt.'*  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Institution  of  Civil  Engmeers  in  1844, and  waspresident 
in  1866.  Wm.  R.  Hutton. 

Fowler,  Lyttleton  :  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  South ;  b.  in  Smith  City,  Tenn.,  Sept.  12, 1802 ; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  Kentucky  Sept.  30, 1826.  After 
filling  responsible  stations  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and 
Alabama,  ne  went  in  1833  as  missionary  to  Texas,  and  in 
1838  was  made  superintendent  of  the  Texas  mission,  which 
extended  all  over  the  republic.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
General  Conference  which  met  in  New  York  in  1844,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  Louisville  convention  in  1845,  at  which 
the  M.  E.  Church  South  was  organized.  D.  in  Texas,  Jan. 
19,  1846.    He  was  an  eloquent  and  a  successful  preacher. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Fowler,  Grin  :  Congregational  minister ;  b.  at  Lebanon, 
Conn.,  July  29, 1791 ;  graduated  at  Yale  1815 ;  entered  the 
Congregational  ministry ;  became  a  missionary  in  the  West ; 
settled  in  1819  as  pastor  at  Plainfield,  Conn.;  in  1831  at 
Fall  River.  Mass. ;  often  in  the  State  Legislature ;  resigned 
his  pastoral  charge  in»1848,  and  was  in  Congress  1848-1852 ; 
distmguished  as  a  temperance  and  anti-slavery  orator ;  au- 
thor of  a  treatise  on  Bapiism  (1835) ;  Historical  Sketch  of 
FaU  River  (1841 ;  2d  ed.  Pall  River,  1862).  D.  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Sept.  3, 1852. 

Fowler,  Orson  Squire:  phrenologist;  b.  at  Cohocton, 
Steuben  co.,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  11,  1809 ;  graduated  in  1834  at  Am- 
herst College,  and  with  his  brother,  L.  N.  Fowler,  became 
widely  known  as  a  lecturer,  and  as  writer,  editor,  and  pub- 
lisher of  books  and  periodicals  upon  phrenologv,  health, 
self-culture,  education,  and  social  reform ;  retired  in  1863 
from  his  business  in  New  York :  removed  to  Boston,  Mass., 
and  continued  to  write  and  lecture ;  was  the  author  of  nu- 
merous well-known  works  upon  the  subjects  indicated 
above.    D.  near  Sharon  Station,  Conn.,  Aug.  18,  1887. 

Fowler,  Samuel,  M.  D.  :  b.  near  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  Oct. 
30,  1799;  stildied  medicine  at  Penn  Medical  College  of 
Philadelphia ;  was  licensed  in  1800.  and  began  to  practice 
at  Hamburg,  N.  J. ;  after  a  few  years  removed  to  Frank- 
lin, N.  J.  He  took  an  active  part  in  politics,  representing 
his  county  in  the  upper  branch  of  the  State  Legislature,  ana 
afterward  his  State  m  the  24th  and  25th  Congresses,  during 
the  administration  of  Gen.  Jackson,  of  whom  ne  was  a  warm 
supporter  and  one  of  the  earliest  friends  in  New  Jersey.  As, 
a  mineralogist  and  geologist  he  was  regarded  by  men  of  sci- 
ence as  amon^  the  first  in  the  country ;  was  made  a  member 
of  the  Geological  Society  of  Pennsylvania  and  of  the  New 
York  Lyceum  of  Natural  History ;  an  honorary  member  of 
the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  New  Jersey,  and 
corresponding:  member  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
of  Philadelphia :  was  also  an  honorary  member  of  the  scien- 
tific societies  of  London  and  Dublin,  and  others.  In  1825  he 
published  in  Silliman^ a  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  ix..  An  Ac- 
count of  some  New  and  Extraordinary  Minerals  Discov- 
ered in  Warwick,  Orange  co,,  N.  Y. ;  in  1832,  in  the  same 
journal,  vol.  xxi..  An  Account  of  the  Sapphire  and  other 
Minerals  in  Newton  Township,  Sussex  co,,  N  J, ;  con- 
tributed to  Gordon's  Gazetteer  and  History  of  New  Jersey 
an  article  on  Ths  Frariklinite,  Red  Oxide  of  Zinc,  and  oth&r 
Minerals  found  in  the  Valley  at  the  Foot  of  the  Hamburg 
Mountains;  also  a  notice  of  the  geology  and  mineralogy 
of  the  same  region,  for  Cleaveland^  Mineralogy.  The  rare 
mineral  fowlerite  was  discovered  by  and  named  for  him,  and 
the  iron  and  zinc  ore  franklinite  is  supposed  to  have  been 
so  called  by  him  ;  he  made  it  known  to  eminent  naturalists 
in  Europe,  and  awakened  an  interest  in  it  which  resulted  in 
its  succ^essful  development  and  manufacture.  D.  at  Frank- 
lin, N.  J.,  Feb.  20,  1844. 

Fowler,  William  Chauncev  :  educator  and  author ;  b.  in 
Clinton,  Conn.,  Sept.  1,  1793 ;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1816 ; 
was  tutor  1819-23;  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  at 
Greenfield,  Mass.,  1825-27;  Professor  of  Chemistry  and 
Natural  History  in  Middlebur>'  College,  Vermont,  1827-1^ : 
Professor  of  Rhetoric  and  Oratory  in  Amherst  College  1838- 
43 ;  a  son-in-law  of  Noah  Webster,  and  editor  of  the  Uni- 
versity edition  of  Webster's  Dictionary  (New  York,  1845) ; 
author  of  a  treatise  on  The  English  Language  (1850);  of 
two  English  grammars;  of  7^e  Sectional  Controversy 
(1868);  Chauncey  Memorial  (1856);  History  of  Durham, 


Conn,  (Hartford,  Conn.,  1866),  etc.     Resided  in  Dnrfe&ni, 
Conn.,  after  1858,  and  there  died  Jan.  15,  1881. 

Fowlerite :  crystallized  rhodonite  from  Franklin,  N.  J 

Fowler's  Solntion  [named  from  Dr.  Thomas  F«»w!.'r 
of  Staffonl,  England  (1736-1801).  its  inventor]:  a  soluti*'. 
of  arsenite  of  potash  in  water,  flavored  and  colore<l  «i'>i 
compound  tincture  of  lavender.  Each  fluid  drachm  contai']^ 
the  equivalent  of  half  a  grain  of  arscnious  a(*id.  The  d<>^ 
is  five  or  ten  drops  once,  twice,  or  thrice  daily.  It  is  u.v-i 
in  many  diseases,  especially  skin  diseases  and  mAlan&i 
fevers  and  their  sequele,  and  is  sometimes  very  useful  ii. 
epilepsy  and  neuralgia.  It  is  a  powerful  tonic, "and  sh^ulj 
be  used  only  under  the  eye  of  a  competent  physician. 

Fox  [M.  Eng.  fox<0,  Eng.  fox :  Mod.  Germ.  F'urk^]: 
any  one  of  those  members  of  the  family  Canida  which  an 
externally  distinguished  by  a  slender  muzzle,  vertical  yi\>\\ 
and  an  elongated  bushy  tail.  Several  distinct  genera  &rv 
thus  confounded  which  differ  from  each  other  in  some  re- 
markable characters.  Of  these  forms  one  genus  ( Vulp^it)  i> 
common  to  the  entire  northern  hemisphere,  and  ha:^  &1>' 
numerous  representatives  in  Asia  and  Africa.  The  m(< 
familiar  species  is  the  common  or  red  fox  of  Europe  an«l 
North  America,  and  embraces  several  varieties,  of  which  th< 
most  characteristic  is  the  prairie  or  long-tailed  fox  of  t])-> 
Southwestern  U.  S.  Another  related  species,  of  smaller 
size,  is  the  swift  or  kit  fox  ( Vulpes  velox)  of  the  W»'st<ni 
prairies.  A  third  congeneric  species  with  strongly  inark»i) 
characters  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic  circle,  and  has  hairy  feet. 
whence  it  is  called  Vulpes  lagopus.  The  genus  Vulpes  is  ven 
closely  related  to  Cams.  Another  genus  ( Urocyon)  has  mud 
external  similarity  to  Vulpes,  but  is  distinguished  from  it  i> 
several  verv  important  anatomical  characters.  It  is  peculiar 
to  North  America,  and  embraces  a  single  well-detenu  in>-' 
species  (Urocyon  vir^inianus) ;  but  there. is  an  insular  an^i 
tropical  race  which  is  much  smaller,  and  has  been  con^i'i- 
ered  as  a  distinct  species,  and  named  Uroeyon  litioralis. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  LrcA*. 

Fox,  Sir  Charles  :  civil  engineer;  b.  at  Derby,  Englan«i 
in  1810;  urged  by  friends  to  Follow  the  medical  profe^Moi:. 
but  studied  engineering,  and  was  first  employed  by  Erio- 
son.  At  the  beginning  of  the  construction  of  the'Lon<i«»r. 
and  Birmingham  Railway  Company's  line  he  was  appoint »-«i 
its  assistant  engineer  by  Robert  Stephenson,  and  remAintd 
with  the  company  five  years.  He  arew  the  plans  for  ib« 
building  callea  the  Crystal  Palace,  in  Hyde  Park,  in  win  r. 
the  great  industrial  exhibition  was  held  in  1851.  Construct- 
ed the  Sydenham  Crystal  Palace  and  manv  extensive  railwts> 
and  engineering  works.    D.  June  17, 1874. 

Fox,  Rt.  Hon.  Charles  James:  English  statesman:  r»-. 
second  son  of  Henrv,  Lord  Holland,  by  Oeorgiana  CHn»lir:a. 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  a  descendant  of  Char.-- 
II. ;  b.  in  London,  Jan.  24,  1749,  and  educated  at  Eton  aiu 
at  Hertford  College,  Oxford.    His  father,  the   first    L«>^.: 
Holland,  cherished  an  almost  idolatrous  fondness  for  t  ^ 
second  son,  and  he  early  initiated  him  into  manv  of  1 1  • 
vices  of  the  time,  from  some  of  which  it  afterward  prx>\  r  . 
impossible  for  Charles  James  to  emancipate  himself.      H  - 
studies  were  often  interrupted.     He  did  not  graduatv.  l«ir 
traveled  1766-68  upon  the  Continent,  where  he  acquin  d  n 
lifelong  fondness  for  Italian  literature.    In  1768  het<*i»k  h 
seat  in  Parliament  for  Midhurst,  from  which  borough  he  vm.- 
elected  before  he  came  of  age.    In  1770  he  became  a  Juiu  ' 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  in  1773  a  I^rdof  the  TppA^ur> 
whence  he  was  dismissed  in  1774  bv  Lord  North  on  a<-c«»ijr/ 
of  his  independent  spirit.    From  this  time  he  stood  hy  t*.. 
side  of  Burlce  and  the  Liberals,  and  assailed  with  the  nT-' 
brilliant  and  effective  eloquence  the  administration  of  I>  r 
North,  foretelling  the  eventual  defeat  of  the  British  arni;^  :- 
North  America.    In  1780  he  was  chosen  to  represent  \^"o^* 
minster  in  Parliament.     In  1782  he  was  Secretary  of   >ta* 
for  Foreign  Affairs  under  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham,  ar.  ' 
in  1783  was  Secretary  of  State  in  the  Portland  ministry,     li 
1783  he  introduced  his  India  bill  for  the  relief  of  the   ii 
habitants  of  British  India,  but  the  East  India  Company,  ih- 
king,  and  the  House  of  Lords  combined  to  defeat  nim,  hi 
he  resigned.    He  stood  again   for  Westminster,  an<l   uvm 
elected,  but  was  unseated  tlirough  the  infiuence  of  th*»  nm 
istry.    He  entered  Parliament   for  a  Scottish  burgh,   i^t- 
punished  the  offending  magistrates  of  Westminster  by  a  si i 
cessful  suit  at  law.    He  now  became  the  prime  leader  <>f  t ». 
Lil)eral  party,  from  which  Burke  was  so  soon  to  ae-f-tii- 
joined  heartily  in  the  prosecution  of  Warren  Hastini^  :   « »j . 


520 


FOX  INDIANS 


FRACTIONS 


number  of  gentlemen  and  ladies  on  horseback.  As  they 
ride  in  the  chase  the  party  are  under  the  charge  of  a 
master,  the  hounds  being  in  the  care  of  a  huntsman  and 
"  whippers-in  '*  or  whips.  The  bolder  members  of  the  hunt 
leap  their  horses  over  lences,  gates,  and  hedgerows,  and  all 
feel  at  liberty,  when  necessary,  to  rush  headlong  through 
fields  of  grain  and  other  growing  crops.  The  fox  is  not  shot, 
but  when  caught  by  the  dogs  the  huntsman  cuts  off  his 
brush  (tail),  psSs  (feet),  and  mask  (face),  which  are  given  as 
trophies  to  those  who  may  be  present,  or  "  in  at  the  death," 
as  it  is  called.  The  flesh  is  cut  up  and  given  to  the  dogs,  to 
be  devoured  on  the  spot. 

Fox  Indians :  See  Aloonquian  Indians. 

Fox  Islands :  Pacific  Ocean.    See  Aleutian  Islands. 

Fox  Rirer :  a  stream  rising  in  Green  Lake  co..  Wis. 
Taking  a  S.  and  S.  W.  direction,  it  approaches  to  within  1^ 
miles  of  the  Wisconsin  river,  with  which  it  is  connected  at 
Portage  City  by  a  canal.  It  then  flows  by  a  circuitous 
course  N.  and  N.  E.  to  Green  Bay,  Wis.,  into  which  it  falls 
at  the  town  of  that  name.  The  navigation  of  this  river  has 
been  improved  by  jetties,  and  a  canal  between  it  and  the 
Wisconsin  forms  the  connecting  link  of  the  great  water- 
route  which  leads  from  the  Mississippi  by  way  of  Wiscon- 
sin river,  the  Upper  Fox,  Lake  Winnebago,  ana  Lower  Fox 
river  to  Green  Bay,  and  thence  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes  to 
the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Fox  River :  a  stream  which  rises  in  Waukesha  co.,  Wis., 
and  flows  S.  and  S.  W.,  emptying  into  the  Illinois  river  at 
Ottawa,  111,  It  furnishes  abundant  and  well  improved  wa- 
ter-power. 

Fox  Shark,  or  Thresher :  the  Alopias  vulpes,  a  shark 
of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific ;  12  to  18  feet  long,  the  tail 


Fox  shark. 

about  as  long  as  the  body.  It  boldly  attacks  the  whale, 
striking  fearful  blows  with  its  tail;  whence  it  is  called 
thresher.    It  devours  great  numbers  of  small  fishes. 

Foy,  Maximilien  S^astien  :  general ;  b.  at  Ham,  France, 
Feb.  3,  1775 ;  entered  the  army  in  1791 ;  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  republican  wars;  was  in  Massena*s  and  Mo- 
reau's  Swiss  and  German  campaigns,  but  his  known  cold- 
ness toward  Napoleon  tendeci  to  cneck  his  promotion.  He 
was  made  a  general  of  division ;  served  at  Waterloo ;  rep- 
resented the  department  of  Aisne  in  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties 1819,  where  he  appeared  in  a  new  rdle^  that  of  a  lib- 
eral orator.  D.  at  Paris,  Nov.  28,  1825.  The  people  sub- 
scribed freely  for  his  children,  whom  he  left  poor.  He  left 
Speeches  (2  vols.,  1826)  and  History  of  the  Peninstilar  War 
(unfinished,  4  vols.,  1827).  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Foyers,  fi'erz,  or  F^ers :  a  river  of  Scotland ;  rises  in  the 
Monadleadh  Mountains  in  Inverness-shire,  and  after  run- 
ning 12  miles  N.  falls  into  Loch  Ness.  It  forms  two  falls — 
an  upper  one  of  80  feet,  and  a  lower  one  of  90  feet.  The  lat- 
ter is  one  of  the  finest  in  Great  Britain. 

Foyle :  a  river  of  Ireland ;  formed  at  Lifford  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Finn  and  the  Mourne;  after  a  course  of  70  miles 
it  falls  into  Lough  Foyle,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Ireland.  It  is  famous  for  its  salmon-fish- 
eries, and  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  600  tons  to  London- 
derry, 4  miles  from  the  Lough. 

Fra  Angelico :  See  Fiesole,  Fra  Giovanni. 

Fractions  [from  0.  Fr.  fraction  <  Lat.  frae'tio,  break- 
ing, deriv.  of  fran'gere^  f roc' turn,  break] :  m  arithmetic,  a 
fraction  is  one  or  more  of  a  number  of  equal  parts  into  which 
a  unit  or  whole  number  is  divided ;  also,  the  expression  in- 
dicating one  or  more  such  parts.  When  the  unit  or  whole 
is  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  each  is  a  half;  when  into 
three  equal  parts,  each  is  a  third ;  and  so  on.  Thus  one-half 
two-th  irds,  four-ninths,  etc.,  are  fractions :  they  may  be  writ- 
ten i,  |,  J,  etc.  A  fraction  consists  of  a  denominator,  which 
shows  how  great  the  parts  are,  and  a  numerator  which  indi- 


cates the  number  of  these  parts.    In  the  fraction  )  (read  fivt- 
sixths)  6  is  the  denominator  and  5  is  the  numerator. 

Fractions  are  divided  into  two  classes — vulgar  or  common 
fractions  and  decimals.  Vulgar  fractions  are  those  in 
which  the  denominator  is  expressed ;  decimals  are  i)i<y^  io 
which  the  denominator  is  simply  indicated.  The  denomi- 
nator of  a  common  fraction  may  be  any  quantity  whatever : 
the  denominator  of  a  decimal  is  always  some  power  of  10. 
The  denominator  of  a  decimal  may  be  written  out  in  full. 
in  which  case  it  is  a  decimal  fraction,  which  differs  in  no 
respect  from  a  common  fraction.  See  DecxxaIj  and  Deii- 
MAL  Fraction. 

Vulgar  Fractions. — Vulgar  fractions  are  expressed  U 
writing  the  numerator  over  the  denominator,  with  a  lin»- 
between  them,  as  2.  This  is  one  of  the  methods  of  indi- 
cating division ;  a  fraction  is,  in  fact,  equivalent  to  the  qu<K 
tient  of  the  numerator  by  the  denominator. 

The  two  parts  of  a  fraction  are  called  terms,  and  acconi- 
ing  to  their  relative  values  the  fraction  is  said  to  be  vroprr 
or  impro^r  ;  if  the  numerator  is  less  than  the  denominator, 
the  fraction  is  proper  ;  if  the  numerator  is  greater  than  the 
denominator,  the  fraction  is  improper,  A  proper  frartioi. 
is  always  less  than  1,  and  an  improper  fraction  is  al«a.V5 
greater  than  1.  It  may  happen  that  the  terms  of  a  fraction 
are  equal ;  in  this  case  the  expression  is  equal  to  1,  and  is 
fractional  only  in  form. 

Fractions  are  similar  when  they  have  a  common  denomi- 
nator— that  is,  when  they  have  the  same  unit;  they  are 
dissimilar  when  they  have  different  units.  Thus  \  and  ^ 
are  similar — f  and  \  are  dissimilar.  Dissimilar  fractioiu- 
can  be  made  similar  as  follows :  find  the  least-  common  mul- 
tiple of  the  denominators  for  a  common  denominator  of  the 
required  fraction ;  divide  this  by  the  denominator  of  each 
fraction,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  the  correspoDdinir 
numerators  for  the  numerators  of  the  required  fraction. 
This  transformation,  as  well  as  many  others,  depends  on 
the  general  principle  that  we  may  pexlorm  the  same  of>^ni- 
tion  on  both  terms  without  changing  the  value  of  the  frac- 
tion. 

Fractional  expressiofhs  are  those  that  contain  a  fra^-tion 
in  any  form.  They  may  be  mixed,  complex,  or  eompounti. 
A,  mixed  fraction,  or  mixed  number,  is  composed  of  an  ii.- 
tegral  and  a  fractional  part,  as  3f,  5f.  A  complex  fmc-ti  ri 
is  one  in  which  at  least  one  of  the  terms  is  mtctional.  us 

~^'   sf>    ^'     A  compound  fraction  is   a  fractional  j*rt 

of  a  fraction  or  mixed  number,  as  i  of  f .  ^  of  5^.  Anv  on*- 
of  these  may  be  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  simple  fraction— 
that  is,  to  a  form  in  which  both  terms  are  entire — by  means 
of  the  general  principle  already  given. 

Algebraic  Fractions. — In  algebra  a  fraction  is  anv  indi- 
cated quotient  of  two  quantities;  also,  the  expression  by 
which  the  quotient  is  indicated.  A  rational  fraction  is  a 
function  of  ^  variable  x,  which  may  be  reduced  to  the  funii 


Nx^  -»-  N'ca^  - »  + 


K 


A'x^-\-Bx^-^  -f  ...-»- A"* 

If  m  is  not  less  than  n  the  fraction  may  be  reduced  br 
division  \o  the  form 

y       A-a^'-'-f  ^"x°-*-f-  .,.^K" 

in  which  the  entire  part  is  either  a  rational  function  of  i. 
or  a  constant.  The  fractional  part  can  be  resolved  int- 
partial  fractions — ^that  is,  fractions  whose  denominators  ar*- 
eitlier  binomial  factors  of  the  first  degree  with  resjieot  to  . , 
or  som6  integral  power  of  such  factors — whenever  the  de- 
nominator can  be  resolved  into  such  factors.  This  rvjMiiu- 
tion  is  of  much  use  in  the  integral  calculus.  The  f<dlowin<: 
are  the  methods  of  resolving  fractions  of  this  kind  int<»  {"ar- 
tial  fractions : 

1.  When  the  Binomial  Factors  of  the  Denominator  ar> 
Real. — ^Write  the  given  fraction  equal  to  the  sum  of  m> 
many  partial  fractions  as  there  are  units  in  the  highest  e^ 
pouent  of  the  variable  in  the  denominator,  who$«e  nnmer- 
ators  are  constants  to  be  determined,  and  whose  denominii- 
tors  are  the  different  powers  of  the  factors  of  the  fira  •It- 
gree,  from  the  m^  to  the  1st  inclusive,  m  being  the  numU'r 
of  times  that  any  factor  enters;  then  clear  the  equation  of 
denominators,  and  equate  the  coefficients  of  the  liKc  fH»wer< 
of  the  variable  in  both  members;  from  these  equations  tin<i 
the  values  of  the  constants,  and  substitute  them  in  the  as- 
sumed partial  fractions :  the  resulting  fractions  will  be  the 


522 


FRA  DIAVOLO 


FRANC 


which  is  true  bone ;  and  the  site  of  the  fracture  may  be  in- 
dicated only  by  a  slight  enlargement  at  that  point.  The 
union  of  compound  fractures  is  entirely  different.  In  these 
the  provisional  callus  is  almost  or  quite  absent,  and  the  de- 
finitive callus  is  formed  by  a  process  of  granulation  from 
the  ends  of  the  fragments,  the  ^anulations  being  gradually 
converted  into  bony  tissue.  It  is  a  process  requiring  several 
months,  or  sometimes  years,  and  is  attended  with  a  greatly 
increased  amount  of  danger  from  exhaustion  through  long- 
continued  suppuration  and  absorption  of  purulent  material 
should  such  occur.  The  difference  in  the  mode  of  union 
seems  to  be  due  to  the  irritation  produced  by  the  sources  of 
infection  (germs)  conveyed  by  the  air  to  the  wound. 

The  treatment  of  fractures  consists  essentially  in  restor- 
ing the  fragments  to  their  original  position,  and  holding 
them  there  by  some  form  of  rigid  apparatus  which  shall  not 
cause  discomiort  or  injury  to  the  patient.  Of  course  gen- 
eral treatment  is  to  be  employed  also  if  the  circumstances 
reouire;  but  simple  fracture  m  a  healthy  individual  re- 
quires no  special  medication  or  system  of  dieting,  as  the 
old  modes  of  practice  were  wont  to  inculcate.  The  rigid 
apparatus  used  to  retain  the  fragments  in  their  proper 

Sosition  is  called  a  splint,  which  consists  of  two  kinds — pad- 
ed  and  molded.  If  the  splints  are  made  of  straight,  in- 
flexible material,  they  can  not  he  adapted  to  the  irregularities 
of  the  limb  without  more  or  less  padding  at  certain  points ; 
while  if  made  of  material  which  at  the  time  of  its  applica- 
tion is  soft  and  pliable,  it  may  be  molded  to  the  shape  of 
the  limb,  and,  becoming  hard  and  rigid,  will  serve  to  sup- 
port and  retain  the  fragments.  Splints  of  the  first  varietv 
are  made  of  wood,  sheet  iron,  tin,  zinc,  etc.,  while  metal, 
gutta-percha,  felt,  sole  leather,  starch,  soluble  glass,  or 
plaster-of-Paris  are  used  for  the  second  class.  Fractures 
sometimes  fail  to  unite,  and  are  called  ununited  fractures. 
This  may  be  the  consequence  of  faulty  position  of  the  frag- 
ments, or  of  something  interposed  between  the  broken  ends, 
impeding  union,  but  it  more  frec[uently  arises  from  some 
constitutional  defect.  The  location  of  the  fracture  may 
prevent  union,  especially  if  either  fragment  be  poorly  sup- 
plied with  blood,  as  in  certain  fractures  of  the  neck  of  the 
thigh-bone,  which  frequently  unite  only  by  fibrous  tissue. 
Ununited  fractures  may  often  be  made  to  unite  bv  irritat- 
ing the  parts  at  the  site  of  fracture,  as  bv  rubbing  the 
bones  together,  drilling  them  by  means  of  a  long  needle,  or 
by  wiring  the  bones  together.  Compound  fractures  need  to 
be  treat^  acconling  to  the  strictest  tenets  of  modem  as- 
eptic surgery,  whose  underlying  principle  is  surgical  clean- 
bness.  Their  successful  treatment  depends  in  the  main  upon 
due  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  the  principal  danger  to 
which  they  are  subject  is  that  from  blood-poisoning  (septi- 
cflpmia,  pyemia),  and  that  these  are  due  to  germs  oi  putre- 
faction and  disease  (bacteria)  which  infest  the  air,  the  skin, 
common  dressings,  the  clothing,  and  all  the  surroundings. 
Scrupulous  disinfection  of  everything  in  or  about  the  wound, 
including  the  skin,  the  surgeon's  hands  and  instruments, 
the  dressings,  and  everything  which  may  come  in  contact 
with  the  parts,  is  the  sine  qua  non  of  success.  Under  such 
methods  the  whole  former  treatment  of  these  injuries,  and 
the  results  obtained,  have  been  simply  revolutionized. 

Samuel  St.  John.    Revised  by  Roswell  Park. 

Fra  Diarolo,  fraa'  dee-aa'vo-lo  [Ital.,  liter.,  brother  devil ; 
fra,  brother  <  Lat.  frater  +  diaivlo^  devil  <  Lat.  dia'ho- 
lus] :  the  Italian  sobriquet  of  Michele  Fezza,  a  Calabrian 
goatherd ;  b.  at  Itri  in  1760.  He  became  successively  a 
stocking-weaver,  a  soldier,  a  monk  (with  the .  name  of  Fra 
Angelo),  and  the  leader  of  a  band  of  atrocious  robbers.  He 
took  service  in  1799  against  the  French,  and  held  a  colonel's 
commission ;  was  captured  by  the  French  and  hanged  in 
1806  as  a  robber,  notwithstanding  his  pardon  and  commis- 
sion from  the  King  of  Naples.  The  Fra  Diavolo  of  Auber's 
opera  has  little  or  nothing  in  common  with  the  historical 
character. 

Fraga,  fraa'giik  :  town  of  Spain  :  province  of  Iluesca,  on 
the  Cinca,  55  miles  S.  E.  of  Huesca,  in  the  center  of  a  fer- 
tile and  well-cultivated  plain  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  13-1). 
It  was  fonnerly  a  fortress,  and  in  1134  witnessed  a  victo- 
ry of  the  Moors  over  Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon.  Pop.  (1887) 
7,158. 

Fragonard,  f raa' go  naar',  Alexander  Evariste:  histor- 
ical painter ;  son  of  Jean  Honore  Fragonard  ;  b.  at  Grasse, 
France,  Oct.,  1780.  Pupil  of  David ;  Ijegion  of  Honor 
1819.  Was  one  of  the  chief  "classicists  of  1830,*'  and  a 
sculptor  as  well  as  a  painter.    Frescoes  in  the  Louvre,  Lux- 


Fragonard,  Jean  HoNoai:  genre  and  portrait  ii 
and  engraver ;  b.  at  Grasse,  France,  Apr.  5,  1732.     I*i 


embourg  Palace,  and  Versailles  Museum :  works  in  znu^euni^ 
at  Orleans  and  Blois.    D.  in  Paris,  Nov.  10, 1850. 

W.  A.  C. 

Miint4'r 
upil  uf 
Chardin  and  Boucher ;  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  1752 ;  hU  «  ork 
forms  a  sort  of  connecting  link  in  the  transition  from  tii«- 
painting  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  classicisui  of  th  • 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth.  His  pictures  are  in  the  niu^- 
uras  at  Rouen,  Nantes,  Versailles,  Lille,  Amiens^  Nam  v. 
Marseilles,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Madrid,  and  in  the  Liouvn . 
His  pictures  resemble  those  of  Boucher  in  subject,  and  hi^ 
portraits  are  freely  and  cleverly  painted.  D.  in  Paris,  Au^. 
22, 1806.  W.  A.  C. 

Framlngham  :  a  township  of  Middlesex  co.,  Maai..  n^n- 
taining  three  thriving  villages — Framingham  Center,  S<»'  i.-: 
Framingham  iq,  v.\  and  Saxonville  (see  map  of  Mas&ai^-h  i- 
setts,  ref.  3-H).  Framingham  Center  has  the  oldest  nornal 
school  in  North  America,  a  soldiers*  memorial  library  hui:<i- 
in^,  etc.  Pop.  of  township  (1880)  6,235 ;  (1890)  9;239 :  (1  Mis- 
estimated, 10,000. 

Fra  Moreale,  fraaind-ro-aala  [Ital.,  Brother  Montn-n 
so  called  because  he  was  once  a  brother  in  the  order  of  >! 
John  in  Jerusalem ;  but  afterward  he  left  it  in  disgraiv] 
the  title  of  Montreal  d*Albano,  a  gentleman  of  PniveinV 
who  distinguished  himself  as  a  condottiere  in  the  serTi<-f  of 
Louis  I.,  lung  of  Hungary,  in  his  Neapolitan  wars  (1^U7- 
51).    After  the  close  of  the  wars  Moutre^   remaine^l  ir. 
Naples  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  brigands,  and  entered  tm  u 
course  of  wholesale  brigandage.    Being  finally  driven  fn^cr 
Naples,  he  raised  a  large  oompanv  of  freebooters,   wit* 
which  he  marched  against  one  and  another  of  the  \n-\\\ 
rulers  of  Italy.    All  booty  was  divided  among  his  folhiweP' 
according  to  a  fixed  system.    He  became  the  terror  of  Ita.>. 
and  the  soldiery  flocked  from  evejy  quarter  to  his  ser^i' . 
Bulwer's  picture  of  him   in  Bienzi   is    not   exa^^erar**: 
Sienna  was  forced  to  give  him  provisions  and  free  trai:-.' 
Florence  to  pay  him  28,000  florins,  and  Pisa  16,000.     Mon- 
treal contemplated  the  establishment  of  a  permanent  ih" 
minion,  perhaps  with  Rome  itself  for  his  capital.     With  » 
small  force  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  arreste<l  >■> 
command  of  Cola  di  Rienzi,  and  beheaded  Aucr.  ^.  V^^A. 

Revised  by  C.  H.  T^urber. 

Franc  [(adapted  in  spelling  to  Fr.  franc)  <  M.    Kr^. 
frank,  from  O.  Vr,  franc,  dcriv.  of  Lat.  Prancus^  a   Frui  ►. 
the  coin  at  first  bearing  the  Lat.  insctription  Franeor^m  rtj. 
king  of  the  Franks.    See  Franks]  :  the  unit  of  aeccmnt  i". 
the  monetary  system  of  France,  adopted  under  the  repuM 
in  1795;  also  the  silver  coin  representing  the  same  iiirt 
In  the  general  reform  of  French  metrology  which  took  f »Ifn  • 
in  the  year  above  mentioned,  the  following  were  the  c  >  - 
erning  principles :  (1)  to  derive  the  units  of  nieasure,w«-iL:r  *. 
and  value,  mediately  or  immediately,  from  the  linear  i:ti  * 
called  the  meter,  which  is  the  base  on  which  the  wl .  .► 
system  rests;  (2)  to  derive  the  higher  and  lower  denoinin- 
tions  in  each  series  from  the  corresiwnding  unit  by  dtnim . 
multiplication  and  division.    The  unit  of  ca^iacity  wti5  ti 
rived  immediately  from  the  basic  unit  of  len^h  ;  thfr»  \u" 
of  weight  from  the  unit  of  capacity ;  and  the  unit  of  vm1\. 
the  franc,  from  the  unit  of  weight.    (See  Metric  Svsti_v 
The  franc  is  divided  into  10  decimes  and  100  ctntitneji ;  t.  - 
denomination  decime  has  fallen  into  disuse,  but    the   (.1 
division  into  twenty  sous  of  five  centimes  e&eh   is  still  i- 
common  use.    The  copper  coins  which  represent  thi<  ti^] 
are  stamped  "  Dix  centimes,^*    The  coinage  in  silver  f<»n<>-* 
of  single  francs,  pieces  of  five  and  two  francs,  and  i^f  f.*'*. 
and  twenty  centimes.    The  gold  coins  are  pieces  «»f  f   ■ 
francs,  ten  francs,  twenty,  fifty,  and  a  hundred  frames.     Tl  - 
twenty  francs  are  commonly,  but  not  legally,  calloii   nitj.- 
leons.    The  copper  coins  are  oj  ten  centimes^  five  centinn  * 
and  a  very  pretty  but  rather  useless  little  piece  of  ono  o- : 
time.    The  one-c^entime  pieces  are  hardly  seen  except  at  i   • 
post-offices. 

The  monetary  system  of  France  was  adopted  bv  Swit/»  r- 
land  May  7, 1850,  and  on  Dec.  23, 1865,  a  quadripartite  tn\'>: « 
was  entered  into  between  France,  Belgium,  Switzerlan<l.  ar  , 
Italy  known  as  the  Latin  Union  {q,  i*.),  which  made  tl  - 
system  common  to  all  those  countries.  Austria  has  as>ir 
ilated  her  system  to  that  of  France  by  making  her  ten-flor  r 
piece  ecjual  to  twenty-fi*'e  francs.  Roumania,  Spain,  Sofa  ^ 
Bulgaria,  and  Greece  have  adopted  the  equivalent*  i»f  Wt 
franc,  though  they  call  it  by  other  names.  The  weieht  . ' 
the  silver  franc  is  five  grammes  =  77^  grains  troy,  its  rah.- 


._J 


524 


FRANCE 


and  Finistere  are  the  heights  of  Perche  and  Maine,  about 
1,312  feet  high,  from  which  a  double  granitic  range  trav- 
erses Brittany  from  £.  to  W.  N.  of  Maine  are  the  graceful 
and  fertile  huls  of  Lower  Normandy,  and  finally  the  penin- 
sula of  Cotentin,  terminating  in  Cape  de  la  Hague  and  the 
high  hills  inclosing  Cherbourg. 

Between  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne  are  the  remarkable 
summits  of  the  central  group  which  in  remote  ages  sep- 
arated the  gulf  of  the  Seine  from  that  of  tfa«  Garonne. 
This  group  comprises  very  different  chains;  the  granitic 
mass  of  the  Margeride,  from  3,608  to  5,248  feet  high ;  the 
mountains  of  Auvergne,  whose  highest  peak  is  the  Plomb 
du  Cantal  (6,094  feet),  an  old  volcano,  and  in  the  center 
the  groups  of  C^zallier  and  Mont  Dore,  which  contain  the 
Puy  de  Sancy  (6,186  feet),  the  highest  peak  in  Central  and 
Northern  France,  and  which  project  toward  the  N.  W.,  a 
granitic  spur,  the  mountains  of  Lower  Auvergne,  and  to- 
ward the  N.  the  chain  of  the  Puys,  a  curious  line  of  old, 
extinct  volcanoes,  now  covered  with  verdure,  but  whose 
craters  are  still  distinguishable,  as  are  also  the  immense 
streams  of  lava,  which  in  the  country  itself  are  called 
chMres.  Puy  de  Dome  (4,805  feet)  and  Puy  de  Pariou  are 
the  most  remarkable  of  these  volcanoes — 'the  one  on  ac- 
count of  its  height,  the  other  on  account  of  its  form.  With 
the  mountains  of  Lower  Auvergne  connect  the  granitic 
mountains  of  Limousin,  which  attain  their  greatest  height 
in  MT}nt  de  Meymac  (3,207  feet)  and  Mont  Odouze  (3,129 
feet),  and  which  from  that  point  slope  down  through  the 
sterile  plateau  of  Millevaches  to  Mont  Jargeau  (3,llo  feet). 
The  central  group  contains  several  secondary  ridges ;  to  the 
N.,  a  chain  whose  elevation  seldom  surp&ises  3,280  feet, 
though  in  a  few  points  it  reaches  5,248  feet.  It  is  divided 
into  the  mountains  of  Velay  (basaltic),  Forez  (granitic),  and 
Madeleine  (porphyritic),  and  runs  off  from  the  mountains  of 
Vivarais,  forming  a  high  barrier  between  the  Loire  and  the 
Allier.  To  the  N.  W.  the  granitic  mountains  of  La  Marche 
communicate  with  Mont  Odouze.  To  the  S.,  and  detaching 
itself  from  the  chain  at  Mont  Lozere,  stretches  the  vast 
region  of  the  Gausses,  high  calcareous  plateaus  deeply  cut 
by  the  valleys  of  the  Tarn,  Lot,  and  Aveyron.  These  pla- 
teaus comprise  nearly  the  whole  of  the  old  province  of 
Rouergue.  To  the  S.,*  finally,  are  the  mountains  of  Aubrac, 
a  granitic  group  slightly  connected  with  the  mountains  pf 
Margeride. 

Corsica  is  traversed  from  N.  to  S.  by  a  chain  of  high 
mountains  whose  most  elevated  summit  is  Monte  Cinto 
(8,888  feet). 

2.  Hydrography, — The  flowing  waters  form  in  France 
seven  •principal  basins — ^namely,  those  of  the  Seine,  Loire, 
Garonne,  Rhine,  Maas,  Scheldt,  and  Rhdne.  In  the  first 
three  basins  the  water  runs  toward  the  N.  W.,  to  the  Eng- 
lish Channel  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay ;  in  the  next  three  it 
runs  northward  to  the  North  Sea,  and  in  the  basin  of  the 
Rhone  it  runs  S. 

France  possesses  more  than  200  streams  fit  for  navigation. 
Their  length,  as  far  as  utilized,  is  6,200  miles,  of  which  5,500 
are  used  for  navigation.  The  principal  rivers  in  the  basin 
of  the  Seine  are  the  Seine,  which  waters  Paris,  Rouen,  and 
Havre,  where  it  forms  a  vast  estuary,  and  its  afiluents — 
to  the  right,  the  Aube,  Mame,  and  Oise,  with  its  feeder  the 
Aisne;  and  to  the  left,  the  Yonne  and  the  Eure.  Among 
the  secondary  basins  belonging  to  that  of  the  Seine  are  those 
of  the  Somme  and  the  Ome.  In  the  basin  of  the  Loire  flow 
the  Loire,  which  passes  by  Nevers,  Orleans,  Blois,  Tours, 
Nantes,  and  St.-Nazaire,  and  its  affluents — from  the  right, 
the  Maine ;  and  from  the  left,  the  Allier,  Cher,  Indre,  and 
Vienne.  The  Vilaine  fonns  a  secondary  basin,  and  becomes 
navigable  at  Rennes.  /?*  the  basin  of  the  Oaronne  the 
Garonne,  after  its  junction  with  its  principal  affluent,  the 
Dordogne,  forms  the  Gironde,  on  which  stands  Bordeaux. 
Its  principal  tributaries,  the  Tarn,  Lot,  and  Dordogne,  join 
it  on  the  right.  To  this  basin  belong  the  Charente  and  the 
Adour,  the  latter  passing  by  Tarbes  and  Bayonne.  In  the 
basin  of  the  Scheldt  are  the  Scheldt  and  its  affluent,  the 
Scarpe.  In  the  basin  of  the  Maas,  the  Maas,  which  in 
Prance  is  called  the  Meuse,  receives  at  Namur,  from  the 
left,  the  Sambre.  In  the  basin  of  the  Rhitie^  the  Rhine  is 
navigable  from  Basel  to  the  sea,  and  runs  through  Strass- 
burg,  Mainz,  Coblentz,  and  Cologne.  Its  principal  affluent, 
the  Moselle,  waters  Metz,  and  receives  the  Meurthe,  ^hich 
passes  through  Nancy.  In  the,  bamn  of  the  Rhone,  the 
Rhone  traverses  Lake  Leman  and  waters  Geneva  and  Lyons ; 
receives  from  the  right  the  Saone ;  and  then  proceeds  toward 
the  Mediterranean,  where  it  forms  its  vast  marshy  delta.    S. 


of  Lyons  its  principal  affluents  are  the  Isere,  Drome,  and 
Durance,  which  carrv  to  it  nearly  all  the  water  flowing  inti> 
France  from  the  Alps.  To  the  same  system  belong  the 
basins  of  the  Var  ana  the  Aude. 

The  coast  of  the  North  Sea  is  low,  partlv  marshy,  and. 
down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Somme,  bomereil  with  aline  of 
dunes,  broken  only  by  Cape  Gris-Nez,  which  forms  the  near- 
est approach  to  England.  Along  the  English  Channel  th^ 
coast  of  Normandy  is  bordered  by  cliffs  which,  cut  and 
beaten  in  every  direction  by  the  sea,  rise  to  the  height  cf 
820  feet,  and  extend  to  Cape  de  la  Heve,  W.  of  which  the 
coast  opens  to  the  estuary  and  bay  of  the  Seine.  Then  foi- 
lows  a  line  of  low  and  dangerous  rocks  and  the  sandy  imrJ 
marshy  estuary  of  Carentan,  which  touches  the  peninsula  ••( 
Cotentin.  This  peninsula,  flat  in  its  southernpart.  ris*^  ♦*.« 
the  N.  between  the  points  of  Barfleur  and  La  Hague,  whtrrt- 
its  coast  attains  a  height  of  492  feet.  In  the  angle  forn-.^. 
by  the  peninsula  and  the  northern  coast  of  Pinistere  lie?  n-- 
bay  of  Mt.  St.  Michel,  remarkable  for  the  exceptional  heijrir 
of  its  tides  (49  feet),  and  defended  on  the  N.  by  the  Char.- 
nel  Islands.  The  passage  between  these  islands  and  the  c^ias' 
is  very  dangerous  to  navigate.  The  whole  northern  coast  ••: 
Finistere  is  strewn  with  dangerous  reefs  extending  to  Poii.i 
St.  Mathieu,  which  forms  the  extremity  of  Brittany.  At 
this  point  the  coast  suddenly  retreats,  and  forms  the  va5: 
roadstead  at  the  head  of  which  stands  the  naval  port  <>f 
Brest.  From  Brest  to  Lorient,  also  a  naval  port,  the  Q^^A< 
is  lower,  but  still  hilly.  Alon^  the  coast  from  Finis-tcre  t«« 
the  Charente  are  situated  the  islands  of  LTshant,  Groix.  Bt* ];• 
tie,  Noirmoutiers,  Yen,  R^,  and  Oleron.  From  the  Girun-i' 
to  Spain  the  coast  is  traced  as  a  straight  line  bordereii  u\ 
vast  dunes,  which  are  broken  only  to  the  right  of  the  bn^in 
of  Arcachon  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Adour. 

Along  the  Mediterranean  the  western  coast  is  low,  bliI 
its  gracefully  rounded  heads  conceal  a  series  of  marshes,  t»f 
which  the  most  important  are  those  of  Than  and  MaaEmu>. 
but  especially  that  of  Berre,  which  separates  Marseilles  fn-ni 
the  mouth  erf  the  Rhone.  At  Marseilles  the  coast  rises,  aivi 
thence  ta  the  Italian  frontier  presents  a  picturesque  aiiri 
much-rindented  line  of  headlands  and  bays. 

The  western  coast  of  Corsica  is  steep  and  abrupt,  th. 
eastern  low  and  marshy. 

Climate. — The  mean  temperature  is  12^"  C.  or  55"  F.  T  • 
the  W.  the  isothermal  lines  are  raised  northward  by  \U 
heating  influence  of  the  southwesterly  winds  and  the  (tulf 
Stream;  to  the  E.  they  are  lowered  when  removed  fn-n 
these  influences.  Rain  is  frequent  and  more  abundant  «•!> 
the  western  coasts  and  in  the  mountainous  regions  (38  inch*  ^ 
on  the  Atlantic  coast ;  23  inches  in  Paris :  39  inches  in  M«  r- 
van;  40  to  45  inches  on  the  slopes  of  the  Alps  and  P}n- 
neesj.  Although  the  climate  is  generally  temfierato  aii<^ 
mila,  it  nevertheless  presents  flve  different  types — the  >- 
quanian  (from  the  Seine),  Vosgian,  Rhodanian,  Me<iitt»mi 
nean,  and  Girondin.  The  Seijuanian  climate  is  X.  of  rhr 
Loire;  its  mean  temperature  is  52^  F. — in  winter  38  F..  m 
summer  66"  F.  The  prevailing  winds  are  W«,  S.  W.,  ami 
S. ;  the  first  two  are  rain-bearing.  The  Voseian  climat*'  .* 
more  extreme;  its  mean  temperature  is  49""  F.;  rain  i"*  l'-^^ 
frequent.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  climate  of  ri- 
valley  of  the  Rhone  is  52**  F.,  but  the  hot  and  dry  souths -^r. 
winds,  alternating  with  the  cold  northern,  produce  suii-i'T. 
changes  in  the  temperature.  Rain  is  abimdant  in  tlte  Alf<^ 
The  Mediterranean  climate  is  warmer,  its  mean  temfierHiur* 
being  57°  F.  The  summer  is  hot  and  dry;  the  autuinn  .* 
rainy,  and  disagreeable  on  account  of  the  cold  and  ini^i^ti- 
ous  N.  E.  wind  called  the  mistral.  The  climate  in  p^ntm. 
is  milder  in  the  winter  and  hotter  in  summer  than  ih'- 
Sequanian.  N.  W.  and  S.  W.  winds  alternate,  and  pr<>«iuct 
rapid  changes  in  the  atmosphere. 

III.  Agriculture. — France  presents  four  agricMiItum'. 
belts  which  traverse  it  from  S.  W.  to  N.  W. — namely.  ;>« 
olive,  bounded  by  a  line  which  connects  the  foot  *\{  tht 
Corbieres  with  the  Alps  of  Dauphine;  the  maizo.  wh'->« 
northern  boundary  runs  from  the  island  of  Oleron  to  ti.r 
middle  of  the  Vosges ;  the  vine,  which  ceases  at  a  line  dn^-n 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Loire  to  the  source  of  the  Oise ;  anti 
N.  of  this  line  the  apple-tree  belt. 

Fruits  are  largely  exported — apples  and  pears  from  th- 
north,  oranges,  lemons,  and  pomegranates  from  the  j^nit  t. 
excellent  peaches,  strawberries,  and  currants  are  gn>^r 
near  Paris ;  apricots  in  tlie  central  part ;  cherries  near  Pan- 
and  the  coasts  of  the  (^hannel.  Dried  tmiis — spears,  af^j^lr-. 
prunes,  figs,  almonds,  and  nuta— come  from  the  central  ainl 
southern  regions.    The  principal  trees  are  the  walnnt  olivr, 


I  THE  f  BV;  YORK 
PUBIW    LIBRARY 


THE  NEW  YORK 
PUBLIC    LIBRARY 


*STOR,  LENOX  AND 
TlLD-  N  FOUNDATIONS. 


526 


PRANCE 


4,780,000,000  francs  ($946,000,000)  in  exporte,  and  the  spe- 
cial commerce  4,768,000,000  francs  ($958,600,000)  in  imports 
and  8,570,000,000  ($714,000,000)  in  exporU. 

The  princifMil  imports  of  raw  material  are  silk,  cotton, 
wool,  flax,  hemp,  jute,  hidi'A,  skins,  su^^ar,  coffee,  tobacco, 
cocoa,  spices,  dyewoods,  etc;  also  copper,  lead,  zinc,  tin, 
iron,  sulphur,  coal,  petroleum,  building-timber,  animals,  etc. 
The  importation  of  salt  fish,  butter  and  cheese,  hon^es,  fruit, 
rice,  and  other  cereals  reaches  large  proportions.  That  of 
manufacturiHl  artick*s  comprises  woven  fabrics,  flax  and 
hemp,  cotton,  silk,  hair,  yam,  mattings  and  plaitwork,  straw 
hats  machines  and  tools,  and  watche^^ 

The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  woven  fabrics  (silk,  wool, 
cotton,  flax  and  hemp),  yam,  linen,  articles  of  toilet  (fur- 
nishing goods,  modes,  and  perfumerr),  chemicals,  madder 
and  indigo,  drugs,  soap,  stearin  ana  candles,  sugar,  toys, 
haberdashery,  etc*,  skins,  tools,  machines  and  arms,  jewelry, 
wat<^hcs,  pa[>er,  pottery  and  glassware,  and  musical  instru- 
ments. Of  other  pnxlucts  are  exported  wine  and  brandy, 
textile  fibers  (silk,  cotton,  wool,  and  hair),  cereals,  cheese 
and  butter,  eggs,  dried  vegetables,  fruit,  olive  oil,  salt-water 
fish,  8alte<l  meat,  horses  and  cattle,  seed  com,  hides,  oleagi- 
nous seeds,  wood,  and  copper. 

The  merchant  marine  us  not  proswrous.  The  number  of 
vessels  has  remained  stationary  for  about  thirty  years,  though 
the  tonnage  has  double*!.  On  Jan.  1, 1892,  there  were  13,t^ 
sailing  vessi^ls  of  426,207  tons  and  1,157  steam  vessi^ls  of 
521,872  tons ;  toUl  vessels,  15,047 ;  tonnage,  948,079.  During 
1891  the  number  of  vessels  of  all  kinds  that  entered  French 
porU  was  100,775,  of  22,1 18,847  tons. 

The  post  and  telegraph  services  are  regulated  by  the  state. 
On  Jan.  1, 1891,  there  were  7,537  post-offices  and  58,464  letter- 
boxes in  France  and  Algc^ria,  which  handled  nearly  1,800,- 
000,000  articles  of  all  kinds.  The  telegraph  service  in  1892 
had  54,684  miles  of  lines,  178,297  miles  of  wire,  and  9,832 
offices,  and  handletl  40,650,857  messages.  The  receipts  of 
the  joint  servicx?s  1890-91  were  202,063,117  francs  ($40,412,- 
623^  and  expenditures  148J262,381  francs  ($29,652,276). 

JueasureA,  Weights^  and  Monty, — The  system  of  weights 
and  measures  used  in  France  and  its  dependencies  is  the 
Metric  System  (^.  t*.). 

The  money  basis  is  the  Franc  {q,  r.).  Besides  the  various 
coins  and  the  ordinary  commercial  paper,  used  principally 
in  the  great  financial  and  banking  establishments,  France 
employs  bills  on  the  Banque  de  France,  whose  credit  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  state.  The  coinage  in  1891  amounted  to  17,- 
622,020  francs  ($3,524,404),  of  which  200,000  francs  ($40,000^ 
were  bronze.  From  1795  till  1892  the  total  coinage  of  gold 
was  8,826,948,250  francs  ($1,765,389,650),  and  of  silver  5,534,- 
675,124  francs  ($1,106,935,025).  It  was  estimated  that  6,000,- 
000,000  francs  ($1,200,000,000)  in  coin  were  in  circulation, 
of  which  two-thirds  were  gold. 

VI.  PopuLATioM. — The  population  by  census  of  1891  was 
38,843.192. an  increase  of  671,144  sim^  1881.  ViUl  sUtistics 
for  1891  showed  285,458  marriages,  866,377  births,  and  876,- 
882  deaths.  The  majority  of  the  popuUtion  (24,500,000)  is 
settled  in  the  country;  almut  18,5(X),000  live  by  agriculture. 
There  are  about  4,000,000  in  businetw.  The  manufacture  of 
textile  fabrics,  clothing,  toilet  articles,  and  buihlings  employs 
each  aliout  1,000,000  persons;  next  c^me  pre|>aration  of 
food,  transiiortation,  mming.  and  quarrying,  500,(K)0.  Alto- 
gether, 9,5(I0,0UU  iiersons  are  employed.  The  ten  depart- 
ments in  which  the  population  is  tlensest,  and  which  owe 
their  pnjsperity  esiK»oially  to  manufactures  or  commerce,  are 
Seine,  Bouche»-<lu- Rhone,  Khone,  I^»ire,  Nonl,  Ix»ire-Inferi- 
eure,  IJinmde,  Var,  VendiV,  and  Corsica.  At  the  census  of 
1891  the  population  of  the  principal  cities  was  as  follows: 


Paiiii 

t,447.ttftr 

Lj't»n«       

lUr^lllr* 

41«,«n.'v 

4i»i  r^v 

B(*nl««ux    ...     . 

XT.:  4ii 

Ulk-       

a»i  ;iii 

Tinil'ni«r   

U'*  T'O 

Jtt    t.ti*'une  .... 

I  u  t« 

Nant«-« 

i£i:-4* 

lla*rr'       

JIfi    Wi 

K<Mjl«tx      

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VII.  GovERNMEirr. — Since  the  revolatioo  of  Srf<.  1  !*: 
France  has  been  raled  by  a  republican  govmiiD#nt.  v.:  * . 
the  Uw  of  Feb.  25,  1875,  the  National  A<«sembl«  ^    -^    t 
the  definitive  form  of  gt»vemment  and  iYin<4iiatK<<i.    itm  •! 
tMjutive,  administrative,  and  judiciary  pi»wrr»  arr  »«•#-    - 
the  President.    The  legislative  iKiwer  is  exmt*r*1  tn  ••■  x* 
tional  Assembly.    The  present  President  is  U,  >m^i.  <  A/*-i 
elected  Dec.  8,  1887,  for  seven  yean.     Uc  r\rr'  w«  •  -  •« 
ei*utive  power,  chooses  and  dismit^ne^  the  Diini*!«rv  «*•  v* 
resiN>nsible,  however,  not  only  to  him,  (mt  ai*o  U'  \* 
tional  Assemblv,  which  consists  of  the  i'hamUr  of  li-  • 
(584  members)  and  the  senate  (300  membrm ;  75  wrt*  * 
for  life  under  the  law  of  1875).    Each  arr«)rMlt«M-TDf  r.* 
one  deputy,  and  if  it  has  more  than  lOO.CMH)  pof«'iIaiii^.  '« 
Senators  are  elected  for  nine  years,  one-third  rrtin-  « 
three  years.  Vacancies  occurring  among  life  ^omu 
by  the  election  of  ordinary  nine-year  8enat4»rk    Th>t 
Assembly  holds  annual  sessions  of  at    lrai4   flt«-  ••  •*  a 
Senators  receive  15,000  ($3,000)  and  deputi««  V.tai)   #   -•t 
francs  per  annum.    The  National  AsiiembU  rr(> 
nation,  by  which  it  is  elect«l  and  in  whiM*  nan«f 
the  sovereign  power.     With  the  consent  of  the 
President  can  dissolve  the  Chamber  of  iw-pitir^     T-     -  :| 
isters,  of  whom  the  one  chosen  by  the  vUtvt  n.»^.****     4 
chief  of  the  cabinet  is  president  of  the  itmm  :L  *r»  *•     -  j 
Minister  of  Justice  and  of  Religion ;  S,  MinL^T  nf  tr.  .  tJ 
rior,  under  whom  are  the  whole  general  d«-fArtm«'*A.  aal 
communaladministrationsof  France;  3,  Mint^tf-r  -*  t  -  j\ 
Affairs ;  4,  Minister  of  Finance  and  of  p4*a«*  ati-l  T^  ■  j^    ^ 
5,  Minister  of  War;  6,  Minister  of  Marine  an<l  th*  c         -^ 
7,  Minister  of  Public  Inst  motion  and  the  Fmr  An*  ;  ^  ^  | 
isterof  Agriculture;  9,  Minister  of  Comments  ai>-i  U. :  .<7^ 
10,  MinLnter  of  Public  Works.  ' 

Communal  and  Departmental  ^rfmi»»*/r»t '.*.*«  —  T^ 
commune  represents  the  elementiu^  unit  of  iri*-  :«-^*  -^ 
division  and  of  the  administrative  onraniXAt  h .ii.  *.  • 
part  of  the  territory  comprising  either  a  \»»mn  *r 
more  villages,  with  their  annexes  and  fieiil^  It  .•  r* 
emed  by  a  maiVf,  adjoinls  (deputies),  and  •  mur.t  («'  j 
ciL  The  mayor  is  ap|M>inted  by  the  mum*  i\tml  <^  .r 
it^  own  number.  He  is  assisted  by  <me  or  ro'-r* 
who  are  appointed  in  the  same  manner,  antl  « *  ■ 
place  in  case  of  absence.  The  manicqwl  (^tum  ,.^  -4  «*.d 
the  mavor  is  the  president,  and  which  l*  i^'n»f«»«wxi  '  *-i 
10  to  ^  members  elected  by  the  inhabitAni<*  of  •-  i 
mune,  exeriMse  within  the  very  narrow  limits  of  t*  ■  a* 
deliberative  power  in  all  communal  aflairv  t^uir  j  *  'j 
de<>isions  or  deliberati<»ns  or  simple  ailvu>^.  li  r  .-  « 
nually  four  si^i^tions,  ^nerally  of  ten  da>»  <«■  ^.  1*a-  -  i 
a  8(>ecial  administration  ;  its  municifi«l  ci^uim  li  i\i  •«•  dj^^ 
bers  elects  its  president  and  vi<*e-prw*wlrnt. 

The  canton  generally  consists  of  twelve  <f  »rr.m  .»'»• 
not,  pro|>erly  speaking,  an  admipi^rmti\e  ti.^i*^  ti. 
serves  as  a  basu*  for  the  election  to  the  genermi    <«   .--      « 
to  the  council  of  the  ammdissement.     It  t^  «fw«  .&.■%] 
cianr  circumsi^ription.     Recraiting  ff»r  tbr  ann%  taa  ••  ;  ^ 
at  the  princitial  town  of  the  canton. 

The  arronaissement  tnmsists,  generally,  of  ^iz^x     m: 
It  is  govemed  by  an  under-pref« 
pn»f«H't  of  the  (lepartment.    The 
in  which  the  capital  of  the  depart 

eme<l  by  the  prefect  himself.  The  an*ler-i'r* '•*•  -  \ 
pointed  by  the  chief  of  the  state.  He  t*  •>».-.•  ■  i 
council  of  the  arrondissement,  which  0'n*i*<»  .  r  »  -i 
meml)ers  as  there  are  cantons.  It  aiwen)  !•;«*»  . 
the  prefect,  delilieratra  on  public  wtirkj^  «i»«i 
ilire<'t  contributions  upon  the  commnne. 

The  department  consists  generally  of  f<»ar  am  -e  :  -•  r-i 
and  is  the  only  division  «if  any  grril  couvei^u^K^  *■ 
minlstrative  j>c)int  of  view.    The  prrfeit,  w!».»  t^  ««r- 
ap|K>inte<i  by  the  President  of  the  reiHililu*  «)«s  *-^  r 
turn  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior.    He  n*tir«^-w  r  ••  •  •      \ 

i 


«< 


generally .  frf  ^xz^x  »,*  i 
feet,  who  rank*  r^x*.  \ 
ic  arTtiodi«««-m*  p^.  "  mwd 
lartroent  i*  miuas---    •  «j 


emment,  brings  the  laws  and  the  mint*tr— i 
execution,  supenntends  and   maintain*   pu* 
oxen'i'H^s  a  s<»rt  of  police  in»pet*lii>n  o^rr  t    #•   •   « 
introiluces  all  affairs  concerning  the  drt«r«.t.>  - 1    a, 
<'utes  the  decisions  of  the  general  ctmorii  a/'-i  .  t     ' 
mental  committee  within  the  limits  4kf   th«    l«« 
hU'rativo  jKiwer  |)ertain«  to  the  grnermJ   <-4i.n- 
of  AH  many  members  as  then*  arr  oaotittv  th     .^-    • 
than  thirty,  who  arc  elet^trd  for  ntn<»  ve*r»  ftr»l    r« 
thtnls.    It  delilN'rati«9iand  vc4e*  <«  alfiiri^n.—    -  -.^ 
in  the  interval  lietween  iti«  wanton*  it  atip^inr*  :*■  ^^ 
de|>artiuental  committor,  which  mpmAimti* 


•»-< 


I 


528 


PRANCE 


The  public  debt  amounts  to  over  80,000,000,000  francs 
($6,000,000,000). 

Juatice.— Justice  is  administered  in  the  name  of  the  chief 
of  the  state.  There  are  three  different  jurisdictions:  (1) 
The  civil  jurisdiction,  which  takes  cognizance  of  all  per- 
sonal or  real  relations  of  the  citizens.  It  is  exercised  by 
justices  of  the  peace,  of  whom  there  is  one  in  each  canton, 
who  conciliates,  if  possible,  or  decides  cases  of  minor  im- 
portance.  Above  them  are  the  civil  tribunals,  or  tribunals 
of  first  instance,  which  pronounce  annually  on  about  140,000 
cases.  There  are  138  conseih  de  prudhommes,  of  whose 
members  half  are  elected  by  the  employers  and  half  by  the 
employees,  and  who  in  the  manufactunng  towns  act  as  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  in  case^  between  employer  and  employed ; 
they  consider  annually  40,000  cases,  of  which  more  than 
two-thirds  are  conciliated.  In  the  manufacturing  and  com- 
mercial cities  there  are  222  tribunals  of  commerce,  whose 
members  are  elected,  and  which  pronounce  in  first  instance 
on  about  250,000  cases  annually,  of  which  one-fourth  are 
conciliated  and  two-thirds  closed  by  definitive  judgment. 
Above  the  civil  tribunals  and  the  tribunals  of  commerce 
there  are  twenty-six  courts  of  appeal,  which  judge  about 
12,000  cases  annually.  (2)  The  criminal  jurisdiction.  The 
simple  misdemeanore  come  before  the  tribunals  of  police. 
The  justices  of  peace  exercise  this  jurisdiction  in  3o5,000 
cases  annually.  Offenses  are  brought  before  the  tribunals 
of  correction,  which  form  a  particular  branch  of  the  civil 
tribunals,  and  which  can  administer  from  six  days'  to  five 
years'  imprisonment.  Grave  crimes  are  brought  before  the 
courts  of  assize  (3,100  to  3,700  cases  a  year),  of  which  there 
is  one  in  each  department.  Thev  are  composed  of  three 
magistrate-judges  and  a  jury.  The  jury  is  composed  of 
twelve  citizens,  who  must  be  over  thirty  years  old,  and  are 
selected  by  a  special  committee  in  each  canton,  and  subject 
to  approval  and  rejection  by  a  district  committee.  The  jury 
decides  the  point  of  fact,  the  judges  apply  the  law.  Besides 
the  magistrature  which  judges  there  is  a  mae^istrature  which 
performs  the  duty  of  public  prosecution.  To  each  court  of 
appeal  a  general  procurator  is  attached,  assisted  by  several 
advocates  or  deputies.  To  each  civil  tribunal,  and  under 
the  authority  of  the  general  procurator,  is  attached  a  pro- 
curator of  the  republic,  assisted  by  one  or  several  substi- 
tutes. At  the  police  tribunals  the  office  of  public  prose- 
cutor is  periformed  by  the  mayor  or  the  commissioner  of 
police.  The  public  prosecutor  interferes  only  exceptionally 
in  civil  cases.  In  criminal  cases,  on  the  contrary,  he  acts 
a  principal  part.  He  orders  the  investigation  of  the  offense 
or  crime,  has  the  accused  person  arrested,  superintends  the 
trial,  prosecutes  before  the  judges,  and  proceeds  with  the 
execution  of  the  verdict  given.  Above  all  the  other  tri- 
bunals is  the  court  of  cassation,  which  secures  the  exact  ap- 
plication of  the  law,  and  any  verdict  given  by  any  tribunal 
may  be  brought  before  it.  fiy  its  decrees  it  confirms  or  re- 
verses the  verdict  given,  and  m  case  of  cassation  the  suit  is 
recommenced  before  another  tribunal  instituted  by  the  court 
of  cassation.  The  convicts  receive  their  punishment,  ac- 
cording to  the  gravity  of  their  offense,  in  the  police  prisons, 
in  the  departmental  prisons,  which  also  serve  as  jails  (381 
jails,  with  room  for  25,000  inmates),  in  the  penitentiary 
colonies  for  young  convicts,  in  the  central  prisons  for  those 
sentenced  to  compulsory  labor,  in  the  houses  of  detention 
for  local  crimes,  and  in  the  penal  colonies  of  Guiana  and 
New  Caledonia.  With  the  administration  of  justice  are 
furthermore  connected  the  notaries,  who  receive  acts  and 
contracts  and  give  them  the  character  of  authority;  the 
attorneys,  who  represent  the  parties  before  the  tribunal ;  and 
the  slieriffs,  who  carry  the  summons,  serve  the  judgment, 
and  regulate  its  execution. 

PubTie  Education, — The  school  system  was  founded  by  the 
National  Convention  in  1792,  and  is  administered  by  the  com- 
mune and  the  department  under  the  general  control  of  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and  Fine  Arts,  and  a  national 
council.  Primary  instruction  is  gratuitous  and  obligatorv ;  it 
is  given  in  the  communal  schools,  which  are  under  the  direc- 
tion of  lay  teachers  appointed  by  the  prefects.  Each  commune 
of  500  inhabitants  is  obliged  to  have  a  school  for  boys  and  one 
for  girls.  There  were  more  than  5,600,000  pupils  distributed 
in  67,359  public  schools  and  14,498  free  schools  in  1890 ;  and 
besides  these  there  are  about  9,053  educational  institutions 
of  a  higher  grade,  cours  d'aduifes,  and  a  number  of  infant 
schools  which  prepare  children  under  seven  years  of  age  for 
the  primary  scnools.  The  teachers  are  educated  in  90  pri- 
mary normal  schools  for  males,  with  5,445  master  pupils, 
and  82  normal  schools  for  females,  with  3,564  pupils,  about 


one  for  each  department.  There  are,  besides,  two  higlter 
normal  schools,  one  for  each  sex.  The  secondair,  elas&ical. 
or  industrial  instruction  is  given  by  the  state  in  the  ly€:euiii>. 
by  the  communes  in  the  communal  colleges,  and  by  th^ 
clergy  or  by  laymen  in  the  seminaries.  There  were  in  l>rilJ 
107  lyceums,  which  were  generally  situated  in  the  capitAl^  of 
the  departments,  and  contained  more  than  51,000  pupiN: 
246  colleges,  with  34,000  pupils;  and  650  free  establish- 
ments, with  nearly  68,000  pupils.  For  girls  there  were  S4  ly- 
ceums, with  4,000  pupils,  and  27  colleges,  with  3,000  pupik 
The  classical  schools  give  diplomas  of  baehelier  de  Venj^fign^- 
ment  seeondaire  classique  and  hoichdier  de  VetiaeiffnemefU 
modemey  the  latter  course  substituting  the  study  of  modem 
for  that  of  the  dead  languages.  In  order  to  educate  pn*- 
fessors  the  st^te  has  established  for  the  classical  branch  t  h« 
high  normal  school,  and  for  the  industrial  branch  the  special 
normal  school  at  Cluny.  (See  Common  Schools.)  The  nigh^r 
instruction  is  given  by  the  universities  (faculUs),  of  wTiuh 
there  are  15  for  literature  and  science,  12  for  law,  7  for  the- 
ology, and  4  for  medicine.  The  universities  confer  diplomat 
of  baehelier,  lieenciij  and  docteur.  The  College  de  Pnuio- 
and  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  both  in  Paris,  reprt*- 
sent  the  independent  studies;  the  Conservatoire  de:»  Arr^ 
and  Metiers  (for  arts  and  trades),  in  Paris,  is  a  sort  of  in- 
dustrial  university. 

The  principal  schools  preparatory  for  the  civil  service  ar^- : 
(1)  in  Paris,  Tlfecole  Polytechnique,  for  officers  and  state  en- 
gineers; the  Central  School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures,  f"^ 
civil  engineers;  the  School  of  Fine  Arts,  for  painters,  sc*ui|^ 
tors,  and  architects ;  the  Conservatory  of  Music  and  iXiMa- 
mation,  for  musicians  and  actors;  the  school  for  lirtn- 
Oriental  languages.  (2)  Outside  of  Paris  there  are  thn-^ 
schools  of  the  arts  and  trades,  several  schools  of  fine  &n« 
(Dijon,  Toulouse,  etc.),  3  schools  of  agriculture,  1  of  horti- 
culture, 3  for  veterinary  surgeons,  1  for  miners  at  St.-fttiennf . 
and  1  for  mining  engineering ;  to  which  may  be  added  m*^  - 
eral  communal  and  private  institutions,  such  as  sclinols  for 
drawing,  Central  School  in  Lyons,  the  school  for  watchmak- 
ing in  Besan9on,  etc.  (8)  In  foreign  countries  the  Fivnt  h 
school  in  Rome  for  a  limited  number  of  artists,  jiaintpr«>, 
sculptors,  architects,  and  musicians,  chosen  by  competition : 
and  the  schools  of  Rome  and  Athens  for  the  study  of  anci«*n: 
literature,  to  which  the  pupils  are  chosen  from  among  t  Uk 
pupils  of  the  high  normal  school.  The  administration  ^>f 
each  of  the  sixteen  academies,  or  territorial  circumscriptiims 
of  public  instruction,  is  confided  to  a  rector  assisted  by  ar- 
academical  council.  The  rector  has  under  his  orders  an  in- 
spector of  the  academy  and  several  inspectors  of  the  primary 
instruction.  Algeria  nas  a  separate  academy.  The  instrut - 
tion  is  facilitate  by  libraries,  which  exist  in  most  of  ttie 
towns,  and  which  are  being  founded  in  the  oommmies  ni 
the  primary  schools,  in  the  regimental  schools,  and  at  th^ 
museums.  There  are  learned  societies  in  most  all  the  d<- 
partments,  and  some  of  them  have  a  hi^h  reputation.  In 
Paris  there  are,  among  others,  the  Association  Fran9aise  rx  ur 
I'Avancement  des  Sciences,  Societe  de  G^graphie,  de  G*^  .- 
ogie,  d* Anthropologic,  Association  Polyt«5hni<jue,  S>oi. >•. 
d  Agriculture,  etc.,  besides  several  great  public  instituti«.'n>. 
such  as  the  Observatory,  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes.  th» 
Medical  Academy,  and  I'Institut  de  Prance,  compoe>ed  «.-' 
five  academies  (Academic  Fran9aise,  des  Inscriptions  *-\ 
Belles-Lettres,  des  Sciences,  des  Beaux-Arts,  des  Soien<»*^ 
Morales  et  Politic^ues),  each  of  which  contains  40  meniUo 
(Academic  des  Sciences  66)  chosen  by  the  members  thcn..- 
selves. 

The  military  schools  are  T^^cole  speciale  militaire,  of  S:.- 
Cyr,  for  the  infantry  and  the  cavalry ;  r£cole  d'applicati  •: 
de  Tartillerip  et  du  g^nie,at  Fontainebleau ;  r£cole  d'app::* 
cation  de  ca valeric,  at  Saumur,  for  officers  and  for  undrr- 
officers  proposed  for  the  rank  of  officers ;  r£cole  de  m^ioini 
et  pharmacie  militaire,  at  Val-de-Grfice,  at  Paris;  r£ii>]t 
d'application  des  poudres  et  saltpetres;  Tifecole  mililiiir^ 
d'infantrie,  of  St.-Maixent,  and  TEcole  militaire  d'artilK'no 
et  du  genie,  at  Versailles,  both  intended  for  under-ofHcn  r^ 
proposed,  on  examination,  for  the  rank  of  officers.  Therr 
are  also  numerous  technical  schools,  such  as  I'^cole  d''atim:- 
nistration,  at  Vincennes ;  T^cole  normale  de  gymnast  iqu«>. 
I'Ecoles  regionales  de  tir,  T^coles  regimentairesde  rartilUnr 
et  du  genie,  etc. ;  above  all  these  scihools,  I'ficole  superieu^J 
de  guerre,  at  Paris,  which  trains  officers,  captains,  sub-livu> 
tenants,  for  the  brevet  d'^tat-major.  Le  Prytanee  militAirt 
de  la  Fleche,  a  kind  of  military  lyceum,  receives  the  sons  of 
indigent  officers  and  of  sub-officers  killed  in  battle.     The 


530 


FRANCE,  HISTORY  OP 


govern  these  forty  vassals  the  task  might  prove  diflBcult 
enough,  and  it  became  fatal  to  any  one  who  besides  had 
Qotho-Germanic  ambitions.  When,  at  the  death  of  Louis 
V.  in  987,  the  vassals  passed  by  the  proper  heir,  Charles  of 
Lorraine,  because  he  had  ^iven  his  allegiance  to  the  German 
emperor,  and  chose  for  king  Hugh  Capet,  Count  of  Paris, 
Duke  of  France,  and  founder  of  the  Capetian  djTiasty, 
there  was  a  French  nation,  but  there  was  hardly  a  French 
kingdom  in  existence. 

The  consolidation  of  the  royal  power  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  feudal  monarchy  are  me  leading  ideas  in  the 
history  of  Prance  under  the  two  following  dynasties — ^the 
house  of  Capet,  from  987  to  1328,  and  its  collateral  branch, 
the  house  of  VaJois,  from  1328  to  1589.  Not  that  they  are 
the  sole  motives  in  all  the  various  events  which  crowd  its 
pages  during  this  period,  but  they  are  the  common  result 
of  them  all.  The  crusades  acted  chiefly  as  a  vent  for  the 
romantic  ambition  of  the  feudal  lords,  and  as  a  means  of 
rallying  them  around  the  person  of  the  king.  The  Church 
was  usually  an  ally  of  the  crown,  and  for  the  time  from 
1309  to  1377,  while  the  pope  resided  at  Avignon  and  two 
oecumenical  councils  were  held  here  in  1326  and  1377,  even 
a  very  submissive  ally.  The  Reformation  was  actually  used 
as  a  means  of  curbing  and  destroying  the  heads  of  the 
nobility,  and  the  very  moment  it  became  a  partv  against  the 
absolute  power  of  the  king  it  was  crushed.  The  wars  with 
England  and  Austria  were  thoroughly  dynastical,  and  could 
not  help  attaching  a  particular  importance  to  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  dynasty.  The  development  of  the  cities 
was  furthered  and  privileges  were  granted  to  the  burghers, 
so  far  as  to  enable  the  third  estate  to  fonn  an  effective  op- 
position to  the  nobility,  but  not  so  far  as  to  make  it  capable 
of  checking  the  royal  power.  And  even  the  nobility  itself 
was  made  a  monarchical  instrument.  It  lost  its  power,  but 
not  its  splendor.  It  was  transformed  from  a  feudal  aris- 
tocracy into  a  court  nobility.  And  it  is  this  transition  from 
the  feudal  to  the  absolute  monarchy,  together  with  the  con- 
sequences following  therefrom,  which  gives  the  history  of 
France  its  paramount  importance  in  the  history  of  Europe. 
How  early  a  powerful  national  feeling  was  cleveloped  in 
France  was  shown  under  Louis  VI.  (1108-37).  In  the  long 
wars  which  he  waged  against  Henry  I.  of  England  about 
Normandy,  which  by  the  Norman  comjuest  of  England 
threatened  to  become  lost  to  the  French  crown,  Henry  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  a  formidable  alliance  with  the  Ger- 
man emperor.  But,  although  the  relations  between  the 
French  king  and  the  French  vassals — the  Counts  of  Flan- 
ders, Champagne,  Lyons,  Provence,  Toulouse,  etc. — were 
very  loose,  in  tiiis  emergency  an  army  of  200,000  men  was 
immediately  formed  for  the  defense  of  France.  Louis  VI. 
was  a  sagacious  ruler.  He  abolished  serfdom  in  his  own 
territories,  and  formed  his  cities  with  their  adjacent  dis- 
tricts into  corporations.  But  by  his  example  he  compelled 
his  neighbors  to  do  the  same,*  and  thus  ne  sowed  a  very 
fertile  seed  of  opposition  to  the  feudal  lords  among  their 
own  subjects.  Philip  Augustus  (1180-1223)  took  the  first 
steps  toward  centralization,  and  took  them  successfully. 
He  formed  a  chamber  of  peers,  a  sort  of  council  of  state, 
consisting  of  six  secular  and  six  ecclesiastical  members, 
which  tended  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  actions  of  the 
king  and  his  vassals ;  and  he  established  the  right  of  ap- 
peal from  the  deciision  of  the  feudal  lord  to  the  royal  court ; 
which  measure,  in  the  course  of  time,  seriously  impaired 
the  influence  of  the  lord.  Meanwhile  the  crown  grew 
richer.  Philip  Augustus  conquered  Normandy,  Maine,  Tou- 
raine,  and  Poitou  from  the  English  after  the  battle  of 
Bouvines  in  1214 ;  Philip  III.  (1270-85)  acquired  Toulouse 
and  Venaissin  by  negotiation ;  and  Philip  IV.  (1285-1314) 
received  Navarre,  Champagne,  and  Brie  by  marriage.  This 
latter  prince  could  afford  to  treat  the  order  of  the  Templars 
in  the  most  arbitrary  and  despotic  manner,  and  on  one  oc- 
casion, when  the  nobles  pressed  him  too  hard,  he  baffled  all 
their  exertions  by  convoking  for  the  first  time  (Mar.  28, 
1302)  that  important  assembly  which  came  to  be  known  in 
French  history  as  the  States  General,  which  was  made  up  of 
representatives  of  the  three  estates  :  the  first  the  clergy,  the 
second  the  nobility,  and  the  third  the  free  cities.  On  the 
accession  to  the  French  throne  of  the  house  of  Valois,  in 
1328,  with  Philip  VI.,  nephew  of  Philip  IV.,  the  terrible 
wars  with  England  began,  the  English  king,  Edward  III., 
claiming  the  crown  of  France  as  a  grandson  of  Philip  IV. 
These  wars  are  known  as  "  the  Hundred  Years'  war."  But 
when  at  last  the  Maid  of  Orleans  succeeded  in  rousing  the 
national  feeling  to  an  unconquerable  pitch,  and  carried,  in 


1429,  Charles  VII.  to  Reims  to  be  crowned,  all  the  enthu-'  »-- 
of  the  people  was  concentrated  on  the  person  of  tin-  ki  . 
In  spite  of  all  the  incapacity  and  corruption  which  n«>  i 
had  exhibited  in  Prance  during  these  hundred  vears.  i: 
become  very  dear  to  the  French  people ;  and  afthout'h  ; 
sons  like  Louis  XI.  (1461-83)  and  Catharine  de  Medic.  «• 
actually  governed  France  during  the  reign  of  her  thnv  >  t 
Francis  11.  (1559-60),  Charles  IX.  (1560-74).  and  Henn  V 
(1574-89),  were  not  fit  to  make  royalty  charming  to  the  rur 
of  the  people,  they  were  eminently  nt  to  make  it  rp>p  ■ 
and  feared.    Charles  IX.  had  the  principal  leaders  i>t  • 
Protest antpartv  murdered  at  the  massacre  of  St.  Ban  . 
mew  in  1572 ;  Henry  III.  had  the  principal  leaders  of  thr  f: 
man  Catholic  party  murdered  one  after  the  other.     Wh»  l 
1689)  Henry  I V.  ascended  the  throne  and  founded  the  B- 
bon  dynasty,  he  was  obliged  to  devote  the  principal  eiir  r . 
of  the  state  to  the  difficult  task  of  establishing  ham 
between  the  Roman  Catholics  and  the  Prot-estants,    It  ■- 
to  this  end  that  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (q,  vA  was  pr-  • 
gated  in  1598.    Immediately  after  the  death  of  Henrv  l\ 
1610,  however,  troubles  broke  out  anew.    The  kin^.  I 
XIII.,  was  but  a  boy,  and  was  ruled  by  his  mother.  Miiri 
Medicis.    But  about  1622  a  great  master  of  statecraft  i  •  : 
to  attract  the  attention  of  the  country.    Cardinal  K 
LIEU  (a,  v.),  dominated  by  three  great  political  idea>, '  • 
trolled  France  until  1642.    All  his  energies  were  dir. 
toward  subduing  the  political  power  of  the  nobles,  l>^a^  . 
the  predominant  power  of  Austria,  and  destroyinjr  tlh  : 
litical  power  of  the  Protestants.    These  three  i')urtte«r5^  t 
be  found  to  furnish  the  key  to  all  his  acts.     Whili'  h'  - 
successful  he  laid  the  foundation  for  the  authority  of  L  ^ 
XIV. 

During  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  'l«>i- 
1715)  France  was  eminently  prosperous,  and  held  the  il  - 
prominent  place  not  only  in  European  politico,  hut  in  K . 
ropean  civilization.    Louvois  and  Colljert   were  eX'>  ' 
ministers;  the  treasury  was  full;  commerce  and  iinhsr 
flourished ;  the  army  and  navy  were  in  an  effective  <'..•• 
Turenne,  CJond^,  ana  Luxembourg  achieved  great  \  id< :  - 
and  new  provinces  were  added  to  the  kingdom.    Tlu-  iv. 
was  exceeaingly  prodigal,  but  his  prodigality  was  »< 
panied  by  an  elegance  and  taste  which  spread  a  mactii^  * 
and  even  blindm^  radiance  around  him;  all  other  L:.^ 
tried  to  imitate  him.    Comeille,  Hacine,  Moliere,  R  i- 
Bossuet,  and  Fenelon  had  the  ear  of  the  world,  and  i  • 
tated  the  taste  in  all   other  literatures.    But  after  >  - 
years  the  true  character  of  the  absolute  monarch v  \*^^ 
apparent.    In  1685  the  kin^  revoked  the  Edict  of  Xm  ' 
Thereby  the  guaranty  of  religious  freetlom  which  wiL> :: 
to  the  Protestants  by  Henry  IV.  in  1508  was  de^tn♦vt*ll.  v 
persecutions  immediately  be^an.    Thousands  of  tlu-  i  - 
industrious  and  intelligent  citizens  of  France  wen*  t'\ 
Some  of  the  most  prosperous  branches  of  French  in.lu  "• 
stopped ;  the  revenues  decreased,  and  an  uneasy  f-  •    - 
crept  into  the  hearts  of  the  people.    The  king's  prc«litn. 
however,  did  not  decrease  with   his  dirainisnea  n-x-t  t^ 
on  the  contrary,  his  passion  for  stupendous  buildin?^  i  ■ 
gorgeous   court   magnificence  grew   stronger  as  he  ^'^• 
older.    His  second  war  (from   1689  to  1697)  was  n«»t  - 
cessful,  and  in  his  last  (from  1700  to  1713)  failure  f«ii«  • 
failure.    Both  were  begun  for  reasons  of  mere  variii>.-' 
although  his  armies  were 'defeated  time  after  time,  hi^  *" 
gance  did  not  abate.    In  many  districts  of  Prance  r><"i  * 
gan  to  become  scarce,  but  the  king  heeded  it  not.    ^Vi-- 
he  died  he  left  a  debt  of  3,500,000,000  livres,  a  o'ut  ' 
utterly  exhausted,  a  court  more  demoralized  and  nnr 
pensive  than  any  other  institution  that  modem  i  iv- 
tion  had  ever  seen,  and  a  people  deeply  discontented,  tli  - 
perhaps  as  yet  unconscious  of  the  reasons  of  its  dbi^t»f '  ' 
Under  his  successors,  Louis  XV.  (1716-74)  and  Ijouis  A^- 
(1774-93),  the  consciousness  came,  and  with  it  the  crisis 

The  French  court  was  the  government  of  France,    Tf  - 
was  no  constitution,  and  such  fragments  of  a  con^Jtit'.' 
as  existed  were  either  out  of  working  order  on  atrfui.: 
disuse — ^the  States  General  had  not  been  summoned  "■" 
1614,  the  assembly  of  the  notables  not  since  the  first  yt»'  • 
Louis  XIII.,  the  Parliament  of  Paris  had  not  met  witl- 1 1 
authority  under  Louis  XIV.— or  if  capable  of  workinir. '' 


justice  by 

governed  France  by  the  court  and  a  great  retinue  of  •  i^ 
cials ;  250,000  were  employed  to  gather  the  land  and  in*-"  ' 
tax  alone.     There  were  about  4,000  offices  which  coiif«  rr^ 


532 


FRANCE.  HISTORY  OP 


FRANCHISE 


five,  and  the  insurrection  against  this  new  constitution, 
brought  about  by  the  intri^es  of  the  radical  democrats  and 
the  royalists,  was  successfully  put  down  by  the  young  gen- 
eral Bonaparte ;  the  mob  of  Paris  was  disarmed  Oct.  5. 

The  situation  of  the  Directory  was,  nevertheless,  by  no 
means  easy.  From  without  it  was  attacked  by  Great  Brit- 
ain, Austria,  and  Russia.  But  it  offered  a  vigorous  and 
successful  resistance  to  its  enemies  in  the  field.  Bv  regular 
conscription  it  brought  200,000  men  into  the  field.  The 
war  was  everywhere  carried  on  in  the  enemy's  territory,  and 
the  armies  of  the  young  republic  seemed  to  be  unconquer- 
able. Foreign  countries  were  subdued,  and  French  ideas  were 
impressed  on  Europe,  not  by  mere  eloquence,  but  by  the  aid 
of  arms.  In  deahn^  with  its  domestic  foes,  however,  the 
government  of  the  Directory  was  much  less  successful.  La 
Vendue  was  still  in  uproar,  and  when  more  peaceful  and 
conciliatory  measures  were  adopted  the  royalists  returned 
and  began  their  intrigues.  At  the  election  of  1797  they 
gained  the  majority  in  the  representation,  and  the  Govern- 
ment had  to  use  very  harsh — ^not  to  say  terroristic — means 
in  order  to  save  itself.  The  Tuileries  was  surrounded  with 
troop  and  cannons,  and  the  royalist  members  were  arrested. 
Their  election  was  declared  illegal,  and  they  were  banished 
from  the  country.  Also  the  financial  difficulties  proved  too 
great  for  the  Government.  In  spite  of  the  enormous  sums 
which  it  drew  from  Belgium,  (Jermany,  and  Italy,  the  Di- 
rectory was  unable  to  pay  the  public  debt.  It  had  to  de- 
clare the  state  bankrupt  and  repudiate  two-thirds  of  its 
obligations.  Under  these  circumstances  there  arose  a  gen- 
eral feeling  of  the  necessity  of  concentrating  the  Government 
in  one  single  individual,  and  when  (Nov.  9, 1799)  G^n.  Bona- 
parte overthrew  the  government  of  the  Directory  by  mili- 
tary force  and  gasped  the  reins  himself,  most  people  in 
France  approved  of  the  measure.  From  the  overthrow  of 
the  Directory  to  the  defeat  at  Waterloo,  June  18, 1815,  Na- 
poleon was  the  absolute  ruler  of  France — first  as  consul 
(Dec.  27, 1799),  then  as  emperor  (Dec.  2,  1804).  His  reign 
was  the  most  brilliant  period  of  French  history.  An  unin- 
terrupted series  of  great  victories — Marengo,  Austerlitz, 
Jena,  Wam-am — ^made  France  the  undisputed  arbiter  in  Eu- 
ropean pcuitics,  removed  her  frontiers  to  the  Elbe  and  the 
Aariatic  Sea,  and  turned  a  stream  of  gold  and  treasure  into 
her  lap.  This  changed,  of  course,  after  the  catastrophe  in 
Russia  (1812),  the  battle  of  Leipzig  (Oct.  19,  1813),  and  the 
abdication  (Apr.  4, 1814).  (See  J^apolbon  I.)  Nevertheless, 
in  spite  of  the  humiliations  and  the  exhaustion  which  those 
years  brought  along  with  them,  France  was  not  simply  re- 
covering, but  actually  developing  during  the  period  from 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  in  1815,  to  their  final  ex- 
pulsion, in  1830 — that  is,  in  the  reigns  of  Louis  XVIII.  and 
Charles  X.  But  the  Bourbons  had  learnt  nothing  and  for- 
gotten nothing  during  their  exile  of  more  than  twenty  years ; 
and  when,  under  their  hands,  the  reaction  gradually  assumed 
the  character  of  arbitrariness  and  despotism,  the  revolution 
broke  out,  July  25, 1830.  It  ended  with  a  mere  change  of 
dynasty,  but  Louis  Philippe  also  proved  unsuccessful  in 
quieting  the  restless  spirit  of  the  French  people.  His  so- 
cifdled  policy  of  resistance  provoked  another  revolution, 
Feb.  5, 1848,  and  he  had  to  flee.  It  was  evident  that  the 
spirit  of  revolution  was  still  a  very  powerful  force  in  the 
French  nation.  It  was  the  presence  of  this  spirit  which 
gave  the  rich  and  comfortable  middle  class  of  the  French 
people  a  dread  of  the  future,  and  enabled  Napoleon  III.  to 
trample  down  the  republic  (Dec.  2, 1851)  and  establish  a  new 
monarchy  (Dec.  2, 1852).  It  should  also  be  noticed  that  one 
of  the  most  effective  means  which  the  new  ruler  employed 
to  keep  down  the  political  aspirations  of  the  people  and  sup- 
port his  own  despotism  was  just  this  very  aread  for  what 
seemed  to  l)e  the  last  consequences  of  liberalism.  Seldom, 
however,  has  a  political  undertaking  of  any  magnitude  end- 
ed in  so  shameful  a  manner  as  the  reign  of  Napoleon  III. 
After  the  Prussian  victory  of  Sedan  (see  Feanco-German 
Wae)  it  became  more  and  more  apparent  that  his  whole  for- 
eign policy  had  been  a  senseless  casting  about  for  the  mere 
purpose  of  producing  or  sustaining  an  iUusion.  The  humili- 
ation of  Seaan  was  followed  by  the  paroxysm  of  the  Com- 
mune. The  republic  established  in  1870  after  the  deposition 
of  Napoleon  III.  has  lasted  longer  than  any  former  attempt 
at  establishing  a  republic  in  France.  Under  the  presidencies 
of  Thiers  and  MacMahon  events  were  often  stormy  enough. 
Royalist  plots,  legitimists,  Orleariists,  and  BonaT)artists  were 
much  spoken  of.  Under  the  presidency  of  Grevy  the  limes 
were  calmer.  Under  that  of  C*aniot  great  financial  scandals 
connected  with  the  Panama  Canal  scheme  have  been  brought 


to  light,  and  at  times  the  Government  has  seemed  to  bie  i: 
peril.  Turbulent  spirits  have  exerted  undue  influence.  !>•:'- 
ing  this  period  the  foreign  policy  of  France  has  limited  ix-^i: 
to  colonization  and  to  the  development  of  its  milit.ar>  r*< 
sources  with  a  view  to  the  possible  recovery  of  the  proving  *- 
lost  in  the  Franco-German  war.  In  internal  affairs  niucL 
has  been  done  for  the  improvement  of  all  grades  of  edu'Ti- 
tion. 

Authorities. — Of  the  works  narrating  nearly  or  quit*.*  ih. 
entire  history  of  France  the  most  important  are  Marti:.. 
Hiatoire  de  France  (16  vols.,  1855-60);  Michelet,  BUt'j^rr 
de  France  (17  vols.,  1833-66);  and  Guizot,  Hisiairt  d^ 
France  (6  vols.,  1870).  Of  Martin  and  Michelet  gart>  <»r.I^ 
have  been  translated  and  published  in  English.  Ouizot  np^ 
peared  in  English  simultaneously  with  the  French  edit:  >'i 
Of  works  on  special  periods  Guizot's  Histoired^  Civilisafv.^, 
en  France  (also  in  English)  is  of  the  first  importance  for  tL: 
period  of  the  Middle  Ages.  For  the  same  period  Coulangt:'*  * 
Miatoire  dea  Insiitutiona  politiquea  en  France  is  also  verr 
important.  For  the  period  of  tne  Reformation  the  work>  'f 
Mignet,  Baird,  Poole,  White,  Freer,  Segretain,  Poirson.  K«>»- 
son,  and  Chdruel  are  important.  For  the  period  of  t:. 
Revolution  the  number  oi  works  is  too  great  for  enamcr.-*- 
tion.  Of  the  first  importance,  however,  are  the  writing  •  f 
Lanfrey,  Tocqueville,  Thiers,  Blanc,  Taine,  von  SyUl. 
Mignet,  Alison,  Carlyle,  and  Jung.  For  the  goist-revMlr.- 
tionary  period  the  most  useful  works  are  Viel-Castel,  li**- 
toire  de  la  Reatauration;  Blanc,  Iliatoire  de  IHz  An.-. 
HiUebrand,  GeachichteFrankretchavonder  Thnmhetttic^n  % 
Louia  Philippea  bia  zum  FaUe  Napoleon  III,'  Guiz"'  • 
and  Toc(meville's  Memoira;  Delord,  Hiatoire  du  Stf"h'' 
Empire  \  Jerrold,  Life  of  Napoleon  III.:  Van  LaunV  7>' 
French  Mevolutionary  Epoch ;  and  Adams*s  Democracy  n-J 
Monarchy  in  France.  For  a  fuller  bibliography,  see  Adanis'^ 
Manual  of  Hiatorical  Literature. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Francesca,  frf&n-ches'k&,  Pxetro,  della:  painter:  b. 
at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  in  Italy,  in  1808.  He  was  aAso  call*ni 
Pietro  Borghese  after  his  father.  He  first  painted  sieTt>n>. 
small  pictures  for  the  Duke  of  Urbino,  whicn  excite<l  givAt 
admiration.  He  then  went  to  Pesaro,  Ancona,  and  Fermn 
where  he  decorated  many  rooms  in  the  old  palace,  now  at^ 
stroyed.  At  Ferrara  tliere  are  only  the  frescoes  of  th^ 
chapel  of  St.  Augustine  still  remaining,  and  they  n'^ 
spoiled  by  the  damp.  Nicholas  V.  invited  him,  togetiicr 
with  Bramante,  to  work  in  the  Vatican,  and  here  his  rnvm 
was  also  destroyed,  as  Raphael  painted  over  the  fre.<<4>o^ 
After  executing  his  commission  in  Rome  Francesca  return-*, 
to  Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  where  he  produced  exquisite  work, 
as  also  at  Arezzo  and  at  Loreto,  with  Domenico  Veneziaii* 
This  great  painter  lost  his  eyesight  at  the  f^  of  sixty,  si 

fave  nimself  up  to  the  study  of  mathematics.  He  was'  t  n- 
rst  to  lay  down  the  principles  of  perspective  and  to  :r-  i- 
tate  in  painting  different  effects  of  light,  to  note  int<  i..- 
gently  the  muscles  in  the  nude  figure,  to  prepare  modi- 1 >  u 
clay  to  paint  the  figures  from,  and  to  stuuy  draperr  . 
them  by  putting  it  on  wet.    D.  in  1484.    W,  J.  Stujjc  i>\ 

Franche-Comt^,  fraansh'kon'ta' :  one  of  the  old  pruviL'.-  > 
of  Eastern  France ;  now  divided  into  the  three  depart  mr  :.:^ 
of  Doubs,  Haate-Sa6ne,  and  Jura. 

FranchlBe  [from  0.  Fr.  franchiae,  freedom,  nrivil^  jv  . 
deriv.  of /ranc, /rancAf,  free,  whence  Eng. /miU*]:  in  K* 
a  particular  privilege  conferred  by  government  on  imlivvi- 
uals  or  corporations  which  does  not  belong  to  the  eiiij'  .^ 
of  a  country  generally  by  common  right.    In  Great  Brit  ^  t 
the  varieties  of  franchise  are  verv  numerous,  and  inri'..' 
such  righte  as  these :  to  have  wrecks,  est  rays,  treasunvtr*  -** 
or  forfeitures;  to  hold  fairs  or  markets;  to  establish  ar  : 
maintain  ferries ;  to  have  a  forests,  chase,  park,  warrt'ti,    • 
fishery,  etc.    In  the  U.  S.  the  classes  of  these  special  it!>i 
leges  are  greatly  reduced  in  number,  and  they  are,  aln.i< 
without  exception,  vested  in  corporations.    The  nio:<>t   u>  .  x. 
and  important  are  the  privileges  of  maintaining  ferr^*^. 
bridges,  turnpikes,  railways,  telegraph  and  telephone  lii.  •^. 
and  the  right  to  be  a  corporation  for  any  purpose. 

Nature  of  a  Franchiae. — ^A  franchise  "is  created  either  r\ 
express  legislative  grant  or  by  prescription,  which  pn*^-; 
poses  a  grant,  and  hence  is  of  tne  nature  of  an  agret-^m* 
or  contract  between  the  State  and  the  grantee  or  pos^st  v^  - 
of  the  franchise,  and  the  latter  thereby  assumes  certain  •  ^ 
ligations  as  a  consideration  for  the  rights  which  the  forv  .^ 
confers  upon  him.    The  rights  accruing  under  this  eontr.. 
are  generally  included  in  law  among  incorporeal  here^bta- 


534 


FRANCIA 


Madonna  in  oil-color.  Giovanni  Bentivoglio,  admiring  this 
picture,  made  him  paint  him  another  Madonna  for  one  of  his 
chapels,  and  invitea  him,  together  with  other  Ferrarese  mas- 
ters, to  paint  in  his  palace.  He  soon  became  a  famous  and 
very  popular  painter,  and  received  commissions  from  Lom- 
bardy  and  Tuscany,  while  his  works  in  his  own  country  are 
very  numerous.  His  Madonna  pictures  were  especially  fa- 
mous. He  died  in  1517. — His  son  Giacomo,  bom  at  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  his  father's  pupil,  and  his  works 
are  sometimes  taken  for  Francesco's.         W.  J.  Stillman. 

Francia,  fraan'see-a^  or  (Span,  pron.)  fraan'theV&,  Jost 
Gaspar  Rodbiouez,  called  Dr.  Francia:  dictator;  b.  in 
Asuncion,  Paraguay,  in  1761.  His  father  was  a  Brazilian 
named  Franca,  who  had  settled  near  Asuncion.  Jos^  Gas- 
par  graduated  in  canon  law  at  the  University  of  Cordova, 
and  became  an  advocate  in  his  native  town,  holding  some 
minor  public  offices;  he  acquired  a  reputation  for  great 
learning  among  the  ignorant  people,  but  attained  no  real 
distinction  before  his  fiftieth  year.  When  Paraguay  re- 
volted a^inst  its  Spanish  governor  (May  15,  1811),  Francia 
was  made  a  member  of  the  governmental  junta :  he  quickly 
became  the  leader,  and  from  that  time  was  virtually  ruler 
of  Paraguay.  The  countrv  formally  separated  from  Buenos 
A)Tes  Oct.  12,  1811,  and  Francia  and  Fulgencio  Yegros 
were  chosen  consuls.  Y6gros,  from  the  first,  was  a  cipher 
in  the  government.  In  1814  Francia  was  made  dictator  for 
three  years,  and  in  1817  dictator  for  life.  He  ruled  as  an 
absolute  despot,  without  ministers,  and  with  no  other  law 
than  his  own  will.  Business  and  agriculture  were  managed 
as  he  directed,  and  in  fact  the  whole  country  was  treatedf  as 
a  private  domain  and  the  people  as  serfs.  His  policy  was 
to  cut  off  Paraguay  from  intercourse  with  the  outside  world, 
and  to  make  it  self-supporting;  to  this  end  foreign  com- 
merce was  almost  prohibited;  Paraguayans  were  not  al- 
lowed to  leave  the  country,  and  the  few  foreigners  who 
entered  it  were  kept  there  for  years.  Several  real  or  imag- 
ined conspiracies  against  him*  were  put  down  by  the  im- 
prisonment and  execution  without  trial  of  scores  of  persons. 
His  own  friends  were  persecuted.  D.  in  Asuncion,  Sept.  20, 
1840.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Franciabigio,  fr&n-chak-bee'jd.  properly  Francesco  di 
Cristofano:  a  Florentine  painter;  b.  1482;  a  pupil  of  Al- 
bertinelli.  He  afterwanl  bnecame  an  imitator  of  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  and  in  a  friendly  way  often  tried  to  compete  with  him. 
In  the  cloister  of  the  Annunziata  he  painted  a  Marriage  of 
Our  Lady  beside  certain  works  of  Andrea,  which  compared 
well  with  them,  though  it  was  never  finished,  for  the  monks 
angered  him  by  uncovering  it  before  the  right  time,  and  he 
injured  it  with  a  hammer  and  left  it  unfinished.  At  Scalzo  and 
Poggia  a  Caiano  his  work  was  again  executed  beside  that  of 
Andrea,  and  although  he  does  not  equal  him,  no  one  can  deny 
his  having  great  gifts.    D.  in  1524.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Fran'ciUon,  Robert  Edward  :  novelist ;  b.  in  Gloucester, 
England,  in  1841.  He  was  graduated  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1862,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1864.  Of  his 
numerous  novels  the  best  known  is  Under  Sliet^e-ban  (1881). 

Francis  I. :  King  of  France ;  b.  at  Cognac,  Sept.  12, 14d4; 
son  of  Charles,  Count  of  Angouleme ;  siicceedea  his  cousin 
and  father-in-law,  Louis  XII.,  Jan.  1,  1515.  In  the  follow- 
ing July  he  set  out  for  the  cooquest  of  the  Milanese  territory. 
He  won  the  great  battle  of  Marignano,  the  "  battle  of  the 
giants  "  (Sept.  14-15),  and  was  knighted  on  the  field  by  Bay- 
ard. In  1519  began  his  rivalry  with  Charles  V.  in  the  con- 
test for  the  imperial  crown  and  the  control  of  Italy.  In 
June,  1520.  he  met  Henry  VIII.  of  England  on  "the  field 
of  the  cloth  of  gold,"  between  Guisnes  and  Ardres.  In  1522 
he  Ixjgan  the  war  against  the  emperor,  the  pope,  and  Eng- 
land, most  unwiselv  attacking  at  once  Navarre  and  the  Neth- 
erlands. Pros{)er  Colonna,  at  the  head  of  the  Italian  troops, 
rapidly  dispossessed  Francis  of  his  Italian  possessions,  ex- 
cept C^remona ;  the  French  were  routed  in  Navarre ;  and  on 
the  eastern  frontier  the  only  advantage  was  the  check  given 
to  Charles  at  Mezieres.  Meanwhile,  the  English  invaded  the 
north ;  the  constable  Bourlwn  went  over  to  the  enemy;  Bon- 
nivet  was  driven  out  of  Italv ;  Bayarti  was  slain,  Provence 
overrun  by  the  Germans,  and  the  queen  died.  Francis,  how- 
ever, rapidly  cleared  Provence  of  his  enemies,  and  followed 
them  into  Piedmont,  but  was  defeated  and  captured  at  the 
great  battle  of  Pavia,  in  1525.  He  was  kept  a  close  prisoner 
at  Madrid  for  one  year ;  but  England,  Venice,  Rome,  and 
Genoa  demanding  liis  release,  the  emperor  liberated  him, 
after  exacting  the  most  humiliating  conditions.  The  war 
was  at  once  renewed  in  Italy ;  Rome  was  sacked  by  the  con- 


FRANCIS  FERDINAND 

stable  Bourbon,  the  pope  imprisoned,  but  the  French  ancr 
under  Lautrec  was  destroyea  before  Naples  by  a  loathe  n  >- 
disease  hitherto  unknown  in  Europe.  In  Mav,  152il.  \f"\:. 
parties  were  exhausted,  and  the  Peace  of  Cambray  euMJt-L 
though  the  war  broke  out  afresh  in  1534  and  15^,  each  liuj. 
with  apparent  but  not  permanent  advantage  to  France.  1 1.^- 
latter  part  of  the  king  s  rei^  was  marked  by  terrible  p»"->«- 
cutions  of  the  Protestants,  in  which  many  tnousands  of  :i> 
subjects  were  either  slain  or  banished.  Francis  died  at  Ham- 
bouillet.  Mar.  31,  1547. 

Francis  II. :  of  France;  b.  at  Fontaineblean,  Jan.  19.  \'y^<: 
the  son  and  successor  of  Henry  II. ;  in  1558  married  Man 
Queen  of  Scots,  the  niece  of  the  Guises,  who  when  ho  {r.i:\* 
to  the  throne  in  1559  swayed  completely  the  policy  of 'l.t 
court,  and  renewed  the  persecution  of  the  Huguenots,  e?- 
pecially  after  the  discovery  of  the  conspiracy  of  AmUw. 
The  reign  is  taken  up  with  court  intrigues,  in  whirh  •>.  * 

?[ueen -mother,  Catharine  de  Medici,  and  tne  Guises  stni^rj: » ' 
or  the  mastery,  which  the  former  finally  secured  at  Lj- 
time  of  the  king^s  fatal  illness.  Francis  died  at  Orleans,  I)t^-. 
5, 1560. 

Francis  I.:  Eniperor  of  Germany;  b.  Dec.  8,  ITf)'^:  -i. - 
ceeded  his  father,  Leopold,  as  Duke  of  Lorraine  in  I7i9.  a  A 
in  1735  received  Tuscany  in  exchange  for  Lorraine.  In  \l-»> 
he  married  the  Archduchess  Maria  Theresa.  In  1741  f- 
was  declared  co-regent  with  his  wife,  and  in  1745  wa**  cli""^': 
emperor.  Most  of  his  attention  was  given  to  Tuscany,  aii. 
Maria  Theresa  was  the  true  sovereign  in  Germany.  I),  a 
Innspruck,  Aug.  18, 1765. 

Francis  II.  of  Germany  and  I.  of  Austria:  son  of  Ix^^ 
pold  II.  and  grandson  of  Francis  I. ;  b.  at  Florence,  F^-b.  \:, 
1768 ;  succeeded  his  father  in  1792,  in  which  year  war  wn.- 
declared  against  him  by  France  at  the  beginning  of  t:.- 
Revolution.     Napoleon's  brilliant  operations  in  N(»rtb>r^ 
Italy  followed,  and  the  Treatv  of  Campo  Formio  HTiC 
robbed  him  of  Belgium,  the  Milanese,  and  part  of  the  \i\  >  - 
provinces.    In  1799-1800  he  joined  Russia  and  Great  BrUai- 
m  another  war,  but  Moreau  in  Germany  and  Napoletu  r 
Italy  (Marengo,  June  14)  brought  this  war  to  a  termiD.it  i 
favorable  to  France  in  1801.    In  1804  Francis  took  the  t"  • 
of  Emperor  of  Austria,  joined  the  third  coalition  of  l*^*''! 
and  was  comjselled  by  the  calamities  of  Ulm  and  Au^lH^.  ; 
to  renounce  his  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany  (1806),  ii'ir»i  i-  r 
with  his  claim  to  Venice  and  the  Tyrol.    This  was  ih»  • '  : 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.    In  1810  his  daughter.  Mr » 
Louisa,  was  ^ven  by  him  in  marriage  to  Napoleon.    H' 
joined  the  allies,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Ijcipzii:  ai  -: 
the  occupation  of  France  in  1813.    Napoleon's  final  ••>•:- 
throw  left  Francis  stronger  than  ever  before.     He  becaii^t  a 
leading  figure  in  the  Holv  Alliance,  and  Austria*s  name  ^  « 
for  years  after  the  symbol  of  despotism  and  reaction  apilLs' 
liberal  politics.    D.  at  Vienna,  Mar.  2, 1835. 

Francis  I. :  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies ;  b.  at  Naplet«,  A  -• 
19, 1777;  became  Duke  of  Calabria  in  1799;  8ucce<\lt^l  ..  • 
father,  Ferdinand  I.,  in  1825,  having  previously  bt'en  a->'  - 
ciated  with  the  constitutionalist  and  revolutionary  uarty..ii: ' 
attempted  constitutional  government  in  Sicily."  5Cevertr.t~ 
less,  his  reign  was  one  of  cruel  tyranny  and  oo'rruptiou.  l» 
at  Naples,  Dec.  8, 1830. 

Francis  II.:  of  the  Two  Sicilies  (Francesco  d\\<-"= 
Maria  Leopold)  ;  b.  at  Naples,  Jan.  31, 1836 :  succee«le  i  ^ 
father,  Ferdinand  II.  (Bomba),  in  1859,  ami  adopts  1  '  - 
father's  reactionary  policy.  His  realm  was  in\'a<i(^i  i. 
quickly  overrun  by  Garibaldi*s  forces  in  1800,  and  ^T'. 
(jaeta,  his  last  stronghold,  was  surrendered  (18(51),  FrH\  • 
escaped  to  Rome,  and  has  since  lived  in  retirement,  th  ■- 
for  a  time  he  organized  fruitless  expeditions  again>i  u- 
new  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Francis  Borgia,  Sautt:  general  of  the  order  of  Jt^ .  •- 
and  Duke  of  Gandia;  b.  at  Gandia,  Spain,  in  1510:  tnr  • 
showed  an  inclination  for  the  monastic  life^  but  his  f.s*  i  r 
thinking  to  divert  him  from  that  career,  pUiced  him  ir.  t  • 
court  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  whom  he  aceompani»«: 
his  African  expedition.    The  emperor  made  him  vitvp)    * 
Catalonia,  but   Borgia  entered   into  correspomlenct-  »■ 
Loyola,  and  in  1546  resolved  to  join  the  order  of  Jesuit^    ' 
which  he  became  general  in  1565.    His  zeal  as  a  pn>:t<  i ' ' 
and  worker  on  behuf  of  the  order  caused  him  t-o  Ih?  ^t^  • 
its  "second  founder."    D.  in  1572  and  was  canoniziHl  t; 
Pope  Clement  X.  in  1671. 

Francis  Ferdinand :  heir  to  the  Austrian  throne :  ^ 
of  the  Archduke  Charles  Louis  by  his  second  wife,  Prii.«  - 


536 


FRANCIS  DB  PAUL 


FRANCO-GERMAN  WAR 


ordres  de  St  Frcmcoia  (Paris,  1888, 4  vols.).  Cf .  the  history 
of  the  order,  called  the  Annales  Minorum^  by  Luke  Wad- 
ding (2d  ed.  Naples,  1781-1860,  24  vols.). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Francis  de  Paul,  Saint:  b.  at  Paola,  in  Calabria,  in 
1416 ;  became  a  Franciscan  in  youth,  but  assumed  the  life 
of  a  hermit  near  his  native  town.  He  soon  acquired  a  wide 
fame  by  the  terrible  austerities  of  his  life,  ana  his  reputed 
miracles  brought  to  him  many  followers.  In  1436  he  es- 
tablished the  order  of  Hermits  of  St.  Francis,  afterward 
called  Friars  Minims ,  Bon  Hommes,  and  Fathers  of  Vic- 
tory, which  haa  now  only  a  few  members.  In  1482  he  vis- 
ited Louis  XI.  of  France,  who  hoped  in  vain  to  be  cured  by 
him  of  his  long  and  at  last  fatal  illness.  He  remained  In 
the  service  of  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.  of  France,  and 
died  at  Plessis-les-Tours,  Apr.  2,  1507.  He  was  canonized 
in  1519. 

Francis  de  Sales  (Fr.  pron.  -saal'),  Saikt  :  b.  at  the  Cha- 
teau de  Sales,  near  Annecy,  Savoy,  Aug.  21,  1567,  of  no- 
ble parentage ;  was  educated  at  Pans  and  Padua,  and  in  the 
latter  university  became  a  doctor  of  theology  and  of  laws ; 
practiced  law  reluctantly,  and  at  last  won  his  father*s  con- 
sent to  his  entrance  upon  the  clerical  life,  and  as  deacon 
and  provost  of  the  cathedral  of  Geneva  won  fame  as  an 
eloquent  preacher ;  became  a  priest  in  1593 ;  went  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Savoy,  whence  in  1598  he  procured  the  expulsion  of 
certain  Protestant  ministers.  He  was  then  sent  by  the  pope 
to  convert  Beza,  to  whom  he  offered  a  cardinalate,  but  all 
in  vain.  In  1599  he  became  coadjutor,  and  in  1602  Bishop 
of  Geneva.  In  1610  he  founded,  with  Madame  de  Chantal, 
the  order  of  the  Visitation,  with  the  mother-house  at  An- 
necy. D.  at  Lyons,  Nov.  28,  1622.  He  was  distinguished 
for  zeal,  charity,  purity,  eloquence,  and  personal  excellence. 
He  was  canonized  in  1665,  and  made  oecumenical  (the  eighth 
Latin)  doctor  of  the  Church  in  1877.  His  complete  works 
appeared  in  six  volumes,  Paris,  1868 :  in  Eng.  trans.  Lon- 
don, 1883,  aqq,  (vol.  iv.,  1889) ;  his  Introduction  to  the  De- 
vout Life  is  one  of  the  most  famous  devotional  treatises, 
and  has  been  translated  into  all  literary  languages,  e.  g. 
Eng.  trans.  New  York,  1885.  See  his  Life  by  J.  P.  Camus 
(n.  e.  London,  1880). 

Francis  Xarier,  zAv'i-er,  Saint  Francisco  de  Xatier  : 
Jesuit  missionary;  b.  of  a  noble  family  at  the  castle  of 
Xavier,  in  Navarre,  Apr.  7, 1506 ;  was  eaucated  at  the  Col- 
lege Sainte-Barbe,  Pans ;  taught  philosophy  with  applause 
in  the  College  of  Beauvais,  and  received  the  doctorate  in 
philosophy  from  the  Sorbonne  (1530).  In  1534  he  joined 
the  new  society  proposed  by  his  fellow-student  and  compa- 
triot Loyola,  ana  in  1537  they,  with  a  few  others,  the  germ 
of  the  future  Society  of  Jesus,  went  to  Rome  and  received 
the  papal  benediction  upon  their  new  enterprise.  He  now 
toiled  with  zeal  in  the  Italian  prisons  and  hospitals,  and  in 
1541  was  sent  by  Loyola  to  Goa,  India.  During  ten  years 
in  India,  Ceylon,  Japan,  and  Malacca  he  baptized,  it  is  said, 
more  than  1,000,000  persons,  and  planted  the  faith  in  fifty- 
two  kingdoms.  He  died  of  fever,  in  the  island  of  Hiang- 
Shan,  near  Macao,  China,  Dec.  2, 1552,  and  was  canonized 
in  1622.  Many  miracles  are  ascribed  to  him  by  Roman 
Catholic  writers.  See  the  Life  of  this  saint  by  D.  Bartoli 
(1666;  Eng.  trans.  London,  1858);  by  the  Protestant  H. 
Venn  (London,  1862);  and  by  the  Roman  Catholic  H.  J. 
Coleridge,  with  his  Letters  (1872-73,  2  vols.). 

Francis,  fraank,  or  (as  he  styled  himself)  Franck  Ton 
W5rd,  Sebastian  :  mystic  and  historian  of  the  Reformation 
era;  b.  at  DonauwSrth,  1499;  embraced  the  Reformation 
but  not  any  of  its  sects,  although  inclined  to  the  Anabap- 
tists. He  pursued  a  checkered  literary  career  in  Nuremberg, 
Strassburg,  Ulm,and  Basel,  and  died  in  the  last-named  city, 
1543.  His  best-known  writings  are  his  Chronica  (Strass- 
burg, 1531)  and  Sprichwdrier  (Frankfort,  1541).  See  his 
Life  by  0.  Haggenraacher  (Zttrich,  1886). 

Francke,  fraan'kc,  August  Hermann  :  German  Lutheran 
divine  and  philanthropist,  and  one  of  the  principal  propa- 
gators of  the  Pietist  movement  in  Germany ;  b.  in  Llibeck, 
Mar.  22, 1663 ;  commenced  his  studies  at  firfurt  1679,  con- 
tinued at  Kiel,  and  finished  them  at  Leipzig  in  Hebrew, 
Greek,  and  theology.  He  delivered  theological  lectures  in 
Leipzig  1689-90,  was  diakonua  in  Erfurt  1690^91,  but  was 
summarily  dismissed  in  consequence  of  his  criticisms  upon 
the  "  orthodox  "  clergy ;  in  1692  was  called  to  the  new  Uni- 
versity of  Halle  as  Professor  of  the  Greek  and  Oriental  Lan- 
guages, and  as  pastor  of  the  suburban  town  of  Glaucha. 


Breithaupt  and  Lange  were  his  associates  in  the  facuirr 
and  in  the  spirit  of  practical  energy  in  which  he  folIuvM 
up  the  work  of  Spener  (a,  v.).  In  1715  he  became  paster ./ 
the  Church  of  St.  Ulricn  in  Halle.  He  was  founder  of  ri,. 
greatest  orphan-house  of  Protestant  Europe,  of  a  free  schoi  1, 
a  free  table  for  students,  and  of  a  seminary  for  tea4.}j*^r>. 
In  1698  these  institutions  were  brought  together  in  one  <,^<it 
edifice  in  the  city  of  Halle.  The  whole  was  sustaineil  Ir 
private  beneficence  or  by  the  judicious  labor  connect e<l  ^  rh 
the  orphan-house.  Among  its  useful  appendages  was  a  j*uf- 
lishing  establishment,  from  which  were  issued  many  Ta.:Li- 
ble  books,  especially  the  cheap  Bibles  of  the  Canstem  Ii.-::- 
tute.  After  his  death,  in  Halle,  June  8, 1727,  the  work  tia^ 
carried  on  by  his  son  and  bv  Frelinghausen,  his  son-in-]h« . 
but  he  can  by  no  means  be  held  responsible  for  the  se^Kim- 
tistic  tendencies  which  then  became  visible.  The  bei^t  l>i  :• 
raphies  of  Francke  are  by  H.  E.  F.  Guericke,  Halle.  1^27 
(translated  into  English,  London,  1^7);  and  G.  Kran.vr 
(Halle,  1880-82,  2  vok).  C.  P.  Krauth. 

Franco-German  War :  the  conflict  between  France  a:  i 
Germany  which  occurred  in  1870-71.  Under  the  Jtut'^ 
manlike  leadership  of  Bismarck,  Prussia  wholly  gave  u{i.  id 
1866,  its  modest  and  somewhat  ambiguous  attitude  of  foni  kt 
days,  and  on  the  basis  of  the  very  decided  impression  wh:(  h 
its  victory  over  Austria  produced  it  took  the  hegeroon\  ir. 
Germany.  But  thereby  the  old  enmity  between  France  \c\>\ 
Prussia  was  immediately  rekindled.  The  govemmen:  f 
Napoleon  III.  could  not  but  feel  depressed  by  reason  t»f  \\r 
astonishing  success  of  Prussia.  It  was  itself  based  on  '  ;.•' 
success  of  its  foreign  policy.  Its  important  reforms  in  'f- 
field  of  political  economy  had  found  only  a  oold  rw^pt:  tu 
and  Napoleon  understood  that  it  would  be  very  dii!i<-.:  t 
for  him  to  maintain  himself  as  Emperor  of  France  ^hn 
he  could  not  maintain  the  French  empire  as  leader  (»f  Y.^- 
rope.  Perpetually  stirred  up  and  irritated  by  the  opj-t.- 
tion,  the  national  feeling  of  France  began  to  rise  agaui<  & 
ruler  who  suppressed  her  freedom  without  increasing:  rr 
fame  and  power.  The  French  people  felt  its  pride  offend •< 
and  the  cry  was  heard,  "Revenge  for  Saoowa!''  Tti> 
after  1866  tne  imperial  government  tried  its  utmost  to  i-ut 
the  French  army  with  the  ^eatest  possible  rapidity  on  a 
footing  which  would  enable  it  to  declare  war  against  ?rL«- 
sia,  while  at  the  same  time  it  endeavored  by  dipiom»:!: 
means  to  gain  such  concessions  from  Prussia  as  might  l>>k 
like  compensations  for  the  aggrandizement  of  that  {Kiutr. 
It  failed,  however,  in  both  plans.  The  introduction  "f  tbt 
Chassepot  guns  was  carried  through  with  great  rapidity ;  ^ 
the  end  of  1869  the  entire  body  of  infantrv  was  pn>vi  h<, 
with  this  weapon.  But  the  reor^nization  of  the  anny  met 
in  general,  with  so  much  opposition  from  the  side  of  tN 
representatives  of  the  people  that,  especially  after  the  d^iti 
01  the  energetic  Marshal  Niel,  only  a  few  reforms  of  aaj 
consequence  could  be  effected.  By  the  army  law  of  FeU  1. 
1868,  presented  and  carried  by  Niel,  the  time  of  mihtAn 
service  was  fixed  at  five  years  in  the  active  army  and  f-. :: 
years  in  the  reserve,  and  an  active  national  guard  w&r 
formed,  in  which  all  those  who  bought  themselves  off  fn  n. 
military  service,  or  who  remained  after  the  annual  c-  2- 
scription  (100,000  men)  was  filled,  were  compelled  to  ?0TTr. 
On  paper  the  active  army  and  the  reserve  amounted,  aocir^i- 
ing  to  this  law,  to  900,000  men,  and  the  national  ^\^T''^ 
which  was  to  be  used  for  the  defense  of  the  frontier.  !< 
550,000.  But  how  small  a  part  of  this  immense  ano>  ^^^ 
actually  mobilized  and  fit  for  battle  the  year  1870  sh<'«t . 

The  attempts  at  inducing  Prussia  to  yield  and  sumn f 
territory  were  entirely  fruSrated  by  the  proud  but  pn^-.  " 
stubbornness  of  Bismarck,  who  after  1ot6  began  to  >h  ' 
himself  not  as  a  Prussian  minister,  but  as  the  (?hancel]«>r .' 
the  North  German  Confederation  and  a  German  ptr. " 
In  Aug.,  1866,  he  declined  an  offensive  and  defensive  a.i- 
ance  offered  through  Benedetti,  which  stipulated  that  Pru> 
sia  should  consent  to  the  annexation  of  Luxembourg:  n^ . 
Belgium  to  France,  and  France  recognize  the  appropriate  :  - 
which  Prussia  had  made  and  the  intimate  connection  wi  * 
Southern  Germany  which  she  wished  to  accomplish.  I>'- 
in^  the  following  years  he  several  times  refused  similar  p-^  i- 
ositions  which  were  made  to  him  under  different  f-n* 
and  in  the  spring  of  1867  he  took  so  decidedly  a  nati  :  *." 
position  in  the  Luxembourg  que^ion  that  France,  not  y' 
ready  for  war,  was  compellwi  to  stop  short  of  her  deinaii  > 
Napoleon  having.  May.  1867,  appointed  Gramont  Miiii>tf  r  f 
Foreign  Affaii-s  in  the  cabinet  of  Ollivier,  from  that  ni-^n  : 
the  French  policy  assumed  a  more  warlike  course,  espoi-i^.  j 


538 


FRANCO-GERMAN  WAR 


and  the  quartermaster-general,  Von  Podbielski.  The  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  French  army  was  Napoleon  III. 

On  July  30  the  stratcjErical  evolution  of  the  German 
army  on  the  Rhine  was  finished,  and  the  march  toward  the 
French  fi'ontier,  which  as  yet  the  French  had  not  crossed, 
began. 

The  firing  between  the  French  outposts  and  the  German 
vanguard  began  Aug.  4  at  Weissenburg,  on  the  left  wing, 
army  of  the  Crown  Prince,  and  the  French  were  defeated. 
Gen.  Douay  himself  being  killed.  As  soon  as  the  news  of 
this  defeat  reached  Marshal  MacMahon  he  determined  to 
throw  immediately  all  disposable  troops  against  the  Ger- 
man, and  he  chose  a  position  at  WQrth,  with  50,000  men. 
But  on  Aug.  6  the  Crown  Prince  attacked  and  defeated  hhn. 
The  French  lost  9,000  prisoners,  2  eagles,  6  mitrailleuses, 
and  35  guns,  besides  6,000  wounded  and  dead. 

The  news  that  the  flower  of  the  French  army,  the  African 
troops,  under  the  best  general,  had  been  completely  van- 
quished, filled  all  Germany  with  proud  confidence,  and  de- 
stroyed every  hope  of  alliance  wnich  Napoleon  still  might 
entertain.  And  the  French  were  defeatea  on  the  same  day 
not  onlv  on  the  right,  but  also  on  the  left  wing,  at  Saar- 
brlick.  ' 

The  defeat  in  the  field  caused  an  immense  reaction  politi- 
cally. The  empress  issued  a  proclamation  in  whicli  the 
defeat  was  acknowledged,  and  firmness  and  order  were 
urgently  entreated.  The  acting  Minister  of  War  presented 
a  decree  which  asked  for  the  enrollment  of  all  active  citizens 
between  thirty  and  forty  years  of  age  in  the  stationary  na- 
tional guard,  the  employment  of  the  national  guard  of 
Paris  in  the  defense  of  the  capital,  and  the  enlistment  of  all 
citizens  under  thirty  years  of  age  into  the  active  national 
guard.  The  official  journal  of  the  8th  gave  a  picture  of  the 
reigning  despair ;  it  besought  all  the  peoples  of  Europe  to 
stand  by  France.  All  unmarried  men  between  twenty-five 
and  thirty-five  years  of  age,  who  before  had  been  legally 
free  of  military  service,  and  widowers  without  children, 
were  now  called  in,  unless  already  enrolled  in  the  national 

fuard.    Companies  of  volunteers  were  also  to  be  formed, 
'he  regency  considered  necessary  even  the  measure  of  ex- 
pelling all  uermans  living  in  France. 

Meanwhile,  the  German  armies  streamed  over  the  fron- 
tier into  France,  pursuing  the  advantages  already  gained. 
Wheeling  around  to  the  right,  the  first  army  proceeded 
very  slowly,  the  third  very  i-apidly.  On  Aug.  13  the  royal 
heaaquarters  were  in  the  castle  of  Hemy,  15  miles  from 
Metz.  It  was  believed  that  the  French  Rhine  army  would 
give  battle  at  Metz  on  the  15th. 

On  the  French  side  the  greatest  confusion  prevailed. 
Bazaine  became  commander-in-chief  instead  of  the  em- 
peror, Garras  took  the  place  of  Le  BoBuf  as  chief  of  staff. 
A  council  of  war  was  held  on  the  18th,  and  determined 
that  the  army,  which  was  encamped  entirely  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Moselle,  and  under  tne  protection  of  the  guns 
of  Metz,  should  retreat  on  the  next  day  to  Verdun.  Early 
on  the  14th  the  retreat  began.  But  as  soon  as  the  com- 
mander of  the  German  outpost,  Maj.-Gen.  von  Goltz, 
observed  the  enemy's  movements  in  the  afternoon,  he  ad- 
vanced his  brigade  immediately  and  made  an  attack.  A 
real  battle  developed — the  battle  at  Courcelles.  It  was 
very  bloody ;  the  French  lost  about  4,000  men,  the  Ger- 
mans about  5,000 ;  but  the  latter  were  victorious,  and  pur- 
sued the  enemy  to  the  glacis  of  the  fortress. 

The  next  day  gave  the  German  army  time  to  approach 
the  enemy's  line  of  retreat.  Onlv  the  First  Army-ex)rps  re- 
mained to  watch  Metz  from  the  fi. ;  the  Seventh  and  Eighth 
were  pushed  near  to  the  Moselle,  S.  of  Metz,  and  the  whole 
Second  Armv  was  to  try  to  reach  as  rapidly  as  possible  the 
road  from  Metz  to  Veraun.  This  operation  was  effected  by 
Prince  Frederick  Charles.  Bazaine  had  ordered  that  the 
retreat  should  begin  on  the  morning  of  the  16th,  and  take 
place  along  both  the  roads  leading  to  Verdun,  and  in  the 
meanwhile  Napoleon  had  left  Metz  under  a  strong  escort. 
At  9.30  A.  M.  the  French  outposts  noticed  the  approach  of 
the  enemy,  and  almost  immediately  after  the  German  regi- 
ments of  cavalry  fell  on  the  bivouacs  of  the  French  cavalry. 
A  great  battle  developed — the  battle  of  Vionville  or  Mars- 
la-Tour.  It  was  the  most  bloody  in  the  whole  war.  On 
the  French  side  120,000  men,  on  the  German  60,000,  were 
under  fire.  The  loss  on  each  side  comprised  about  16,000 
men,  dead  and  wounded.  But  it  frustrated  the  intended 
retreat  to  Verdun,  and  compelled  Bazaine  to  remain  at 
Metz.  On  the  17th  he  went  back  and  took  up  a  defensive 
position.    After  ascertaining  that  the  French  had  left  their 


positions,  the  King  of  Prussia  ordered  a  new  attack  on  A'li: 
18.  It  was  intended  that  the  right  wing  should  en&,^i.' 
the  enemy  first,  then  the  center  should  attack,  and  at  U-r 
the  left  wing  was  to  strike  a  decisive  blow  by  its  pnss^ur^ 
on  the  right  flank  of  the  French  army.  The  decisive  \^nn 
of  this  battle  (battle  of  Gravelotte  or  St.-Privat)  was*  ^t.- 
Privat.  Here  the  circuit  of  the  Saxons  forced  the  Fn^ix  :. 
to  yield  at  7  p.  M.  On  the  French  left  wing  the  battle  la^t.-.j 
still  longer;  the  victory  was  gained  here  oy  the  arrival  .-f 
the  Second  German  Army-corps.  The  losses  were  vrn 
heavy.  The  French,  numbering  about  140,000  men.  1— t 
609  officers  and  11,605  men;  the  Germans,  numbering  211- 
000  men,  lost  904  officers  and  19,658  men.  The  n-sulT  ni 
the  battle  was  that  the  French  army  was  shut  up  in  t!  • 
fortress  of  Metz.  The  German  commander-in-chief  oni«:r-: 
the  investment  of  Metz,  and  disposed  of  the  First  av  i 
Second  Army,  under  the  command  of  Prince  Fretleri.  k 
Charles,  for  this  purpose.  From  this  force,  however,  t  .♦ 
Fourth  and  Twelfth  Corps,  the  Guards,  and  the  Fifth  nv.'i 
Sixth  Cavalry  divisions  were  separated  and  formeil  inu»  h 
Fourth  Army,  under  the  command  of  the  Crown  Prinei'  f 
Saxony,  who  was  now  to  push  forward  toward  Paris,  to- 
gether with  the  Crown  Pnnce  of  Prussia  and  the  Thi'«l 
Army.  On  the  French  side  the  first  plan  was  that  the  Am.'i 
of  Chalons  should  retreat  to  Paris,  but  the  regency  feartil 
that  the  return  of  Napoleon,  who  accompanied  this  anii; 
would  occasion  a  revolution  in  Paris;  and  it  also  h<*T^'. 
that  MacMahon  would  be  able  to  relieve  Bazaine  at  >l-!. 
For  these  reasons  Count  Palikao,  now  Minister  of  War.  or- 
dered Marshal  MacMahon  to  break  up  at  Chalons  with  1  > 
army,  now  numbering  140,000  men,  and  move  northi^ari 
in  a  circuit  around  the  Gterman  army  toward  Metz.  Ma*  - 
Mahon  broke  camp  at  Reims  on  the  S3d.  On  the  27th  th 
outposts  fell  in  with  the  vanguard  of  the  German  army.  &:>  1 
a  cavalry  encounter  ensued  at  Buzancy.  On  the  25th  ih« 
movements  of  MacMahon  were  noticed  by  the  Gennanj*.  ai  •. 
the  Third  and  Fourth  Armies,  which  were  pushing  forwKri 
to  Paris,  and  then  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ch&lon2»  a^. . 
Vitry-le-Fran^ais,  were  immediately  ordered  to  man-h  ?< 
the  right.  On  the  26th  both  armies'  wheeled  around  t<»  t:.*^ 
N.,  and  followed  MacMahon  in  forced  marches  in  ordrr  : 
place  themselves  between  him  and  Metz.  They  manTi.-i 
rapidly,  while  the  French  army  had  made  onlv  60  mile"-  r. 
six  days.  On  the  29th  MacMahon  removed  his  he-atlqi;^- 
ters  to  Raucourt,  and  the  army  began  to  cross  the  Meu^  s' 
Mouzon. 

Meanwhile,  the  two  German  armies,  which  were  drxwr. 
nearer  together,  and  already  had  adopted  the  plan  of  pn^^ 
ing  MacMahon  toward  Belgium,  came  in  contact  with  t'  . 
right  flank  and  front  of  the  French,  and  by  the  enet»ur.r» -^ 
at  Nouart  and  Beaumont  on  the  dOth  threw  part^  of  ;* 
French  vanguard  back  in  confusion  on  the   main   b<-:v. 
On  the  31st  thev  advanced  near  to  the  army  encamftii  r 
around  Sedan.    The  plan  was  t^  contract  the  curve  < 
closer  to  the  French  army  on  Sept.  1,  and  to  attack  on  tr.r 
2d.    It  was  observed,  however,  tnat  the  French  were  in  a 
wavering  and  uncertain  condition,  so  that  their  cr^-silj 
the  Belgian  frontier  seemed  by  no  means  improbable:  a:.-, 
for  this  reason  the  king  ordered  the  attack  on  the  army   ^ 
MacMahon.  which  was  very  densely  concentrated  ani  r. . 
Sedan,  on  the  next  morning.    At  tne  dawn  of  Sept.  I  n- 
German  army  commenced  its  attack  (Sedan),  and  sc^oc   ' 
grappled  the  French  army,  which  was  concentrated  <'ti  ^ 
narrow  space,  in  shape  like  a  pair  of  tongs.     The  batt  le  t— 
gan  at  Bazeilles,  ana  drew  E.  of  Sedan  farther  and  fartr  * 
to  the  N. ;  in  the  beginning  of  the  battle  the  Frencli  an-  ■ 
had    lost    its    commander-in-chief.      MacMahon,    sever   • 
wounded  by  a  splint  from  a  shell,  gave  up  the  command  ' 
Gen.  Ducrdt,  from  whom  Wimpffen  reclaimed  it  a^  tho  ?*- 
nior  officer.    Thus  the  command  and  the  plan  changini  m^- 
eral  times.     It  was  the  idea  to  break  through  the  Gerin.^ 
lines  somewhere,  in  order  to  aflford  an  escape  for  the  - '  • 
peror,  and  he  himself  sought  for  a  long  time  on  the  ivaw*- 
field  for  such  an  opportunity ;  but  the  undertakinj;  wa<^ » v^ 
dently  hopeless,  ana  the  army,  as  well  as  its  leader,  had  t  • 
submit  to  its  frightful  fate.    Shortly  after  3  p.  m.  offtt^  * 
conclude  a  capitulation  were  made  from  the  French  <:-*• 
Napoleon  sent  the  following  letter  to  the  king :  "  As  I  h»> 
not  fallen  at  the  head  of  my  soldiers,  I  surrender  my  sw.  - 
to  Your  Majesty."    When  this  letter  was  brought'  to  i'^ 
king  by  Gen.  Reille,  adjutant-general  to  the  emperor. '  • 
king  demanded  the  capitulation  of  the  French  army  as  '  • 
first  condition,  and  declared  that  he  then  would  act***]*!  t  ' 
imperial  sword,  and  charged  the  chancellor  and  his  eh  iff  ^ ' 


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542 


PRANKISH  LANGUAGE 


FRANKLIN 


Institution.  Official  postage-stamps  were  again  introduced 
for  the  State,  War,  Navy,  Treasury,  and  Interior  Depart- 
ments and  for  the  Attorney-General  by  acts  of  Mar.  3,  1881, 
Aug.  5, 1882,  and  Mar.  3,  i883.  The  latter  act  directs  the 
departments  to  inclose  penalty-envelopes  in  officitd  commu- 
nications to  members  of  Congress  requiring  to  be  answered 
or  forwarded.  By  act  of  Dec.  20,  1881,  the  franking  privi- 
lege was  granted  to  the  widow  of  President  Garifield.  The 
act  of  Congress  approved  Mar.  3, 1891,  extended  the  frank- 
ing privilege  by  providing  that  **  the  members  and  mem- 
bers-elect of  Congress  shall  have  the  privilege  of  sending 
free  through  the  mails,  and  under  their  frank,  letters  to  any 
officer  of  the  Government,  when  addressed  officially." 

Revised  by  Ma&shall  Gushing. 
Frankish  Lang^nage :  See  Dutch  Language. 

Franklin :  city  and  railway  junction ;  capital  of  Johnson 
CO.,  Ind.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref .  7-E) ; 
in  an  agricultural  district,  27  miles  E.  of  Martinsville.  It 
has  a  college,  a  high  school  with  a  $55,000  school-building, 
gas-works,  planing-mills,  flouring-miUs,  and  sawmills.  Pop. 
(1880)3,116;  (1890)8,781. 

Franklin :  town ;  capital  of  Simpson  co.,  Ky.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Kentucky,  ref.  5-F) ;  on  the  L. 
and  N.  Railroad ;  134  miles  S.  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  and  51  N.  of 
Nashville,  Tenn.  It  has  two  colleges  (for  males  and  females 
respectively),  a  woolen-factory,  and  two  flour-mills.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,686 ;  (1890)  2,324 

Franklin:  town;  capital  of  St.  Mary  parish.  La.  (for 
location  of  parish,  see  map  of  Louisiana,  ref.  11-D);  on 
railway  and  on  Bayou  Teche ;  30  miles  W.  of  Morgan  City ; 
in  a  region  devoted  to  raising  sugar-cane.  Pop.  (1880)  1,702 ; 
(1890)  2,127. 

Franklin:  town  and  railway  junction;  Norfolk  co., 
Mass.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Mjissachusetts, 
ref.  5-1) ;  27  miles  S.  W.  of  Boston.  It  is  the  seat  of  Dean 
Academy,  and  has  six  churches,  a  public  library,  manufact- 
ures of  pianos,  and  straw,  woolen,  and  cotton  goods,  an  iron- 
foundry,  canning-factory,  etc.  Pop.  of  township  (1880)  4,051 ; 
(1890)  4,831 ;  (1893)  estimated,  5,000. 

Editoe  of  "  Sentinel." 

Franklin :  town ;  on  railwav ;  Merrimack  co.,  N.  H.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  oi  New  Hampshire,  ref.  8-F) ; 
at  the  junction  of  the  Pemigewasset  and  Winnipiseogee 
rivers,  which  form  the  Merrimack ;  18  miles  N.  bv  W.  of 
Concord.  Franklin  Falls  is  another  village  in  the  same 
township,  on  the  Winnipiseogee  river,  E.  of  Franklin  proper. 
The  two  toother  have  six  churches,  large  paper  and  pulp 
mills,  machine-shops,  wood-working  shops,  manufactures  of 
hosiery  and  knitting-machines,  several  woolen-mills,  and  one 
of  the  largest  needle-factories  in  the  world.  The  New  Hamp- 
shire Orphans'  Home  is  in  the  township,  3  miles  S.  of  Frank- 
lin, on  the  farm  once  owned  by  Daniel  Webster.  Pop.  of 
township  (1880)  3,265 ;  (1890)  4,085 ;  (1893)  estimated,  5,000. 

Editoe  of  "  Merrimack  Journal." 

Franklin :  village  (founded  by  Gen.  William  Schenck  in 
1796) ;  Warren  co.,  0.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of 
Ohio,  ref.  6-C) ;  on  two  railways ;  on  the  Great  Miami  river 
and  on  the  Miami  and  Erie  Canal ;  40  miles  by  rail  N.  N.  E. 
of  Cincinnati.  It  has  6  churches,  2  schools  (one  a  high 
school),  a  lar^  paper-stock  assorting  establishment,  5  paper- 
mills  (with  nine  machines),  2  wood-pulp  mills,  and  3  large 
tobacco  warehouses.  Pop.  (1880)  2,385 ;  (1890)  2,729 ;  (1893) 
estimated,  3,000;  with  suburbs,  3,500. 

Editors  of  "  Chronicle." 

Franklin :  city  and  railway  center  (incorporated  in  1868); 
capital  of  Venango  oo..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  3-B);  on  the  Allegheny  river  at  the 
mouth  of  French  creek.  It  contains  flouring-mills,  machine- 
shops,  planing-mills,  carriage-factories,  lubricating-oil  re- 
fineries, illuminating-oil  refineries,  etc. ;  and  its  streets  are 
provided  with  sewers  and  paved  with  brick.  Pop.  (1880) 
5,010 ;  (1890)  6,221.  Editor  op  "  Citizen-Press." 

Franklin :  town ;  capital  of  Williamson  co.,  Tenn.  (for 
location  of  county,  sec  map  of  Tennessee,  ref.  6-E) ;  on  rail- 
way and  on  Harpeth  river;  18  miles  S.  of  Nashville.  It  has 
a  Masonic  temple,  flouring-mills,  a  furniture-factory  and 
planing-mill,  steam  cotton-gins,  carriage-manufactories,  etc. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Tennessee  Female  College,  a  prosperous  in- 
stitution, of  Harpeth  Male  Academy,  and  of  other  schools, 
some  of  them  free.  Here  Gen.  Van  Dom  was  repulsed  by 
Gen.  Granger,  Apr.  10, 1863,  and  here,  Nov.  30, 1864,  a  bloody 


battle  was  fought  between  the  forces  of  Gen.  Hood  and  tbfr« 
of  Gen.  Schofleld.  (See  Franklin,  Battle  of.)  Pop.  {IhHh 
1,632;  (1890)2,250.  ^ 

Franklin,  Battle  of:  a  battle  of  the  U.  S.  civil  war  U- 
tween  the  Confederates  under  Gen.  Hood  and  the  Tnion 
forces  under  Gen.  Schofield.  After  the  fall  of  Atlanta  (Sejit. 
2,  1864),  the  Confederate  authorities,  aware  of  the  nee^>^itT 
of  drawing  or  forcing  Sherman  from  Georgia,  detenu iiiM 
upon  an  invasion  of  Tennessee,  and  on  Oct.  1  Hood  en»SMn: 
the  Chattahoochee  with  40,000  men  to  destroy  Shermans 
communications.  Sherman,  becoming  aware  of  thi.s  ini^^n- 
tion,  severed  his  communications  and  proceeded  on  his  fa- 
mous "  march  to  the  sea."  After  Sherman's  depart uiv  (ieL. 
Hood  continued  his  movement  toward  Nashville,  freqiunth 
engaging  the  Union  troops,  under  Schofield,  who  c<»ntinu«J 
to  fall  back  before  Hood's  advance,  until,  arriving  at  Frank- 
lin, Tenn.  (Nov.  30),  Hood  followed  in  such  close  purauit  rli&t 
Schofield  was  compelled  to  give  battle  there.  Gen.  SchofieW- 
object  was  to  get  his  trains  across  the  river  and  awav  i^ 
Nashville;  Hood's  object  was  to  attack  before  he  coul.I  fio 
so.  Schofield  disposed  his  cavalry  along  the  nortli  Imnk 
above  and  below  the  town  to  guard  the  fords;  on  the  hei^rht- 
of  this  bank  a  part  of  his  artillery  was  also  placed,  and'^r.n- 
division  of  infantry,  to  cover  the  crossing  and  support  tK. 
cavalry  and  artillery.  His  army  numbered  about  27.(««f 
men.  Four  divisions  were  posted  on  the  south  side  <»f  tht 
river,  Wagner  with  two  brigades  occupving  an  advaDCt^i 
position.  Hastily  constructed  breastworks  were  thrown  up 
along  the  main  line,  reaching  from  river  to  river,  U*hind 
which  artillery  was  well  j>osted.  At  4  p.  m.  Hood  attm  ktni 
Wagner  in  his  advanced  position ;  the  latter,  maintainin;: 
the  defense  too  long,  was  driven  back  in  confusion,  with  4 
loss  of  1,000  men,  into  and  through  the  center  of  the  main 
lines.  Continuing  the  attack  Hood's  men  penetrate  within 
the  broken  Union  lines,  capturing  eight  guns.  At  this  erir  • 
cal  moment  Col.  E.  Opdycke  (125th  Ohio),  commaudinff  th- 
bri^e  of  Wagner*s  division  which  had  been  left  within  th.- 
mam  lines  without  waiting  for  instructions  led  his  brijr»wk 
into  the  gap,  forcing  back  the  Confederates  and  recaptunni: 
the  guns.  Of  this  exploit,  Gen.  Thomas  reported  that  *•  k 
saved  the  army  from  destructive  defeat."  Continuwi  assau  is 
were  made  by  the  Confederates,  the  battle  lasting  till  a  Ui*- 
hour,  but  each  time  they  were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  At 
midnight  Schofield  withdrew  his  troops  and  train  to  Xa-ii- 
ville,  suffering  little  molestation.  The  total  Confe^UTHTr- 
foi-ce  engaged  was  about  65,000  men;  their  losses  in  kill.- 1 
wounded,  and  missing,  about  7,000,  including  12  peni'm. 
ofllcers.  The  Union  losses,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  miv-^ihff 
were  about  3,000,  of  which  1,000  were  in  Wagner's  division 

Revised  by  James  Mekcitl 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  LL.  D.,  F.  li.  S. :  statesman  and  phi- 
losopher;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  17,1706.     His  father. 
Josiah  Franklin,  was  a  tallow-chandler,  and  was  of  Eni:li-h 
birth,  belonging  to  a  Northamptonshire  familv ;  his  motht- r 
the  daughter  of  Peter  Folger  of  Nantucket.    ISen  iaiiiin  \»  a.^ 
the  fifteenth  of  seventeen  children.     To  keep  him  frt'iii 
going  to  sea,  he  was  apprenticed  to  his  brother  Jann-^,  a 
printer,  and  by  much  reading,  careful  and  assiduous  w  rii  i'u' 
(as  much  as  possible  after  the  style  of  the  Spectator).  xZ 
gether  with  the  unassisted  study  of  mathematics,  he  at^juir.-.! 
such  knowledge  and  facility  in  writing  that  he  veniunti  :> 
print  his  thoughts  upon  public  affairs  in  his  brother's  now*- 
paper,  the  New  Enqlana  Courant,     His  pawrs  wert»  wt  1 
received  by  the  public,  but  the  discovery  of  their  authorship 
led  to  a  quarrel  between  the  brothers.    The  newspa|)er  wa5 
for  a  time  published  in  Benjamin's  name  during  an  impri>*>T:- 
ment  of  James,  to  which  he  was  subjected  for  political  n-ft- 
sons.    In  1723  the  young  apprentice,  wearying  of  the  t  vrann  v 
he  experienced,  broke  his  indentures  and  ran  away,  fiist  ti> 
New  York  and  thence  to  Philadelphia,  wliere  he  fouml  »•».- 
ployment  as  a  journeyman  printer.     He  was  in  Knclariii 
1725-26,  having  been  sent  by  Sir  William  Keith,  the  Gov- 
ernor, who  promised  to  set  him  up  in  business  as  the  pub'i. 
printer  of  Philadelphia,  but  failed  to  keep  his  promise.   Aft.  r 
his  return  to  Philadelphia  he  married  (1730),  established  ti.e 
Pennsylvania  Oazette,  and  soon  found  himself  a  pennon  .»f 
the  first  consideration,  not  only  in  Philadelphia,  but  throug^h- 
out  the  provinces,  for  his  talents  as  a  writer  and  his  soun-l 
judffment  in  public  and  business  affairs.    He  established  xU- 
Philajlelphia  Library  in  1742,  and  the  American  Philosoph- 
ical Society  in  1744;  was  prominent  in  founding  a  colleen' 
which  in  1753  became  the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  car- 
ried on  his  famous  investigations  into  the  nature  of  light- 


544 


FRANKOWITZ 


FRANKS,  THE 


tory  modifications,  still  possible  to  exist),  consisting  in  a  gift 
of  land  by  a  father  or  kinsman  to  a  daughter  or  cousin  and 
her  husband  at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  upon  the  implied 
condition  that  the  land  was  to  descend  to  the  issue  of  the  mar- 
riage.  On  birth  of  issue  the  condition  was  regarded  as  per- 
formed, and  the  estate  became  alienable.  But  the  passage 
of  the  statute  De  donis  condiHonaZihua  caused  such  estates, 
like  others  held  in  tail,  to  be  controlled  by  the  terms  of  the 
g^ft,  and  to  be  reserved  exclusiveiy  for  the  issue  for  whom 
they  were  originally  intended ;  so  that  the  power  of  aliena- 
tion was  thus  taken  away.  Such  estates  were  afterward 
subjected  to  the  same  changes  as  all  entailed  estates.  See 
Entail.  Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Frankowitz,  Matthus  Flach  :  See  Flacius. 

Frank  Pledge :  in  Old  English  law,  the  pledge  of  one  free- 
man for  the  gowi  behavior  and  obedience  to  law  of  another ; 
the  system  by  which  each  freeman  of  an  ancient  English  tith- 
ing (a  subdivision  of  a  county,  consisting  of  ten  freeholders 
with  their  families)  was  held  responsible  for  the  conduct 
of  their  fellow-freeholders.  Upon  the  commission  of  an 
offense  by  any  one  of  them,  the  others  were  obliged  to  have 
him  forthcoming  to  answer  the  requisition  of  the  law,  or,  in 
case  of  his  escape,  to  bear  the  burden  of  any  penalty  that 
might  be  imposed.  Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Frank  Pledge,  Coarts  of:  formerly  in  England,  courts 
held  once  in  the  year  in  every  hundreo,  lordship,  or  manor, 
for  the  purpose  of  presenting  by  jury  all  crimes  committed 
within  tneir  jurisdiction,  punishing  all  trivial  misdemeanors, 
administering  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  every  freeholder  at- 
taining the  age  of  discretion,  etc.  All  freeholders  resident 
in  the  jurismction,  with  the  exception  of  prelates,  peers, 
clergymen,  women,  and  minors,  were  bound  to  attend.  The 
business  of  these  courts  is  now  performed  by  justices  of  the 
peace.  Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Franks,  The  [the  0.  H.  Germ.  Franchun,  Mod.  Germ. 
die  Franken,  is  a  deriv.  from  a  word  for  lance,  *francho ;  cf. 
0.  Eng.  franca] :  a  group  of  Teutonic  tribes  that  in  the 
fifth  century  a.  d.  left  their  homes  in  the  low  countries  N. 
of  modem  France,  overthrew  the  Roman  power  in  Transal- 
pine Gaul,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Frankish  empire. 

1.  The  Name  and  Peoples  Fmbraeed  t?^reunder,—~^he 
name  is  of  later  origfin  than  the  first  historical  appearance 
of  the  different  peoples  designated  thereby.  The  tribes  em- 
braced two  and  a  half  centuries  later  under  this  name  had  al- 
ready, during  the  reign  of  Augustus  (27  b.  G.-14  a.  d.),  ap- 
peared upon  the  Rhine  and  in  their  contact  with  the  Roman 
civilization  been  drawn  into  historic  notice.  The  Bructeri, 
Chamavi,  Amsivarii,  Catti,  Chassuarii,  and  especially  the 
Sygambri,  mentioned  by  the  Latin  historians  of  this  i)eriod, 
were  the  tribes  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  later  con- 
federation of  the  **  Franci."  They  had  already  at  that  time, 
in  small  pioneer  groups,  pushed  across  to  the  left  bank  of 
the  Lower  Rhine,  while  thev  occupied  the  territory  on  the 
right  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ems  to  the  Sieg  and  Werra. 
After  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  appear  the  two 
groups  of  this  Frankish  confederation  unaer  the  names 
balian  and  Ripuarian — the  former  inhabiting  the  districts  of 
the  Lower  Rhine,  Meuse,  and  Scheldt,  and  deriving  its  name 
probably  from  the  river  Sala  (present  Yssel) ;  the  latter  in- 
nabiting  the  territory  of  the  Middle  Rhine  in  and  about 
the  present  city  of  Cologne,  and  named  from  its  riparian  sit- 
uation. 

2.  Their  Place  in  Teutonic  History, — Their  problem  in 
the  civilization  of  Europe  was  the  meaiation  of  tne  Roman- 
Christian  civilization  with  the  Gennanic ;  or,  better,  it  was 
theirs  to  receive  the  inheritance  of  the  Roman-Christian  cul- 
ture— to  fonn,  reform,  develop,  and  supplement  it  by  and 
with  the  freshness  and  vigor  of  the  Germanic  nature,  and  at 
the  same  time  be  formed,  reformed,  developed,  and  modified 
by  it.  The  sinking  Roman  world  delivered  to  the  Franks 
tlie  world-historic  inheritance  which  it  had  itself  received, 
increased,  and  stamped  with  the  forms  and  characteristics  of 
its  own  nature;  theirs  it  now  became  to  take  up  this  world- 
civilization,  and  by  the  developments  and  modifications  to 
which  they  subjected  it,  and  it  them,  to  present  it  as  their 
form  of  the  world-civilization,  and  be  presented  by  it  as  its 
first  expression  through  the  Germanic  man,  and  so  furnish 
the  connecting  link  between  the  antique  classic  world,  with 
its  speculative  and  ritualistic  religiosity,  and  the  scientific 
political  world  of  the  new  time,  with  its  ethically  religious 
views. 

8.  The  Characteristics  and  Conditions  which  made  the 
Franks  the  First  World-historic  People  of  Oermanic  Nation^ 


ality. — a.  Their  Geographical  Position  and  Agricultural  Sn- 
ture, — We  find  them  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  fourti. 
century  separated  into  the  two  branches  of  Salian  and  Ripu- 
arian, and  occupying  the  fertile  plains  on  the  lower  cour^ 
of  the  Scheldt,  Meuse,  and  Rhine.  While  thus  the  oihi 
German  tribes,  during  the  great  "  wandering  of  the  pe«>pk>w" 
separated  themselves  entirely  from  their  original  hoiui'^ 
and,  spreading  themselves  like  a  thin  lamina  over  other  na- 
tionalities, were  soon  absorbed  by  and  disappeared  in  th. 
same,  the  Franks,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained  their  ^'to- 
graphical  connection  with  the  old  Germanic  home,  fr  r 
which  they  continued  to  draw  new  freshness  and  vig^r  1  < 
which  to  op(>ose  the  deteriorating  and  disorganizing  influ- 
ences of  the  decaying  Roman  world.  Sustained  thus  fr-  ■ 
behind,  they  pushed  gradually  and  peacefully  (as  comparv^. 
with  the  warlike  convulsions  which  the  great  immigrat;  i 
was  elsewhere  producing)  forward,  never  forgetting  in  their 
new  acquisitions  the  worth  and  importance  of  the  old ;  s^t- 
tlin^  their  lands  as  they  gained  them,  and  reducing  them  t.' 
cultivation ;  uprooting  and  destroying  the  scanty  remnant 
of  the  Celtic,  and  at  first  of  the  Koman-Christian,  civilizji- 
tion ;  in  a  word,  thoroughly  " Germanizing *'  as  they  pn^s^ei 
forward. 

b.  Their  Attitude  toward  the  Roman  State, — ^While  thr 
other  German  tribes  and  peoples,  for  the  most'  part,  wa^^.] 
an  open  and  unceasing  warfare  with  the  Romans  for  mi- 
premacy  and  existence,  the  Franks,  on  the  other  hand,  af r^-r 
the  first  brushes  of  conflict  with  the  Roman  command*': 
Aetius  in  Gaul,  who,  in  428  a.  d.,  and  again  in  431  a.  i<.. 
checked  their  south  westward  movement,  acknowledged  t!-. 
political  supremacy  of  the  Roman  state,  occupied  peaceful. t 
the  land  as  far  as  the  Somme  by  consent  of  the  Roman  c^n - 
mander,  and  tolerated  the  Roman  rites  and  religion,  whV 
their  king  Clovis  received  distinguished  Romans  at  h> 
court ;  in  a  word,  they  gradually  and  almost  unconsciously 
both  to  themselves  and  their  national  opponents,  secureii  t  - 
themselves  the  substance  of  power,  leaving  to  t^e  RomaL^ 
only  the  outward  show.  And  not  until  the  Roman  go\trL- 
or,  Syagrius  of  Soissons,  had  separated  himself  by  his  <-'»'i 
usurpatory  act  from  the  source  of  his  authority  in  Ratold^ 
or  Constantinople,  and  thus  lost  in  the  eyes  of  his  Roro^m- 
Gailic  subjects  his  show  of  legitimacy,  did  the  Fr»nki4i 
king  Clovis  abolish  these  scanty  remnants  of  Roman  su- 
premacy, and,  while  extending  his  dominions  to  the  Lcirv, 
joined  to  the  substance  of  the  power  which  he  already  ]*>?- 
sessed  the  outward  form  of  sovereignty  (486  a.  d.).  t'ruirr 
such  circumstances  neither  the  Roman  emperor  at  Const&:.- 
tinople  nor  the  Roman-Gallic  subjects  took  any  offense  2it 
this  procedure.  On  the  contrary,  after  Clovis's  victory  ovKr 
the  Visigoths  (507  a.  d.)  the  Emperor  Anastasius  liesto^r, 
upon  him  the  dignity  and  title  of  a  Roman  patrician,  an  i 
appointed  him  Roman  proconsul  in  Gaul;  and  though  tr* 
Frank  owed  his  supremacy,  for  the  most  part,  to  hi«  «»wp 
good  sword,  yet  he  was  by  no  means  blind  to  the  advanta.v 
of  the  legitimation  of  his  title  in  the  eyes  of  his  Roman-d^*- 
lic  sul^ects  by  the  legitimate  Roman  emperor.  lie  re<Tiv>il 
the  dignity  with  reverence,  caused  the  ceremony  of  eor.>u^- 
tion  to  be  performed  upon  himself,  and  was  greet wl  by  \> 
subjects  as  consul  and  Augustus,  thus  settling  all  disV*'* 
between  Frank  and  Roman  in  regard  to  the  right  of  his  sov- 
ereignty. 

c.  Their  Attitude  toward  the  Orthodox  Romish  ChurcK— 
It  has  already  been  said  that  the  Franks  in  their  earl:'-* 
appearance  on  the  Scheldt  began  to  root  out  and  destroy  *' - 
scanty  remnants  of  the  Roman-Christian  as  well  as  of  '^ 
Celtic  culture,  but  that,  as  they  proceeded  towan!  the  S.  W . 
and  occupied  the  lands  to  the  Somme  under  the  recog7^;r 
of  the  political  supremacy  of  the  Roman  governor  at  S  - 
sons,  this  opposition  to  the  Christian  culture  was  chai.^'  • 
to  tolerance,  which  of  itself  gave  to  the  Franks  a  xeT\  irr*  .* 
advantage  in  their  relation  to  the  Roman-Gallic  [Kipuiht ; 
as  compared  with  the  other  German  tribes  upon  (J allir  » 
since  tnese,  for  the  most  part,  were  Arian  Christians,  vi-  i 
unceasing  in  their  persecution  of  the  orthodox  brand    * 
the  Church,  to  which  the  Roman-Gallic  inhabitants  f<»r  t 
most  part  adhered.    If  mere  tolerance  therefore  pn^ilu'  •. 
such  advantage,  what  if  the  Franks  should  become  the  «  >'■ 
spoken   defenders  of  Romish-Christian  orthodoxy!     Y^* 
what  if  they  should  become  orthodox  Christians  themsol  \  .•* ' 
But  here  was  a  difficulty,  or  rather  a  great  series  of  ^'z*  '> 
ingly  insurmountable  difficulties.    In  the  nature  and  u^y 
tory  of  the  Franks  every  presupposition  and  condition  f  r 
such  a  conversion  seemed  to  fail,    ^rst  of  all.  the  readi^  •  -* 
to  break  with  the  past,  the  despair  of  coming  to  anvtl:.:.' 


546 


FRANKS,  THE 


PRASCATI 


latter  (the  Saltans)  with  the  decajing  Roman  world  upon 
Gallic  soil  had  produced  weakness  and  decline.  As  at  the 
close  of  the  seventh  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
the  dissolution  of  the  Prankish  state  became  imminent, 
throe  mighty  dukes  of  the  Carlovingian  house,  Pepin  von 
Land  en,  Pepin  von  Heristal,  and  Charles  Martel,  gradually 
and  successively  gathered  into  their  own  hands  all  political 
power — first  in  Austrasia,  the  more  German  half  of  the 
Kingdom,  sometimes  wearing  the  title  of  major-domo,  to 
lend  the  show  of  legitimacy,  sometimes  not;  and  then  in 
Neustria,  the  more  Romanic  half,  where,  having  no  ducal 
authority,  the  office  of  the  major-domo  was  always  assumed 
for  the  sake  of  legalizing  their  sovereignty  over  their  West 
Prankish  subjects.  By  the  influx  of  this  fresh  and  vigorous 
German  element  the  process  of  dissolution  was  checked  and 
the  unity  of  the  Pranlcish  state  restored.  The  Carlovingian 
dukes  broke  the  independent  power  of  the  defiant  nobility ; 
brought  the  roval  domain  back  to  the  ownership  of  the 
crown ;  established  the  principle  that  the  grant  of  crown- 
lands  meant  onl^  the  grant  of  the  use  of  the  same,  and  that 
only  upon  condition  of  service  to  the  state ;  extended  the 
boundaries  of  the  kingdom;  planted  the  Church  in  new 
places ;  lent  their  aid  to  Boniface  in  the  conversion  of  the 
Thuringians,  Prisians,  and  part  of  the  Saxons ;  and  success- 
fully defended  the  European-Christian  civilization  against 
the  terrible  Moslem  invasion.  Not  until  they  had  virtually 
ruled  the  Prankish  state  for  more  than  fifty  years,  and  had 
grounded  their  power  through  these  mighty  achievements, 
did  they  move  for  the  possession  of  the  crown  in  their  own 
name  and  right.  It  was  Pepin  le  Bref  who  submitted  this 
Question  first  to  an  assembly  of  the  magnates  of  the  king- 
dom, and  then,  after  receiving  their  approval  of  his  design, 
took  one  more  step  in  the  legitimation  of  his  title,  which, 
at  the  same  time  that  it  accomplished  most  thoroughly  its 
aim,  laid  also  the  foundation  for  ideas,  conceptions,  and 
claims  which  from  that  day  to  this  have  filled  tne  centuries 
with  intellectual  contest,  and  oft  with  bloody  warfare ;  this 
step  was  the  appeal  to  the  Roman  pontiff  for  the  recogni- 
tion of  his  authority  as  King  of  the  Pranks.  Upon  the 
reception  of  the  affirmative  reply  of  Pope  Zacharias,  Pepin 
was  crowned  and  anointed  by  the  presiding  bishop  at  Sois- 
sons  in  May  of  752  A.  d.  Prom  this  time  forward  the  unity 
of  Church  and  state  in  the  Prankish  kingdom  became  oloser 
and  closer.  The  bishops  exercised  more  and  more  of  the 
functions  of  political  officers  over  the  inhabitants  of  the 
bishoprics.  The  extension  of  the  kingdom  by  Pepin  and 
Charlemagne  was  at  the  same  time  a  missionary  movement 
for  the  planting  of  new  churches,  the  establishment  of  new 
dioceses,  and  the  conversion  of  new  peoples.  At  length, 
after  the  mighty  Charlemagne  had  reduced  to  the  sway  of 
his  scepter  all  the  territory  of  Europe,  from  the  Ebro  to'the 
Eider,  and  from  the  Prisian  coast  to  Dalmatia  and  the 
southern  shores  of  Italy,  Pope  Leo  III.  set  the  crown  of  the 
Roman  emperor  upon  his  head  in  the  Church  of  St  Peter's 
at  the  grave  of  the  apostles,  and  the  Roman  people  greeted 
him  as  emperor  ana  Augnstus  (Christmas  Day  of  the  year 
800).    With  this  it  was  said  that  the  Roman-Christian  em- 

Sire  of  Constantine  had  been  restored — restored  as  the  feu- 
al  grant  of  the  Roman  pontiff  to  Charlemagne.  It  is  not 
probable  that  Charlemagne  himself  so  considered  it.  He 
undoubtedly  thought  that  it  was  the  Romans'  way  of  ac- 
knowledging that  which  already  existed  independent  of 
them.  This  is  clearly  seen  in  the  fact  that  Charlemagne 
crowned  with  his  own  hands  his  son  Louis  the  Pious  as  nis 
imperial  successor,  without  any  regard  to  the  pope.  Still 
the  manner  of  the  origin  of  the  imperial  title  gave  a  color 
and  a  moment  to  the  papal  assumption  of  the  power  to 
grant  and  confiscate  thrones  which  tne  entire  Middle  Ages 
did  not  shake  off.  During  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  (7fo- 
814)  the  Bh^nkish  state  stood  at  the  summit  of  its  power 
and  glory.  But  the  strength  and  endurance  of  person^ 
government  always  depend  upon  the  capacity  of  the  ruler, 
and  when  the  mighty  personality  which  created  the  great 
empire  was  no  more,  and  his  only  surviving  son,  Louis  the 
Pious — a  character  to  wear  a  cowl,  but  not  a  crown — suc- 
ceeded to  the  sovereignty,  the  dissolution  began.  The 
wealth  of  the  crown  and  the  powers  of  the  state  were  squan- 
dered upon  the  clergy,  and  the  latter  half  of  the  weak  mon- 
arch's reign  was  a  constant  scene  of  confiict  between  his 
sons  in  regard  to  the  succession.  At  length  it  came,  after 
the  father's  death  (840  a.  d.),  to  the  compact  of  Verdun  be- 
tween them  (Aug.,  843  A.  D.),  according  to  which  the  eldest, 
Ijothair,  received  Italy,  which  he  ruled  already,  and  the  dis- 
trict called  after  his  name  Lothairingia  or  Lorraine,  reach- 


ing past  the  Rhdne  and  Rhine  to  the  North  Sea.  Loai>  \h*' 
German  received  the  more  German  portion  of  the  empm . 
E.  of  Lothair's  kingdom,  and  Charles  the  Bald,  the  H»^ 
mano-GaUic  portion  W.  of  the  same.  This  oom;>act  of  Vt  r- 
dun  may  therefore  be  looked  upon  as  the  birth-raoment  of 
the  three  ^at  nationalities — German,  Prench,  and  Italijin 
— whose  fnendships  and  hostilities,  workings  and  interwork- 
ings,  infiuences  and  refiex  infiuences  upon  each  other  havt* 
formed  the  substantial  part  of  European  continental  hi^ 
tory  for  the  last  thousana  years.  The  peoples  out  of  wh»»rr. 
these  three  great  nationalities  were  to  be  developed  ha«l  he^v 
bound  together  in  this  mighty  political  structure  of  tr.*- 
Prankish  state.  By  the  power  of  this  unity,  whose  c.»lij»-f 
and  fundamental  )x)nd  was  a  common  religion  and  a  (vim- 
mon  Church,  they  had  succeeded  to  the  inheritance  of  al. 
that  was  destined,  to  be  of  world-historic  value  in  the  civ- 
ilization of  the  Roman  world.  Amid  all  the  wreck  and  ruin 
of  the  centuries  of  the  "  great  wandering  "  the  Church  ah  in*-. 
of  all  institutions,  had  stood  firm,  and  now,  as  the  e^taU 
lished  religion  of  the  Prankish  empire,  it  transmitted  tu  ail 
the  peoples  of  this  great  state-unity  the  culture  of  the  Uf^ 
man  world,  which  it  had  accumulated  and  preserved.  In 
this  the  Prankish  state  had  accomplished  its  work  in  th*- 
world-historic  plan.  The  peoples  brought  togetiier  to  par- 
ticipate in  a  common  civilization  by  it  now  separate,  eacn  to 
po  its  own  way— each  to  develop,  supplement,  and  work  uj» 
in  its  own  way  that  which  it  haa  received^-each  to  niaJce  i'> 
own  valid  at  the  expense  of  the  rest.  The  elements  cla5h 
against  each  other;  sharpen,  purify,  and  develop,  thereby, 
themselves  and  each  other ;  fall  into  false  connections ;  In- 
come again  dissolved,  until  at  last  the  proper  affinities,  p- 
sitions,  and  relations  begin  to  be  found,  and  the  active,  in- 
telligent, and  refiected  harmony  of  the  new  time  b^in$  to 
appear. 

Literature. — Monumtnta  Germanic  ffistorietk,  edited  >>y 
Pertz;  Wietersheim's  Geschichte  der  Vdlkertranderttn^: : 
Weber's  Oeschichte  des  MtUelalters ;  Waitz*s  Deutsche  IVV- 
fa88ung8^eschtehte ;  Giesebrecht^s  Oeachichle  der  deutsch*^u 
Kaiaerzeit ;  Rflckert*s  KtUfurgesehichte  des  deuisthen  Vr^ik*  -. 
Gregorovius's  Oeschichte  der  Stadt  Rom  im  MWelalUr: 
Martin's  Hiatoire  de  France ;  Guizot's  Histoire  de  Civt/u<n- 
Hon  en  France;  Hallam*s  History  of  the  Middle  Ap^* 
Ranke's  Weltgeschichte,  iv.,  v.;  Brunners  Deutsche  Rethf^ 
geschichtCy  i.    See  Prance,  History  of.     J.  W,  Bitrges*^. 

Franz,  fraants,  Robert  :  song  composer ;  b.  in  Halle,  Gc  r- 
many,  June  28,  1815;  received  a  university  education,  anu 
only  after  long  opposition  secured  the  consent  of  his  part'iit^ 
to  study  music:  studied  under  the  best  masters,  and  inailc  a 
special  study  of  the  works  of  Bach,  Beethoven,  and  S  hu- 
bert.  In  1848  he  published  his  first  set  of  songs,  which  at- 
tracted the  notice  of  Schumann,  and  later  thaX  of  M«^ii 
delssohn  and  Liszt.  He  ranked  as  one  of  the  greatest  s^  nc 
composers  Germany  has  ever  produced,  and  durin^r  his  life- 
time he  published  257  songs  for  a  single  voice  with  piai  - 
forte  accompaniment.     During  the  later  years  of  his  life  ht 

fave  much  attention  to  editing  the  works  of  Bach  aiij 
[£lndel,  and  his  additional  accompaniments  to  the  Jlrssi  i  ^ 
occasioned  much  controversy  in  the  mu.sical  world.  Tho* 
are  elaborate,  scholarly,  and  certainly  do  much  toward  en-  -i 
fying  the  archaic  character  of  that  work.  He  died  at  Btr 
lin,  where  he  had  lived  in  seclusion  for  several  years,  on  <.»«  u 
24,  1892.  D.  E.  Herviii. 

Franzensbad,  fraants'ens-beikt :  town  of  Bohemia :  ei>un- 
ty  of  Eger ;  on  railway ;  3  miles  N.  W.  of  Eger  (see  map  --f 
Austria-Hungary,  ref.  S-C).     It  is  a  celebrated    halhinv 
place.     The  waters  of  its  nine  mineral  springs  are  v>n 
efficacious  in  scrofulous  diseases;  500,000  botSes  are  •ii 
nually  exported.    Pop.  (1890)  1,944. 

Frascati,  fra&s-kaa'tee :  a  town  of  Central  Italy ;  12  mi^^ 
S.  E.  of  Rome ;  on  the  slope  of  the  Alban  hills,  and  c«.  i<- 
brated  as  a  summer  resort  (see  map  of  Italy,  r«f.  6-Ek  Ir 
was  built,  after  the  destruction  of  ancient  Tusculum  in 
1191,  on  the  ruins  of  a  villa  overgrown  with  underwr--' 
(frasche)^  whence  its  name.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  ar  • ! 
has  two  cathedrals,  one  dedicated  to  San  Rocco.  datine  fn  '*. 
the  fourteenth  century,  and  one  dedicated  to  San  rietr.. 
dating  from  the  seventeenth  century.  Pop.  7,134.  Tr* 
town  is  now  interesting  chiefly  on  account  of  its  palaM'.: 
villas.  The  Villa  Palconieri  is  the  oldest  of  them;  it  wax 
built  in  1550  by  Cardinal  Ruffin I  The  Villa  Mandrapn- 
is  the  largest ;  it  was  built  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  Car- 
dinal Altemps,  belongs  to  the  Borghese  family,  and  isjpart:T 
occupied  by  a  Jesuit  school.    The  Villa  Rufflnella,  or  Tnsvi:- 


548 


FRATERNAL  INSURANCE  SOCIETIES 


New  York  and  Massachusetts  law.  According  to  this  table, 
of  100,000  persons  living  at  the  age  of  20  there  will  die  that 
year  729.  Of  100,000  at  25  the  number  will  be  777 ;  at  30 
it  will  be  842 ;  at  35  it  will  be  929 ;  at  40  the  mortality  is 
1,036;  at  45  it  is  1,221 ;  at  50  it  is  1,506;  at  55  it  is  2,166; 
at  60  it  is  3,034 ;  at  65  it  is  4,40»,  and  at  70  it  is  6,493. 

For  people  of  all  ages  to  pay  the  same  rate  of  assessment 
at  the  death  of  a  member  nos  seemed  to  most  associations 
unjust  to  the  younger  members,  and  assessments  have  been, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  graded  according  to  age  at  entrance. 
Many  of  the  business  assessment  companies  proceed  one  step 
further  and  assess  during  the  youth  of  the  association  and 
also  of  the  insured  more  than  is  necessary  for  current  needs. 
This  surplus  is  put  into  a  reserve  fund  to  be  used  in  later 
years,  or  at  least  the  interest  on  the  fund,  to  save  the  need 
of  Increasing  assessments.  Yet  full  power  is  reserved  to  levy 
all  assessments  needful. 

Old  Line  or  Level  Premium  Insurance  Companies. 

Quite  different  is  the  plan  of  the  so-called  old  line  or 
level  premium  companies,  against  which  fraternal  associa- 
tions were  formed  as  a  protest  in  the  seventies.  The  level 
gremium  company  has  no  right  of  assessment,  but  is  legally 
ound  to  collect  from  every  one  such  an  equal  yearly  sum  as 
will,  when  improved  at  4  per  cent,  compound  interest,  suf- 
fice to  pay  the  death-claims  of  all,  as  they  die,  after  living 
out  on  the  average  their  normal  expectation  of  life.  Given 
an  interest  and  mortality  table  ana  it  is  a  simple  matter  to 
fix  the  equal  annual  premium.  Any  profits  earned  in  ex- 
cess of  the  legal  rate  serve  in  mutual  companies,  and  even 
to  some  extent  in  stock  companies,  to  give  dividends  to  policy- 
holders that  will  lighten  their  annual  premiums  more  and 
more  until  the  maturity  of  the  policy. 

The  ratios  of  expenses  of  management  to  mean  amount 
insured  in  the  five  largest  level  premium  companies  have 
been  as  follows  on  each  $1,000 : 


COMPANIES. 

1872. 

1879. 

1885. 

1899. 

The  Equitable  (New  York) 

$8  40 
470 
6  10 
780 

7flO 

$7  90 
680 
4  70 
8  10 

7S» 

$8  70 

6  go 

680 
10  80 

8  10 

$8  60 

The  Mutual  (New  York) 

10  ao 

The  Mutual  Benefit  (New  York) .... 
The  New  York  Ufe  (New  York) .... 
The  Northwestern  Mutual  (Milwau- 
kee)  

7  10 
10  50 

8  80 

The  average  cost  of  all  the  old  line  companies  doing  busi- 
ness in  Massachusetts  was  $8  in  1880,  $9  m  1887,  and  $9.30 
in  1892. 

To  fraternal  societies  doing  business  on  the  lodge  system 
the  expenses  of  management  bear  a  much  smaller  ratio  to 
the  mean  amount  insured,  averaging,  in  addition  to  be- 
tween $2  and  $8  per  $1,000  to  cover  lodge  dues  and  local 
medical  fees,  no  more  than  48*04  cents  on  the  $1,000  in  15 
of  such  associations,  and  72  cents  in  10  others.    This  dis- 

Sarity  is  due  to  the  saving  in  expenses  to  the  fraternal  or- 
ers  on  account  of  the  management  of  their  own  interests 
by  the  insurers  through  the  lodge  system. 

Origin  and  Growth  of  Assessment  Insurance  Societies. 

Fraternal  sick  and  funeral  benefit  associations,  paying 
usually  from  $50  to  $100  funeral  benefit  and  $5  a  week  in 
case  of  sickness,  had  existed  and  in  some  me^ure  flourished 
in  the  U.  S.  even  before  the  civil  war.  Two  such  now  doing 
business  in  Connecticut  were  organized  in  1821,  and  eleven 
others  between  1831  and  1857.  Associations  on  the  assess- 
ment plan,  however,  that  emphasize  the  life-insurance  side 
only,  (late  in  the  U.  S.  from  1866.  At  about  the  same  time 
appeared  the  three  kinds  of  assessment  associations,  business 
assessment  companies,  secret  fraternal  life-insurance  socie- 
ties with  branches  or  lodges,  and  other  secret  fraternal  life- 
insurance  societies  sometimes  called  fraternal  orders,  that 
were  without  lodges  or  branches,  but  worked  entirely 
through  a  central  staff  of  officers,  as  do  the  business  assess- 
ment companies,  but,  unlike  the  latter,  were  confined  to 
some  class  or  occupation  or  secret  fraternity,  and  did  not 
employ  paid  agents,  at  least  on  any  extensive  scale,  to  in- 
ciease  membership.  On  Nov.  12,  1866,  some  members  of 
the  Masonic  fraternity  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  organized  what  the 
historian  of  the  movement,  Mr.  George  D.  Eidredge,  con- 
siders the  first  assessment  life-insurance  coniimny  in  the 
U.  S.  Many  other  societies  of  Masons  and  Odd  Fellows  im- 
mediately took  up  the  idea. 

In  1879,  of  136  assessment  associations  investigated  by 
the  congress  of  assessment  associations,  64  were  Masonic, 


with  69,844  members  and  $120,202,588  insurance ;  37  were 
Odd  Fellows',  with  36,439  members  and  $44,427,544  in>ur- 
ance ;  8  were  Jewish,  with  22,625  members  and  $23,901^/<0it 
insurance.  Nearly  all  of  these  associations  transacted  iii>ur- 
ance  business  through  a  central  office  only,  without  brand  r^ 
or  lodges,  though  the  members  independent  of  insurance  \v- 
longed  in  most  cases  to  fraternal  lodges.  For  oonvenietift 
we  will  henceforth  class  all  such  life-insurance  sooietit^  as 
fraternal  orders  mithout  branches.  Fraternal  societ  ie«  t  rans- 
acting  their  business  through  the  lodge  system  may  for  con- 
venience be  designated  as  frcUemal  lodge  life-insurant^  so- 
cieties. These,  together  with  business  assessment  social i^^, 
numbered  27  in  1879,  contained  120,510  members,  and  vm- 
ried  $239,346,475  insurance.  These  three  classes  of  assess- 
ment insurance  societies  will  be  treated  in  order. 

I.  Fraternal  Life-insurance  Orders  wrrHocr  BRA5nB- 
Es. — As  the  fullest  investigation  and  comparison  of  frater- 
nal orders,  both  with  and  without  branches,  has  been  made 
in  Connecticut,  and  published  in  the  report  for  1891  ot 
the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  of  that  State,  Connecti<  u: 
may  be  regarded  as  typical  of  the  whole  country.  The 
Masonic  Mutual  Benefit  Association  of  Connecticut^  a  fra- 
ternal order  without  branches,  was  established  at  Hartfun: 
in  1867  to  insure  the  lives  of  Freemasons.  A  board  of 
twenty-eight  directors  elected  at  the  annual  meeting  ch(>o«p^ 
the  officers.  The  board  holds  monthly  meetings,  calls  th« 
assessments,  and  conducts  all  the  business.  Any  Freema"^  c 
in  good  health  is  eligible  to  membership  without  a  medi>7u 
examination.  In  Class  A,  which  pays  $200  at  death,  thtr 
admission  fees  are  graded  from  $3  under  25  years  of  ag^  t'-- 
from  $15  to  $60  at  the  age  of  60  or  over,  as  the  directi  n^ 
may  determine.  The  assessment  is  $1.10  on  the  death  of  a 
member,  of  which  10  cents  is  devoted  to  expenses.  Cla^^  B, 
which  pays  $1,000,  can  be  entered  by  members  of  Cla^x  A 
on  paymg  an  admission  fee  of  $3  and  an  advance  &<«•«*  ^^^ 
ment  of  $5.50.  There  are  graded  yearly  dues,  acoordini:  t'-» 
age  in  this  class,  from  $1  at  35  to  $7  at  57.  A  reserve  fur  i 
of  $8,000  has  already  been  accumulated  toward  the  $l^.(«^i 
estimated  as  necessary  to  pay  the  last  man.  The  memb^-r- 
ship  in  1892  was  442.  The  Odd  Fellows'  Mutual  Aid  Ai^ 
soctation  of  Connecticut y  another  typical  association  of  thr> 
character,  contained  2,858  members  Dec.  31,  1891.  Orpir.- 
ized  in  New  Haven,  Nov.  16, 1867,  its  government  resemblf^ 
that  of  the  society  just  described.  The  initiation  fees  art- 
graded  from  nothing  between  21  and  35  years  of  Uf^e  ti>  $lo 
between  46  and  50.  Medical  examinations  and  a^  Urn  '•> 
were  introduced  a  few  years  ago.  The  younjrer  meml-^^ 
being  dissatisfied  with  the  equS  assessment  of  $1.15  at  hJ 
ages,  assessments  were  graded  in  Oct.,  1^7,  from  60  cei.t^ 
on  $1,500  between  21  and  24  years  of  age  to  $1.50  between 
45  and  50  years  inclusive. 

A  statistical  comparison  of  the  fraternal  orders  withiMt*^ 
branches  and  the  fraternal  lodge  societies  in  Conneetivu: 
reveals  the  followinji^  facts :  The  membership  of  the  form<.r 
throughout  the  entire  State  increased  but  4  per  cent,  fr^u; 
Jan.  1, 1887,  to  Dec.  31, 1891,  while  of  the  latter  the  nif  ^.- 
bership  increased  nearl;^  94  per  cent,  during  the  same  pt>n««i 
In  1891  the  average  size  of  the  policy  in  the  former  v^^ 
$1,351 ;  in  the  latter,  $1.626 ;  and  the  payments  for  deat.  • 
claims  in  the  lodge  societies  were  less  tnan  half  thntse  <>f  tit 
orders  without  branches,  this  difference  being  partly  du*>  '.• 
the  greater  age  and  stationary  size  of  the  latter  socitru^. 
and  partly  to  their  less  care,  especially  in  their  earlv  h  - 
tory,  m  the  selection  of  young  ana  healthy  members^     \Vh:-v 
the  societies  with  branches  spent  58  cents  per  $1,000  i:.- 
surance  in  1891  on  sick  and  funeral  benefits,  there  are  l* 
returns  under  this  head  in  the  orders  without  branches,  ar  ^ 
probably  these  orders  provide  very  little  in  this  dirvt-ti  : 
for  many  of  them  insure  only  those  who  through  mem^-r- 
ship  in  social  secret  fraternities  get,  in  that  way,  such  bei.*- 
fits.    As  a  vefy  partial  offset  to  the  greater  expenst^  f<  r 
death-claims  of  the  fraternities  without  branches,  their  c i- 
penses  for  management  in  1891  were  only  95  cents,  as  o  >:.• 
trasted  with  $1.93  on  each  $1,000  insurance  in  the  onierv 
with  lodges.    The  difference  was  doubtless  due  to  K>i.: 
expenses  directly  connected  with  insurance.    The  avemc 
income  from  initiation  fees  and  dues  per  $1,000  was  $3  :r 
the  fraternal  societies  with  branches  and  $2.18  in  the  oth^*^ 
The  receipts  from  death  assessments  were  $9.79  in  the  1>  •- 
mer,  part  of  which  seems  to  have  gone  into  the  small  res'-rvc 
fund  maintained  by  many  of  the  lodge  orders.     The  a.v««  ^>«- 
ments  for  death  in  the  other  orders  amounted  to  $14..'»" 
The  remaining  $1.10  of  payments  under  this  head   mu< 
have  come  from  reserve  funos  or  interest  on  such.   The  pr> 


550 


FRATERNAL  INSURANCE  SOCIETIES 


Royal  Arcanum  Rate  of  Mortality. 


1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 


Bfortality. 

...  7'M 
....  7-84 
....  7-88 
....  8-48 
....  8-50 


Average 


7-91 


Y«r. 

1880. 

1890. 

1891. 

1892. 


Mortality. 
..  81 
..  90 
..  90 
...  8-9 


Average. 


8-75 


It  has  risen  from  an  average  of  7*91  per  1,000  during 
1884-88  to  8-75  during  1889-92.  In  1883  the  age  limit  was 
reduced  to  55.  The  assessments  are  graded  from  $1  at  en- 
trance at  the  age  of  21  to  $1.38  at  30,  $2.06  at  40,  $3.26  at 
50,  and  $4  at  54.  No  insurance  lodges  are  allowed  in  the 
Gulf  States,  South  Carolina,  portions  of  Southeastern  Geor- 
gia, and  Western  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  In  this,  as  in 
many  other  fraternal  orders,  the  lodges  may  pay  the  assess- 
ments on  sick  members  and  directly  help  in  other  ways  the 
sick  and  disabled. 

The  American  Legion  of  Honor^  organized  at  Boston  in 
1878,  grades  its  assessments  on  $1,000  from  40  cents  for 
those  entering  under  30  to  84  cents  at  50,  the  maximum  age- 
limit.  Policies  which  formerly  ranged  from  $500  to  $5,000 
were  reduced  for  new  members  to  an  extreme  limit  oi  $3,000 
by  the  Supreme  Council  in  Au^.,  1893,  to  take  effect  Jan.  1, 
1894.  Weekly  sick  and  disability  benefits  ran^e  from  $2  on 
a  $500  certificate  to  $12  on  $3,600,  and  are  limited  to  five 
weeks  in  a  year  and  20  per  cent,  of  the  certificate  in  a  life- 
time. There  is  an  emergency  fund  of  $500,000.  Local  coun- 
cil dues  average  $4  a  member  and  $1.46  per  $1,000  insurance, 
as  the  members  carry  an  average  of  $2,726  insurance.  The 
expenses  of  the  central  office  in  1892  were  56  cents  per  $1,000, 
making  the  total  local  and  central  expenses  $2.02,  and  the 
total  costs  were  $19.40,  aside  from  the  local  dues  of  $1.46, 
or,  including  said  dues,  $20.86.  The  mortality-rate  has  been 
as  follows : 


Ywr. 

Bfortallty.     Y«v. 

Mortality. 

1884 

9-8    1889 

12-5 

1885 

10-8  1  1890 

18- 1 

1886 

100    1891 

16-6 

1887 

11-8.  1892 

164 

1888 

181 



'     Average 

14  4 

Averaee . . 

110 

The  membership  was  57,005  at  the  close  of  1884,  62,276  in 
1888,  and  60,554  at  the  end  of  1892. 

The  Knights  and  Ladies  of  Honor,  organized  in  1878, 
with  headquarters  at  Indianapolis,  grew  from  47,793  on  Dec. 
31,  1888,  to  64,661  at  the  close  of  1892,  its  mortality-rate 
meantime  rising  from  11*3  to  12*8.  In  1890  there  were  27,- 
465  males  and  29,201  females.  The  mortality  was  13-14  for 
the  males  and  12*39  for  the  females.  For  all  the  years  of 
the  order  ending  with  1890  the  death-rate  for  the  males  has 
been  11*71  and  for  the  females  9*76.  There  are  about  one- 
sixth  as  many  social  as  beneficiary  or  insurance  members. 
Assessment  rates  vary  according  to  age  at  entry  from  30 
cents  for  those  18  to  25  to  75  cents  for  those  49  to  50,  50  be- 
ing the  maximum  limit  since  1885,  when  it  was  55.  Like 
the  United  Friends  and  some  others,  this  order  levies  its  as- 
sessments only  once  a  month.  The  entire  cost,  save  from 
$1.50  to  $2.50  per  $1,000  for  lodge  dues,  was  $12.70  in  1890, 
$14  in  1891,  and  $13.60  in  1892. 

The  Equitable  Aid  Union,  organized  in  1879,  having  its 
headc^uarters  at  Columbia,  Pa.,  and  four-fifths  of  its  mem- 
bership in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  grew  from  14,182, 
on  Dec.  31,  1884,  to  37,460  at  the  close  of  1892.  It  insures 
for  any  sum  from  $200  to  $3,000,  but  is  peculiar  in  that  it 
grades  the  insurance  to  be  paid.  Thus  the  payment  of  a 
dollar  at  each  assessment  gives  one  who  enters  between  15 
and  21  years  of  age  $3,000,  from  30  to  31  $2,500,  from  40  to 
41  $2,000,  from  50  to  51  $1,500,  from  60  to  61  $1,000,  and  64 
to  65  $800,  other  ages  having  corresponding  ratios.  The  mor- 
tality was  between  9  and  10*2  from  1884  to  1888,  In  1889  it 
was  11*7 ;  in  1890, 16 ;  in  1891, 13*8 ;  in  1892, 15*4.  The  entire 
cost  per  $1,000,  save  local  lodge  dues,  was  $16.10  in  1892. 

The  National  Unum,  with  head({uarters  at  Toledo,  O.,  is 
the  only  fraternal  order  that  has  adopted  the  so-called  step- 
rate  plan — i.  e.  that  assesses  the  members  according  to  age 
when  assessed  and  not  according  to  age  at  entry.  Organized 
in  1881,  it  grew  from  17,002  on  Dec.  31,  1888,  to  40,566  on 
Dec.  31,  1892.  The  cost  of  joining  is  from  $5  to  $7  for 
the  charter  members  of  a  new  council  or  lodge  and  from 
$8.50  to  $12  for  others.  The  average  local  council  dues, 
which,  with  the  initiation  fees,  provide  for  disability  and 
the  required  aid  to  sick  members,  are  from  $1.15  to  $2  per 
$1,000  of  insurance.    The  national  management  expenses  in 


1892  were  35.6  cents  per  $1,000,  and  the  entire  cost,  sa^r 
council  dues,  was  only  $6.90.  The  mortalitj-rate  has  ri>^  n 
from  5-1  in  1888  to  6*9  in  1892.  Insurance  is  given  for  fir*nv 
$1,000  to  $5,000.  For  $1,000  the  assessment  rises  from  J<) 
cents  at  20  years  of  age  to  30  cents  at  30,  40  cents  at  40,  6i> 
cents  at  50,  and  72  cents  at  54,  the  upper  age  limit,  whi<  L 
at  first  was  65.  There  was  $101,168,000  insurance  in  fo^^ 
Dec.  31, 1892,  and  the  average  insurance  per  member  war 
$3,152.11. 

The  Catholic  Benevolent  L^ion,  founded  in  1881  witb 
headqmarters  at  Brooklyn,  N.  V.,  and  a  present  membership 
of  29,530,  is  like  the  Catholic  Mutual  Benevolent  Attfuria- 
tion,  with  its  38,341  members  at  the  close  of  1892.  ainl  th^' 
Catholic  Knights  of  America,  with  its  22,682  members,  m 
that  it  confines  its  membership  to  Catholics.  In  the  lii>t- 
named  society  the  members  "  must  receive  Holy  Communion 
at  least  once  a  year,  at  Easter  or  thereabouts,  under  pain  of 
forfeiture  of  all  benefits."  The  mortality  in  all  tore*?  uf 
these  Catholic  orders  was  from  14*20  to  14*80  in  1892. 

The  Modem  Woodmen  of  America,  OTgojiizied  at  Pulton. 
111.,  in  1883,  and  having  on  Dec.  31,  1892,  72,644  memU  r>, 
is  somewhat  different  from  any  of  the  above.  It  not  only  a^u- 
fines  its  insurance  to  those  between  18  and  45  and  livmg  in 
Michigan,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  th^ 
Dakotas,  and  Nebraska,  but  it  refuses  to  insure  in  Chicago  nmi 
Milwaukee,  although  two-thirds  of  the  9,000  menilK^rx  ^f 
the  Royal  League,  organized  also  in  1883  and  with  a  mi^r- 
tality  in  1892  of  only  5*4,  live  in  Chicago. 

The  rate  of  assessment  in  the  Modem  Woodman  Tarir>^ 
from  40  cents  to  55  cents.  Insurance  for  $1,000,  $2.00<J,  **t 
$3,000  may  be  had  by  those  under  41,  and  only  $1.0tK)  <>r 
$2,000  by  those  over  41.  The  death-rate  of  the  order  wa<  'i 
in  1891  and  7*8  in  1892.  The  expenses  of  management  ir> 
1892,  aside  from  local  dues,  were  $1.95,  and  the  total  ct«st. 
aside  from  local  dues,  was  $7.30. 

Space  forbids  a  description  of  several  other  large  f raterrj^] 
orders  like  the  Knights  of  the  Maccabees,  Order  of  Vmtrd 
Friends,  the  Independent  Order  of  Foresters,  the  Cnitfl 
Order  of  the  Oolden  Cross,  and  many  others. 

III.  Business  Assessment  Societies. — ^These  association^ 
accumulate  a  much  larger  reserve  fund  than  the  fratenik. 
societies,  and,  as  has  been  remarked,  use  paid  agents  inst<>a-i 
of  fraternal  lodges.  The  available  assets  exceeded  the  lia- 
bilities in  208  business  assessment  companies  reported  m 
the  Spectator  Handbook  for  1893  by  an  amount  equal  \o 
$11.90  on  each  $1,000  in  force  Jan.  1, 1898.  In  the  oa^  of 
72  fraternal  associations  based  on  the  lodge  system  the  n?- 
serve  amounted  to  98  cents  per  $1,000.  Tne  reserve  in  th« 
25  old  line  companies  reporting  on  this  head  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts Insurance  Department  was  $269.57  per  $1,000. 

Some  of  the  business  assessment  companies  like  the  H'lr*- 
ford  lAfe  and  Annuity  Insurance  Company,  oi  Ilartf«»ri, 
Conn.,  founded  in  1880,  provide  only  a  limited  reserve  fur.i. 
not  to  exceed  $10  on  $1,000  insurance,  or  $1,000,000  in  h  . 
and  guarantee  maximum  annual  assessments  for  the  fir^ 
seven  years  of  a  policy.  These  assessments  for  the  age  of  ;*• 
at  entrance  would  not  exceed  $27.42  the  first  year,  $14.-i»* 
the  third,  and  so  gradually  diminishing  to  $12.42  the  sevprji  ^. 
For  the  age  of  40  at  entrance  the  maximum  assessments  i'^^ 
the  first  three  years  are  respectively  $29.98.  $16.98,  a*.-: 
$14.98,  and  at  '50,  $38.10,  $25.10,  and  $23.10.  After  tl. 
seventh  year  assessments  rise  with  advancing  age  acc<>nli:.j 
to  mortality  cost.  The  number  of  certificates  in  force  n »-' 
from  24,357  at  the  close  of  1888  to  38,390  four  yean^  Uu  \ 
while  the  total  cost  per  $1,000  rose  from  $15  to  ^17.40.  <  •. 
this,  $4  went  to  expenses  of  management.  The  mortali'v- 
rate  was  11*2  in  1888  and  in  1892. 

Another  type  of  business  assessment  companies  15  th 
Mutual  Reserve  Fund  Life  ofKew  }orA%  organized  in  iss; 
It  asvsesses  during  the  first  years  of  a  policy  one-third  mo- 
than  the  normal  mortality  cost  for  tnat  age  at  entry,  »i  ' 
thus  provides  a  reserve  fund  which  is  used  to  reduce  as-*  >- 
ments  in  old  age.    Cash  surrender  values  are  also  proviilrsi. 
The  net  assets  on  Jan.  1,  1893,  amounted  to  $12.89  for  t-Si*^  I 
$1,000.    The  total  cost  of  insurance  rose  from  $13.7t)  r 
1888  to  $16.80  per  $1,000  in  1892.    Of  this,  $4.90  wont  «. 
expenses.    The  membership  grew  from  47,693  on  Dtt-.  ;V:. 
1888,  to  72,342  four  vears  later.    The  mortality  was  9-61  j*  - 
1,000  policies  in  force  in  1888  and  11*93  in  1S9Z, 

A  third  type  of  these  assessment  companies;  isrenresrii!---  \ 
by  the  Fidelity  Mutual  Life  Associatton,  of  Phuailel}>h:& 
founded  in  1879.    The  probable  annual  costs  are  equat4Mi  : 
level  or  equal  annual  rates,  but,  unlike  an  old  line  com|»ar.> . 
this  assessment  company  has  the  legal  right  to  incrpast>  tl.* 


552 


FRAUD 


transaction  into  which  it  enters  as  a  oonstitnent  material 
element.    But,  as  the  essential  qualification  contained  in 
this  statement  implies,  it  is  not  every  perpetration  of  fraud 
that  warrants  legal  interposition.    In  the  sphere  of  morals 
all  deceptive  artifices  for  the  purpose  of  misleading,  every 
form  of  crafty  imposition  with  the  design  of  taking  advan- 
tage of  a  person's  confidence  or  credulity,  are  reprehensible 
as  violations  of  the  law  of  moral  duty.    But  the  enforce- 
ment of  ethical  obligations,  simply  on  account  of  their 
rightful  binding  force  upon  the  conscience,  is,  and  must  nec- 
essarily be  for  obvious  reasons,  altogether  impracticable  in 
courts  of  justice.     Those  forms  of  fraudulent   practices, 
therefore,  which  legal  methods  are  competent  to  examine 
and  punish  must  be  considered  as  included  within  the  cate- 
gory of  acts  fraudulent  in  a  moral  sense,  but  not  coexten- 
sive with  it.    And  yet  the  precise  line  of  demarkation  can 
not  be  definitely  drawn,  though  certain  general  principles 
may  be  stated  upon  which  the  distinction  essentially  de- 
pends.   The  first  of  these,  and  the  most  important,  is  that 
no  dependence  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  inherent  quality  of 
actions  without  regard  to  their  natural  or  necessary  conse- 
quences.   The  law  considers  the  resultSy  either  actual  or  to 
be  reasonably  presumed,  of   every  act  concerning  which 
question  may  arise  as  to  its  fraudulent  character,  and  exerts 
its  remedial  agency  onl^  when  injury  to  individuals  or  to 
the  public  welfare  has,  m  fact,  been  occasioned  or  is  to  be 
naturally  expected,  and  then  only  in  behalf  of  the  party 
whose  interests  may  be  prejudiced.    Moreover,  the  injury 
must  consist  in  an  intcnerence  with  some  legal  right  or 
violation  of  some  legal  duty  resulting  in  actual  or  probable 

Secuniary  loss  on  the  part  of  the  person  against  wnom  the 
eception  is  practiced,  or  serious  public  detriment.  It  fol- 
lows, therefore,  as  a  deduction  from  this  rule,  that  the  same 
act,  though  done  with  intent  to  deceive,  may  sometimes  be 
deemed  fraudulent  in  law,  and  at  other  times  not  fraudu- 
lent, while  in  a  moral  aspect  it  would  be  fraudulent  in  all 
such  cases.  The  distinction  drawn  in  ordinary  language 
between  deceive  and  defraud  serves  to  illustrate,  in  some 
degree,  the  difference  between  moral  and  legal  fraud.  Any 
adequate  definition  of  fraud  in  law  which  will  distinguish 
the  character  of  actions  considered  simply  in  themselves  is 
an  impossibilitv.  This  fact  has  been  so  generally  recognized 
by  the  courts  that  the  attempt  to  frame  such  a  definition 
has  been  pronounced  contrary  to  the  policy  of  the  law.  It 
is  none  the  less  true,  however,  that  there  are  numerous 
classes  of  actions  whose  tendency  to  impair  legal  rights  is 
so  uniform  and  natural  that  they  may  be  generally  pro- 
nounced fraudulent  when  considered  smiply  in  themselves. 
But  these  can  be  more  advantageously  enumerated  than  de- 
fined. Another  characteristic  of  acts  deemed  fraudulent  in 
law  is  an  intent,  either  actual  or  presumed,  to  occasion  harm 
or  damage  to  another.  The  principle  is  the  same  as  in 
morals — that  a  wrongful  purpose  is  necessary  to  render  a 
deceptive  act  culpable.  In  a  large  class  of  cases,  however, 
a  fraudulent  intent  is  presumed  from  the  nature  of  the 
transaction.  Hence  arises  the  doctrine  of  constructive 
fraud,  to  be  hereafter  noticed.  Actual  fraud,  on  the  con- 
trary, consists  in  intentional  deception,  artifice,  or  conceal- 
ment, with  the  view  or  expectation  that  a  person  will  be 
misled,  and  the  actual  misleading  him  to  his  injury.  Both 
actual  fraud  and  constructive  fraud  are,  with  but  few  ex- 
ceptions, within  the  cognizance  of  courts  either  of  law  or 
courts  of*  equity  under  the  division  of  jurisdiction  which 
exists  in  the  English  and  American  systems  of  jurispru- 
dence. (See  Common  Law,  Equity.)  The  chief  exception 
to  equity  jurisdiction  in  questions  of  fraud  is  in  relation  to 
wills.  Wills  of  personal  estate  are  considered  in  probate  or 
surrogate  courts — those  of  real  property  in  the  common-law 
tribunals.  But  the  general  jurisdiction  of  equity  over  the 
subject  of  fraud  is  very  comprehensive,  and  cases  of  con- 
structive fraud  particularly  are  much  more  commonly  con- 
sidered in  equity  than  at  law.  The  legal  remedy  consists 
merely  of  an  award  of  damages  to  the  injured  party,  while 
the  modes  of  equitable  relief,  which  admit  the  setting  aside 
of  a  fraudulent  transaction  or  the  enforcement  of  the  spe- 
cific performance  of  an  agreement,  are  oftentimes  much 
more  oeneficial  and  desirable.  It  has  been  said  that  equity 
would  presume  the  existence  of  fraud  upon  slighter  evi- 
dence than  would  be  required  in  courts  oi  law,  but  this  as- 
sertion is  hardly  sustainable.  The  more  extensive  jurisdic- 
tion of  equity  in  cases  of  fraud  is  to  be  attributed  especially 
to  the  superiority  of  its  remedial  processes.  It  will  there- 
fore be  most  expedient  in  the  further  consideration  of  this 
subject  to  state  only  the  body  of  principles  which   have 


vtf-f 


been  established  in  equity,  since  they  not  only  include  th 
maintained  at  law,  but  are  still  more  extensive  in  scopes 

I.  Actual  Fraud, — Cas^  of  this  kind  may  be  divided  into 
two  principal  classes.  The  first  class  includes  those  fornix 
of  fraud  which  occur  between  parties  who  are  under  ri" 
legal  incapacity,  and  who  are  in  no  mutual,  confidential,  or 
fiduciary  relations  with  each  other.  The  second  class  of 
frauds  embraces  those  whose  ori|^n  is  chieflv  attributal'l^ 
to  the  mental  infirmity  or  legal  disability  of  tne  persons  it  - 
jured,  by  reason  of  which  imposition  and  deception  may  U 
more  readily  practiced  than  is  usually  possible. 

1.  In  the  first  class  of  cases  it  is  only  necessarr  to  havr 
regard  to  the  conduct  of  those  committing  the  u:aud  a:. . 
the  nature  of  the  transaction  in  which  it  occurs,  without 
reference  to  the  peculiar  condition  of  those  injured.  T't- 
fraud  perpetrated  may  be  either,  as  it  is  termed  in  IjStiL 
phrase,  mggestio  falsi,  the  statement  of  an  untruths  ai 
open  misrepresentation,  or  aupprtaaio  veri,  concealment  •>: 
suppression  of  the  truth. 

(o)  Suggestio  Falsi. — There  are  various  elements  ncc'->- 
sary  in  an  actual  misrepresentation  in  order  that  it  mjr 
furnish  a  ground  of  action.    (1)  The  falsity  of  the  state- 
ment must  be  known  to  the  party  making  it,  or  else  he 
must  be  justlv  chargeable  with  the    possession    of    su' h 
knowledge,    if  he  is  perfectly  honest  m  his  belief  of  tb- 
truth  of  nis  representation,  and  is  guilty  of  no  imprudtiwv 
or  negligence  in  making  the  statement,  he  is  not  answer- 
able for  any  injurious  consequences  that  may  result  «>n  th^ 
theory  of  fraud,  though  the  transaction  may  perhaps  lie  ^  t 
aside  on  the  ground  of  mistake.    (See  Mistake.)     If  h> 
conviction  was  formed  upon  evidence  sufficient  to  sati>fy  a 
reasonable  mind,  he  would  be  justified  in  asserting  as  a  Ut  * 
what  he  properly  deemed  to  be  such.    But  if,  while  avmn^ 
that  his  opinion  is  founded  upon  mere  rumor,  conjecture.  >: 
trivial  testimony,  he  states  it  as  matter  of  positive  kn^w.- 
edge  on  his  part,  in  order  to  induce  others  to  act  upim  tr- 
faith  of  it,  or  with  good  reason  to  suppose  that  thev  wili  ^» 
act,  he  is  deemed  as  culpable  in  law  as  if  he  actuallj  kriru 
that  he  was  giving  erroneous  information.    Hie  stateroiD:. 
under  such  circumstances,  of  what  one  does  not  know  t<'  ^^ 
true  is  said  to  be  as  unjustifiable  as  the  statement  of  whsit 
one  actually  knows  to  be  false.    In  like  manner,  if  t  ^ 
means  of  information  are  peculiarly  accessible  to  the  rxTs  >r 
making  the  representation,  and  he  is  aware  that  ni>  ar- 
sertion  will  be  acted  upon,  his  failure  to  acquire  the  nei-'  - 
sary  information  may  constitute  a  fraud.    (2)  The  statt- m^ c 
must  be  made  with  intent  to  influence  some  person's  actic»n.  •■^ 
upon  the  understanding  or  reasonable  beliei  that  such  a  rp<u!' 
is  likely  to  ensue.    In  cases  of  this  latter  kind  the  natuir   f 
the  concomitant  circumstances  would  be  sufficient  evidei:- 
of  fraudulent  intent.    If  erroneous  assertions  be   tQUij!-. 
made  in  casual  conversation  as  matter  of  gossip  or  conui:<  r. 
interest,  or  if  they  be  stated  merely  as  opinions^  or  if  n- 
transactions  are  contemplated  or  known  which  could  U 
affected  by  confidence  in  the  statements,  any  resulting  (in- 
ception and  loss  constitutes  no  legal  injury.     (8)  The  ir  :-- 
representation  must  be  as  to  some  maienal  fact  constituting 
an  inducement  to  the  act  or  omission  of  the  other  jiartv 
The  test  of  materiality  is  whether,  if  the  party  had  ku'  v :. 
the  truth,  he  would  have  engaged  in  the  transaction  by 
which  loss  was  sustained.    (4)  The  person  to  whom  the  n;i-^ 
representation  was  made  must  rely  upon  it  as  a  motive  t  • 
his  action,  and  must  be  justified  m  such  reliance  up 
grounds  of  ordinary  prudence  and  caution.    If,  notviit- 
standing  the  false  statements,  the  person  to  whom  thoy  &r> 
made  relies  entirely  upon  his  own  judpnent  and  sagac:-> 
he  will  not  be  permitted  to  maintam  an  action  on  \i 
ground  that  he  was  deceived,  and  sustained  injury  in  ci»n-'- 
quence.    When  persons  deal  at  "  arms'   length,"  as   it  > 
termed,  there  is  no  room  for  one  to  allege  deceit  against  t^- 
other.    Moreover,  if  reliance  upon  the  false  representati.  r  - 
were  an  act  of  folly,  such  as  no  sensible  man  would  hnr^ 
been  guilty  of,  the  courts  will  afford  no  relief.     If  the  f.v  : 
which  is  misstated  is  plainly  within  observation,  and  '>n 
acts  upon  faith  in  the  falsehood,  rejecting  the  evidenct^  a 
his  own  senses,  his  injury  is  the  result  of  his  own  wri»T ,,' 
and  not  of  another *s.    But  if  some  examination  benc^>- 
sary  to  detect  the  error,  and  the  party  to  whom  the  rej  r- 
sentation  is  made  acts  with  ordinary  prudence,  confidtr:>i. 
in  the  representation  will  not  be  unreasonable,  and  the  tir 
ceiver  will  be  responsible.    Moreover,  if   mere  belief   N 
stated  as  belief,  opinion  as  opinion,  or  supposition  a<  ^i  i  - 
position,  no  person  is  justified  in  acting  upon  it  as  if  it  « •  -^ 
an  expression  of  actual  truth,  and  if  he  does  must  suffer  ti ' 


554 


FRAUDS,  STATUTE  OP 


fraud  creditors  and  purchasers  are  of  the  same  character. 
These  are  considered  under  the  head  of  Fraudulent  Con- 
veyance. 

Only  an  enumeration  of  the  more  important  classes  of 
fraudulent  devices  can  be  attempted.  Frauds,  as  has  been 
said,  are  infinitely  various.  But  this  general  rSstune  of  the 
leading  principles  appertaining  to  the  subject  shows  that  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  courts  in  cases  of  this  nature  is  very  com- 
prehensive and  very  salutary.  The  advanced  and  enlight- 
ened doctrines  of  equity  are  in  furtherance  of  the  highest 
practicable  standard  of  moralitv  which  human  tribunals  can 
be  deemed  capable  of  adequately  enforcing. 

Kevised  by  T.  W.  Dwioht. 

Frands,  Statute  of:  a  celebrated  statute,  originally  en- 
acted in  England  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  (1677),  for  the 
prevention  of  frauds  and  penuries,  requiring  the  use  of  writ- 
ten instruments  in  many  classes  of  contracts  and  in  the 
various  modes  of  transfer  of  different  interests  in  property. 
The  imperfection  and  danger  of  oral  testimony  as  an  ade- 
quate means  of  proof  of  the  nature  of  past  transactions,  es- 
pecially when  valuable  interests  are  at  stake,  renders  this 
statute  one  of  the  most  salutary  measures  of  legislation  in 
English  jurisprudence,  and  its  importance  has  been  so  fully 
recognized  in  the  U.  S.  that  it  nas  been  substantially  re- 
enacted  in  nearly  every  State,  and  in  some  of  them  its  pro- 
visions have  been  made  still  more  comprehensive  and  strin- 
gent. The  difficulty  of  ascertaining  the  exact  nature  of 
certain  agreements  into  which  pyarties  have  entered,  if  de- 
pendence were  to  be  placed  chiefly  or  entirely  upon  the 
vague  and  unsatisfactory  remembrance  of  witnesses,  would 
prove  a  very  serious  interference  with  the  proper  administra- 
tion of  justice,  and  would  afford  an  opportunity  and  a  pow- 
erful temptation  to  unprincipled  men  to  fabricate  evidence 
in  the  furtherance  of  fraudulent  designs.  The  chances  of 
detection  would  be  too  meager  to  be  of  any  practical  value. 
Where  discrepancies  in  testimony  can  be  attributed  to  a 
natural  for^tfulness,  rather  than  to  any  wrongful  intent, 
discrimination  between  honest  and  dishonest  claims  becomes 
well-nigh  impossible.  Moreover,  a  very  slight  change  in  the 
terms  of  a  stipulation  has  oftentimes  a  serious  influence 
upon  the  interests  of  those  whose  rights  are  in  controversy, 
and  witnesses  with  everv  intention  to  be  accurate  would 
unavoidably  differ  in  their  accounts  of  the  same  occurrence. 
Writing  exhibits  the  precise  nature  of  an  agreement,  un- 
affected by  the  contrariety  of  testimony,  or  by  the  mental 
reservations  of  the  parties  concerned.  Written  documents, 
moreover,  remain  as  a  perpetual  memorial  of  the  events 
which  they  reconl,  while  the  removal  of  witnesses  by  death 
would  not  unfrec|uently  render  it  impossible  to  secure  the 
requisite  oral  testimony  if  this  alone  were  necessary  to  be 
introduced.  The  adequate  protection  of  private  rijpfhts,  there- 
fore, and  the  furtherance  of  the  remedial  operations  of  the 
courts  render  the  requirement  of  written  evidence  in  many 
cases  a  necessity. 

The  scope  of  the  statute  is  very  comprehensive.  It 
includes  within  its  provisions  the  subject-matter  of  a  va- 
riety of  contracts,  and  also  transfers  of  land  by  way  of  de- 
vise. Certain  sections  require  writing  in  thecreation,  as- 
signment, or  surrender  oi  leases ;  others  apply  to  devises ; 
others  to  declarations  and  assignments  of  trusts  (but  these 
will  be  considered  more  conveniently  under  the  specific  top- 
ics Lease.  Will,  and  Trusts,  to  which  reference  may  be 
made).  The  sections  which  it  will  be  most  desirable  to  ex- 
amine in  this  connection  are  those  which  most  particularlv 
affect  the  law  of  ordinary  contracts.  These  are  the  fourth 
and  the  seventeenth  of  the  original  English  statute.  By 
the  fourth  section  it  is  provided  that  "no  action  shall  be 
brought  (1)  whereby  to  charge  any  executor  or  administrator 
upon  any  special  promise  to  answer  damages  out  of  his  own 
estate;  (2)  or  whereby  to  charade  the  defendant  upon  any 
special  promise  to  answer  for  the  debt,  default,  or  miscar- 
nage  oi  another  person ;  (3)  or  to  charge  any  person  upon 
any  agreement  made  upon  consideration  of  marriage;  (4) 
or  upon  any  contract  for  the  sale  of  lands,  tenements,  or 
hereditaments,  or  any  interest  in  or  concerning  them ;  (5) 
or  upon  any  agreement  that  is  not  to  be  performed  within 
the  space  of  one  year  from  the  making  thereof ;  unless  the 
agreement  upon  which  such  action  shall  be  brought,  or 
some  memorandum  or  note  thereof,  shall  be  in  writing  and 
signed  by  the  party  to  be  charged  therewith,  or  some  other 
person  thereunto  by  him  lawfully  authorized."  The  re- 
quirement of  signing  which  the  statute  imposes  is  sufficiently 
complied  with  if  the  name  be  written  in  any  part  of  the  in- 


strument for  the  purpose  of  authenticating  it.    In  some  <■•* 
the  American  States,  however,  the  language  of  the  statute  i* 
not  **  signed,"  but  "  subscribed  " ;  and  this  renders  it  TikH\->' 
sary  that  the  signature  be  at  the  end  of  the  writing.     Tb 
form  of  the  instrument  is  immaterial.     The  ot^ect  is  to  v 
cure  correct  and  adequate  documentary  evidence  of  the  ir- 
tent  and  agreement  of  the  parties;  and  it  is  thereforv  <«uf 
ficient  if  the  stipulations  which  are  concurred  in  are  t-iu- 
bodied  in  separate  letters  or  in  distinct  instruments,  pn- 
vided  the  contents  of  each  have  so  intimate  a  connect  i*  r 
with,  and  so  evident  a  reference  to,  the  matter  containeil  it 
the  others  that  the  entire  contract  is  manifestly  ascertain- 
able only  from  a  comparison  of  all  the  writings.     But  t:)- 
whole  agreement  must  be  deducible  from  the  connect e<l  n 
struments,  without  its  being  necessary  to  supplement  th<-«  i 
by  parol  declarations. 

The  statement  of  the  consideration  of  the  contract  is  r- 
miired  in  England  and  some  of  the  States,  but  in  oth»  r> 
tne  consideration  may  be  proved  hj  extraneous  erider  ♦< 
The  statute,  it  will  be  noticed,  provides  that  the  signatur 
of  a  properly  authorized  a^rent  will  be  equally  valid  wiv 
that  of  the  party  actually  interested.    Such  authority  ma^ 
be  given  either  orally  or  by  writing,  provided  the  act  to  U 
done  does  not  require  the  execution  of  a  deed  or  other  con- 
veyance.   Where  the  conveyance  must  be  under   seal.  *• 
must  the  authority  be.    A  single  person  ma*y  act  as  ap^- 1 
for  both  parties  to  the  contract,  as,  for  instance,  an  aut  - 
tioneer,  or  broker,  whose  signature  will  be  binding  iif^^r 
either  vendor  or  purchaser.    The  signature  to  the  instni- 
ment  may  be  written  either  in  ink  or  in  pencil,  or  will  (»- 
sufficient  if  printed,  if  this  mode  of  authentication  is  usu£'i< 
adopted  by  the  person  to  be  chained  or  is  sufficient  I  >  a.- 
thorized  by  him. 

Under  tne  first  clause  of  the  section  it  has  been  di<i']>  n 
that  if  an  executor  or  administrator  give  bonds  for  rh' 
faithful  discharge  of  his  duty,  a  subsequent  promise  to  [•}>• 
a  debt  of  the  testator  will  be  construed  as  chargring  the  a<^ 
sets  derived  from  the  testator's  estate,  and  not  the  n-prv- 
sentative's  own  property,  so  that  no  writing  wiU  be  n«  t^ 
sary.  A  promise  made  by  an  administrator  before  leti*  -^ 
of  administration  are  issued  to  him  from  which  he  dinv^ 
his  authority  is  also  not  within  the  requirement  uf  th-- 
statute.  The  second  clause,  apply^ing  to  promises  'M'- 
answer  for  the  debt,  default,  or  miscarriage  of  anotbiT.' 
necessitates  the  use  of  writing  in  all  contracts  of  gnarauty. 
(For  the  rules  upon  this  subject  see  Guaraktt.)  The  tlnri 
clause,  referring  to  "  promises  made  in  consideration  of  ni^ir- 
riage,"  is  held  &>  apply  to  promises  of  settlement,  advaii^*»- 
ment,  or  other  provision  in  anticipation  of  marriage,  i  •.• 
not  to  promises  to  marry,  which  may  therefore  l>e  nuir 
orally,  unless  they  fall  within  the  fifth  clause,  referre^i  !<> 
below.  The  written  promise,  to  be  enforceable,  must  be  •■'- 
fectually  operative  in  inducing  the  claimant  under  it  v 
enter  iiito  the  marriage  contract.  Hence  when  a  far'.ir 
made  a  written  promise  of  advancement  to  his  daughter  .n 
case  she  was  married  to  a  particular  person,  but  the  in- 
tended husband  did  not  know  of  the  promise,  nor  act  up  i 
the  faith  of  it  in  marrying  her,  he  was  not  allowed  to  tr- 
force  the  promise.  The  fourth  clause,  concerning  contra^  '* 
for  the  sale  of  real  estate  or  any  interest  therein,  does  n  ' 
require  writing  in  the  sale  of  crops  or  annual  indusTri.% 
products.  If,  however,  the  sale  is  of  standing  trees  or  pr bl- 
uets not  the  result  of  annual  cultivation,  the  better  opin  '-r 
is  that  the  case  falls  within  the  statute.  When  both  U:  • 
and  its  products  are  sold  to  the  same  individual,  the  or.ii' 
contract  must  be  in  writing.  A  mere  license  to  use  Inn  i 
does  not  create  any  legal  interest  in  the  property,  and  iiet-i 
not  be  written  to  be  valid,  though  in  such  case  it  is  in  lvti- 
eral  revocable  at  will.  The  fifth  clause  relates  to  -  aL'r»*~ 
ments  that  are  not  to  be  performed  within  the  space  of  vi  * 
year  from  the  making  thereof.''  Under  this  provision  it  ^ 
not  necessary  that  an  oral  agreement  be  actually  full)],* 
within  the  limits  of  a  year  from  the  time  when  it'wa*^  nt:i  :* 
in  order  to  be  sustainable,  but  only  that  it  be  capaltlf  >•: 
fulfillment  within  that  period  in  the  contemplation  of  :  h 
parties  when  they  enter  into  the  stipulations.  The  a<iiu: 
result  may  show  that  the  anticipations  were  unrealiziil.  iu.t 
the  validity  of  the  engagement,  though  it  be  unwritten.  > 
in  nowise  impaired. 

The  other  section  of  the  statute  which  especially  n-lsre> 
to  ordinary  contracts — viz.,  the  seventeenth — provi'des  thn* 
**  no  contracts  for  the  sale  of  any  goods,  wares,  or  nirr- 
chandise  for  the  price  of  £10  sterling  or  upward,  shall  U 
allowed  to  be  good  except  the  buyer  shall  accept  part  v.i 


556 


FRAUENBURG 


FRAZIERS  (FRAYZER8)   FARM,  BATTLE  OF 


opinion,  be  sustained.  A  person,  for  instance,  might  possess 
ample  means  to  discharge  all  his  obligations  after  bestowing 
a  portion  of  his  property  in  gifts  upon  others,  and  the  con- 
veyance would  then  be  deemed  valid,  as  involving  no  rea- 
sonable implication  of  dishonest  intention.  To  impose  any 
prohibition  upon  those  whose  debts  bear  but  a  small  pro- 
portion to  their  actu^  resources,  preventing  them  from  dis- 
posing of  at  least  a  part  of  the  surplus  in  voluntary  convey- 
ances if  they  so  desired,  would  be  manifestly  unjust,  since 
the  rights  of  creditors  would  receive,  without  such  a  rule, 
full  and  adequate  protection,  to  which  alone  they  are  en- 
titled. It  has  been  decided  in  England  that  a  voluntary 
conveyance  is  not  fraudulent  unless  it  transfers  property 
which  might  be  taken  in  execution  for  the  fjayment  of 
debts,  since  otheryrise  creditors  receive  no  injury.  This 
doctrine  has  been  somewhat  controverted  in  the  U.  S., 
though  it  has  nevertheless  been  generally  sustained.  How- 
ever, if  the  law  of  the  State  permits  property  which  can 
not  be  taken  on  an  execution  to  be  seized  by  some  other 
process  for  the  payment  of  debts,  it  would  be  a  fraud  upon 
creditors  to  withdraw  it  from  their  reach.  When  the  gra- 
tuitous disposition  of  property  is  injurious  to  subsequent 
rather  than  antecedent  creditors,  the  presumption  of  a 
fraudulent  purpose  is  not  so  readily  entertained.  If  it  were 
proved  that  such  an  act  formed  a  part  of  a  preconceived 
scheme  to  incur  indebtedness  after  the  means  of  nayment 
had  been  bestowed  upon  others,  the  conveyance  would  justly 
be  invalidated.  But  in  the  absence  of  such  evidence  no 
conclusion  could  be  fairly  drawn,  from  the  mere  circum- 
stance of  a  gift  to  a  wife,  child,  or  friend  which  was  not  at 
the  time  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  any  other  persons, 
that  the  transfer  was  made  in  the  prosecution  of  a  fraudu- 
lent purpose. 

The  second  statute  against  fraudulent  conveyances  is 
known  as  the  statute  27  Eliz.,  ch.  4,  enacted  in  1585.  It 
enacts  that  the  conveyance  of  any  interest  in  lands  for  the 
intent  and  purpose  to  defraud  and  deceive  subsequent  bona 
fide  purchasers  of  the  lands  for  a  good  consideration  shall 
be  utterly  void.  This  act  differs  from  the  previous  one  in 
applving  simply  to  lands,  and  in  protecting  the  interests  of 
purchasers  instead  of  creditors ;  but  it  contains  similar  pro- 
visions declaring  the  validity  of  any  previous  conveyance  if 
it  be  upon  valuable  consideration  and  to  a  bona  fide  pur- 
chaser. It  has  been  adjudged  in  England,  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  this  statute,  that  if  the  previous  conveyance  be  vol- 
untary, it  is  void  as  to  a  subsequent  purchaser,  even  though 
he  had  notice  before  he  received  his  deed  that  such  a  con- 
vevance-had  been  made.  This  doctrine  has  been  generally 
rejected  in  the  courts  of  the  U.  S.  as  inequitable,  and  the 
principle  adopted  that  the  receipt  of  notice  gives  a  person 
mtencung  to  purchase  ample  opportunity  to  protect  his  own 
interests,  and  if  he  is  guilty  of  imprudence  in  accepting  the 
conveyance  he  ought  to  receive  no  assistance  from  the 
courts.  This  seems  the  better  doctrine.  Under  both  stat- 
utes voluntary  conveyances  are  never  set  aside  as  between 
the  immediate  parties,  but  only  in  favor  of  creditors  or  pur- 
chasers. Revised  by  T.  W.  Dwioht. 

Franenbnrg,  frow'en-boorfch :  a  town  of  Prussia ;  prov- 
ince of  East  Prussia ;  on  the  Prische  Ilaff ;  42  miles  S.  W. 
of  KSnigsberff  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  1-J).  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Ermeland,  and 
has  a  curious  cathedral  with  six  towers,  which  in  former 
times  served  at  once  as  a  fortress  and  as  a  water- work.  The 
machinery  intended  for  the  latter  purpose  and  contained  in 
one  of  the  towers  is  said  to  have  been  constructed  by  Coper- 
nicus, who  was  a  native  of  Frauenburg.    Pop.  (1890)  2,458. 

Fraanhofer,  f rown'ho-f er,  Joseph,  von :  mathematician ; 
b.  at  Straubin^,  Bavaria,  Mar.  6,  1787 ;  was  brought  up  to 
his  father's  trade  as  a  glass-worker,  but  studied  optics,  as- 
tronomy, and  mathematics,  and  in  1806  became  a  director 
of  the  mathematical  institute  of  Munich.  In  1815  he  ob- 
served, measured,  and  described  with  admirable  fidelity  the 
dark  lines  of  the  solar  spectrum,  called  Fraunhofer's  lines, 
first  noticed  by  Wollaston  in  1802  (see  Spectroscope),  and 
in  1817  was  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Munich. 
He  was  a  partner  in  the  manufactory  of  optical  apparatus 
at  Benedict- Beuren,  which  in  1819  was  removed  to  Munich. 
He  made  many  improvements  in  fine  glass-making,  in  diop- 
tric instruments,  and  in  the  machinery  for  the  manufacture 
and  finishing  of  lenses ;  made  the  noble  refracting  telescope 
of  the  Dorpat  Observatory ;  in  1823  became  professor  and 
director  of  the  Cabinet  of  Physics,  Munich.  D.  at  Munich, 
June  7, 1826. 


Fraxln,  or  Paviiu,  pa'vi-in:  Ci«H|«Oi»,  a  flaorejxvMJt 

glucoside  found  in  the  bark  of  the  ash  {Fraxinua  exe^l»ior , 
in  the  horse-chestnut  with  lesculin,  and  in  some  other  barb. 
It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water.  Its  very  dilute  solut  i»u 
exhibits  by  daylight  a  beautiful  blue-green  fluorescence.  Di- 
lute sulphuric  acid  converts  it  into  fraxetin  and  glu<Hise. 

C.  P.  Chajtdleb. 

Fraxinel'la:  the  Dictamnus  albus,  an  aromatic  £Ii^» 
pean  herb  sometimes  raised  in  gardens.  It  abounds  in  voik- 
tile  oil  to  such  an  extent  that  in  warm,  still  weather  tht*  mt 
becomes  charged  with  an  inflammable  vapor.*  This  pht- 
nomenon  is  best  shown  by  inclosing  the  plant  in  a  box  t.r 
Wardian  case.    The  plant  belongs  to  the  family  Rutaeftr. 

FraysslnoQS,  frd'see'noo',  Denis  Antoijte  Luc,  Count  A<  -. 
prelate  and  author ;  b.  of  humble  parentage  in  the  dej i&n- 
ment  of  Aveyron,  France,  May  9,  1765;  d.  there  Dec  12. 
1841.  He  was  educated  in  the  seminaries  of  Rodez  an<i  St.- 
Sulpice,  Paris,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1789.  Fr-  r.. 
1804  his  "  coniferences  "  in  the  Church  of  St.-Siilpice  K-ira: 
to  attract  general  attention,  but  on  account  of  his  <|irn 
opposition  to  the  ecclesiastical  policy  of  Napoleon  his  ;« 
tures  were  prohibited  in  1810,  and  next  year  ne  retired  f r  n. 
Paris.  He  returned  with  the  restoration,  was  made  alm<o  *■: 
to  Louis  XVIII.,  a  count  and  peer  of  France,  and  u?i.l  •: 
Charles  X.  he  became  Minister  of  Ecclesiastical  Aflairc. 
After  the  Revolution  he  retired  to  his  native  place.  lie 
published,  in  1818,  Vrais  principes  de  F^glise  OaUio^n* 


Frayssinovs  (Paris,  1842). 

Frazee',  John:  sculptor;  b.  in  Rahway,  N.  J^  JuIt  l**. 
1790;  commenced  business  as  a  stone-cutter  in  New  Brur..^ 
wick  1814;  later  opened  a  marble-yard  on  Broadway,  N-t 
York.  From  1819  till  1828  his  work  was  chiefly  in  manT^.- 
pieces  and  monuments.  His  first  bust,  a  head  of  J<-h' 
Wells,  was  executed  in  1824.  He  subsequently  made  h«bt* 
of  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  Dr.  Bowditch,  Daniel  Wet»<*' : 
Qten.  Jackson,  John  Jay,  Judges  Story  and  Presoott.  Tii-. 
marble  building  in  New  York,  originally  the  custom -h«'j^ 
but  used  as  the  U.  S.  sub-treasury  since  1862,  hesn^  hir' 
name  inscribed  as  the  architect.  D.  at  New  Bedford,  Ma^;^ 
Mar.  3,  1852. 

Fraziers  (Frayzers)  Farm,  Battle  of,  known  also  a^ 
the  battle  of  Glendale,  Newmarket  Road,  Kelson's  FarT" 
and  Charles  City  Cross-roads :  an  engagement  of  the  oi>. 
war  in  the  U.  S.  June  30,  1862.     After  the  battle  of  iiusi- 
Mill  (q.  v.)  McClellan  gave  up  his  position  along  the  Chic  ka- 
hominy  and  fell  back  to  the  James  river.    Ma^^mder.  vt« 
commanded  the  troops  in  front  of  Richmond  and  S.  • ' 
the  Chickahominy,  moved  forward  and  made  the  attack>  i' 
Allen's  Farm  and  Savage's  Station  {go,  v.)  June  29.  vh*  -^ 
he  was  held  in  check  by  Sumner  and  Franklin,  and  :i 
Union    army  crossed  White  Oak    Swamp  and   de5tr«»^'  . 
White  Oak  Bridge.    Gens.  Richardson  and  W.   F.  Srr  • 
took  a  position  on  the  south  side  of  the  stream  to  d*:'<    . 
the  crossing,  and  the  divisions  of  Slocum,  Kearny.  Md  ;>  . 
and  Hooker,  in  the  order  named  from  right  to  left  «  .. 
Sedgwick  in  reserve,  formed  a  line  facing  nearly  west,  n<i: 
Charles  City  Cross-road,  the  line  being  an  irreeruUr  •  •  - 
with  a  re-entrant  between  Hooker  and  McCall  and  a  sali* " ' 
at  Kearny.    Porter  and  Sykes  marched  on  and  <>ccur 
Malvern  HilL    Gen.  Jackson,  crossing  the  Chickahoii.!'.^ 
at  Grapevine  Bridge,  foUowed  the  Union  troops,  ami  ju 
about  ll  A.  M.,  June  30,  attempted  to  force  a  crossin::  a' 
White  Oak  Bridge,  but  was  hela  back  during  the  rest  t^f  i 
day,  principally  by  artillery.     Longstreet  and  A.  P.  V. 
crossed  the  Chickahominy  at  New  Bridge  early  in  the  mc" 
ing  of  the  29th,  and  marching  by  the  west  of  White  t » t* 
Swamp  took  the  Darbytown  Road  to  strike  the  flank  • ' 
McClellan's  column  near  the  junction  of  the  Charles  (\'< 
and  Quaker  Roads.    Halting  within  2  miles  of  this  point  :: 
the  evening  of  the  29th,  they  advanced  again  in  the  m-  r: 
ing  of  the  30th,  and  took  up  a  position  with  a  view  to  nt- 
tacking  simultaneously  with  Jackson  and  Huger,  the  latt.  - 
of  whom  had  come  down  the  Charles  Citv  Road.    An  ar .  - 
lery  action  at  about  2.30  p.  M.  between  finger  and  8livr.i\ 
led  Longstreet  to  make  his  attack,  which  he  did  with  '  > 
own  division,  holding  HilPs  in  reserve  to  pursue  the  Un:  •• 
troops  after  the  column  was  cut  in  two  and  beaten.     Lc»r, 
street's  attack  struck  McCall*s  left  and  drove  it  back,  bu 
new  troops  coming  up,  the  line  was  re-established.     iNasfx-- 
ate  fighting  took  place  here  and  in  front  of  Kearny ;  tn 


558 


PREDEKICK  II. 


Gredi,  he  was  drowned  in  attempting  to  cross  the  Calycadnus 
June  10, 1190,  or,  as  some  say,  aied  of  a  fever. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Frederick  II.:  Emperor  of  Germany;  b.  at  Jesi,  in  the 
March  of  Ancona,  Dec.  26, 1194.  He  was  the  son  of  Henry 
VI.,  and,  though  elected  King  of  the  Romans  in  1196  and 
King  of  Naples  and  Sicily  in  1209,  and  though  Duke  of  Sua- 
bia  by  inheritance,  he  did  not  succeed  to  the  imperial  crown 
until  1215,  when,  by  the  aid  of  the  Ghibellines  and  Innocent 
III.,  his  guardian,  he  successfully  asserted  his  claim  against 
Otho  IV.,  promising  the  pope  to  go  at  once  upon  a  crusade ; 
but  his  long  delav  causea  him  much  trouble  with  the  popes, 
and  the  failure  of  his  first  two  expeditions  caused  him  to  be 
twice  excommunicated ;  and  though  at  last  he  spent  fifteen 
years  in  the  Holy  Land  in  successful  warfare,  taking  Jeru- 
salem (1229)  and  crowning  himself  king,  he  was  never  for- 
given, and  after  his  return  was  twice  more  excommunicated, 
and  was  involved  in  lifelong  wars  incited  by  the  popes.  D. 
at  Fiorenzuola,  Dec.  13,  1250. 

Frederick  III.  of  Germany:  This  title  is  sometimes 
given  to  the  Duke  of  Austria,  elected  emperor  in  1314,  who 
reigned  as  joint  emperor  with  Louis  IV.  from  1325  to  his 
death,  Jan.  11, 1330.  By  others  he  is  reckoned  as  a  King  of 
Germany,  but  not  an  emperor.  The  Frederick  III.  of  history 
was  a  son  of  Ernst,  Duke  of  Styria  and  Carinthia,  b.  at  Inn- 
spruck  Dec.  21,  1415;  in  1440  was  elected  emperor.  He 
reigned  fifty-three  years,  the  longest  German  reign,  but  this 
period  was  one  of  almost  continual  civil  wars.  Tlie  emperor 
was  a  man  of  virtue,  fond  of  learning  and  quiet,  and  in  spite 
of  the  confusions  of  his  reign  managed  to  stren^hen  greatly 
his  own  family,  which  for  almost  400  years  retained  tne  im- 
perial dignity,  and  which  still  bears  sway  in  Austria.  D.  at 
Linz,  Aug.  19,  1493. 

Frederick  I.:  the  first  King  of  Prussia;  b.  in  Konigs- 
berg,  July  11, 1657;  succeeded  his  father,  Frederick  William 
the  Great,  as  Elector  of  Prussia,  with  the  title  of  Frederick 
III.,  in  1688.  Deformed  and  feeble  from  infancy,  his  train- 
ing was  slighted,  but  on  coming  to  power  he  declared  null 
the  will  of liis  father,  by  which  his  naif-brothers  received  a 
part  of  his  inheritance,  and  thereafter  bv  skillful  diplomacy 
greatly  strengthened  his  influence  in  foreign  parts,  at  the 
same  time  enriching  his  treasurv  with  foreign  gold,  obtained 
b^  the  lending  of  troops,  and  from  time  to  time  enlarging 
his  boundaries  at  the  expense  of  small  neighboring  states. 
In  1701,  with  the  consent  of  the  emperor,  he  took  the  title 
of  king.  He  maintained  a  splendid  court,  and  was  personally 
popular,  though  his  excessive  taxation  was  a  grievous  bur- 
den to  the  people.    D.  at  Berlin,  Feb.  25, 1713. 

Frederick  II. :  third  King  of  Prussia,  commonly  known 
as  Frederick  the  Great  ;  son  of  Frederick  William  I. ;  was 
b.  Jan.  24, 1712.  His  early  education  was  one  of  extreme 
rigor  in  consequence  of  the  eccentric  severity  of  his  father, 
who  determined  to  make  him  a  hardy  soldier  and  give  him 
an  education  of  an  extremely  practical  nature.  He  was  for- 
bidden the  study  of  Latin,  but  his  tutors  gave  him  great 
facilities  for  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  French  and  for  the 
thorough  stud^  of  history,  especially  the  history  of  Germany. 
Notwithstandmg  the  father's  injunctions,  his  teachers  con- 
nived at  his  disobedience,  and  he  acquired  a  rudimentary 
knowledge  of  the  Roman  tongue.  Frederick  William  was 
extremely  passionate  in  his  nature,  and  resorted  to  violent 
corporal  punishment  on  very  trifling  provocation.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  restless  ana  disobedient  disposition  of  his 
son,  the  king  gradually  acquired  for  him  ft  strange  and  al- 
most passionate  dislike.  So  harsh  was  the  father's  treat- 
ment that  the  son  often  thought  of  running  away.  At  last, 
on  a  ioumey  with  his  father  in  the  south  of  Germany,  in 
1730,  he  determined  to  carry  such  a  project  into  execution. 
His  confidential  advisers  were  two  lieutenants  in  the  army 
by  the  name  of  Katte  and  Keith.  But  the  scheme  was  de- 
tected and  both  Katte  and  the  prince  were  arrested.  Keith 
made  good  his  escape.  Katte  was  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment for  two  months,  but  the  king  insisted  upon  his  execu- 
tion, and  he  paid  the  penalty  of  his  friendship  and  fidelity 
with  his  life.  Under  Prussian  law  the  punishment  of  a  mili- 
tary officer  for  desertion  was  death,  and  as  Frederick  held 
the  rank  of  lieut«nant-colonel  his  life  would  doubtless  have 
been  subject  to  forfeit  if  he  had  carried  out  his  plan  of 
actual  desertion.  The  king  chose  to  act  as  he  would  have 
done  in  case  the  desertion  had  been  accomplished.  Freder- 
ick was  condemned  to  death,  and  it  was  only  after  numer- 
ous petitions  had  been  received  from  the  crowned  heads  of 
Europe  that  a  reluctant  pardon  was  finally  granted.    Dur- 


ing the  next  ten  years  Frederick  showed  no  spirit  of  dis  - 
bedience.  At  the  king's  suggestion  he  even  married  wi<.. 
apparent  cheerfulness  Elizabeth  Christina  of  Bmn<<wick- 
^vem,  a  princess  for  whom  he  had  no  fondness  whatcvtj 
His  studies  in  French  resulted  in  a  correspondence  wnr. 
Voltaire,  and  the  establishment  of  a  friendship  that  wa:^  in 
many  ways  to  infiuence  his  subsecjuent  life.  During  th> 
period  he  developed  marked  abilities  as  a  student  auti 
writer;  and  two  of  his  works  published  before  he  ast-enJMi 
the  throne  are  still  entitled  to  consideration.  In  the  Anh- 
Machiavel  and  the  Constdirations  8ur  VfycU  present  du 
corps  politique  de  V Europe  he  called  attention  to  the  gr"»- 
ing  importimce  of  France  and  Austria,  and  the  neeessit  y  of 
some  third  power  that  should  be  strong  enough  to  neatn&i- 
ize  their  inAuence. 

On  the  death  of  his  father  Frederick  ascended  the  thrrm^ 
in  1740.  It  was  evident  from  the  first  that  his  roeth*i>i^ 
would  be  far  more  tolerant  than  those  of  hispredecv>^»r 
He  proclaimed  freedom  of  religion,  greatly  aavancte<l  \h^ 
freedom  of  the  press,  established  the  impartial  adniini«itn»- 
tion  of  justice,  and  granted  the  absolute  right  of  petiti(»n  !-> 
all  those  who  had  any  grievance.  But  it  was  m  foreign 
matters  that  his  discrimination  and  force  of  character  ma^U 
themselves  most  conspicuously  seen.  On  the  year  of  his  ju-- 
cension  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  died,  leaving  his  inht  st- 
ance to  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa.  Frederick  at  niKV 
began  the  ^  most  active  preparations  for  war.  Thoueh  h*- 
had  subscribed  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  by  which  Mdn^ 
Theresa  was  confirmed  in  her  inheritance  of  her  faDiT-r'^ 
rights,  Frederick  held  that  such  confirmation  did  not  v\- 
tend  to  any  territory  not  rightfully  held  by  her  fathiT. 
The  right  of  Austria  to  Silesia  Freaerick  disputed  on  th* 
ground  of  an  old  compact  the  conditions  of  which  had  n'>: 
been  fulfilled  bv  Austria.  For  setting  up  a  claim  to  Sil«?ia 
Frederick  has  been  subjected  to  a  vast  amount  of  unwar- 
ranted criticism ;  for  it  is  difficult  to  investigate  the  ^ronms 
of  the  claim  without  recognizing  the  fact  that  the  terms  •-:' 
which  Silesia  had  been  given  to  Austria  had  not  been  c  a*-- 
ried  out.  Whether  FrcSerick  can  be  justified  in  rpsr»rtnu' 
to  war  to  establish  his  claim  is  another  question ;  but  a: 
least  it  must  be  judged  in  the  light  of  the  customs  of  thr 
eighteenth  century. 

After  some  preliminary  negotiations  at  Vienna,  Predf  ri^'k 
invaded  Silesia  with  an'  army  of  30,000  men.  His  U»r-*^ 
gained  the  first  victory  at  Mollwitz  Apr.  10, 1741 :  the  s^^-nd 
at  Chotusitz  May  17,  1742.  As  Maria  Theresa  was  at  war 
with  France  she  consented  to  the  Peace  of  Breslau  June  11. 
1742,  which  ceded  to  Prussia  Upper  and  Lower  Silesia  .n? 
far  as  the  river  Oppa.  Bjit  Freaerick  was  convince  lh«' 
Austria  would  not  allow  this  treaty  to  be  permanent.  Vu 
therefore  not  only  strengthened  his  army,  but  he  also  ma!* 
alliances  with  France  and  Bavaria,  and  pledged  himself  !•• 
respect  the  imperial  rights  of  Charles  VII.  Convincwl  tha: 
a  war  was  impending  and  was  inevitable,  he  inrade^l  Bo- 
hemia and  took  possession  of  Prague  in  1744.  In  1745  h» 
fought  and  gained  the  brilliant  battles  of  Hohenfriedl)erc. 
Sohr,  Hennersdorf,  and  Kesselsdorf.  The  Peace  of  Drf^J^i , 
Dec.  25,  1745,  confirmed  his  possession  of  Silesia. 

The  next  eleven  years  were  years  of  peace  for  Fre<l»»h^'«L 
and  he  used  them  industriously  and  successfully  for  th"  'i^ 
velopment  of  his  realm.  He  restored  the  Acaaemy  of  S-  • 
ences;  made  canals  between  the  Oder  and  Elbe;' and  li- 
veloped  the  country  by  improving  the  methods  of  jusiir 
and  administration.  Though  he  habitually  wrote  and  i^j^^k^ 
French,  and  afFected  to  despise  German  as  the  languap*  •  i 
boors,  he  predicted  for  his  mother-tongue  a  great  future. 
Voltaire  and  Maupertuis  became  the  center  of  literary  ac- 
tivity at  Berlin. 

Maria  Theresa  had  never  abandoned  hope  of  reooreni  i: 
Silesia.  Prussia  was  now  becoming  so  strong  that  the  qut\i 
had  no  difficulty  in  arraying  a  very  powerful  combinati--:. 
against  Frederick.  One  after  another,  Russia,  Saxony,  an.: 
France  formed  an  alliance  with  Austria.  In  Jan.,  ITTid  s 
convention  was  signed  between  Prussia  and  England  which 
proved  to  be  of  incalculable  advantage  to  both  oountrii*N 
Through  the  treachery  of  a  Saxon  clerk  Fre<lerick  leamtni 
what  was  awaiting  him.  In  Au^.,  1756,  realizing  the  a^i- 
vantage  of  striking  the  first  decisive  blow,  he  crossed  th^ 
frontier  of  Saxony,  and  after  a  short  but  brilliant  campaic^ 
defeated  the  Austrians  at  Lowositz,  and  compelled  the  Nix*. : 
army  to  surrender.    This  campaign  proved  to  be  the  1vv"j»- 


s-ija. 


ning  of  the  memorable  Seven  Years  war,  in  which  Pru 
supported  though  not  very  actively  assisted  by  England.  «a* 
assailed  by  Austria,  Russia,  France,  Saxony,  and  Swc^l^'n. 


560 


FREDERICK  III. 


FREDERIK 


Serial  crown  tendered  him  by  the  Frankfort  Diet.  In  1857 
e  was  seized  with  temporary  fits  of  insanity,  and  yielded 
the  crown  to  his  brother,  William  I.,  who  acted  as  regent 
until  Jan.  2, 1861,  when,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne. 

Frederick  III.,  The  Pious:  Elector  of  the  Palatinate 
1559-76 ;  was  educated  at  the  court  of  Charles  V.,  but  mar- 
ried a  Lutheran  princess  in  1537,  and  openly  embraced 
Lutheranism  in  1549.  In  the  Palatinate  the  Reformation 
had  been  introduced  in  its  Lutheran  form,  but  just  as 
Frederick  III.  ascended  the  throne  the  violent  controversy 
conceming  the  Lord's  Supper  broke  out  between  the  Lu- 
theran ana  the  Reformed  theologians.  The  teachings  of  Me- 
lanchthon  seemed  to  lead  in  the  direction  of  Zwingli  and 
Calvin,  the  disputation  at  Heidelberg  gave  the  victory  to 
the  Reformed  theolo^ans,  and,  as  the  population  seemed 
to  lean  toward  Calvinism,  the  festivals  of  Mary  and  the 
saints  were  abolished,  the  altars,  organs,  images,  baptismal 
fonts,  etc.,  were  removed,  the  Church  government  was  vested 
in  a  council  board  consisting  of  tlu'ee  ecclesiastical  and 
three  lay  members,  Reformed  teachers  and  preachers  were 
appointed  instead  of  Lutherans;  in  short,  the  Lutheran 
Church  was  supplanted  by  the  Reformed.  The  Lutheran 
princes  of  the  empire  even  threatened  the  elector  with  de- 
position, but  he  proved  steadfast ;  and  the  Palatinate  be- 
came the  principal  home  and  chief  support  of  Calvinism  in 
Germany. 

Frederick  Henrr  Island:  an  island  claimed  by  the 
Dutch ;  situated  in  lat  S**  S.,  Ion.  138°  30'  E. ;  area  about 
400  sq.  miles.  It  is  separated  from  the  mainland  of  New 
Guinea,  of  which  it  forms  the  southwest  part,  by  the  narrow 
Strait  of  Dourga,  or  Marianne.  Arafura  Sea  separates  it 
from  Australia  on  the  S. 

Fredericksburg:  town;  capital  of  Gillespie  co.,  Tex. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref .  5-G) ;  80 
miles  W.  of  Austin.  It  has  five  churches,  a  good  graded 
school,  an  ice-factory,  cotton-gins,  flouring-miils,  and  a 
lively  trade  in  wheat,  corn,  and  merchandise.  The  situa- 
tion is  elevated  and  healthful.  Fredericksburg  was  settled 
in  1846  by  a  German  colony.    Pop.  (1880)  1,085 ;  (1890)  1,532. 

Editor  op  "  Gillespie  County  News." 

Fredericksburg :  city  and  railway  junction ;  Spottsyl- 
vania  co.,  Va.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Virginia, 
ref.  5-H) ;  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Rappahannock  river,  92 
miles  from  its  mouth,  at  the  head  of  tiae-water ;  60  miles  S. 
of  Washington,  and  61  miles  N.  of  Richmond.  The  river  is 
navigable  for  steamers  and  sailing  vessels.  The  city  has 
very  great  water-power  supplied  by  a  dam  constructed  across 
the  Rappahannock  just  above  the  city,  900  feet  long  and  18 
feet  high,  giving  a  fall  of  48  ft.  2  in.,  and  affording  some 
6,000  horse-power.  Fredericksburg  has  numerous  churches, 
7  schools,  a  public  library,  3  large  flouring-mills,  a  tannery, 
2  sumac-mills,  2  large  iron-foundries,  a  shoe-factory,  an  ex- 
tensive woolen-mill,  a  silk-mill,  an  ice-factory,  2  cigar- 
factories,  a  carriage-factory,  a  planing-mill,  a  large  sawmill, 
water-works,  gas-works,  electric  lights,  and  two  fine  iron 
bridges  across  the  Rappahannock.  During  the  civil  war  it 
was  the  scene  of  several  bloody  contests.  Pop.  (1880)  5.010: 
(1890)  4,528 ;  (1893)  estimated,  5,650. 

Editor  of  "Lance." 

Fredericksburg,  Battle  of:  Dec.  13, 1862,  the  first  great 
battle  of  the  U.  S.  civil  war  after  Antietam ;  was  fought  bv 
the  Union  forces  under  Gen.  Burnside  and  the  Confederates 
under  Gen.  Lee.  Eariy  in  Nov.,  1862,  half  of  Lee's  army 
under  Longstreet  was  at  Culpeper,  Va.,  and  the  remainder 
under  Jackson  in  the  Shenandoah  valley.  On  Nov.  7  Mc- 
Clellan,  who  was  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
was  superseded  by  Burnside,  who  organized  the  army  into 
three  "grand  divisions  "  of  two  corps  each,  under  Gens.  Sum- 
ner, Hooker,  and  Franklin,  and  concentrated  it  at  Falmouth, 
opposite  Fredericksburg,  Va.  Lee,  to  meet  Bumside's  move- 
ment, sent  Longstreet  to  Fredericksburg,  where  he  arrived 
Nov.  19,  Jackson  coming  up  a  day  or  two  later.  The  Con- 
federates took  up  a  position  on  the  heights  back  of  the  city. 
Between  these  heights  and  the  river  lay  open  cultivated  fields 
sloping  gently  to  the  river-banks,  which  were  bluflf.  During 
the  three  weeks  that  the  Confederates  occupied  this  pos? 
tion  before  they  were  attacked,  they  availed  themselves  of 
the  opportunity  to  become  familiar  with  the  ground  and  to 
fortify  points  which  seemed  weak.  The  Union  array  occu- 
pied Stafford  Heights  on  the  east  (left)  bank  of  the  river, 
which  were  higher  than  the  hills  occupied  by  the  Confeder- 


ates on  the  west  (right)  bank,  but  were  distant  from  Th  r. 
from  li  to  2  miles.    The  Union  reserve  artillen^  was  nu>^ 
upon  these  heights  to  sweep  the  plateau  on  tte  other  s : 
of  the  river.    On  the  mommg  of  Dec.  11  the  constnut; 
of  the  bridges  for  crossing  was  begun.    Two  points  wer.  ^- 
lected  :  one  opposite  the  upper  end  of  the  citv,  the  oth-r . 
mile  and  a  half  farther  down  the  stream.    Fiinklin  U-:.  - 
crossing  at  the  latter  point  at  about  4  p.  m.,  but  witk*jri 
most  of  his  forces  to  await  the  completion  of  the  «'!:  r 
bridges.    At  the  upper  bridges  the  Confederate  sharpsK.. ; 
ers  in  the  brick  houses  along  the  bank  at  first  preTentefl  t.. 
attempts  to  build  the  bridges,  in  spite  of  a  most  \ic*<Tvi- 
cannonading ;  but  at  about  4.30  p.  m.  were  finall?  driven .. ; 
by  troops  ferried  over  in  pontoons,  and  the  bridgf^-j  \»,  • 
then  built.    The  army  commenced  crossing  that  evening  ar  i 
occupied  the  town.    The  rest  of  Sumner's  division  and  j«r 
of  Hooker's  crossed  on  the  12th.    The  remainder  of  Kmal. 
lin's  division  also  crossed  after  Sumner's  bridges  wer?  fi'. 
ished.    During  the  night  of  the  12th  and  under  enrer ,  f . 
fog  on  the  morning  of  the  13th  the  armv  was  formed  fur  i - 
tack.    Between  9  and  10  a.m.  the  fog  lifted  and  the  U^ 
began  with  the  attack  of  Franklin's  division  upon  the  ( ^  rr 
federate  right  at  Hamilton's  Crossing,  held  by  Jackson  %:. 
30,000  men.    This  attack  penetrated  the  Confederate  fn  -.: 
line  and  drove  it  back  upon  its  reserves,  until  such  stnt.,- - 
was  developed  that  the  Union  line  was  finally  checked  a  •: 
driven  back  nearly  to  its  original  position.    Desultory  t-: 
ing  continued  upon  this  flank  during  the  day  with  no  i .  - 
terial  advantage  to  either  side.     On  the  Union  right  tl^ 
Sumner's  and  part  of  Hooker's  troops,  which  had  been  rs. 
cealed  in  the  streete  of  Fredericksburg,  moved  out  at  alu : 
noon,  formed  and  advanced  to  the  attack  of  Marre's  Utk'i  •. 
In  making  this  attack  they  were  exposed  to  a  concentn"  ' 
cross-fire  of  artillery  and,  upon  a  near  approach  to  the  t . :. 
federate  position,  to  a  most  deadly  infantry  fire  fron.  W 
troops  in  a  sunken  road,  which  constituted  the  Confe^lfry- 
line  of  defense,  and  from  those  upon  the  hill  above  th 
The  attacking  lines  were  cut  down  and  destroyed  bv  t  .« 
fire,  but  fresh  troops  were  again  and  again  sent'againk  *' 
position  until  nightfall.    During  the  night  Burnside,  he^  -. 
mg  convinced  through  the  representations  of  his  suUr: 
nates,  that  the  position  could  not  be  carried,  gave  up  » - 
idea  of  renewing  the  attack.    The  armies  lay  facing  t-i  ■ 
other  until  the  night  of  Dec.  15,  when  Burnside  retn>v»- 
the  river  without  molestation.    The  total  Union  fortv  »-- 
about  116,000  men;  the  losses,  1,284  killed,  9,600  woun.l-  :. 
and  1,769  missing;  tottl,  12,653.     The  total  Confed.rJ? 
force  was  about  78,000;  the  losses,  608  killed,  4,116  wulp: 
ed,  and  653  missing ;  total,  5,377.    See  Official  Bec4)rd,  ir 
cles  in  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Citnl  War,  and  n  n - 
ner's  War  Series.  James  Meb-  i x 

Fred'eriotoB :  a  beautiful  city  and  a  railway  center  ili 
corporated  in  1849) ;  capital  of  New  Brunswick  and  of  Y  r. 
County  (for  location,  see  map  of  Quebec,  etc.,  ref.  iP* 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  St  John.  {<4  n  :  • 
from  its  mouth,  in  a  fertile  and  well-cultivated  plain  l« :  r 
ed  on  the  one  side  by  the  river  and  encircled  on  the  ^v* 
by  a  range  of  low  wooded  hills.    It  is  finely  laid  out  and  i  .^ 
many  handsome  buildings.    Among  the  public  buildinr^ 
importance  are  the  government-house,  tne  province  lu. 
ing,  Victoria  Hospital  (erected  1887),  court-house,  cit\-r 
barracks,  the  exhibition  building,  the  ciistom-house,  j«il.^* 
Fredericton  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  bishopric,  of  the  I ' 
versity  of  New  Brunswick,  and  of  the  Provincial  Xnr- 
School,  and  has  eight  churches,  Christ  Church  Cat  he  n 
(Anglican),  a  Baptist  seminary,  and  several  libraries.   V 
city  is  engaged  chiefly  in  commerce  and  the  trade  in  li: 
ber.    The  river  is  navigable  to  this  point  by  large  stw^r 
ers ;  above  small  steamers  ply  during  high  water,  pnn^-* 
ing  as  far  as  Grand  Falls.    A  steam-ferry  connects  it  » 
St.  Mary's,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river.    Frederict 
was  founded  by  Villebon  in  1692  as  a  fort;  was  unsu(\-> 
fully  attacked  in  1696  by  New  Englanders ;  under  the  n v  ■ 
of  St.  Ann's  Point  was  temporarilv  made  the  capital  of  N'  * 
Brunswick  in  1701;  and  the  government  was  perman*  n* 
established  there  by  Sir  Guy  (Jarieton  in  1786.    Pop  i^" 
6,218 ;  (1891)  6,502 ;  (1893)about  8,000. 

Fred'erlk :  the  name  of  seven  kings  of  Denmark  t* 
longing  to  the  Oldenburg  dvnasty.  Under  the  reisri' 
Frederik  III.  (1648-70)  the  constitution  of  the  counin  «»• 
changed  from  an  elective  monarchy,  in  which  the  rower . ' 
the  crown  was  circumscribed  within  very  narrow  limi'-^* 
the  privileges  of  the  nobilitv,  to  an  hereditarv  monarvl:) 


562 


FREE  CHURCH  OP  SCOTLAND 


ParlUunent.  No  change  in  the  opinions  of  the  Scottish 
Church  or  nation  had  taken  place  to  warrant  such  a  breach 
upon  the  constitution  of  the  Kirk,  and  the  measure  was 
passed  in  spite  of  the  earnest  remonstrance  and  protest  of 
the  Church  and  nation.  AfMirt,  therefore,  from  the  grave 
Question  in  reference  to  the  irrevocableness  of  any  statute, 
Uie  act  itself  was  unwarranted,  and  its  consequences  were 
as  serious  as  Lord  Macaular  has  represented  them  to  be. 

The  hist^iry  of  the  Churcn  of  Scotland  from  1711  to  1834 
is  marked  by  man^  instances  of  the  intrusion  of  ministers 
into  parishes  affamst  the  will  of  the  peo|)le.  In  1736  the 
Assembly  passed  an  act  against  the  intrusion  of  ministers 
into  vacant  parishes,  and  up  to  1784  the  Assembly  con- 
tinued from  year  to  year  to  remonstrate  against  the  law  of 
patronage  and  instructed  each  succeeding  commission  *  to 
make  application  to  the  king  and  Parliament  for  redress 
of  the  grievance.  A  case  of  disputed  settlement  under  the 
patronage  act  led  to  the  first  Secession,  in  1733,  and  another 
case  of  the  same  kind  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Relief 
Church  in  1752. 

A  full  statement  of  the  facts  of  these  Secessions  belongs 
properly  to  the  history  of  the  United  Presbvterian  Church 
in  Scotland.  From  the  time  of  the  second  Secession  the 
dominant  party  in  the  Church  continued  to  enforce  the 
law  of  patronage  for  many  years,  but  a  minority  within 
the  Church  continued  to  protest  against  the  intrusion  of 
ministers  and  to  contend  for  the  doctrine  of  spiritual  in- 
dependence. About  the  beginning  of  this  century  the 
party  opposed  to  patronage,  now  known  as  the  **  Evan- 
gelical party,"  was  greatly  increased.  The  settlement  of 
l)r.  Anarew  Thomson  as  minister  of  St,  George's  church, 
Edinburgh,  in  1810,  and  the  subsequent  publication  of  the 
Christian  Instructor  under  his  management  as  editor,  gave 
a  great  impulse  to  the  Evangelicals.f  In  this  work  of  rous- 
ing the  energies  of  the  Scottish  people  to  seek  ecclesiastical 
reform  he  was  joined  by  Dr.  Thomas  McCrie,  the  historian, 
and  shortly  afterward,  in  1815,  Dr.  Thomas  Chalmers  was 
removed  from  the  country  parish  of  Kilmany  to  the  Tron 
church  of  Glasgow,  and  threw  all  his  talents  and  energies  into 
the  same  great  work.  These  three  ministers  were  of  those  men 
who  stamp  the  impress  of  their  own  characters  upon  the  age 
in  which  they  live,  and  were  influenced  bv  the  same  strong 
lofty  views  of  the  independence  of  the  Church,  and  by  the 
same  ardent  love  for  the  principles  which  they  regarded  as 
fundamental  to  the  constitution  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
Scotland.  In  1825  an  anti-patronage  society  was  formed, 
the  most  active  member  of  which  was  Dr.  Andrew  Thom- 
son,  but  the  majority  of  the  Evangelical  party  declined  to 
onite  with  it,  and  continued  to  seek  the  regulation  and  con- 
trol of  the  law  without  contemplating  its  total  abolition. 
In  18^  overtures  from  three  synods  and  eight  presbyteries 
were  laid  on  the  table  of  the  General  Assembly,  represent- 
ing that  the  call  had  been  reduced  to  a  mere  formality,  and 
f craving  that  measures  be  adopted  to  restore  it  to  its  const i- 
utTofial  and  italutary  efficiency.  A  motion  de^'laring  it  to 
be  inex|HHlient  to  take  any  action  was  carried  by  a  majority 
of  forty-two.  At  the  Assembly  in  1833  no  less  than  lorty- 
five  overtures  asking  for  the  restoration  of  the  call  to  its 
proper  place  in  the  constitution  of  the  Church  were  pre- 
vented. Dr.  Chalmers  moved  that  the  dissent  of  a  majority 
of  the  parishioners  be  conclusive  against  the  settlement  of  a 
minist4*r,  provided  the  objections  were  not  founded  on  mal- 
ice or  capric-e.  A  motion,  in  efftn-t  o<mt inning  the  praclit*e 
then  in  us*',  was  carritnl  by  a  majority  of  twelve.  The  agi- 
tation of  the  nubjix't  was  continutMi,  and  at  the  General  As- 
M^mblr  of  the  following  year  (ItCM)  a  jcreat  number  of  over- 
tures brouf^ht  u|>  the  diM'ussion  of  the  call,  and  a  motion 
made  by  liord  Moncriefl'  to  the  same  purf^ort  as  that  made 
l»y  Dr.  (*f»ttlint»r*  in  lh««  pnHt-ding  year  was  carrit'd  by  a  ma- 
jtfrity  of  forty-MX,  Tin*  ait  on  calK  generally  known  as 
the  **  M'to  lut,"  WHH  only  a  liulf  nica»ure.  Insteatl  of  giving 
any  din-rt  v\\\i  w\  to  th»»  <«ll  of  the  jx'ople,  which  was  what 
the  con-^tituiiniml  priiuipU-H  of  the  Church  warranttni,  it 
lUmply  n-inlin"*!  Ih*-  »ii«^Mni  of  the  |MM»ple  ctmclusive  against 
the  prt*'»«*iitiv  ;  but  the  |Mi'*>iiire  <»f  t'H-''  a*'t  marks  the  U'ljin- 
ninc  of  the  "ten  yearn'  cotittict  "  lM'twe<Mi  the  ecx*le^ja>lieal 
and  ihe<i\il  {Miwrr  in  Stitiand.  The  tirst  case  that  antsi" 
under  thiH  rirw  wt  will  '^•rve  as  an  ilhiM ration  of  the  oni- 
flict  whii-h  mus  carruHl  on  U'twem  the  ctM>rdinate  courts. 

*  Th«*  CM^mmiMftiufi  of  A—irnhly  bi  a  kind  of  roromltt<*«»  of  th<* 
wbol^,  whjrh  htt^i  jwmrr  U»  n»»vl  «i  «ny  tiiu**  <»f  Ihr  yr^nr  In  ivfcrrnce 
lo  an*  m*tt«rs  whK'h  tnjiy  Aff«H-l  ihr  intrmiu  of  tb**  C'hureh 

t  1ti«  lonnfl  ^wu^/tl^ciiU  and  iludrroiM  are  uted  to  •«▼«*  drcum- 


■1 


1 


•  • 


»»  1 


».■■ 


The  church  and  parish  of  Auchterarder  harinr  b^Yic^  t« 
cant  in  Aug.,  18:k,  on  Sept  16  thereafter  th^  Yax\  -  * 
noul,  as  patron,  issued  a  presentati<m  in  imxn  itf  K 
Young,  a  licentiate  of  the  (jhuich.  The  call  ««^  \m^l  *»  ' 
the  presbytery  on  Oct.  14,  and  in  terms  of  the  tt«««  m^ 
its  relative  regulations  the  matter  was  brf^t,4«t  U  f  * 
parishioners.  The  call  was  signed  by  the  Eari  «if  K 
factor,  not  a  resident  in  the  parish^  and  br  two  t-** 
families.  On  the  other  hand,  287  heads  <if  fan.i:  -•.  v 
commtmicants,  subscribed  a  dissent  frxNn  tbr  ralL  Ir 
sequence  of  this  the  presbytery  rejected  Mr.  Ytmn^  at*  \ 
entee  to  the  parish.  Mr.  Young  appealed  ftm  t^i  t>i«  • 
and  afterward  to  the  Assembly,  but  lH>ih  of  th«^  '^..^  • 
affirmed  the  decision  of  the  prosbyterr  bv  larsv  tr.a  •  - 
Thereupon  the  Earl  of  Kinnoul  and  Mr.  ^ouru  .ri<.'  .'* 
process  in  the  court  of  session,*  contend  inir  th*!  •.  - 
jection  of  Mr.  Young  as  presentee  was  ultra  nru  ' 
presbytery,  in  violation  or  the  statutes,  and  to  tN-  «' 
injury  of  their  patrimonial  rights  as  patrvms  and  f  r« « 
The  presbytery  of  Auchterarder  askeil  aiiri<^e  of  •.  *  ?| 
mission  of  Assembly  which  met  Nov.,  1H35.  a&l  th#  •  <  --  -  ^ 
sion  instructed  their  procurator,  or  legal  agvnt,  ti  .•  •  | 
the  defense  at  the  expense  of  the  Chun^h.  ( Hi  Mar.  ^  :^J{ 
the  court  gave  its  decision  by  a  majttrity  of  thnv — 1£>  -  .  ^ 
bers  being  eight  and  five—to  the  effect  that  tW  pr*^  « 
had  acted  to  the  hurt  and  prejudice  of  the  patrtio  a& 
entee,  illegally  and  in  violation  of  their  dutv.  ac«i  o 
to  the  provisions  of  the  statute  of  Queen  Anne  fic 
toration  of  the  ngbts  of  patrons.  At  the  nr it  n^ 
the  presbytery  of  Auchterarder  the  whole  matter 
f erred  to  the  synod,  and  from  thenoe  sent  op  to  tl^  «t« 
Assembly,  which  met  in  May,  1838.  The  A^wvil  .t  •. 
iced  the  procurator  of  the  Church  to  apciral  the  cm^  * 
House  of  Lords,  and  on  May  8, 1839,  tne  judfm*  • ' 
House  of  Lords  was  given  to  the  effect  thai  ih.*  *^(« 
dismissed  and  the  decision  of  the  court  of  im^i'  n  a.*  ' 
Thus  the  highest  legal  indicatory  in  the  kin;r«ii  ^ 
the  veto  act  to  be  illegal,  and  that  the  law  rvt<ii,:ni/i*^ 
the  call  nor  the  objections  of  the  people  in  if^e  aiif*  ■  *^ 
and  ordination  of  a  minister  to  a  fiarish,  aznl  th**,  .  -  ^ 
interfere  with  the  patron  in  the  exerctw  of  h»  n^"  * 
must  be  put  down.  A  crisis  had  now  arrirrd.  aad  .- 
eral  Assembly  of  1830  met  preparpd  to  drl>«-rm£«  -c 
course  to  be  taken.  Dr.  Cook,  as  leader  of  w  hat  t»  ^ 
the  Moderate  party,  moved,  in  effect,  thai  «•  t  ivc  % 
had  been  pronounced  illegal  by  the  suprvme  r:%il  f 
of  the  country,  the  General  Assembly  shfu!«l  tn!<- 
presbyteries  to  proceed  in  the  siHtlement  of  par«^:«* 
cording  to  the  practice  which  prrvaiinl  f»rf«t  u*.«  ' 
passing  of  that  act.  Dr.  Chalmers,  as  l^mU  r  •!  *^  ^ 
mtrusion  party,  moved  a  resolution  affirm mir  th* 
of  the  Cliurch  to  give  obedience  to  the  cirti  t^Mir*.*  •  'ar 
the  civil  rights  and  emoluments  of  the  Thanh  «rr« 
corned,  but  at  the  9ame  time  declaring  the  pniv  - 
intrusion  to  be  an  integral  part  of  the  ctscK.tut* '^  € 
Reformed  Kirk  of  Scotland,  and  that  tbr  {<i 
not  be  abandoned ;  therefon?  no  pn-(irat««  sh-  -  .i.i  %m 
upon  any  parish  oontrmr]r  to  the  will  of  thr  ck  r^^ 
Ttiis  resolution  further  provided  for  the  af«fM.c'-sr  t  4 
committee,  with  instructions  to  confer  with  t.*-«  tr.  t 
of  the  country  with  a  view  to  the  rv«itor«tat« 
between  (*hurch  and  state.  This  m4»ti«>ci  *«•  i 
Assembly  by  a  majority  of  forty-ninr.  It  il«^  « 
that  the  civil  courts  might  do  what  th^v  * :. 
emoluments  of  the  parish  of  AnchteranW.  Uit  t.-^ 
Church  courts  could  not  proceed  at  the  dn  t^*  «  f  ^ 
courts  to  the  ordination  and  sett iement  of  Mr  Y<  -^-c  Tl 
terminated  for  a  time  the  Auchterarder  c«i>r,  t«t  *>»  4 
lision  U'tween  the  Kirk  and  the  end  <x>urt»  <**>Qtaa«*<. 

The  position  of  the  Church  was  tirtttmioir  e*  «v  ms^  m\ 
difficult  and  complicated.  The  Nunintru^*  r.t-c*  *••  •! 
inir  to  altandon  the  temporalitie«  of  the-  ta^svlkw^  t! 
claimed  for  the  (*hurch  only  spintoal  m»\  ^mi**  r%.  -^\ 
but  this  was  met,  on  the  part  of  the  ruu  i^-an*  t«  ^ 
principle  that  ministers  of  the  oationml  rhun'h  ««*«  ^ 
tory  functionaries,  bound  to  |ierfonn  thetr  d .««■»»  »  \%04 
the  supreme  iH)urts,  and  that  they  niuM  t^<  ««».«  ^ 
duties  by  merely  attandoning  the  emi4on»rat^  M««a«|i 
M»me  attempts  were  made  to  affonl  n-ltrt  tr*^m  tij*  t«^l 
of  juriMiiction  by  means  of  legt«lati*>fL     I  a   Maf,  :*^1 

elTll 


•  Th*»  court  nf  fc'iMloo  to  tbe 
Inir  Jiiri«(lu  Ucm  in  all  HtU 
titUHl  In  itiXL    Th«*  Dumber  of 
ibm  lord  Jualicv't  dark,  and 


564 


FREE  CITIES 


FREEHOLD 


sionary  and  other  benevolent  enterprises  with  increasing 
liberality.  The  Free  Church  annually  raises  over  $3,000,000 
for  religious  purposes.  Through  its  sustentation  fund  the 
ministers  in  the  poorest  parishes  receive  adequate  support. 
Nearly  all  the  foreign  missionaries  connected  with  the  Es- 
tablisned  Church  took  part  with  the  Free  Church,  and  on 
this  Church,  even  amid  its  own  early  struggles,  the  support 
of  these  missions  devolved.  It  has  missions  in  India,  in 
Eastern  Europe,  in  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Arabia,  and  in 
Africa ;  it  has  contributed  largely  to  the  evangelization  of 
the  colonies,  especially  Canada  and  Australia ;  and  it  makes 
grants  from  year  to  year  to  evangelical  societies  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  Free  Church  schools  have  been  estab- 
lished through  Scotland,  and  there  are  three  theological 
colleges  sustained  with  efficiency.  Whatever  may  be  said  of 
the  principles  maintained  by  the  Free  Church,  there  can  be 
only  one  estimate  of  the  character  and  worth  of  the  out- 
going ministers,  and  of  the  zeal  and  liberality  and  success 
with  which  that  Church  has  so  far  prosecuted  its  work.  To 
the  Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches,  in  1892,  it  reported 
74  presbyteries,  1,092  congregations,  1,142  ministers,  and 
338,978  communicants.  For  later  and  fuller  statistics,  and 
for  an  account  of  the  voluminous  literature  of  the  subject, 

sec  PRESBYTEBIAN  ChURCR.  DaVID  IngLIS. 

Revised  by  Willis  J.  Beecher. 

Free  Cities :  See  Free  Imperial  Cities. 

Free  Coinage:  See  Coinage,  Currency,  Finance,  and 
Silver  Coinage. 

Free  Congregations  (transl.  of  Germ.  Freie  Oemeinde) : 
the  name  of  those  formed  in  Germany  as  a  rationalist  reac- 
tion against  the  revival  of  positive  Christianity  under  King 
Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia.  In  1841  a  number  of 
pastors  of  the  old  rationalistic  school  assembled  at  Gnadau 
and  llalle,  under  the  presidency  of  Lebrecht  Uhlieh,  pastor 
of  P5mmelte,  near  Magdeburg,  and  adopted  a  platform  of 
nine  strongly  pronounced  rationalistic  propositions,  at  the 
same  time  assuming  the  name  •*  Friends  of  Light,"  or  "  Prot- 
estant Friends."  •  In  1844  another  meeting  was  held,  at 
Coethen,  where  133  theologians  and  about  5(S)  laymen  were 
present;  and  Uhlieh  delivered  a  lecture  in  which  he  re- 
jected the  doctrines  of  hereditary  sin,  atonement,  the  Trin- 
ity, the  divinity  of  Christ,  etc.  At  first  the  leaders  of  the 
movement  professed  to  be  Christians ;  but  when  afterward 
they  openly  rejected  all  the  fundamental  doctrines  on  which 
the  Christian  Church  is  built,  identified  themselves  with  the 
youn^  Hegelian  school,  and  affiliated  with  atheists  and  ma- 
terialists, the  Government  began  to  interfere,  and  they  were 
compelled  to  separate  from  the  Church  and  form  "  Free  Con- 
gregations." The  movement,  nevertheless,  received  a  new 
and  strong  impetus  from  the  political  disturbances  of  1848. 
The  leaders  entered  Parliament,  and  found  an  opportunity 
of  representing  themselves  as  the  leaders  of  the  nation.  The 
connection  with  politics,  however,  proved  fatal  to  the  move- 
ment. When  the  enthusiasm  was  spent  and  the  heavy  re- 
action set  in,  the  Government  began  to  deal  in  a  rather 
peremptory  way  with  the  Free  Congregations.  Still  in  1891 
there  were  in  Gfermany  fifty-five  of  them,  with  18,771  mem- 
bers. See  F.  Kampe,  Geschichte  der  religidsen  Be^oeguivg 
der  neueren  Zeit  (4  vols.,  Leipzig,  1852-00),  and  the  annual 
Freireligidser  Kalendar  (Gotna,  1871,  sqq.). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Freedman  r/re«(2,  perf.  partic.  oifree  -»-  man ;  used  often 
as  a  transl.  oi  Lat.  hbertus^  libertinus,  freedman,  derivs.  of 
liber,  free] :  in  ancient  Rome,  a  free  man  who  had  been  a 
slave.  Slaves  liberated  by  certain  forms,  or  owned  with 
certain  conditions  before  liberation,  or  over  thirty  years 
old  at  the  time  of  acquiring  freedom,  became  not  only  freed- 
men,  but  Roman  citizens;  others  belonged  to  the  class 
Latin! ;  still  others  {dedititii)  had  no  recognized  political 
exist-ence.  The  descendants  of  f reedmen  were  free,  but  even 
when  citizens  they  did  not  have  the  rights  of  the  gens. 

Freedmen's  Bureau :  a  bureau  of  the  War  Department 
of  the  U.  S.  Government  established  Mar.  3,  1865,  for  the 
supervision  of  lands  abandoned  during  the  civil  war,  and 
for  the  control  of  all  subjects  relating  to  refugees  and  f reed- 
men from  any  part  of  the  territory  within  the  operations  of 
the  army.  The  bureau  was  under  the  contnil  of  a  commis- 
sioner appointed  by  the  President  and  confirmed  by  the 
Senate.  The  establishing  act  also  contained  a  clause  au- 
thorizing a  detail  of  officers  of  the  army  for  service  under 
the  commissioner.  A  supplementary  act  enlarged  the  func- 
tions of  the  bureau  so  as  to  include  "  the  supervision  and 


care  of  all  loyal  refugees  and  freedmen,  so  far  as  the  sam<* 
shall  be  necessary  to  enable  them,  as  speedily  as  practicahlr. 
to  become  self-supporting  citizens  of  the  L .  S.,  and  to  mi 
them  in  making  the  freedom  conferred  by  proclamation  •  f 
the  commander-in-chief,  by  emancipation  under  the  Ut% 
of  States,  and  by  constitutional  amendment  available  ar.a 
beneficial  to  the  public." 

The  work  thus  assigned  to  this  bureau  was  nothing  Inn 
than  the  organization  into  the  methods  of  cItU  govemmt'ii: 
of  two  and  a  half  millions  of  people  who  had  been  driwr 
from  their  former  homes  by  the  sharp  vicissitudes  of  w^r. 
Gen.  0.  0.  Howard,  of  the  U.  S.  army,  was  appointed  lon- 
missioner,  and  he  at  once  put  in  motion  a  vast  maehii  *  n 
for  the  accomplishment  of  the  work  by  installing  a  Ur^- 
number  of  assistant  commissioners  in  various  parts  of  i* 
country.    These  were  organized  into  divisions  as  the  "  <iu.i' 
termaster*s  division,"  the  "land  and  claim  division,"  tr- 
"medical    division,"   the    " trans()ortation    division,"    '^^ 
"  school  division,"  the  *'  bounty  division,"  and  the  *•  finan*  u: 
division."    The  scope  of  the  work  undertaken  was  thu^  i^ 
fined  in  the  report  of  the  investigating  committee  of  !>»?' 
1,  taking  possession,  on  behalf  of  the  U.  S.,  of  all  real  v^ax 
abandoned  by  its  owners ;  2,  taking  possession  of  all  r>  i 
estate  forfeited  to  the  U.  S.  to  be  sold  for  taxea^  whfii,  - 
bought  in  by  order  of  the  President  of  the  U.  S.  or  soW  '  > 
settlers  and  others ;  3,  taking  possession  of  all  land«  >   n- 
fiscated  to  the  U.  S. ;  4,  taking  possession  of  all  personal  pr  |- 
erty  of  the  enemy  derelict,  abandoned,  or  captured,  exc-  • 
prizes  at  sea ;  5,  taking  care  of,  and  making  provision  '  ' 
all  persons  now  freed  or  hereafter  to  be  freed  under  any  la*- 
of  the  U.  S.  or  proclamations  of  the  President  or  act*   •' 
manumission ;  6,  taking  care  of  all  colored  men  in  the  rvU 
lious  districts  who  were  free  before  the  war.  and  of  all  fuj. 
tives  thereto  from  loyal  States ;  7,  all  legal  proceed  inj:r>  t  - 
the  confiscation  of  property  in  the  courts,  the  U.  S.  art.r- 
neys  or  special  attorney  to  act  under  orders  of  the  nt- w  -i- 
partment  so  far  as  respects  these  proceedings ;  8,  thf^  u.- 
ministration  of  all  laws,  rules,  and  regulations  relatinc  '• 
the  migration  of  colored  people;  9,  and  of  laws  relatit.i:  t< 
the  compensation,  if  any,  which  the  Government  may  li*  r- 
after  give  to  aid  loyal  States  in  emancipating  slaves ;'  lo.  >i 
other  matters  relating  to  the  emancipation  and  its  pnxv>^  - 
its  rules  and  regulations,  etc.,  and  the  protection  of  the  tL- 
terests  of  the  colored  men  as  well  as  of  the  U.  S. 

Within  five  vears  from  the  time  of  the  organisation  •>(  tr.- 
bureau  the  scnool  division  reported  the  establishmem 
2,118  schools  with  250,000  pupils ;  the  transportation  diri*.- 
reported  6,352  freedmen  transported  to  places  where  th-r- 
was  employment  and  assured  support ;  the  financial  diviM  <: 
reported  that  the  receipts  and  expenditures  for  the  work  •«' 
the  bureau  proper  were  about  $8,000,000,  and  that  inclui.' . 
the  bounty  ana  prize-money  secured  through  the  bureau  '  \ 
total  amount  exceeded  $21  ,'000,000.    The  work  of  the  bur-  < 
was  intended  to  be  only  temporary.    Gradually  the  s«hi- 1> 
banks,  and  other  institutions  founded  for  the  purpost^  of  .^  .- 
ing  in  the  passage  over  a  rough  period  were  turned  ovrr  \ 
the  common  system  of  government  in  the  country.  Tlio  U^* 
authorities  on  the  subject  are  the  various  reports  of  (t^  - 
Howard  and  of  the  congressional  committees  oetween  \i*'-- 
and  1871.  C,  K.  Ai>aji^ 

Freedom  of  the  Will :  See  Frbe  Will,  and  Wn^ 

Freehold  :  an  estate  of  inheritance  or  for  life  in  real  pr^:* 
erty.    It  was  in  ancient  times  termed  a  frank-t«nemen^ 
word  having  the  same  meaning  as"  freehold"),  and  dei^  :. 
an  estate  held  by  a  freeman  independently  of  the  menr  « 
of  the  feudal  lord.    It  includes  those  estates  to  which  * 
mode  of  conveyance  by  feoffment  with  livery  of  seizin  *  *• 
in  the  early  common  law,  exclusively  appropriate,  and  •    - 
characteristic  was  once  used  as  a  means  of  defining  it-  *  \ 
tent  of  application  ;  but  since  the  abolition  of  feoffmt^nt  ^.. 
a  mode  oi  description  is  no  longer  possible,    (See  Fhi'>* 
MENT.)     But  though  the  ceremony  of  livery  of  s»t>i7j:i   ' 
longer  exists,  the  term  "  seizin  "  has  still  been  petainoi  *• 
applicable  to  freehold  interests  alone,   while   all    inftr   * 
estates  are  said  to  exist  only  in  "  possession."    An  estate 
freehold  may  be  either  corporeal,  as  in  land,  or  inci>ri'<  r-a 
as  in  rents  or  franchises.    Freeholds  of  inheritance  art*  f-  •  - 
simple  (see  Fee)  and  fees  tail.    (See  Entail.)    Fn^^h-    : 
not  of  inheritance  are  life  estates,  and  may  l>e  cither  - 
ventiondl  (that  is,  such  as  are  creatwl  by  contract  betw*- ' 
the  parties)  or  legal  (that  is,  such  as  are  created  by  ojiom** 
of  law).    Those  which  are  conventional  may  be  eithir 
for  one's  own  life.  (2)  for  the  life  of  another,  or  (8)  ft>r  '«••• . 


566 


PREEPORT 


FREETOWN 


windmills,  coffee-mills,  foundries,  and  shops  of  the  Illinois 
Central  RaUroad.    Pop.  (1880)  8,516 ;  (1890)  10,189. 

Editor  of  "  Bulletin." 

Freeport :  borough ;  Armstrong  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref .  4-B) ;  on  railway  and 
the  north  hank  of  the  Allegheny  river ;  28  miles  N.  E.  of  Pitts- 
burg. It  has  9  churches,  8  schools,  a  good  academy,  large 
grist-mills,  a  tannery,  planing-mills,  sawmills,  3  very  large 
distilleries  producing  300  barrels  of  whisky  per  day,  and 
gas-works.  Pop.  (1880)  1,614;  (1890)  1,687;  (1893)  estimated 
with  suburbs,  2,000.  Editoe  op  "  Journal." 

Free-soil  Partr :  a  former  political  partv  of  the  U.  S. ; 
was  composed  of  the  Liberty  party  of  1846,  the  Barnburner 
Democrats  of  New  York,  and  of  a  considerable  number 
of  Northern  Whigs  who  favored  the  Wilmot  proviso,  a  pro- 

Sosal  to  prohibit  slavery  in  the  territories  acquired  from 
lexico.  In  1846  David  Wilmot,  a  Democratic  member 
from  Pennsylvania,  offered  an  amendment — the  so-called 
"  Wilmot  Proviso  " — to  a  bill  submitted  to  Congress  and  ap- 
propriating money  for  the  negotiation  of  peace  with  Mex- 
ico. The  amendment  read  as  follows:  "Provided  that 
there  shall  be  neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  in 
any  territory  on  the  continent  of  America  which  shall 
hereafter  be  acquired  by  or  annexed  to  the  U.  S.  by  virtue 
of  this  appropriation,  or  in  any  other  manner,  except  for 
crime,  etc.  It  was  carried 'in  the  House,  but  failed  in  the 
Senate;  and  in  the  next  session  it  was  defeated  in  both 
divisions  of  Congress.  Both  in  the  Democratic  and  in  the 
Whig  conventions  of  1846  resolutions  of  the  same  import 
were  offered,  but  in  both  they  were  rejected ;  and  the  con- 
sequence of  the  reiection  was  that  a  great  number  of  promi- 
nent men,  especially  from  Massachusetts,  New  York,  ana  Ohio, 
seceded  from  both  parties  and  formed  a  new  party — the  Free- 
soil  Party,  or  the  Free-soilers.  In  1848,  at  Buffalo,  they 
nominated  Martin  Van  Buren  and  Charles  Francis  Adams 
for  President  and  Vice-President.  The  ticket  did  not  re- 
ceive any  electoral  votes,  and  only  291,000  popular  votes. 
In  1852,  at  Pittsburg,  they  nominated  John  P.  Hale  and 
(George  W.  Julian,  who  received  157,000  popular  votes.  In 
1856  the  Free-soil  party  was  merged  into  the  new  Republi- 
can organization. 

Free  Spirit,  Bretliren  and  Sisters  of  tlie :  See  Breth- 
ren AND  Sisters  op  the  Free  Spirit. 

Freethinker:  a  name  given  to  the  deistical  writers  of 
England  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  It 
was  bestowed  on  John  Toland,  who  in  1697  was  called,  in  a 
letter  to  Locke,  "  a  candid  freethinker."  In  1709  Lord 
Shaftesbury  spoke  of  "  our  modem  free  writers."  The  title 
of  Anthony  CoUins's  work,  written  in  1713,  A  Discourse  of 
Freethinking,  occasioned  by  the  Rise  and  Growth  of  a  Sect 
called  Freethinkers,  proves  that  the  name  was  then  in  use 
with  a  somewhat  definite  application.  However  originat- 
ing, by  whomsoever  bestowea,  it  was  accepted  by  the  ration- 
alists as  descriptive  of  their  position  as  men  who  thought 
freely — that  is,  outside  of  the  usual  lines  on  ecclesiastical 
and  theological  subjects.  The  reproach  that  became  asso- 
ciated with  the  term  in  the  common  mind  was  due  to  the 
prejudice  against  the  unbridled  exercise  of  reason  on  the 
Christian  Scriptures  and  Creed,  whatever  the  special  opin- 
ions professed  might  be.  The  chief  names  among  the  Eng- 
lish freethinkers  are  Hobbes,  Hume,  Shaftesbury,  Boling- 
broke,  Herbert  of  Cherbury,  Tindal,  Toland,  Chubb,  Wool- 
ston,  and  Collins.  These  names  represent  widely  different 
phases  of  opinion,  from  simple  deism  to  theism  of  a  pure 
quality,  and  widely  different  intellectual  attitudes,  from 
philosophical  skepticism  to  the  blunt  criticism  of  common 
sense.  The  freethinkers  were  not,  strictly  speaking,  a 
sect ;  they  entered  into  no  league ;  they  started  no  propa- 
ganda ;  they  established  no  school ;  they  put  forth  no  creed 
— not  even  a  creed  of  negation;  they  held  nothing  in 
common  but  a  belief  in  the  validity  of  reason  in  the  sphere 
of  faith.  They  were  simply  individual  scholars,  writers, 
talkers,  who  freely,  with  various  measure  of  ability,  uttered 
their  doubts  in  regard  to  the  system  of  "  revealed  religion." 
Their  temper  differed  as  widely  as  their  genius  or  culture. 
Some  were  trained  scholars,  polished  writei-s,  wite,  men  of 
fashion,  citizens  of  the  world,  men  of  letters,  political  and 
social  philosophers;  others  were  poor,  uneducated,  unre- 
fined. Some  were  masters  of  perMJiage ;  others  employed 
none  but  the  homeliest  speech.  Their  deism  was  of  every 
shade.  For  the  most  part  they  held  very  positive  religious 
ideas ;  they  stood  by  tne  broad  facts  of  human  conscious- 
ness, maintained  the  existence  and  unity  of  a  personal  God, 


affirmed  the  perfect  order  of  the  universe,  and  propht^>i«  -i 
the  future  welfare  of  all  mankind.  There  was  nc»l  .i:: 
avowed  atheist  among  them,  not  a  professed  materiAli^* 
unless  it  were  Coward.  They  were  unanimous  in  their  «J^- 
sire — apparently  an  earnest  one — ^to  elevate  religion  t<»  a 
spiritual  sphere,  and  to  emancipate  it  from  dogmatism  aiio 
formalism.  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury,  who  had  nerfuij^ 
more  influence  than  any  other  in  shaping  the  frecthinki'  l- 
mind  of  England,  an  elder  brother  of  G^rge  Herbert  t^. 
poet,  believed  the  true  religion  to  be  universal,  coinmernJi4 
Dy  its  intrinsic  evidence  to  the  human  mind,  and  attv*^^-  i 
by  the  intuitions  of  the  soul.  His  five  points  of  bel:-^ 
were  the  existence  of  one  supreme  God;  tne  duty  of  w.ir- 
ship ;  piety  and  virtue  as  the  means  thereof ;  the  effi^cacy  of 
repentance ;  the  existence  of  rewards  and  punishmeDt>  h^n- 
and  hereafter.  If  any,  like  Bolingbroke,  doubted  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  they  were  actuated  in  part  by  tLe 
thoroughness  of  their  faith  in  an  active  law  of  retributi.o. 
which  needed  no  after-life  for  its  vindication.  CV>ward. 
who  wrote  in  the  spirit  of  a  materialist,  afi&rmecl  immortjii- 
ity  as  a  divine  gilt  to  man,  while  denying  that  it  w^  % 
natural  inheritance. 

Freethinking  in  England  was  colored  by  French  infi- 
delity, but  always  preserved  a  character  of  its  own.  The 
term  "  freethinker  is  misapplied  to  the  Frencliman  of  tb* 
eighteenth  century,  the  contemporaries  of  Voltaire,  the- 
esprits  forts  who  were  the  precursors  of  the  French  K»  r.v 
lution.  These  men,  forced  into  antagonism  to  a  de^pt'^<' 
system  in  Church  and  state,  bent  all  their  efforts  to  orrr- 
throw  it.  Hence  their  vehemence  of  thought  and  spee^-n  . 
hence  their  acridity  of  temper;  hence  the  audacity  of  th^ir 
speculations,  the  severity  of  their  denials,  and  the  phi!> 
sophical  rigidity  of  their  speculation.  They  were  less  f  iv<^ 
thinkers  than  aggressive  thinkers.  To  them  the  name  *]"<- 
trinaire  applies.  They  did  aim  at  propagandism ;  they  ^iA 
attempt  to  form  a  school ;  they  constituted  an  aristocrat  r 
of  intellect,  a  clique  of  philosophers.  They  had  little  sttc- 
pathy  with  the  common  mina,  and  little  faith  in  the  in- 
tuitions of  the  common  heart.  For  English  common  «en^ 
they  substituted  Parisian  wit,  and  for  English  seriou^n-C' 
Gallic  levity.  The  English  freethinker  pushed  hi*  in- 
quiries into  the  wide  field  of  religious  speculation:  tri' 
French  e»pr%t  fort  took  up  an  ultimate  position  ontsidt-  xf 
all  religious  confessions,  and  defended  it.  Both  the  Kr  c 
lishman  and  the  Frenchman  were  by  their  principles  cott:- 
pelled  to  be  champions  of  human  rights.  The  former  ex- 
pressed the  spirit  of  sturdy  self-reliance  that  characten.'i.^ 
the  British  mind ;  the  latter,  in  contending  against  opy  rv9> 
sion  in  Church  and  state,  advocated  principles  that  after- 
ward bore  fruit  in  the  Revolution  that  laid  Churx»h  ani 
state  prostrate.  Still  the  spirit  of  the  Englishman  v^^f 
more  aemocratic 

The  t^rm  "  freethinker "  is  even  less  applicable  to  n.*  r. 
like  Strauss,  Paulus,  Baur,  and  the  German  rational '-t< 
than  to  Diderot,  d'Holbach,  d'Alembert,  and  Voltaire.  F>  r 
these  men,  though  professing  in  some  respects  the  5ar.<f 
opinions  with  the  Englishmen,  arrived  at  them  by  differ*  i : 
methods,  and  held  them  in  a  different  spirit.  Clos<>t->'u 
dents,  scholars,  and  philosophers  by  profession,  they  j.ut- 
lished  the  result  of  their  laoors  in  a  calmly  scientific  t*-*:^- 
per,  as  if  unaware  of  opposing  powers.  They  did  not  plun  ' 
themselves  on  their  freedom ;  they  were  not  apostles  of  Ir- 
erty;  they  made  no  war  on  institutions.  The  Englishi?..!:. 
is  the  only  genuine  freethinker.  The  Frenchman  i>  a 
philosopher — the  German  is  a  rationalist.  Both  aiv  in  :&(i 
vance  of  the  freethinker  in  clearness  of  thought  and  hrii.T^ 
ment,  nicety  of  discernment,  and  adequacy  of  learpir.^ 
The  freethinker  belongs  to  the  last  generation.  The  M.^i>  ri- 
tific  thinker,  the  true  thinker,  is  taking  his  place.  For  i  *-* 
history  of  freethinking,  see  Lechner,  Oesehicnte  d,  DriJttn-^K 
and  Adam  Storey  Farrar,  Critical  History  of  Free  Thmx.y  * 

0.  B.  Frothikoham. 

Freetown :  a  town  of  Western  Africa,  in  lat  S*"  29  N  . 
Ion.  13°  9'  W. ;    capital  of  the  British  colony  of  Sicm 
Leone;  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  estuary  of  the  Sur~. 
Leone  river,  in  a  low,  hot,  but  extremely  fertile  and  beaiiT: 
ful  plain,  and   surrounded  by  an  amphitheater  of  Xk^V^ 
forest-clad  mountains  (see  map  of  Afric4i,  ref.  5- A).    T* 
great  amount  of  decomposed  or  half-decomposed  vegetal  * 
matter  which  the  river  carries  down  to  the  sea.  and  wh:    ' 
the  tide  drives  back  toward  the  city,  makes  the  p)ac'(>  u: 
healthful  and  unsuitable  for  European  residents.    The  oit* 
is  well  built,  though  most  of  its  houses  are  of  wood.   As  edn  b 


56ft 


FREE  TRADE 


in  defense  of  the  pithily  expressed  proposition  **  that  it  is 
better  to  compel  an  individual  to  buy  a  nat  for  five  dollars, 
rather  than  to  allow  him  to  purchase  it  for  three/'  is  that 
any  present  loss  or  injury  resulting  from  such  restriction  to 
the  individual  will  be  more  than  compensated  to  him  in- 
directly as  a  member  of  scx^iety  or  citizen  of  the  state.  But 
this  plea  is  the  same  in  character,  and  just  as  legitimate,  as 
that  which  was  formerly  put  forth  in  defense  of  the  svstem 
of  Negro  slavery — namely,  that  the  system  was  really  for 
the  g<x)d  of  the  persons  enslaved,  and  that  any  suffering  or 
deprivation  endured  by  the  slave  for  the  good  of  society — 
meaning  thereby  the  masters — would  be  fully  compensated 
to  him,  through  moral  discipline,  in  the  world  to  come.  It 
is  also  to  be  noted  that  this  same  species  of  argument — i.  e. 
indirect  or  future  individual  or  society  benefit  as  a  justifica- 
tion for  present  personal  restriction  or  injury — has  always 
been  made  use  of  in  past  ages  as  a  vindication  and  in  war- 
rant for  persecution  on  the  part  of  the  state  for  heresy  or 
unbelief,  and  also  for  the  establishment  of  state  religions 
and  enforced  conformity  thereto. 

3.  The  general  result  for  which  all  men  labor  is  to  in- 
crease the  abundance  or  diminish  the  scarcity  of  those 
things  which  are  essential  to  their  subsistence,  comfort,  and 
happiness.  Different  individuals  have  different  aptitudes, 
or  are  endowed  with  different  natural  capacities  for  making 
the  various  forces  of  nature  and  varieties  of  matter  availa- 
ble for  production.  One  man  is  naturally  fitted  to  excel  as 
a  farmer,  another  as  a  mechanic,  the  third  as  a  navigator, 
the  fourth  as  a  miner,  engineer,  builder,  or  organizer  and 
director  of  society,  and  the  like.  The  different  countries  of 
the  earth  likewise  exhibit  great  diversity  as  respects  soil, 
climate,  natural  products,  and  opportunity.  It  would  seem 
clear,  therefore,  in  order  that  there  may  be  the  greatest  ma- 
terial abundance,  that  each  individual  shall  follow  that  line 
of  production  for  which  he  is  best  fitted  by  natural  capacity 
or  circumstances ;  and  that,  for  the  determination  of  what 
that  line  must  be,  the  promptings  of  individual  self-interest 
and  experience  are  a  far  better  guide  than  any  enactments 
of  legislatures  and  rulers  possibly  can  be ;  and,  finally,  that 
the  greatest  possible  facility  be  afforded  to  producers  for 
the  interchange  of  their  several  products  and  services.  So 
true,  indeed,  are  these  propositions  that  mankind  in  their 
progress  from  the  rudest  and  most  incipient  social  organiza- 
tions to  higher  degrees  of  civilization  invariably  act  in  ac- 
cordance with  them,  and,  as  it  were,  instinctively.  It  is  im- 
portant at  this  point  to  recognize  clearly  the  meaning  of 
the  term  industry,  which  in  its  **  domestic  "  form  is  claimed 
to  be  the  special  object  of  protection  to  protect,  and  which 
the  advocates  of  the  protection  theory  seem  to  very  imper- 
fectly appreciate.  Thus  industry  consists  of  two  factors,  or 
there  are  two  elements  in  it.  One  is  production  (Lat.  pro, 
forward,  and  ducere,  to  lead),  in  the  sense  of  draw  in  g^  out 
materials  or  products  from  natural  sources,  and  the  other  is 
exchanging  or  selling  the  things  produced ;  and  industry  can 
not  get  along  without  both  any  more  than  a  man  can  get 
along  with  only  one  leg.  If  a  farmer  grows  10,000  bushels 
of  corn,  and  needs  only  1,000  bushels  for  himself,  family, 
and  animals,  and  can  not  exchange  or  sell  the  other  9,000, 
he  might  as  well  have  not  raised  it.  He  can  eat  corn,  bum 
it  for  fuel,  and  make  whisky  of  it,  but  he  can  not  clothe 
himself  with  com  husks,  plow  with  a  corn  stalk,  wear  com 
shoes,  and  the  like.  To  get  these  other  things  he  must  sell 
or  exchange  his  surplus  9,000  bushels ;  and  he  must  be  of  a 
simple  mind  who  does  not  at  once  see  that  the  greater  facili- 
ties afforded  to  him  for  exchange,  such  as  good  roads,  bridges, 
horses  and  wagons,  cheap  and  swift  railways  and  steam- 
ships, low  tolls,  freights  and  taxes,  the  greater  will  be  the  op- 
portunity for  exchange  and  trade  to  advantage.  On  the  other 
hand,  poor  roads,  unbridged  streams,  few  or  no  railways  or 
steamships,  and  high  tolls,  freights,  and  taxes,  all  tend  to  re- 
strict or  destroy  trade  and  the  opportunity  to  sell  his  9,000 
bushels  of  corn  to  advantage.  In  short,  there  has  never 
been  a  case  in  all  human  experience  when  the  removal  of 
restrictions — natural  or  legislative — on  trade  did  not  result 
in  the  extension  of  trade  to  the  mutual  advantage  of  the 
great  majority  of  the  people  concerned ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  has  never  been  a  case  where  trade  has  been  re- 
stricted by  mountains,  seas,  bad  roads,  or  tolls,  or  tariff 
taxes,  in  which  trade  has  not  decreased,  or  not  developed, 
to  the  great  disadvantage  of  the  great  majority.  The  man 
who  can  get  a  law  passed  that  will  enable  him  to  tax  trade 
or  exchange  always  sees  an  advantage  to  himself  in  the  re- 
stricted trade  that  will  result.  So  also  does  tlic  man  who 
sits  behind  a  bush  on  the  road,  with  a  gun,  and  tells  the 


farmer  who  has  sold  his  surplus  9,000  bushels  of  com,  "  Yc: 
can  not  pass  unless  you  give  me  a  big  part  of  what  you  r«^>- 
ceived  for  it  in  exchange/'  Carry  out  logically  and  to  th*jr 
fullest  extent  the  accepted  and  popular  views  about  pn^ 
tection,  we  would  have  every  man  trying  to  produce  a.- 
much  and  sell  as  little  as  possible.  Free  exchange  betw«fi  i. 
man  and  man — or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  free  tnide — > 
therefore  action  in  accordance  with  the  teachings  of  natuiv. 
Protection,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  attempt  to  make  thiriL-^ 
better  than  nature  made  them.  Free  trade,  or  the  int«  r- 
change  of  commodities  and  services  with  the  Eninlmum  •! 
obstmction,  by  rendering  commodities  cheap,  tends  to  pp^ 
mote  abundance.  Protection,  by  interference  or  p!a<ir..: 
obstructions  in  the  way  of  exchanges,  tends  to  increase  tL- 
cost  of  commodities  to  the  consumer,  and  thereby  promote  ^ 
scarcity. 

All  the  people  of  the  U.  S.  instinctively  rejoice  at  the  m- 
nouncement  of  every  new  discovery  in  the  construction  or 
propulsion  of  vessels,  whereby  the  time  and  cost  of  tnkii?- 
porting  commodities  across  the  Atlantic  from  Liverpool  ». 
New  York,  or  across  the  Pacific  from  China  and  Japan  (•  • 
San  Francisco,  are  diminished;  and  yet  they  do  not  rt;vi.i: 
at  the  inconsistency  of  imposing  taxes,  for  purposes  vIU'-t 
than  to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  state,  on  the  landini:  *i 
the  commodities  thus  transported;  whi^  are  pre»iJH.v 
equivalent  in  effect,  as  regarcis  the  consumer,  to  sulMitut- 
ing  slow-sailing  vessels  of  small  tonnage  in  the  platt-  of 
ocean  steamers,  or  of  so  widening  the  expanse  of  ocean  t*.  \^ 
traversed  that  the  time  employed  in  transportation  (and  tn-> 
consequent  increased  cost  of  freight  and  risk)  shall  br  »*i- 

Sressed  by  months  rather  than  by  days.   A  few  illustrati<>!]» 
erived  from  the  actual  experience  of  the  U.  S.  art?  her* 
pertinent  to  the  argument. 

Upon  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  within  a  short  distanct.  <f 
the  U.  S.,  there  are  coal  mines  of  great  value,  as  res]v«-'* 
quantity  and  quality,  which,  unlike  any  others  in  the  wh-  i- 
world,  are  located  so  advantageously'  in  respect  to  ocx-m. 
navigation  that  almost  by  the  action  of  gravity  alone  th*- 
coal  may  be  delivered  from  the  mouth  of  the  pit  up<.»n  tt.- 
deck  of  the  vessel.  For  many  years  the  Government  t>f  th.- 
U.  S.  imposed  a  tax  of  $1.50  per  ton  on  the  landing  of  thi'> 
coal  within  its  territory.  Now,  if  we  assume  that  coal  uj- :. 
a  well-managed  railroad  can  be  transported  for  one  cent  irr 
ton  per  mile,  the  effect  of  this  tax  upon  the  people  of  Ntw 
York  and  New  England  is  precisely  equivalent  to  a  rem^Mj 
of  these  coal  mines  of  Nova  Scotia  from  a  point  on  the  i^-a- 
board  to  a  location  150  miles  inland.  But  it  would  &!>•< 
seem  to  stand  to  reason  that  if  the  removal  of  these  mini-^ 
150  miles  into  the  interior  was  a  benefit  to  the  people  of  tL- 
U,  S.,  a  further  augmentation  of  their  distance  from  tb* 
seaboard  to  500  or  1,000  miles  would  be  a  still  greater  Mr^-^ 
ing,  and  that  their  absolute  annihilation  would  be  the  m^i^: 
superlative  good  of  alL 

Again,  about  1850  a  British  engineer,  Bessemer,  devisttl  a 
new  process  for  the  manufacture  of  steel.  He  did  ni»t  claiu 
to  make  anything  new;  he  did  not  claim  to  make  st*"^!  of  h 
quality  superior  to  what  was  made  before ;  but  he  ditl  -li* 
ceed  in  showing  mankind  how  to  make  an  indispensable  ar  - 
cle  in  the  work  of  production  cheap  which  was  before  dttr. 
Immediately  on  the  assured  success  of  the  invention  the  aii- 
vocates  of  protection  in  the  U.  S.  asked  Congress  to  inipr* 
such  a  duty  on  the  import  of  this  steel  as  would,  throu::h  i 
consequent  increase  oi  its  price  to  American  consumer*,  gi- 
most  completely  neutralize  the  only  benefit  aocming  fr'r 
the  knowledge  and  use  of  the  new  process — namel>.  i?* 
cheapness — and  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  duty  that  in  a 
great  degree  accomplished  such  a  result. 

From  the  above  propositions  and  examples  it  woultl  5t  *-n 
evident  that  the  direct  effect  of  a  protective  duty,  when  it  ;- 
really  operative,  is  to  compel,  on  the  part  of  the  commun:iT 
employing  such  an  agency,  a  resort  to  more  difficult  a:.^. 
costly  conditions  of  production  for  the  protected  artiiA  . 
and  also  that  when  a  state  or  community  adopts  the  pnttt^ 
tive  policy  it  also  commits  itself  to  the  indorsement  of  lU 
principle  that  the  development  and  multiplication  of  ot^J.t- 
cles  is  eqiiivalent  to.  or  tne  surest  method  of,  developing  « r 
multiplying  riches — a  policy  and  a  principle  which,  if  kc< 
ally  and  practically  carried  out,  would  lead  to  disuse  "f 
all  labor-saving  machinery. 

The  advocate  of  protection,  however,  meets  this  aveniunt 
as  well  as  the  argument  embodied  in  the  coal  and  Bes<emrr- 
steel  illustrations  above  given,  by  saying  that  by  prohibit  ir.i: 
or  restricting  the  importation  and  use  of  foreign  coal  aiil 
steel  a  demand  will  be  created  for  a  corresponding  a<}<!' 


570 


FREE  TRADE 


ing  the  price  of  the  labor  or  products  he  gives  in  exchange. 
If  sufficient  time  is  afforded,  and  local  exchanges  are  not 
unduly  restricted,  this  effort  of  compensation  is  always  suc- 
cessful. Hence  from  the  very  necessity  of  the  case  no  pro- 
tective duty  can  be  permanently  effective ;  hence,  also,  it 
is  that  protected  manufacturers  in  every  country  always 
proclaim,  and  no  doubt  honestly  feel,  that  the  abandonment 
of  protection,  or  even  its  abatement,  would  be  ruinous.  Of 
this  the  experience  of  the  U.  S.  affords  a  most  curious  and 
convincing  illustration.  Thus  in  1862-63,  in  order  to  meet 
the  expenses  of  a  great  war,  the  Government  imposed  excise 
or  internal  taxes  on  every  variety  of  domestic  manufac- 
tures, and,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  equity,  im- 
posed what  were  claimed  to  be  corresponding  taxes  on  the 
importation  of  all  com|)eting  foreign  products.  Soon  after 
the  close  of  the  war,  however,  when  the  cessation  of  hostili- 
ties diminished  the  necessity  of  so  large  revenues,  the  inter- 
nal taxes  were  all  repealed,  but  in  no  one  instance  was  there 
a  protected  manufacturer  found  who  took  any  other  posi- 
tion than  that  a  repeal  of  the  corresponding  tariff  would  be 
most  disastrous  to  his  business.  Tlie  tariff,  as  originally 
raised  to  compensate  for  the  new  internal  taxes,  was  there- 
fore left  in  a  great  degree  unchanged.  That  the  principle 
here  laid  down,  of  want  of  permanency  in  protective 
agencies,  is  furthermore  admitted  by  the  protected  manu- 
facturers themselves  as  a  result  of  their  own  experience, 
is  also  proved  by  the  following  striking  testimony  forced 
out  under  oath  before  a  Government  commission  from  one 
of  the  foremost  of  their  number  in  1868— the  late  Oakes 
Ames,  of  Massachusetts : 

Question. — What,  according  to  your  experience,  was  the 
effect  of  the  increase  of  the  tariff  in  1864  on  the  industries 
with  which  you  are  specially  acquainted!  Ana,  —  The 
first  effect  was  to  stimulate  nearly  every  branch — to  give 
an  impulse  and  activity  to  business ;  but  in  a  few  months 
the  increased  cost  of  production  and  the  advance  in  the 
price  of  labor  and  the  products  of  labor  were  greater  than 
the  increase  of  the  tariff,  so  that  the  business  of  production 
was  no  better,  even  if  in  so  good  a  condition,  as  it  was  pre- 
vious to  the  advance  of  the  tariff  referred  to. 

The  result  of  the  fourteen  revisions  or  modifications  of 
the  tariff  of  the  U.  S.  that  were  made  between  1861  (when 
through  the  necessities  of  war  a  comparatively  liberal  com- 
mercial policy  was  abandoned)  and  1891  (an  era  of  peace 
and  great  debt  reduction)  was  as  follows :  The  average  ad 
valorem  rates  on  the  import  of  dutiable  commodities  were 
progressively  and  largely  advanced,  and  mainly,  after  the 
termination  of  the  war  in  1865,  on  the  plea  that  the  domes- 
tic industries  of  the  country  required  aaditional  protection. 
For  example,  from  an  average  of  18*84  per  cent,  in  1860  to 
86-69  per  cent,  in  1864,  40*69  per  cent,  in  1875,  and  46*28 
per  cent,  in  1890-91.  Henry  C.  Carey,  in  an  essay  On  Wealth, 
published  in  1838,  thus  clearly  and  cogently  expressed  him- 
self on  this  question:  "The  moment,"  he  says,  "we  admit 
that  taxation  in  any  case  tends  to  promote  industry,  it  is 
impossible  to  say  where  we  shall  stop.  If  taxation  be  a 
stimulus  the  advantage  must  increase  with  its  extent,  as 
taking  2s,  per  week  must  do  more  good  than  taking  Is.  If 
taxation  be  good,  so  is  the  lash;  both  will  make  people 
work,  but  neither  will  make  them  work  well." 

5.  Upon  no  one  argument  have  the  advocates  of  protection 
relied  more  in  support  of  their  system  than  that  contained 
in  the  assumption  already  referred  to— that  if  there  were  no 
restrictions  on  trade  the  opportunity  to  labor  created  by 
protection,  and  the  results  of  the  expenditure  of  the  earn- 
ings of  such  labor,  would  be  divertecl  to  other  countries  to 
their  benefit,  and  to  the  corresponding  detriment  of  that 
country  which,  needing  protection  by  reason  of  a  necessity 
for  paying  higher  wages  or  other  industrial  inequalities, 
abandons  it;  or,  to  speak  more  specifically,  it  is  assumed 
that  if  the  U.  S.  were  to  adopt  a  policy  of  free  trade,  Eng- 
land would  supply  us  with  cotton  and  metal  fabrications ; 
Germany,  with  woolen  goods ;  Nova  Scotia,  with  coal ;  the 
West  Indies,  exclusively  with  sugar ;  Russia,  with  hemp  and 
tallow ;  Canada,  with  lumber ;  and  Australia,  with  wool — 
that  thereby  opportunity  to  our  own  people  to  labor  would 
be  greatly  restricted,  and  the  wages  of  labor  reduced  to  a 
level  of  the  wages  of  foreigners.  Specious  as  is  this  argu- 
ment, there  could  not  be  a  greater  error  of  fact  or  a  worse 
sophism  of  reason.  None  of  the  commodities  mentioned 
wul  be  given  by  the  producers  resident  in  foreign  countries 
for  nothing.  Product  for  product  is  the  invariable  law  of 
exchange,  and  we  can  not  buy  a  single  article  in  any  mar- 
ket except  with  or  by  a  product  of  our  own,  or  for  money 


which  has  been  obtained  by  the  exchange  of  some  produ-* 
for  it.  Nothing,  therefore,  can  or  will  be  importea  unlf- 
that  in  which  it  is  paid  for  can  be  produced  at  home  «1:L 
greater  final  advantage.  Hence  also  it  is  in  the  nature  <f  & 
truism  to  assert  that  it  is  for  the  interest  of  every  co*'.- 
munity  that  its  industry  should  be  directed  to  the  jin^dtu  - 
tion  of  such  articles  as  are  attended  with  greater  nnal  a  1- 
vantage,  in  preference  to  those  which  are  attended  wit' 
less;  as  inevitably  would-  be  the  result  if  the  business  r* 
production  and  exchange  were  not  obstructed  by  legibluti- 
enactments,  but  left  to  the  guidance  of  individual  i<^- 
interest. 

Prom  these  premises  we  are  warranted  in  regardiiii;  \\' 
following  deductions  as  in  the  light  of  economic  axioni« : 
1.  A  nation  or  community  can  attain  the  ereatest  prie- 
peritv,  and  secure  to  its  people  the  greatest  degree  of  n.s- 
terial  abundance,  only  when  it  utilizes  its  natural  re^oun  -^ 
and  labor  to  the  best  advantage  and  with  the  least  wa^^- 
and  loss,  whatever  may  be  the  nominal  rate  of  wases  fi&i 
to  its  laborers.  The  realization  of  such  a  result  is  hasten-, 
or  retarded  by  whatever  removes  or  creates  obstructions  •: 
interferences  in  the  way  of  production  and  exchanges.  1 
The  exports  on  the  whole  of  any  country  must  and  alw<;  - 
do  balance  its  imports,  which  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  \i 
we  do  not  buy  we  can  not  sell,  while  neither  buying  n  r 
selling  will  talce  place  unless  there  is  a  real  or  sunpioe^ed  ad- 
vantage to  both  parties  to  the  transaction.  3.  As  a  nati  n 
exports  only  those  things  for  which  it  possesses  decidt><i  a  i- 
vantages  relatively  to  other  nations  in  producing,  it  fuil««vr> 
that  what  a  nation  purchases  by  its  exports  it  purchases  It 
its  most  efficient  labor,  and  consequently  at  the  chea[<e<: 
possible  rate  to  itself.  Hence  the  price  paid  for  every  ioT- 
eign  manufactured  article,  instead  of  being  so  much  e:i^rT. 
for  the  encouragement  of  foreign  labor  to  the  prejudice  i«f 
our  own,  is  as  truly  the  product  of  our  own  labor  a-s  th«  airr. 
we  had  directly  manufactured  it  ourselves.  Free  trao. 
therefore,  can  by  no  possibility  discourage  home  Lalnir  cr 
diminish  the  real  wages  of  laborers. 

The  favorite  protectionist  argument,  that  if  trade  L«  ur- 
restricted,  and  the  people  of  a  country,  under  the  ini!:<'- 
ment  of  CTeater  cheapness,  are  allowed  to  supply  ih-^u- 
selves  with  foreign  commodities,  the  opportunities'  for  t  ^  - 
employment  of  domestic  labor  will  be  correspondingly  di- 
minished, is  an  argument  identical  in  character  with*ti:i 
which  has  in  past  times  often  led  individuals  and  wb  .•- 
communities  to  oppose  the  invention  and  introduction  f 
labor-saving  or  "labor-dispensing"  machinery.  To  ^/: 
thoroughly  this  sophism,  it  is  sufficient  to  remember  tr.  * 
labor  IS  exerted  not  for  the  sake  of  labor,  but  for  «ii^: 
labor  brings,  and  that  human  wants  expand  just  in  pn>;rir- 
tion  to  the  multiplication  of  the  means  and  opportui.  7 
of  gratifying  human  desires.  If  the  wages  of  a  day*s  W  V 
would  purchase  in  the  market  one  hundred  times  as  mw 
as  at  present,  can  any  one  doubt  that  the  demand  for  :  - 
necessaries  and  luxuries  of  life  would  be  increased  a  hi  1- 
dredfold  f  If  the  people  of  the  U.  S.  could  obtain  the  rr  '*- 
nets  of  the  labor  of  other  countries  for  nothing,  could  ♦  ^ 
labor  of  the  whole  world  supply  the  quantity  of  things  « 
should  wantf  In  short,  the  demand  for  the  results  of  !&'•  * 
can  never  be  satisfied,  and  is  never  limited  except  by  -> 
ability  to  buy ;  and  the  cheaper  thin^  are  the  more  p^  ;  - 
will  purchase  and  consume.  Nothing,  therefore,  can  ^-^ 
more  irrational  than  the  supposition  that  increased  ch^Ai- 
ness,  or  increased  ability  to  buy  ojid  consume,  dimini<he^  r 
restricts  the  opportunity  to  labor.  If  by  the  invention  : 
machinery  or  the  discovery  of  cheaper  sources  of  supply  i;  - 
labor  of  a  certain  number  of  individuals  in  a  departme'n:  •' 
industry  becomes  superfluous  or  unnecessary,  such  W'  • 
must  taKe  a  new  direction,  and  it  is  not  to  be  henie<l  th^t  ■ 
the  process  of  readjustment  temporary  individual  inconv. : 
ience,  and  perhaps  suffering,  ma^  result.  But  any  tern:-  > 
rary  loss  thus  sustained  by  individuals  is  more  than  m.!.-. 
up  to  society,  regarded  from  the  standpoint  of  either  |>'> 
ducers  or  consumers,  by  the  increased  demand  conseqi.^- 
on  increased  cheapness  through  greater  material  abumUi]  ? 
and  therefore  greater  comfort  and  happiness  About  t' 
time  of  the  invention  and  introduction  of  the  sewi-^ 
machine  into  Europe  the  benevolent  people  of  a  city  ; 
Germany  where  the  industry  of  needlewomen  was  a  mafK'<t 
specialty  formed  an  oi*ganization  to  lessen  in  a  di^grec  it- 
injury  which  it  was  befieved  would  inevitably  accrue  tr  - 
the  supplementation  of  a  great  opportunity  to  labor  by  f 

Eoor  which  was  threatened.    Afier  the  lapse  of  a  few  yc^-^ 
owever,  when  society,  as  represented  by  the  whole  jWv;  ■ 


572 


FREE  TRADE 


through  the  influence  of  a  fiscal  policy  based  on  the  theory 
of  protection  that  the  occurrence  of  a  great  public  calamity, 
with  a  vast  attendant  destruction  of  property,  had  come  to 
be  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  public  blessmg. 

One  notable  result  of  intense  competition  among  pro- 
ducers, more  especially  of  manufactured  products,  has  been 
the  evolution  of  what  is  popularly  known  as  the  *'  trust," 
by  which  is  to  be  understood  a  combination  of  the  domes- 
tic producers  of  certain  commodities  to  control  produc- 
tion and  advance  prices.  Now  while  the  claim  may  not  be 
warranted  that  such  combinations  are  necessarily  the  re- 
sult of  the  protective  tariff  policy,  the  experience  of  the 
U.  S.  is  absolutely  conclusive  to  the  effect  that  the  great 
majority  of  trusts  existing  in  that  country  never  wouldiiave 
been  formed,  and  could  not  continue  to  exist,  were  it  not 
for  the  imposition  and  continuance  of  its  high  protective 
duties  on  imports.  That  this  must  be  so  will  be  manifest 
if  it  is  called  to  mind  that  no  trust  of  the  character  referred 
to,  operating  on  articles  for  which  there  is  a  possible  com- 
petitive supply  from  other  countries,  could  be  maintained  in 
the  U.  S.  for  a  single  month  except  under  one  of  two  condi- 
tions. Either  all  the  competitive  producei's  throughout  the 
world  must  bo  brought  into  the  trust,  or,  what  is  the  same 
thing,  the  product  of  the  whole  world  must  be  controlled ; 
or  the  product  of  all  foreign  producers  must  be  shut  out 
from  the  markets  of  this  country.  The  first  result  is  not 
attainable.  It  would  be  obviously  impracticable  to  induce 
all  the  manufacturers  of  starch,  for  example,  in  all  the  dif- 
ferent countries  of  Europe  to  unite  and  put  the  control  of 
their  business  in  hands  of  trustees  residing  in  the  U.  S.  The 
second  is  made  not  only  possible,  but  effective  in  the  highest 
degree,  by  the  imposition  of  tariffs,  or  duties  on  the  im- 
portation of  the  articles  in  which  the  trusts  are  specially 
interested,  so  high  as  to  completely  bar  them  out  of  the 
U.  S.  market.  These  duties  the  existing  tariff  act  (1893)  pro- 
vides. It  thus  becomes  the  creator  and  preserver  of  trusts 
and  monopolies,  the  like  of  which  can  not  and  do  not  exist 
under  the  tariff  system  of  Great  Britain,  as  the  starch  trust, 
plate  and  window  glass  trust,  nail  trust,  linseed-oil  trust, 
lead  tnist,  cotton-bagging  trust,  borax  trust,  ax,  saw,  and 
scythe  trust,  and  many  others ;  all  of  which,  freed  in  a  great 
degree  from  foreign  competition,  have  advanced  prices  to 
American  consumers  to  an  extent  that  will  afford  them  far 
greater  profits  than  can  be  fairly  considered  as  legiti- 
mate, but  in  which  profits  their  employees  do  not  partici- 
pate. 

8.  It  is  clear  that  one  of  the  essential  attributes  of  a  just 
law  is  that  it  bears  e(}ually  upon  all  subjects  to  its  influ- 
ence, and  that  an  unjust  law  must  necessarily  be  also  in- 
jurious. A  system  of  law  imposing  protective  duties  must, 
in  order  to  be  effective,  be  partial  and  discriminating,  and 
therefore  unequal  and  unjust ;  for  if  a  law  could  be  devised 
which  would  afford  eq^ual  protection  to  all  the  industrial 
interests  of  a  nation,  it  would  benefit  in  fact  no  interest 
by  leaving  everything  relatively  as  before;  or,  in  other 
words,  the  attempt  to  protect  everything  would  result  in 
protecting  nothing. 

Any  system  of  laws  founded  on  injustice  and  inequality 
can  not,  furthermore,  be  permanent.  The  possibility  that  it 
can  be  further  changed  to  meet  the  further  demands  of  spe- 
cial interests,  and  the  instinctive  revolt  of  human  nature 
against  legal  wrong  and  partiality,  continually  threaten  its 
stability.  Hence  a  system  of  industry  built  upon  laws  es- 
tablishing protection'through  discriminating  taxes  can  never 
have  stability  of  condition ;  and  without  such  stability  there 
can  be  no  continued  industrial  prosperity.  Apart  from 
these  considerations,  in  a  free  government,  also,  where  the 
people  enjoy  the  right  to  choose  and  to  change  their  law- 
makers at  comparatively  short  intervals,  the  opinions  of  the 
masses  will  change  according  to  the  light  they  receive ;  and 
as  their  opinion  changes,  so  must  necessarily  the  policy  of 
the  government.  Tariffs  framed  to  regulate  and  direct  in- 
dustries can  therefore  never  be  permanent  under  govern- 
ments that  admit  the  right  of  tne  people  to  vote  and  to 
think.  Nothing  less  than  a  despotism,  and  an  ignorant 
despotism  at  that,  can  maintain  a  protective  tariff  at  any 
given  standard  for  any  lengthened  period.  On  the  other 
hand,  one  of  the  strongest  arguments  in  behalf  of  freedom 
of  trade  is  that  it  makes  every  branch  of  industry  inde- 
pendent of  legislation,  and  emancipates  it  from  all  condi- 
tions affecting  its  stability  other  than  what  are  natural,  and 
which  can  in  a  ^reat  degree  be  anticipated  and  provided 
against ;  and  it  is  undoubtedly  from  the  stability  in  trade 
and  commerce  that  a  free-trade  policy  insures  that  no  small 


part  of  the  commercial  and  financial  supremacy  of  (rrt'^' 
Britain  is  to  be  attributed. 

9.  *' A  tariff  on  imports,"  it  is  sometimes  alleged  by  th^ 
advocates  of  protection,  "  obliges  a  foreigner  to  pay  a'pan 
of  our  taxes.  To  this  it  may  be  replied  that  if  tliere  wen 
any  plan  or  device  by  which  one  nation  could  thus  thft)» 
off  its  burden  of  taxation  in  any  de^jee  upon  another  na- 
tion, it  would  long  ago  have  been  universally  found  out  am*, 
recognized,  and  would  have  been  adopted  by  all  nations  u, 
at  least  the  extent  of  making  the  bunlen  oi  taxation  thu^ 
transferred  in  all  cases  reciprocal.  If  the  principle  inv«>l\i .: 
in  the  proposition  in  question,  therefore,  could  possiblv  Ik 
true,  no  possible  advantage  could  accrue  from  its  applira- 
tion.  But  the  point  itself  involves  an  absurdity.  Taxes>«»'i 
imports  are  paid  by  the  persons  who  consume  thetn ;  avA 
these  are  not  forei^ers,  but  residents  of  the  country  int.> 
which  the  commodities  are  imported.  A  duty  on  imptirt^ 
may  injure  foreigners  by  depriving  them  of  an  opportunit\ 
of  exchan^ng  their  products  for  the  products  of  the  coun- 
try imposing  the  duty,  but  no  import-taxes  will  for  Rt»\ 
length  of  time  compel  foreigners  to  sell  their  products  at  & 
loss,  or  to  accept  less  than  tne  average  rate  of  profit  on  th^-ir 
transactions;  for  no  business  can  permanently  maintair: 
itself  under  such  conditions.  Where  a  nation  possesses  a 
complete  monopoly  of  an  article,  as  is  the  case  of  Peru  r. 
respect  to  guano,  and  to  a  great  extent  (as  it  has  been)  wit  • 
China  in  the  case  of  tea,  tne  monopoly  always  obt4iin>  iLr 
highest  practicable  price  for  its  commodities,  and  the  (•ar- 
sons who  find  their  use  indispensable  are  obliged  to  pay  th* 
prescribed  prices.  The  imposition  of  a  tax  on  the  import  • ' 
such  commodities  into  a  country  may  compel  the  mono(Hjl\. 
for  the  sake  of  retaining  a  market,  to  reduce  it^s  prices  pro- 
portionally; and  in  such  cases  the  nation  imposing  the  im- 
post may  to  a  degree  share  the  profit  of  the  monopcdy.  Bu* 
the  price  to  the  consumers  is  not  diminished  by  rekw>D  '•: 
the  import-duty,  and  the  cases  in  which  any  interest  htis 
such  a  complete  control  over  the  supply  of  a  product  «?•:•• 
enable  it  to  arbitrarily  dictate  prices  are  so  rare  as  haT\l^> 
to  render  them  worthy  of  serious  consideration  in  an  «^^- 
nomic*  argument. 

10.  Another  powerful  argument  in  favor  of  free  trade  U- 
tween  nations  is  that  of  all  agencies  it  is  the  one  mngt  d  it- 
ducive  to  the  maintenance  of  international  peace  and  tc»  th» 
prevention  of  wars.  The  restriction  of  commercial  im»r- 
course  among  nations  tends  to  make  men  strangers  to  exit. 
other,  and  prevents  the  formation  of  that  union  of  inatoni 
interests  which  creates  and  encourages  in  men  a  dispn<it:.*i. 
to  adjust  their  differences  by  peaceful  methods  rather  tJj»r 
by  physical  force.  On  the  other  hand,  it  requires  no  anri- 
ment  to  prove  that  free  trade  in  its  fullest  developnx  ui 
tends  to  make  men  friends  rather  than  strangens  for  tn* 
more  they  exchange  commodities  and  services  the  more  t  li>  \ 
become  acquainted  with  and  assimilated  to  each  othr^. 
whereby  a  feeling  of  interdependence  and  mutuality  of  ii- 
terest  springs  up,  which,  it  ma^  be  safely  assometl.  il<«^ 
more  to  maintain  amicable  relations  between  them  than  nl. 
the  ships  of  war  that  ever  were  built,  or  all  the  armies  th.^t 
ever  were  orj^anized.  Of  the  truth  of  this  the  experience  •  •' 
Great  Britain  and  the  U.S.  in  respect  to  the**Alab»r« 
claims"  is  a  striking  example.  The  mor^  and  rvUir-  >-« 
sentiments  of  the  people  of  the  two  countries  undoubui;,^ 
contributed  much  to  restrain  the  belligerent  feelings  th»' 
existed  previous  to  the  reference  of  these  claims  to  arbim- 
tion ;  but  a  stronger  restraining  element  than  all,  and  <  ^  " 
underlying  and  supporting  the  moral  and  religious  infi.i 
ences,  was  a  feeling  among  the  great  body  of  the  people  <•! 
the  two  nations  that  war,  as  a  mere  business  transact;' >r. 
"  would  not  pay  " ;  and  that  the  commerce  and  tnde  of  tb- 
U.  S.  and  Great  Britain  are  so  interlinked  and  interwov. ' 
that  a  resort  to  arms  would  result  in  commercial  ruin  aL  j 
permanent  and  incalculable  impoverishment  to  both  ixmi.- 
tries. 

11.  The  question  here  naturally  arises  if  the  above  prop.»- 
sitions  in  favor  of  free  trade  are  correct,  and  if  the  dinnrr-it 
of  protection  is  as  false  and  injurious  as  it  is  represented  ti 
be,  how  happens  it  that  free  trade  does  not  at  onoe  m^* 
with  universal  acceptance?  and  how  is  the  adherence    •' 
many  men  of  clear  intellect  and  practical  ezperienc«  iv  \i  * 
opposite  doctrine  to  be  accounted  fori    One  of  Uie  l>-->' 
answers  to  these  questions  was  given   b^  the  eelebrat^o. 
French  economist  Bastiat,  in  an  article  written  many  yrnr^ 
ago,  entitled  That  which  is  Seen,  and  That  fchich  'm  -> 
Seen,  in  which  he  showed  that  protection  is  maintair.i** 
mainly  by  a  view  of  what  the  producer  gains  and  a  coi. 


574 


FREE  TRADE 


penditure ;  the  country  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  national 
and  universal  bankruptcy."  Great  Brit4un,  therefore,  as  it 
were,  under  compulsion,  and  with  very  crave  doubts  on  the 
part  of  many  of  ner  ablest  financiers  and  economists,  under 
the  lead  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  abandoned  protection  as  the  na- 
tional policy,  and  gradually  adopted  the  opposite  principle  of 
free  trade  with  all  the  world.  Tne  same  autnor  above  referred 
to,  writing  in  1865,  draws  the  following  picture  of  the  results 
of  the  change  of  policy  referred  to,  based  on  the  experience  of 
near  a  quarter  oi  a  century :  **  It  has  rendered  agriculture 
prosperous,  largely  augmented  rent,  vastly  extended  manuf ac* 
tures  and  employment,  increased  the  wages  of  labor,  and,  while 
securing  the  collection  of  an  increas^  revenue,  has  by  im- 
proving the  value  of  property  lessened  the  burden  of  taxation. 
It  has  been  shown,  also,  that  each  successive  development 
of  this  beneficent  legislation  has  extended  these  results." 

In  the  U.  S.  the  principles  of  the  protective  system  have 
since  1860  been  reapplied,  and  are  still  (1893)  maintained, 
with  a  degree  of  rigidity  and  on  a  scale  of  magnitude  which 
have  no  precedents  in  recent  commercial  history.  The  ad- 
vocates of  the  protective  policy  claim  that  this  policy  has 
been  in  the  highest  degree  beneficial,  and  they  adduce  in 
support  of  their  claim  the  continued  and  remarkable  pros- 
perity of  the  country,  its  rapid  recuperation  from  the  ejffects 
of  a  long  war,  its  increase  in  population,  pixxluction,  wealth, 
diversity  of  products,  and  marked  reduction  in  cost  of  many 
of  the  great  staple  articles  of  popular  consumption.  That 
such  striking  results  have  been  attained  can  not  be  ques- 
tioned ;  but  neither  can  it  be  seriously  questioned  that  they 
are  due  to  the  great  natural  resources  of  the  country,  to  the 
energy  and  intelligence  of  its  people  in  utilizing  them,  to 
the  entire  absence  of  all  legal  restrictions  on  the  movement 
of  persons,  or  the  exchange  of  their  products  over  an  area  of 
territory  continental  in  its  proportions,  to  unrivaled  fiujili- 
ties  for  quick  and  cheap  transportation,  a  high  standard  of 
popular  education  and  free  ana  representative  form  of  gov- 
ernment ;  and  that  to  attribute  such  results  to  the  adoption 
and  continuance  of  a  national  fiscal  policy  which  has  for  its 
primary  and  main  objects  the  imposition  of  high  and  un- 
necessary taxes  and  the  restriction  of  trade  is  wholly  un- 
warranted and  irrational.  An  examination  of  the  results  of 
special  experiences  is  also  strikingly  confirmatory  of  such 
conclusions.  Thus  while  the  claim  is  always  preferred  in 
the  U.  S.  in  behalf  of  the  protective  policy  tliat  it  stimulates 
manufacturing  industries  by  enlarging  the  market  for  their 
products  and  emancipating  them  from  foreign  competition, 
the  exports  of  the  country  continue  to  be  year  after  year 
mainly  agricultural  products,  which  can  not  as  a  rule  be 
protected,  while  the  percentage  ratio  of  the  exports  of  manu- 
factured products  to  the  total  exports  is  comparatively  small 
and  increases  very  slowly,  or  not  at  all.  Tnus  for  the  year 
1891  agricultural  products — mainly  cotton,  breadstuffs,  ani- 
mals, provisions,  and  tobacco — constituted  73*69  per  cent,  of 
the  total  exports  of  domestic  merchandise  of  the  country, 
and  manufactured  products  only  19*37  per  cent.,  as  com- 
pared with  19*45  per  cent,  five  years  previously,  or  in  1887. 
Of  manufactures  of  cotton,  for  the  production  of  which  the 
U.  S.  might  naturally  be  supposed  to  have  advantages,  the 
value  of  the  total  exports  for  1891  was  $13,604,000,  as  com- 
pared with  $14,105,000  in  1881.  Statistics  of  comparative 
prices  of  iron  and  steel,  published  in  1888  under  the  auspices 
of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association,  show  that  the 
excess  of  cost  of  iron  and  steel  in  the  ten  years  from  1878  to 
1887  to  the  consumers  of  the  U.  S.  by  reason  of  the  protect- 
ive duties  imposed  on  the  import  of  the.se  articles  by  the 
latter  country  was  at  least  $560,000,000,  or  at  an  average  of 
$56,000,000  per  annum,  above  that  paid  in  Great  Britain 
during  the  same  period;  an  aggregate  in  excess  of  the  entire 
capital  invested  in  the  iron  industry  of  the  countrv,  includ- 
ing iron  and  coal  mines  and  the  manufacture  oi  coke,  re- 
turned by  the  census  in  1880,  namely  $341,000,000.  And 
all  this  burden  of  cost  to  the  people  of  the  U.  S.,  through 
tariff  taxation,  in  order  to  sustain  a  branch  of  domestic  in- 
dustry which  could  not  have  been  displaced  or  destroyed  by 
any  possible  foreign  competition.  The  inability  (as  shown 
by  experience)  to  increase  the  export  of  the  products  of 
skilled  labor  has  naturally  and  practically  limited  the 
growth  of  the  so-called  manufacturing  industries  of  the 
U.  S.  to  the  demand  for  domestic  consumption,  and  forbid- 
den any  enlargement  of  them  consequent  upon  the  increas- 
ing ability  and  desire  of  other  nations  to  consume,  and  the 
increased  facilities  for  effecting  international  exchanges. 
As  a  further  legitimate  sequence,  the  commercial  marine  of 
the  U.  S.  has  been  all  but  annihilated,  as  is  shown  by  the 


fact  that  while  in  1860  71  per  cent,  of  the  total  foreign  tmil- 
of  the  U.  S.  was  carried  m  U.  S.  bottoms,  in  1891  tlio  pn* 
|)ortion  was  only  12*86  per  cent.  One  of  the  most  strikiiu^ 
illustrations  that  could  possibly  be  presented  of  the  em 
effect  of  commercial  restrictions  in  limiting  trade  and  in- 
dustrv,  and  consequently  national  development,  is  to  ^* 
found  in  the  history  of  the  commercial  relations  between  tj** 
U.  S.  and  the  British  North  American  provinces.  Thus  il 
1852-53,  in  the  absence  of  anything  like  commercij&l  fr»^- 
dom,  the  aggregate  exchanges  between  the  two  count  r.^ 
amounted  to  only  $20,691,000.  The  subsequent  year  a  trt- u* 
of  reciprocity  went  into  effect,  whereby  the  people  of  ?h* 
two  countries  were  enabled  to  trade  and  exchajig<e  th^-ir 
products  with  little  or  no  obstruction  in  the  form  of  imj»nrt- 
duties.  The  result  was  that  the  aggregate  of  exchaiigi'.s  n-^ 
tlie  very  first  year  of  the  operation  of  the  treaty  from  f *J<». 
691,000  to  $33,494,000.  which  subsequently  inorea£e<l.  v^&r 
by  year,  until  it  reached  the  figure  of  $55,000,000  in  WjJ- 
63,  and  $84,000,000  in  1865-66.  In  this  latter  year  the  tr^nz  ^ 
of  reciprocity  was  repealed,  and  restrictive  duties  again  U- 
came  operative.  The  result  was  that  the  annual  aggreu'^i:- 
of  exchanges  immediately  fell  to  $57,000,000,  and  in  1  ***•!. 
fourteen  full  years  after  the  expiration  of  the  treaty.  vh<  r. 
both  nations  had  largely  increased  in  wealth  and  populati*  r^ 
the  decrease  of  trade  consequent  on  the  abrogation  of  tlit: 
treaty  had  not  been  made  good. 

It  IS  also  curious  to  note  that  the  people  of  the  U.  S.  an-  ^' 
well  satisfied  with  the  principles  of  free  trade  when  appii»^i 
to  domestic  transactions  that,  throughout  the  whole  of  t£.e 
broad  territory  they  inhabit,  they  wul  not  allow  the  fi.riiKi- 
tion  or  maintenance  of  the  slightest  artificial  obstruction  :<« 
the  freest  exchange  of  products  or  to  the  freest  commenui 
or  personal  movements,  and  that,  too,  notwithstanding  tli- 
dinerent  States  and  Territories  into  which  the  count r>  i- 
divided  differ  among  themselves  in  respect  to  wa^n*^  ^f 
labor,  prices  of  commodities,  climate,  soil,  and  other  uhT^i- 
ral  conditions,  as  widely  as  the  U.  S.  as  a  whole  differs  fnm 
any  other  foreign  country  with  which  it  is  engaged  in  ti- 
tensive  commercial  intercourse.  And  it  is  a  striking  ar  <\ 
anomalous  circumstance  that  a  very  lai*ge  number — ^perlm;>^ 
a  majority— of  the  people  of  the  U.S.  regard  traae  i*)i: 
foreign  nations  as  something  very  different  from  tr^-i'- 
among  themselves,  and  as  such,  therefore,  to  be  subjei-t'-'i 
to  entirely  different  laws  and  conditions.  But  a  sh^'H 
examination  ought,  it  would  seem,  to  satisfy  that  foroii::. 
trade  presents  no  element  peculiar  to  itself,  bat  only  tn« 
same  elements  which  domestic  trade  present^  and  thati  o  n- 
sequently,  the  same  laws  and  conditions  that  are  ap|)lic<ntKr 
to  domestic  exchanges  are  equally  applicable  to  forei^ni  •  \- 
changes.  Men,  moreover,  do  not  engage  in  any  trade,  fur- 
eign  or  domestic,  for  mere  enjoyment  or  pleasure,  but  f.  r 
the  material  gain  which  accrues  to  both  parties.  They  *i'^ 
sist  from  it  also  so  soon  as  the  mutual  advantage  ct-ai^-^ 
The  relation,  then,  which  government  ought  to  sustaia  !«• 
the  whole  (question  of  exchanges  is  well  expressed  in  t^r 
answer  which  the  merchants  of  France  gave  to  Ct.iIKr. 
more  than  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  when  he  asked  th-  .r 
advice  and  opinion  ''  how  he  could  iSst  promote  ooDamert-i* ' 
— Laissez-nous  faire  (Let  us  alone^. 

For   further   information  on   tnis   subject  -see    Ba.Mist 
Sophisms  of  the    Proteciiotiists  (American   translation.. 
Thompson,  Catechism  on  the  Corn-laws,  London  (5<^Hn>'. 
Grosvenor,  Does  Protection  Protect  f\  Reports  of  the  Sf^frt . 
Commissioner  of  the  Bevenue  of  the  United  States,  18t>r>-7^« . 
Prof.  W.  G.  Sumner,  History  of  Protection  in  the  Unit'd 
States;  David  A.Wells,  Our  Merchant  Marine;  Trunib-.. 
History  of  the  Free  Trade  Struggle  in  England  (publi^!*-. 
by  Iowa  State  Leader);  Schoenhof,  The  Destructive  In^^ 
ence  of  the  Tariff  {\^^;  Henry  George,  Protection  or  /"r?- 
Trade  f ;  David  A.  Wells,  Recent  Economic  Chancer ;  Kt  \ 
N.  H.  Chamberlain,  What  is  the  Matter?  our  Tartjf  nusi 
its  Taxes  (Boston) ;  Arthur  B.  and  Henry  Farquhar,  AV  *- 
nomic  and  Industrial  Delusiofis,    And  the  following  yarn- 
phlet  publications  of  the  Reform  Club  of  New  York :  Compt^r^ 
ison,  Item  by  Item,  of  the  Tariff  of  1883  and  the  TarirF  ,.• 
1800 ;  David  A.  Wells,  Relation  of  the  Tariff  to  Wages  fJ.  > 
Moore,  Friendly  Letters  to  American  Farmers  and  (/th^  -<: 
United  Staples  Tariff  History,  a  full  review,  with  com|.itr>- 
tive  tables,  of  the  character  and  effect  of  all  tariffs  f  n>m  i  * 
Declaration  of  Independence  to  the  tariff  of  1890,  L  A 
Lindquist  and  others.    General  treatises  on  political  ctrt>:\ 
omy  by  Mill,  Macleod,  Caimes,  Amasa  Walker,  Profs.  Perr% 
Simon  Newcomb,  Bonamy  Price,  etc,  may  be  read  or  i-.  r. 
suited  with  advantage.  David  A.  Wklus. 


576 


FREEZING 


slavery.  More  or  less  of  intercourse  has  been  cultivated 
with  the  much  more  influential  General  Baptists  of  Indi- 
ana, Kentucky,  and  other  Western  States,  who  sprang  from 
the  ancient  community  in  North  Carolina,  but  as  yet  no  or- 
ganic union  has  been  accomplished.  Also  in  1827  the  Free- 
will Baptists  were  brought  mto  fraternal  relations  with  the 
English  General  Baptists  of  the  New  Connection,  and  by 
this  means  were  soon  induced  to  engage  in  the  work  of 
foreign  missions  in  India.  It  does  not  appear  that  they 
have  ever  attempted  to  form  any  alliance  with  the  original 
and  more  ancient  General  Baptists  of  England.  When  the 
Separate  Baptists  in  1787  formed  a  union  with  the  Regular 
Baptists  it  chanced  that  now  and  again  members  of  the 
Separate  Baptist  fraternity  for  one  or  other  reason  would 
oppose  this  consummation.  Not  a  few  of  these  Separate 
Baptists  entered  the  communion  of  the  Free  Baptists,  there- 
by giving  them  representatives  in  nearly  every  Southern 
State. 

The  only  party  with  which  it  has  been  possible  for  them 
to  form  an  organic  union  are  the  Free  Communion  Baptists 
of  New  York  and  other  Northern  States.  Originally  this 
latter  party  laid  emphasis  upon  open  communion,  but  were 
moderate  Calvinists.  The  Free-will  party  rejected  Calvin- 
ism with  decision,  but  laid  no  stress  upon  free  communion. 
Nevertheless  in  1821  overtures  were  made  looking  toward  a 
union  of  the  two  organizations.  The  enterprise  was  de- 
layed until  1841,  when  it  was  duly  accomplished.  By  this 
union  the  Free-will  community  gained  51  churches  and 
2,470  members.  The  two  parties  have  maintained  reason- 
able harmony  in  the  united  Church,  a  circumstance  that 
may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  both  sides  were  of  Separate 
Baptist  extraction ;  Benajah  Corp,  who  established  the  Free 
Communion  Baptists,  had  been  a  communicant  of  a  Sepa- 
rate Baptist  Church  in  Rhode  Island  before  his  removal  to 
New  York.  The  Free  Communion  Baptists  were  some- 
times designated  as  Free  Baptists,  and  since  their  union 
with  the  Free-will  brethren  that  title  has  often  been  applied 
to  the  entire  Church. 

Their  Church  constitution  is  of  the  representative  pattern, 
the  local  churches  sending  delegates  to  the  quarterly  meet- 
ings, and  these  in  turn  sending  delegates  to  the  yearly 
meetings.  In  1827  their  ecclesiastical  machinery  was  com- 
pleted by  a  general  conference,  composed  of  representatives 
irom  the  yearly  meetings.  The  tenth  census  reports  them 
as  having  51  yearly  meetings,  1,586  churches,  and  87,898 
members.  They  are  represented  in  thirty-three  States,  but 
are  strongest  in  New  England.  They  have  10,269  members 
in  the  Southern  States.  Their  schools  are  numerous  and 
respectable.  Bates  College,  Lewiston,  Me.,  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  list,  a  wealthy  and  progressive  institution,  with 
which  is  connected  the  Cobb  Divinity  School.  Hillsdale 
College,  Hillsdale,  Mich.,  and  Rid^eville  College,  Ridge ville, 
Ind.,  are  institutions  of  much  merit  and  celebrity. 

Literature. — Rev.  I.  D.  Stewart,  History  of  the  Free- 
unll  Baptists  for  Half  a  Century  (Dover,  1862) ;  Richard 
Knight,  History  of  the  Gefieral  or  Six  Principle  Baptists 
(Providence,  1827) ;  Porter  S.  Burbank,  History  of  the  Free- 
will Baptists  in  Winebrenner's  History  of  All  Religious 
Denominations  in  the  United  States  (Harrisburg,  1848). 
Lives  of  Randall,  Colby,  Mack,  and  other  prominent  leaders 
have  also  been  published.  William  H.  Whitsitt. 

Freezing  [deriv.  of  freeze  <  M.  Eng.  fresen,  freosen  <  O. 
Eng.  freosan  :  O.  H.  Orerm.friosan  >  Mod.  Germ,  friesen  < 
Teuton,  friusan,  deriv.  of  frius-,  cold  (>  Goth,  friusj  cold) ; 
cf.  Sanskr.  pnisvd,  ice  :  Lat.  prui'nay  frost] :  the  change 
from  a  liquid  to  a  solid  state,  resulting  from  the  abstraction 
of  heat.  The  zero  of  the  centigrade  thermometer,  equiva- 
lent to  32"  F.,  is  the  freezing-point  of  water  under  oniinary 
conditions.  It  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  James  Thomson  and 
his  brother  Lord  Kelvin  that  the  increase  of  pressure  upon 
water,  and  upon  all  substances  which  expand  in  freezing,  will 
lower  the  freezing-point.  Under  a  pressure  of  13,000  atmos- 
pheres water  will  not  freeze  at  Fahrenheit's  zero.  On  the 
other  hand,  such  substances  as  paraffin,  which  contracts  in 
freezing,  have  the  freezing-point  raised  by  pressure.  Arti- 
ficial freezing  can  be  best  induced  by  the  liquefaction  of 
solids  or  the  evaporation  of  liquids.  These  processes  absorb 
heat — that  is  to  say,  thev  render  it  latent — and  by  abstract- 
ing it  from  the  surrounding  substances  freeze  the  latter.  In 
most  cream-freezers  the  liquefaction  of  a  mixture  of  pounded 
ice  and  salt  is  the  means  employed.  In  ailificial  ice-making 
machines  the  evaporation  of  ammonia  or  of  the  most  vol^ 
tile  ethers  is  the  essential  element. 


Aetifigial  Freezing  has  been  perfonnedL,  as  a  mtr- 
laboratory  experiment,  ever  since  the  middle  of  the  sev*-;. 
teenth  centurjr.  In  1665  Robert  Boyle,  fellow  of  the  Knya 
Society,  published  his  success  in  the  repeated  freexinff  ■  * 
water  and  other  liquids  by  various  chemical  mixtures.  I  J' 
attempted  mercury,  but  remarks,**  we  could  not  at  all  fn^y.. 
this  extravagant  liquor,  though  we  tried  it  more  tiian  one-  ^ 
Leslie's  freezing  of  water  by  sulphuric  acid  in  a  vacuam  ;t- 
1810,  and  Fanwiay's  long-subsequent  achievement  of  solidi- 
fying water  by  sulphurous  acid  evaporating  in  a  rwl-h'* 
crucible,  are  only  two  of  the  many  well-known  va^icti♦•^  < ' 
this  class  of  experiments.  In  what  follows  reference  w,] 
be  briefly  made  to  four  natural  principles  or  methtKls  h} 
which  the  freezing  of  water  has  long  been  attempted  oii  k 
considerable  scale,  and  with  more  or  less  success  for  eeonouut 
purposes. 

\.  The  Intermixing  of  Various  Chemical  Suhstanc^ti.— 
Thus  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  ammonia  in  water  deprt^-*- 
temperature  46°  F.  The  nitrate  may  be  recovered  by  ev. it- 
eration, and  employed  again,  (For  other  and  considerht  h 
more  f rigorific  coml^inations,  see  Freezing-xixtu  ees.)  Tfa' •^ 
all  depend  upon  producing  a  solution  the  specific  heat  "^ 
which  is  greater  than  that  of  the  components  that  entr-r 
into  the  solution.  But  the  superior  eflicacy  of  the  ortiinan 
mixture  of  common  salt  with  comminuted  ice  is  mainly  •];.» 
to  the  consequent  licjuefying  of  the  ice,  by  which  an  ab- 
sorption of  142*2  British  thermal  units  per  pound  is  n«**-r^- 
sary  for  the  latent  heat  of  liquefaction. 

2.  By  far  a  more  powerful  and  a  more  manageable  pritn;- 
ple  is  the  absorption  of  heat  into  vapor  expanding  and  ^^^ 
caping  from  a  volatile  liquid.  The  vapor  of  water  is  suj^r- 
eminent  in  requiring  966  B.  T.  U.  per  pound  for  the  lait:;: 
heat  at  atmospheric  pressure,  while  ammoniacal  vajxir  r*- 
quires  596  B.  T.  U.,  and  sulphuric  ether  about  164  B,  T.  I 
Yet  another  facility  afforded  by  the  more  highly  rolan". 
Ii(^uid8  is  the  low  temperature  at  which  volatilization  or  el>i>  - 
lition  takes  place  under  the  ordinarv  atmospheric  pre-s-^ur  . 
Thus  sulphuric  ether  boils  at  95°  F.  (35°  C).  Faraday  pub- 
lished in  1825  his  observation  that  certain  of  the  hvd'rij«-2ir- 
bons  boil  at  or  near  the  freezing-point  of  water.  Aire  aiu- 
monia  boils  at  -  36"  F.  (-  38-5^  C.). 

3.  The  re-expansion  of  compressed  air,  as  well  as  of  oth«  r 
gases,  is  powerfully  refrigerative.  The  heat  developed  In 
compression  is  first  to  be  absorbed  by  cold  water.  Then  th- 
re-expansion  against  pressure  produces  cooling  in  the  c^- 
sufficient,  if  abstracted  from  its  own  weight  of  water,  to  tJ-  - 
press  the  latter  in  temperature  at  the  rate  of  one  de^rret:  f-r 
each  unit  of  energy  expended  in  expansion,  or  for  tl 
amount  of  work  necessary  to  raise  the  same  weight  778  /t»' 
against  gravity. 

4.  A  frigoriflc  agency,  not  dependent  like  the  fort?gi>!iic 
upon  either  mechanical  force  or  chemical  reactions  i^ 
anorded,  under  favoring  circumstances,  by  radiation  iTit 
the  cosmical  spaces.  ^F&bert  Boyle  quotes  from  *•  the  dili- 
gent Olearius,'  more  than  two  centuries  ago,  a  statemcrt 
that  ice  was  ordinarily  produced  in  the  hot  climate  of  Isfn- 
han,  the  capital  of  Persia,  in  layers  a  finger  thick,  by  y\r 
ing  water  at  successive  intervals' in  the  night  **  upon  a  ^htl^- 
ing  pavement  of  freestone  or  marble.**  It  has,  monn.rer. 
long  been  known  that  in  Ben^  and  other  provinces  to 
India  ice  is  obtained  for  domestic  use  by  exposing  at  ni^r  * 
shallow  earthen  vessels  resting  upon  a  flooring  of  dry  sTaii^j 
and  leaves  in  pits  2  feet  deep,  it  has  been  said  that  a  sirr.t- 
lar  practice  exists  in  Eastern  China.  In  these  inst«tii-» 
merchantable  cakes  are  produced  by  superimposing  the  t^  r 
layers  one  upon  another,  to  unite  by  simple  regelati*  -i 
This  method  nas  been  attenipte<l  both  in  Great  Britain  ar  i 
in  France  with  success  as  a  mere  experiment,  but  not  t. 
the  extent  of  economic  value.  It  is  a  study  for  phiK-^- 
phers  to  explain  how  it  could  succeed,  even  as  aD  exptr- 
ment,  in  a  warm  or  temperate  atmosphere. 

To  the  utilization  of  chemical  affinities  for  frigorific  pur- 
poses the  only  requisites  are  a  simple  commixture  or  sc>Iu> 
tion  of  the  substances  employed,  and  a  flow  of  the  cf^.^'^ 
mixtures  upon  or  alon^  metallic  sheets  or  surfaces  tHmtain- 
ing  the  substances  to  be  cooled.  Non-conductors  of  boat 
are  employed  for  protection  externally  against  radiation  an  1 
the  atmospheric  warmth.  In  the  employment  of  vulatiU 
liquids  the  evaporation  is  effected  by  drawing  off  or  ex- 
hausting the  vapor  from  the  cooling  vessel  as  fast  as  it  i> 
formed,  either  by  a  gas-pump  or  by  the  affinity  of  a  liqui' 
or  other  substance  which  will  absorb  the  vapor  with  gn-ni 
avidity.  Such,  for  example,  is  the  affinity  of  water  or  «  f 
chloride  of  silver  for  ammoniacal  gas,  or  of  sulphuric 


.*io 


578 


FREIBURG 


FREINSHEIM 


some  manufactures  of  straw-plait,  leather,  and  tobacco,  cat- 
tle-breeding and  dairy  husbandry  are  the  main  business  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  cheese  from  this  canton  is  said  to  be 
the  best  produced  in  Switzerland.  Eighty-four  per  cent,  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics,  and  more  than  three- 
fourths  are  of  French  descent  and  speak  French,  which  is 
the  official  language.    Pop.  (1888)  119,529. 

Freibarg :  a  quaint  but  picturesque  old  town  of  Switz- 
erland; capital  of  the  canton  of  Freiburg;  on  the  Saane, 
over  which  is  built  a  suspension  bridge  906  feet  long,  28  feet 
wide,  and  175  feet  above  the  water  (see  map  of  Switzerland, 
ref.  5-D).  Its  cathedral  is  a  fine  building,  with  a  famous 
organ  having  7,800  pipes.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic university  and  a  bishopric.    Pop.  (1888)  12,244. 

Frei(fht  [Late  M.  Eng.  freight,  freyt^  due  to  influence  of 
two  words,  both  originally  from  the  same  source,  (1)  M. 
Eng.  fraught  (>  ^ng.  fraught^  freight),  from  Dutch  vracht 
(whence  (ierm.  Frtxcht) :  0.  H.  Germ,  freht,  gain,  reward) ; 
(2)  Fr.  fret,  freight,  from  O.  H.  Germ,  freht] :  (1)  goods  or 
cargoes  transported  from  one  place  to  another  by  carriers ; 
(2)  the  price  to  be  paid  for  such  transportation.  The  term 
is  also  used  sometimes  to  denote  the  compensation  paid  for 
any  use  of  vessels,  including  the  carriage  of  passengers. 
Only  the  second  meaning  of  the  term  will  be  here  con- 
sidered. The  nature  of  the  obligation  to  pay  freight,  its 
amount,  and  the  time  of  payment  may  be  varied  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  stipulations  in  the  contract  of  affreightment, 
evidenced  by  the  charter-party  or  the  bill  of  lading.  Thus 
the  shipper  of  goods  may  hire  the  entire  capacity  of  a  vessel 
or  some  specific  portion  for  a  gross  sum  agreed  upon  or  at 
certain  rate  per  ton,  and  he  will  then  be  bound  to  pay  for 
the  entire  space  engaged,  even  though  it  be  not  use(^,  the 
amount  paia  for  the  space  not  occupied  being  tenned  "dead 
freight.  Or  the  agreement  may  be  to  pay  only  according 
to  the  quantity  of  goods  actually  shipped,  and  the  sum  due 
might  tnen  be  varied  at  the  option  of  the  shipper.  If  no 
definite  stipulations  were  made  in  regard  to  the  freight,  a 
contract  for  its  payment  would  still  be  implied  by  law,  and 
its  amount  would  be  determined  by  the  usage  of  trade  and 
the  circumstances  of  the  particular  case.  The  general  prin- 
ciples governing  the  contract  of  affreightment,  ana  not 
often  modified  hj  particular  agreement,  are — that  the  ship- 
owner after  receivm^  a  cargo  on  board  has  a  right  to  retam 
it  until  the  completion  of  the  entire  voyage  of  transporta- 
tion ;  that  his  right  to  claim  freight  does  not  exist  until  the 
final  destination  is  reached ;  and  that  he  has  then  a  lien  upon 
the  goods  for  the  satisfaction  of  his  proper  charges.  A  par- 
tial completion  of  the  voyage  only  will  not  give  the  snip- 
owner  or  master  a  right  to  insist  upon  the  payment  of  any 
freight  whatever.  The  consigner  may  demand  an  entire 
fulfillment  of  the  contract  and  delivery  of  the  cargo  at  its 
destination,  and  if  compliance  be  refused  he  may  retake  his 
goods  and  is  discharged  from  all  obligation.  The  lien  of 
the  carrier  differs  from  most  liens  of  a  maritime  nature,  in 
that  it  depends  upon  the  possession  of  the  goods,  and  if  de- 
livery be  made  he  has  only  a  personal  claim  against  the  con- 
signee or  consigner.  But  if  there  is  only  a  partial  delivery 
of  tlie  cargo,  the  lien  on  the  remainder  is  not  destroyed,  but 
subsists  as  a  security  for  the  entire  claim.  A  carrier's  lien 
is  generally  enforced  in  a  court  of  admiralty.  The  amount 
of  freight-money  payable  is  sometimes  diminished  by  the 
arrival  of  the  goods  at  their  destination  in  a  deteriorated 
condition'  or  diminished  in  quantity.  If  the  injury  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  negligent  stowage  or  packing  of  the  cargo,  or 
by  any  default  on  the  part  of  the  master,  the  damages  sus- 
tained may  be  deducted  from  the  freight.  But  if  the  de- 
terioration occurred  by  reason  of  natur^  causes,  and  could 
not  have  been  prevented  by  reasonable  care,  as  if  the  loss 
should  be  occasioned  by  natural  waste,  decay,  or  evapora- 
tion, or  by  unavoidable  perils  of  the  sea,  the  carrier  is  not 
answerable  for  the  accident,  and  no  diminution  from  the 
entire  freight  is  allowed.  If  articles  arrive  in  substantially 
the  same  form  as  when  shipped,  even  though  there  may 
have  been  a  change  in  their  quality  affecting  their  value,  it 
is  a  general  rule  that  full  freight  has  been  earned.  Under 
no  circumstances  can  a  cargo  which  has  arrived  be  aban- 
doned to  the  shipmaster  because  its  value  has  been  so  much 
diminished  as  to  be  less  than  the  sum  demanded  for  trans- 
portation. If  the  carrier  is  i-esponsible  for  the  loss,  a  coun- 
terclaim may  be  set  up  against  him  to  neutralize  his  de- 
mand, or,  as' in  Great  Britain,  a  separate  action  may  be  in- 
stituted. If  the  carrier  is  not  in  lault,  the  goods  must  be 
received  and  the  entire  freight  liquidated. 


An  apportionment  of  freight  sometimes  results  as  the 
consequence  of  a  disaster  upon  the  voyage,  by  which  a  \  <>- 
sel  is  compelled  to  put  in  at  an  intermediate  port  fc^r  re- 
pairs. The  carrier  nas  a  right  in  such  cases  to  retain  tlu- 
g^ds  if  he  desires,  complete  his  repairs  with  reasonable  4'i- 
pedition,  and  proceed  to  his  destination,  or  he  may  S4ri<} 
them  forward  by  some  other  vessel  and  thus  earn  fnii 
freight.  In  such  a  case  the  carrier  may  demand  freight  for 
the  entire  voyage,  if  the  owner  refuses  to  allow  him  t4>  t^ikt* 
or  forward  the  goods  to  their  destination.  If  the  carrier 
refuses  to  so  take  or  forward  them  he  is  entitled  to  no  c-om- 
pensation.  If  he  delivers  the  goods  to  the  owner  at  thf 
owner's  request,  he  may  claim  a  pro  rata  freight. 

It  is  a  general  principle  of  the  marine  law  that  the  earn- 
ing of  freight  is  a  necessary  prerequisite  to  the  payment  c»f 
the  seaman's  wa^es,  or,  as  the  t«rse  legal  maxim  express^ 
it,  "freight  is  the  mother  of  wa^s."  The  reason  of  tlii^ 
rule  is  based  upon  the  policy  of  stimulating  the  sailors  to  a 
careful  performance  oi  their  duties  and  to  the  exertion  of 
every  enort  to  prevent  disaster  to  ship  or  cargo,  that  th. 
voyage  may  be  successfully  completed.  But  the  application 
of  the  rule  is  not  extended  further  than  this  reason  for  it> 
adoption  would  justify.  For  if  the  loss  of  freight  be  attril)- 
utable  to  the  wrongful  act  of  the  shipmaster  or  tht*  owii<  r 
of  the  cargo,  it  would  be  grossly  unjust  to  deprive  the  sea- 
men of  their  just  compensation;  and  though  the  vcs*^] 
should  be  wrecked  and  aoandonment  become  necessary.  > it 
if  the  sailors  used  all  practicable  measures  to  insure  [mt 
safety  and  reach  port,  tneir  claims  for  wages  would  be  en- 
forced. The  nile  that  wages  shall  depend  upon  the  eammir 
of  freight  has  been  abolished  in  Great  Britain  by  statute^ 
but  the  same  result  is  practically  obtained  by  the  proTi>ioii 
that  a  failure  on  the  part  of  a  seaman  to  exert  himself  t<» 
the  utmost  to  save  the  ship  and  car^^o  shall  defeat  his  olHim. 
In  the  U.  S.  the  common-iaw  doctnne  has  not  been  altert^i. 
See  Shipping.  Revise<l  by  T.  W.  Dwioht. 

Freili(frath,  frf'lich-ra&t,  Ferdinand:  poet;  b.  at  I)tt- 
mold,  Germany,  June  17, 1810;  entered  upon  a  mercant;ie 
life,  performing  also  literary  work  which  attracted  mxw  u 
attention.  His  first  volume  of  poems  (Oedichie,  1838 ;  2^nVi 
ed.  1862;  81st,  1874)  won  him  a  pension,  which  he  n- 
nounced  in  his  Glaubensbekenntnisa  (1844),  a  work  so  full 
of  republicanism  that  he  was  prosecuted,  and  fled  to  Li>n- 
don.  He  returned  and  took  part  in  the  revolution  of  IW^: 
was  imprisoned  and  tried  for  the  political  opinions  ex- 
pressed in  his  poems,  and,  though  acquitted  (in  the  fir^t 
jury-trial  ever  held  in  Prussia),  was  compelled-  to  leave  \  K» 
country;  returned  to  London  1851,  and  in  1868  removc^l  to 
Stuttgart.  Among  his  works  are  (po  Ira  (1846);  I>U'  Itm^ 
lution  (1848);  Nenerepolitische  Oedichte  (1849),  a  master!} 
translation  of  Victor  Hugo's  poems ;  translations  of  Bum*, 
of  Longfellow's  Hiawatha^  and  many  English  poems.  Hi> 
more  recent  songs,  such  as  Hurrah,  Germanta,  aud  Ih" 
Trompete  von  Gravelotte,  are,  like  all  his  works,  highly  vh>\^ 
ular.    D.  Mar.  18, 1876. 

Freind,  frend.  John,  M.  A.,  M.  D.,  P.  R.  S. :  physiiun  : 
b.  at  Croton,  North  Hants,  England,  1675 ;  was  tniineii  }&; 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  became  lecturer  on  C'hrn:> 
istry  in  1704;  attained  great  distinction  as  a  physieiiiii  •  f 
London ;  now  chiefly  remembered  for  his  valuable  IIii*tt<r^ 
of  Physic  (1725-26).  D.  July  26, 1728.— His  brother,  Kobku- 
Freind,  D.  D.  (1667-1751),  was  a  celebrated  Latin  seh«»lar; 
and  William  Freind,  D.  D.,  Robert's  son,  was  a  dean  of 
Canterbury  and  a  prominent  preacher. 

Freinsheim,  frins'hlm,  Johann  {Freinshemius) :  i-la<>-n  &< 
commentator;  b.  at  Ulm,  Nov.  16, 1608 ;  studied  at  Marl.ur^ 
and  Giessen;  went  to  Strassburg,  where  he  found  a  j»atrfi 
in  Bernegger,  rector  of  the  college;  published  an  editi<in  ■  f 
Florus,  with  useful  notes,  in  1632;  was  made  ProfeiJ>-^r  f 
Eloquence  in  the  University  of  Upsala,  and  after  five  je^rv 
service  (1647)  became  librarian  ana  historiographer  to  Qvu  -  * 
Christina.  Compelled  by  ill-health  to  leave  SwchI»'Ii.  h- 
was  appointed  in  1656  honorary  profess<ir  at  HeidelU  r*:. 
where  ne  died  Aug.  31, 1660.  His  labors  were  devoted  mar  - 
ly  to  the  elucidation  of  the  Latin  historians.  Besides  Vh  n  -. 
iie  edite<l  Quintus  Curtius  (Strassburg,  1640,  2  vols.  8vi...  n 
which  the  missing  Iwoks  were  supplied  by  himself:  he  sui  - 
plied  also  in  a  continuous  narrative,  from  scattered  hint^  It 
other  writers,  the  missing  books  of  Liw,  first  publi^iht^i  t.- 
gether  by  Doujat  in  the  Delphin  edition  (1679-82).  Th— ► 
justly  celebrated  Supplements  have  been  reprint«l  in  soin**  •.  f 
the  later  editions  of  tills  author;  for  instance  in  Drakeidv>n  K'- 
Lii^  (17  vols.,  1820).  Revised  by  Alfred  Gi'dksian. 


sao 


PRlfeMONT 


FRENCH  LANGUAGE 


sissippi  surrey.  He  afterward  served  at  Washinj?ton  in 
constructing  maps  of  that  region.  Having  received  the 
commission  of  a  lieutenant  of  engineers  July  7,  1888,  he 
proposed  to  the  War  Department  to  penetrate  the  Hocky 
Mountain  region.  His  plan  was  approved,  and  in  1842  he 
explored  the  South  Pass.  Soon  af ter  ne  planned  a  new  expe- 
dition to  Oregon.  He  approached  the  mountains  by  a  new 
rout«,  examined  the  renon  S.  of  the  South  Pass,  turned 
aside  to  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  connected  his  exploration 
with  that  of  Wilkes's  expedition.  Fremont  conducted  an- 
other party,  which  discovered  new  and  grand  features  in 
Alta  California,  the  great  basin  called  oy  his  name,  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  valleys, 
and  detennined  much  of  the  j^eography  of  the  far  Western 
regions.  In  1845  he  was  ag:am  on  the  road  to  the  Pacific 
to  examine  in  detail  the  Pacific  slope — a  journey  which  re- 
sulted in  giving  many  new  facts  of  importance  to  the  world, 
and  indeed  gave  California  to  the  U.  S.  It  was  rumored 
not  only  that  the  Mexicans  were  negotiating  with  Great 
Britain  for  the  sale  of  California,  but  also  that  the  Mexican 
governor.  Gen.  de  Castro,  intended  to  destroy  the  settle- 
ments on  the  Sacramento  river ;  and  when  Fremont  reached 
California,  he  actually  found  De  Castro  on  the  march 
against  the  settlements.  The  settlers  flew  to  arms  and 
loined  Fremont's  camp.  On  June  15, 1846,  he  captured  a 
Mexican  post  at  Sonoma  Pass,  with  9  cannons  and  250  mus- 
kets ;  ana  on  Julv  5  De  Castro  and  his  force  were  com- 
pletely routed.  The  settlers  declared  themselves  independ- 
ent, and  elected  Fremont  governor  of  the  province.  He 
immediately  proceeded  to  join  the  U.  S.  naval  forces  at 
Monterey,  under  Commodore  Stockton,  who  had  latelj 
arrived  with  authority  from  Washington  to  conquer  Cali- 
fornia. After  the  con(}uest  of  Upper  California,  in  which 
he  thus  bore  a  conspicuous  pait,  he  was  involved  in  a 
quarrel  between  two  other  officers,  and  was  deprived  of  his 
commission  by  sentence  of  a  court  martial.  The  President 
offered  to  reinstate  him,  but  he  declined.  He  retrieved  his 
honor  by  the  survey  of  a  route  for  a  great  road  from  the 
Mississippi  to  San  Francisco ;  pierced  the  hitherto  unknown 
country  of  the  Apaches ;  defeated  or  terrified  the  hostile 
savages;  and  in  100  days  after  leaving  Santa  F6  reached 
the  Sacramento;  was  sent  as  one  of  the  first  U.  S.  Sena- 
tors from  California,  serving  1849-51.  He  was  in  1856  the 
first  Republican  candidate  for  President,  in  opposition  to 
Mr.  Bucnanan,  the  Democratic  candidate,  ana  though  he 
received  a  large  vote  (114  electoral  votes  to  174  for  Buchan- 
an and  8  for  Fillmore)  he  was  defeated.  Appointed  ma- 
jor-general of  volunteers  Mav  14, 1861,  he  served  in  Mis- 
souri and  in  the  Shenandoah  valley.  Resigned  June  4, 
1864  Major-general  retired  Apr.  28, 1890,  by  act  of  Apr. 
19,  1890.    D.  July  13, 1890.    See  Memoirs  of  my  Life  (1886). 

Fremont,  fra'mon',  Jules  Joseph  Taschereau,  D.  C.  L.  : 
legal  writer ;  b.  in  Quebec,  Canada,  Dec.  20, 1855 ;  and  edu- 
cated at  St.  Mary's  College,  Montreal,  and  Laval  Univer- 
sity. He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1878,  and  elected  to 
the  Dominion  Parliament  in  1891.  In  1893  he  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Civil  Law  in  Laval  University,  and  mavor  of  the 
city  of  Quebec.  He  is  author  of  Le  Divorce  et  la  Separor 
tion  de  Corps  and  Compendium  of  the  Dominion  Laws  of 
Canada,  Neil  Macdonald. 

Fr^mj,  fra'mee',  Edmond:  chemist;  b.  at  Versailles, 
France,  Feb.  28,  1814 ;  studied  chemistry  under  Gay-Lus- 
sac;  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Pans,  in  1850,  and  at  the  £co]e  Polytechni(iue  in 
1857.  Author  of  Traiti  de  Chimie  and  Etvcyclopedie  Chi- 
mique  (10  vols.,  1881  ff.). 

French,  John:  physician;  b.  about  1616  at  Broughton, 
near  Oxford,  England.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  studied 
medicine,  entered  the  service  of  the  Parliamentary  ai-my, 
was  made  phyv<$ician-in-chicf  by  Fairfax,  and  accompanied 
the  English  army  to  Boulogne,  where  he  died  in  1657.  He 
published  a  Treatise  of  the  Choicest  Spagyrical  Prepara- 
tionSy  Experiments^  aim  Curiosities  Performed  by  Way  of 
Distillation  (London,  1651),  and  Tlie  Yorkshire  Spaw;  or, 
A  Treatise  of  Four  Famous  Medicinal  Wells,  together  with 
the  Causes,  Virtues,  and  Uses  Thereof  (London,  1652). 

French,  John  William,  D.  D.  :  clergyman,  author,  and 
teacher ;  b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn,,  Nov.  9,  18(^ :  gratluated 
at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1832;  and  sulSequently 
studied  at  the  Episcopal  Seminarv,  New  York.  Ordained  in 
1835  and  became  Professor  of  Rhetoric  and  librarian  at 
Bristol  College,  Pennsylvania,  1836,  but  the  institution  fail- 
ing, he  was  rector  of  St.  Paul's  church,  Portland,  Me.,  183^ 


39 ;  chaplain  to  Congress  1841 ;  rector  of  the  Church  of  the 
Epiphany,  Washington,  D.  C,  1842-56 ;  Professor  of  Ethio. 
U.  S.  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  185d-71 ;  and 
died  there  Julv  8,  1871.  Author  of  a  text-book  of  /Vo/- 
tical  Ethics  (^ew  York,  1864)  and  an  admirable  work  on 
English  grammar  (1863).  James  MK&crR. 

French,  Nicholas:  bishop;  b.  at  Wexford,  Ireland,  in 
1604;  d.  in  Ghent,  Aug.  23, 1678.  He  studied  and  took  \uAy 
orders  at  Louvain ;  became  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  hi^ 
native  town,  and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Ferns  in  1^46. 
Having  taken  a  very  active  part  in  the  political  disturb- 
ances of  his  time,  he  retired  to  the  Continent  in  1651  aod 
was  about  1670  appointed  coadjutor-archbishop  of  Ghent. 
His  Unkind  Deserter,  Bleeding  tphigenia^  Sale  and  SrttU- 
ment  of  Ireland,  and  other  polemical  and  political  nam* 
phlets,  were  published  in  London  (1846)  under  the  title  of 
Jlistorical  Works  of  Bishop  French  (2  vols.). 

French,  William  Hekrt  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Baltimore,  Md.. 
Jan.  13,  1816;  graduated  at  West  Point  July  1, 1837;  en- 
tered the  army  as  second  lieutenant  of  artillery ;  senrefi  in 
the  Seminole  war,  and  on  the  Canada  border  daring  the  di^ 
turbances  1837-38.  During  the  war  with  Mexico  he  serr^i 
at  the  siege  of  Vera  Cms,  the  battles  of  Contreras  anti 
Churubusco,  and  the  capture  of  Mexico;  served  against  tht> 
Seminoles  1850-52,  and  on  garrison  and  frontier  duty  till 
1861.  Appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  Sept.,  1861,  tiiit 
major-general  in  Nov.,  1862,  he  fought  at  Yorktown,  the 
battles  of  Fair  Oaks,  Gaines's  Mill,  Peach  Orchard,  Savair** 
Station,  Malvern  Hill,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  and  Chan- 
cellorsville.  In  May,  1864,  he  was  mustered  out  of  the  vol- 
unteer service.  From  1865  to  1872  he  was  in  command  <<f 
the  Second  Artillery.    He  passed  through  the  sucoe^^sivr* 

frades  to  that  of  colonel,  and  retired  at  his  own  requt^t 
uly  1,1880.    D.  May  20, 1881. 

French  Berries :  the  name  given  by  dyers  to  the  drini 
berries  of  various  species  of  RJiamnus  or  Duckthom,  whir}. 
are  brought  from  tne  Mediterranean  countries,  and  jprodu*-^ 
a  very  bright  but  not  very  permanent  yellow  dye.  The  y*-!- 
low-berricd  buckthorn  is  a  very  spreading  procuiDlH-r-t 
shrub,  growing  wild  in  rongh  roclcy  places  in  tne  count  ri«>- 
near  the  Mediterranean.  The  berries  are  also  called  Ft- r* 
sian  and  Avignon  berries.    See  Persian  Bkredbs. 

French  Broad  Biyer :  a  river  of  the  U.  S. ;  rises  in  Hen- 
derson CO.,  N.  C,  near  the  Blue  Ridge,  flows  N.  W.  iui' 
Tennessee,  receives  the  Nolichucky,  turns  S.  W.,  and  j'-.u^ 
the  Holston  (now  called  Tennessee)  3  miles  above  Kdoxvt  '•. 
There  is  delightful  scenery  along  its  banks.  It  is  navigal  '.r 
30  miles  to  Danbridge  by  steamboats,  and  is  some  200  milr^ 
in  length. 

French  Congo :  See  Gaboon-Conoo. 

French  Horn :  a  metallic  wind  instrument,  consisting  of 
a  tube  which  is  usuall;|[  convoluted,  so  as  to  make  it  n;<r« 
portable.  It  increases  in  diameter  from  the  mouth-pieiv  u 
the  bell  or  flaring  open  extremity.  It  is  provided  with  >t  %• 
eral  longer  or  shorter  mouth-pieces,  by  means  of  which  r  h' 
key  is  varied,  and  the  whole  is  providea  with  valves  and  ke}  >. 

French  Indo-China :  See  Indo-China. 

French  Language  [0.  'Eug.frencise :  Low  Lal.francisru  < . 
Ital.  francesco  :  O,  Fr.  franeets,  fran^is  >  Mod.  Fr.  fmi- 
fais;  orig.  deriv.  from  the  German  tribal  name,  O.  H.  6cm 
franchun,  the  Franks,  spearmen,  deriv.  of  a  word  menn'i  ^ 
spear;  cf.  0.  Eng.  franca,  lance] :  that  one  of  the  Romai « 
languages  which  is  in  most  general  use  in  France,  th« '.:^ 
not  the  only  tongue  spoken  in  that  country.     The  moiUr: 
literary  French  has  as  its  main  source  the  Old  French  diali  ' 
of  Paris  and  the  surrounding  territory,  about  what  was  latr" 
called  tie  de  France,  or,  roughly  spesking,  the  old  duchy  >-' 
France.    The  vocabulary  has  also  been  affected  by  <>tl- 
dialects — by  Proven9al  words  from  the  southern   part   .  t 
France,  by  borrowings  from  Italian,  Si>anish,  English,  ai. . 
also  from  Latin,  Greek,  and  some  other  languages.     A>  t^r 
influence  of  Central  French  increased,  the  impoHance  of  t^."^ 
other  dialects  diminished,  and  they  have  long  since  sunk  t 
the  rank  of  patois,  and  are  often  mistakenly  coasidert^*!  »- 
mere  corruptions  of  "good  French"  in  the  mouths  of  t-^* 
ignorant.    From  the  philological  point  of  view  they  ha>- 
much  interest  (a  Society  desparlers  de  France  has  lieon  t-*  i  • 
stituted),  and  in  Old  French  they  were  extensively  empIo>t  i 
in  literature.      The  political  supremacy  of   Paris  caiJ^  \ 
French  to  become  the  established  literary  langnage  al>«^  n 
Southern  France  in  place  of  Provencal,  tnough  the  lattt^r  i^ 
still  used  in  literature  to  some  extent,  and  afio  to  sup|»Lar.: 


582 


FRENCH  LANGUAGE 


differs  from  it  by  euding  in  a  consonant  which  is  lacking  in 
the  masculine,  the  plural  is  often  like  the  singular,  or  diners 
from  it  bv  adding  z  before  the  next  word,  and  verbal  forms 
which  differ  in  spelling  are  not  always  distinguished  in  speech 
or  are  distinginshed  by  the  accompanying  subjects,  espe- 
cially pronouns;  compare  the  written  gttc^  grecque,  vrai^ 
vraie,j)e.tit,  petite,  lofig,  longue,  iongs,  ^and,  grands  hommes, 
tu  flM»  il  a^favais,  tu  avals,  it  avait,  tie  avateni,  je  viens,  tu 
vienSf  il  vient  with  the  spoken  forms  of  the  same  words. 
But  the  spoken  language  is  far  from  having  lost  entirely 
such  distinctions  as  those  made  in  writing,  though  they  are 
not  always  made  in  the  same  way.  Many  changes  in  inflex- 
ions were  also  caused  by  analogy,  the  divergence  from  Old 
French  not  being  brought  about  entirely  by  such  regular 
changes  in  pronunciation  as  those  mentioned,  and  it  should 
also  be  remembered  that  some  disagreement  between  the 
spoken  and  written  forms  of  a  literary  language  always  ex- 
ists. This  disagreement  is  excessive  and  hence  a  serious 
defect  in  the  case  of  French,  though  it  is  perhaps  no  worse 
than  in  English.  One  of  the  mismrtunes  resulting  in  great 
part  from  the  loss  of  "  mute  e"  is  that  French  verse  has  ac- 
quired a  somewhat  artificial  character,  this  e  being  still  gener- 
ally counted  as  the  vowel  of  a  separate  syllable,  while  the  num- 
ber of  syllables  in  the  verse  is  a  matter  of  great  importance. 

In  the  summer  of  1893  a  step  was  taken  in  the  French 
Academy  toward  a  moderate  reform  in  orthography,  pro- 
posals which  permit  a  more  consistent  spelling  of  a  consid- 
erable number  of  words  being  adopted  by  a  small  majority. 
The  following  examples  will  illustrate  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant changes  in  spelling  proposed :  seur  for  eosur,  eiet^me 
for  eyetime^filosofie  lor  pMiosophie,  retorique  tor  rhetorique, 
aetme  for  asthme,  cronologie  for  chronologie,  honeur  for 
honneur  (cf.  hafwrer),  (it)  appele  for  appelle,  genoue  for 
genoux,  chevaus  for  chevaux,  (Je)  veiM  for  veux.  Among 
other  things,  further,  the  use  of  hyphens  is  much  restricted 
and  that  of  accents  somewhat  changed.  It  is  to  bo  hoped 
that  these  reforms  will  find  general  acceptance. 

In  its  inflexional  system  French  has  the  grammatical 
gender,  nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns  being  masculine  or 
feminine,  but  the  neuter  gender  has  been  practically  aban- 
doned. In  the  personal  pronouns  some  true  case  forms  are 
found,  while  nouns  have  wholly  lost  the  distinction  of  cases. 
The  so-called  disjunctive  (accented  or  emphatic)  and  con- 
junctive (unaccented)  forms  of  pronouns  are  also  a  feature 
of  the  language;  compare  in  English  tell  Hm  (unemphatic) 
with  tell  htm  (emphatic).  The  infinitive  endings,  according 
to  which  verbs  are  classified  int^  conjugations,  are  written 
-er,  -tr,  -re,  -oir,  but  only  verbs  of  the  first  two  classes  be- 
long to  still  really  living  conjugational  types,  according  to 
which  newly  formed  verbs  may  be  inflected.  The  simple 
tenses,  not  formed  by  the  aid  of  separate  auxiliary  wonis, 
are  the  present^  imperfect,  past  (**  parfait  defini "  or  aorist, 
as  it  might  be  called,  which  lias  almost  wholly  disappeared 
from  use  in  conversation,  its  place  being  taken  by  the  com- 
pound present ;  fat  fait  =  **  I  have  done  "  and  "  I  did  "), 
and  future  of  the  indicative  mood,  a  present  of  the  so-called 
conditional  mood,  corresponding  to  English  "  should  "  or 
"  would,"  a  present  and  a  past  of  the  subjunctive,  and  a 
simple  imperative.  There  is  a  present  active  participle 
and  a  past  participle  (passive  in  transitive  verbs).  Tenses 
for  which  there  are  no  simple  forms  are  supplied  by  using 
auxiliary  verbs  (avoir,  "  have,"  or  etre,  "  be  )  with  tne  past 
participle,  and  the  passive  voice  is  forme>d  by  etre  and  the 
past  participle.  But  the  passive  is  less  used  than  in  English, 
reflexive  forms  or  active  forms  with  the  indefinite  suoject 
on  (on  dit,  "  they  say,"  "  it  is  said  ")  being  largely  used  in- 
stead. The  use  of  all  these  fonns  is  determined  for  the 
written  language  by  grammatical  rules,  some  of  which,  par- 
ticularly those  for  the  inflexion  of  the  past  participle,  are 
complicated  and  somewhat  artificial.  The  method  of  nega- 
tion is  peculiar,  two  words  bein^  generally  required,  the 
old  simple  negative  ?ic,  "  not,"  l>emg  in  most  cases  accom- 
panied by  an  additional  adverb  or  pronominal  word  after 
the  verb ;  »6  .  .  .  pas  =  "  not,"  ne  ,  .  ,  aucun  =  "  not  any," 
**  no,"  fhe  ,  .  ,  persanne  =  "  not  anybody,"  *'  nobody,"  but 
this  accompanying  word  (originally  negative  in  some  cases, 
positive  in  others)  is  sometimes  used  as  a  negative  by  itself, 
when  the  verb  is  omitted,  without  which  the  ne  can  not  be 
used.  The  language  abounds  in  idiomatic  uses  of  ne  and 
various  other  words,  having  many  phrases  whose  precise 
meaning  is  not  at  once  obvious  from  the  meanings  of  the 
individual  words  employed.  Of  the  studies  on  special 
points  of  French  syntax  the  best  are  to  be  found  in  Tobler*s 
VermiseMe  Beitrdge  zur  franzdsiechen  Grammatik  (Leip- 


zig, 1886),  and  in  his  later  papers  with  the  same  title  in  the 
Zeitschrift  fur  romantsche  Philologie.  French  format  com- 
pound words  less  freely  than  either  German  or  English,  but 
IS  by  no  means  so  poor  in  compound  nouns  as  is  sometimcif 
supposed. 

The  history  of  the  French  language  begins  with  popular 
Latin,  which,  as  spoken  in  Gaul,  gr£lually  assumes  a  form 
distinct  enough  to  be  called  no  longer  Latin.  For  con- 
venience, according  to  documents  preserved,  the  Old  Frenrh 
period  may  be  considered  as  begmning  in  the  ninth  et-n- 
tury  (the  Strassburg  oaths,  842)  and  as  extending  into  Uw 
fourteenth.  The  convenient  characteristic  for  this  periM 
is  the  declension  of  nouns  with  two  cases,  a  subject  and  au 
object.  For  the  study  of  this  perioci.  see,  for  example,  <J. 
Paris,  Extraite  de  la  Chanson  de  Roland  (4th  ed.  Pari>, 
1893) ;  Suchier,  Altfranzdsische  6h'ammaiik(B.a,]le,  1893,  ff. ? : 
Godef roy,  Dictionnaire  de  Vancienfie  langue  fran^ise,  et  ( . 
(Paris,  1881,  ff.);  GrSber's  Orundriss  der  ramaniaeken  Ph*- 
lologie,  and  other  works  mentioned  in  the  article  on  tht- 
Romance  languages.  The  period  following  this  and  pn- 
ceding  modern  ^:«nch  (which  may  be  said  to  begin  afi**r 
the  sixteenth  century)  is  a  transitional  one,  though  the  tan- 

fuage  was  of  course  not  free  from  change  d urine  the  <>l«l 
'rench  period.  For  the  sixteenth  century  should  be  con- 
sulted Darmesteter  et,Hatzfeld,  Leseiziime  sihile  enPranrt 
(Paris,  1878),  and  Thurot,  De  la  prononciatton  fran^ai^ 
depuis  le  commencement  du  XVI*  siiele  (Paris,  1881).  It 
was  not  until  the  sixteenth  century  (15^)  that  the  ui^e  <<f 
French  was  made  obligatory  in  public  documents  in  plait 
of  Latin,  and  the  grammatical  treatment  of  the  language  in 
this  and  the  following  century  was  under  the  influence  of  thr* 
Latin  grammar,  the  historical  continuity  with  Old  Frem>j 
being  ignored,  and  the  early  stages  of  French  being  neither 
understood  nor  studied  by  grammarians  and  critical  writi'r> 
in  general.  Moreover  the  conscious  efforts  of  those  wh«' 
aimed  at  ennobling  and  refining  the  language  were  not  witii- 
out  some  influence.  In  1635  the  French  Academy  was  e^t&lv- 
lished,  following  the  example  of  the  Accademia  della  C^niM  a 
in  Italy,  and  its  decisions  in  matters  of  spelling  and  usac** 
were  to  be  authoritative.  The  first  edition  of  tiie  Diction- 
naire de  VAcaMmie  appeared  in  1694,  the  seventh  in  187>*. 
For  some  account  of  the  relations  of  French  to  the  othtr 
Romance  languages  and  to  Latin,  see  Romance  LakoujiGO. 
The  following  list  of  works  on  the  language,  in  addition  t.» 
those  already  mentioned,  must  also  be  supplemented  by  rt>f- 
erence  to  the  same  article,  for  the  moaem  language  e&n 
not  be  fully  understood  without  a  knowledge  of  its  histor> . 
Dictionaries. — Littrd,  Dictionnaire  de  la  langur  fran- 
gaise  (Paris,  1863-72),  and  Supplhnent  (1877);  Darniv- 
steter,  Hatzfeld  and  Thomas,  Dictionnaire  gSnSral  de  In 
Umaue  /rowpatac  (Paris,  in  course  of  publication);  I.4iri\f 
and  Fleury,  Dictionnaire  franpais  illttstrS  des  mots  et  df» 
choses  (Paris,  1891) ;  and  older  works  in  France,  as  Poit<?viri, 
Dictionnaire  universel  (1Q5Q-W);  Bescherelle,  Dictionnairr 
national  (1843-46),  and  others;  Sachs,  Encyclopedist h^* 
Wdrterbuch  der  franzdsischen  und  deutsehen  Sprache  (Ber- 
lin, 1869) ;  French-English  dictionaries  such  as  those  t»f 
Smith,  Legros  and  Ilamilton,  Gasc,  and  others,  notali!\ 
the  wonderfully  condensed  and  yet  for  its  size  very  fui 
dictionary  for  the  pocket  (of  both  languages)  of  John  B^'t- 
lows ;  Godef  roy,  Lexique  comparS  de  la  langue  de  ComeiU* 
etc.  (1862) ;  G^nin,  Lexique  de  Motive  (Paris,  1846) ;  Lafay  r . 
Dictionnaire  des  synonyntes  de  la  langue  fran^ise  (Paiix 
1858);  the  etymological  dictionaries  of  Scheler  (1st  ^\ 
1862)  and  Brachet  (1st  ed.  1870).  Grammar,  including  pn- 
nunciation  and  formation  of  words  (in  French):  Aver. 
Grammaire  comparee  de  la  langue  franpaise  (4th  ed.  iKso . . 
Benoist,  De  la  syntaxe  franpaise  entre  Palsgrat^  et  Vauj-- 
las  (Paris.  1877) ;  the  recent  grammars  of  Brachet  (^'out^  •." 
grammaire  fran^ise;  his  Grammaire  historiftte  is  antiquat- 
ed), Chassang  (Noui*elle  grammaire  franpatse,  cofirs  sut^ 
rieur),  Cl^dat  (Nouvelle  grammaire  historioue  du  francm,^'  . 
id.,  Pticis  d'ortlkographe  et  de  grammaire phon^tiquea  {Xat\>, 
1890) ;  A.  Darmesteter,  Traite  de  la  formation  des  mots  cur**- 
poses  dans  la  langue  fran^ise  (Paris,  1875) ;  id,,  D^  la  cr^ 
ation  actuelle  de  mots  nouveaux  dans  la  langue  franca »j<^ 
(Paris,  1877) ;  id.,  Reliques  scientijiques  reeueillies  par  *:/•« 
frere  (Paris,  1890) ;  A.  P.  Didot,  Ohtirvaiifms  stir  Vortkogra- 
phe  franpaise  (Paris,  1867);  Ko^Yiwitz,  Les  parUrs  pari^tim^ 
(Paris,  1898);  Lesaint,  Traiti  compiet  de  laprononeiattt.n 
franpaise  (2d  ed.  Hamburg.  1871);  Li  vet.  La  gramma  tr- 
franpaise  et  les  grammairiens  du  ^VI*  siicle  (Aris»  185i#. ; 
Mende,  Etude  sur  la  prononeiation  de  Vs  must  d  i^-i» 
(London,  1880);  Mercier,  Histoire  de^  participss  franca  t^ 


584 


FRENCH   LITERATURE 


nions  of  the  time  are  noticeable  for  their  exemples,  or  para- 
bles, of  homely  sort,  by  which  the  instruction  was  made 
more  vivid.  Of  the  same  allegorical  nature  were  the  dSbcUs 
and  the  personifications  in  which  the  religious  literature  of 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  abounds.  Even 
works  intended  for  scientific  instruction  used  the  same 
method.  The  stone-books  {lapidaires)^  enumerating  the  pe- 
culiar properties  attributed  to  precious  stones,  and  the  beast- 
books  (besHaires),  which  do  the  same  thing  for  animals,  add 
often  the  allegorical  interpretation  in  moral  terms  of  these 

Eroperties.  Indeed,  science  in  the  Middle  Ages  consisted 
krgely  in  a  h^f-allegorical  interpretation  of  natural  objects 
and  phenomena.  The  profound  curiosity  to  know  the 
meaning  of  them  as  symbols  was  perhaps  a  reason  why  they 
were  not  observed  more  exactly  as  facts. 

The  work  which  represents  the  greatest  achievement  of 
the  allegorizing  spirit  and  whose  instant  and  amazing  suc- 
cess is  a  sign  of  its  harmony  with  the  taste  of  the  time  is  the 
Roman  de  la  Rose  (begun  by  Guillaume  de  Lorris  about 
1237,  finished  bv  Jean  de  Meun  about  1277).  The  subject 
of  the  poem  is  the  attempts  of  Lover  to  pluck  the  Rose  in  the 
garden  of  Love,  favorea  or  hindered  by  Welcome,  Danger, 
Slander,  Shame,  Fear,  and  others  of  the  aUegorical  train. 
In  the  wake  of  the  popularity  of  this  work  the  allegorizing 
spirit  went  far  bevona  the  boundaries  of  France  and  of  this 
period,  and  signalized  its  strength  in  the  next  by  its  con- 
quest of  the  drama. 

The  drama,  which  had  its  birth  in  the  Church  in  the  dra- 
matic illustration,  at  first  very  meager,  eiven  the  service  on 
the  great  feast-days  of  Christmas  and  Easter,  hardly  out- 
grew during  this  period  its  dependence  upon  the  service, 
though  the  scenes  enacted  from  Old  Testament  and  New 
Testament  history  had  proven  their  charm  upon  the  people, 
and  began  to  be  brougnt  together  in  large  groups  (myste- 
ries). The  drama  of  purely  profane  subject  did  not  arise  till 
later.  Adam  de  la  Halle  (b.  about  1240)  left  two  noticeable 
plavs  dealing  with  common  life  {Jean  de  la  FeuillSe^  Robin 
et  Marion)^  and  from  a  very  early  date  the  religious  plays 
were  not  without  scenes  where  a  comic  or  satiric  spirit  in- 
troduced pictures  of  contemporary  life.  And  probabl v  aside 
from  these  recorded  examples  the  comic  spirit  of  the  age 
never  ceased  to  deal  dramatically  with  life,  for  some  of  the 
earliest  farces  that  have  come  down  from  a  later  period  do 
not  seem  to  be  creations  in  a  new  and  unpracticed  field. 

French  lyric  poetry  of  this  period  was  mainly  dominated 
by  ProveuQal  infiuence.  A  few  examples  remain  of  an  older 
lyric  apparently  native  to  Northern  France,  characterized  bv 
great  simplicity  and  grace  in  form  and  content.  But  with 
the  twelfth  century  the  lyric  poets  of  renown  (Qui  de 
Coucy,  Chretien  de  Troies,  Blondel  de  Nesle,  Tibaud  de 
Champagne,  etc.)  all  cultivated  the  forms  and  subjects  of 
the  troubadours ;  societies  of  artisans  and  tradesmen  (p^iis) 
also  applied  themselves  to  the  l3rric  art,  and  gave  great 
elaborateness  to  the  fonn  and  great  monotony  to  the  con- 
tents, though  occasionally  there  was  among  them  a  man  of 
real  genius  (Adam  de  la  Halle,  1240-70,  Rustebocuf,  1255--85). 

Prose  in  this  period  hardly  held  the  conspicuous  place  in 
French  literature  that  it  has  since  held.  It  was  employed 
in  translation  from  the  Latin,  which  did  not  easily  surren- 
der its  title  as  the  only  vehicle  of  really  serious  knowledge, 
and  was  successfully  cultivated  also  by  the  writers  of  tne 
prose  romances  of  chivalry.    But  already  the  long  series  of 

freat  monuments  of  French  prose  haa  been  opened  by 
lUehardouin  in  his  chronicle  of  the  fourth  crusade  (1198- 
1207),  and  it  was  worthily  continued  by  Joinville  in  his  his- 
tory of  St.  Louis  (1800-09).  But  to  the  end  of  this  period 
verse  was  still  mainly  preferred  for  all  historical  works  in 
French  (Gaimar,  Histoire  des  Anglais,  1147-51 ;  Wace, 
Oeste  des  Bretons,  1155  ;  Roman  de  Rou,  1160-74). 

With  the  fourteenth  century  and  the  Hundred  Years'  war 
the  middle  portion  of  scxiiety  comes  definitely  to  the  fore- 
ground in  literature.  The  subjects  and  sentiments  that  had 
inspired  the  rich  growth  of  chansons  de  geste  and  poems  of 
chivalry  had  ceased  to  interest.  Literary  activity  in  these 
fields  spent  itself  in  attemjjts  to  rejuvenate  the  form  of 
older  poems  and  adapt  their  matter  to  the  changed  taste. 
Prose  asserted  its  supremacy,  and  the  old  heroic  songs, 
shorn  of  the  epic  formulas  that  had  proved  burdensome  to 
them,  regained  in  the  shorter  prose  a  considerable  portion 
of  public  favor,  which  they  still  retained  when  the  art  of 
printing  came  to  attest  their  popularity  by  sending  some  of 
the  prose  romances  of  chivalry  forth  among  the  first  prod- 
ucts of  the  press. 
The  field  of  lyric  poetry  was  not  so  barren.    After  the 


lyric  had  been  reduced  to  a  mere  matter  of  formal  tech- 
nique, and  its  productivity  seemed  exhausted,  Guillaume  (i«- 
Machault  opened  up  new  possibilities  for  it,  and  a  new  st^rit^^ 
of  forms  was  created,  many  of  which,  as  the  ballade^  ron- 
deau, rondel,  triolet,  etc.,  have  been  restored  to  new  life  and 
favor  in  our  day.  But  some  of  these  lyric  poets  were  irn- 
ticeable  for  more  than  technical  excellence  of  form.  Fmi:- 
9ois  Villon  (middle  of  the  fifteenth  century)  particularh 
seems  to  cut  loose  from  the  Middle  Ages  by  emerging  fmu 
the  conventional  round  of  ideas  that  lyric  poetry  had  ex- 
pressed, and  by  asserting  passionately  and  with  poignant 
airectness  his  own  personal  view  and  sense  of  things. 

To  the  biblical  and  legendary  drama  (mystery,  miracl*^> 
the  bourgeoisie  gave  in  this  second  perioid  a  great  exf  lau- 
sion,  and  it  became  the  medium  of  whatever  public  relation 
with  literature  there  was.  The  puis  (see  above)  in  all  t\w 
considerable  cities  undertook  the  presentation  at  statt^l  in- 
tervals of  mysteries  and  miracles,  which  came  to  be  of  gr»ai 
length,  and  these  were  occasions  of  great  public  imperial H-e 
in  the  community.  Allegory,  that  had  so  invaded  literaturv 
in  other  directions,  took  possession  of  the  drama  also :  aii^ 
the  morality,  which  is  merely  an  allegory  dramatized,  W- 
came  immensely  popular.  In  them  the  native  humor  of  tnr- 
people  and  the  esprit  gaulois  found  vent,  as  in  the  fart-e^  t.> 
which  they  gave  place,  some  of  which  are  written  with  gr*-./ 
comic  vigor  and  considerable  skill  {UAvocat  Pathelin^  fif- 
teenth century).  The  spirit  of  satire  and  ridicule,  whii  h 
found  abundant  material  in  the  decadent  institutions  aini 
society  of  feudalism,  ran  riotous  course  in  the  aotiies.  At 
Paris,  which  here  as  often  elsewhere  resumes  the  int^llet- 
tual  life  of  France,  these  three  kinds  of  dramatic  repn.*s«entit- 
tion  were  the  especial  care  of  three  societies — ^the  ConfrOn-s 
de  la  Passion,  the  Basochiens,  and  the  Enfants  sans  s<>ii< :. 

A  somewhat  kindred  spirit  of  criticisra  di8tingujshe^  tt^ 
historical  work  of  the  end  of  this  period,  the  Memoirs  ('f 
Philippe  de  Comines,  from  the  Chronicles  of  Froissart  whiih 
relate  its  beginning.  Froissart  is  the  vivid  anecdotist,  ac- 
cepting completely  the  forms  of  that  life  which  he  pictun-il 
with  such  detail  and  color  without  questioning  their  author- 
ity. Comines,  though  an  unmethodical  chronicler,  briiip^ 
men  and  events  to  the  test  of  a  more  reasonable  order  to  bt 
established. 

The  great  movements  of  the  sixteenth  century  in  Fnin<*t». 
as  in  Europe  generally,  were  the  Renaissance  and  the  Ref- 
ormation. The  Reformation  agitated  France  profoundly, 
and  contributed  directly  to  literature  in  the  fields  of  lyrii 
poetry  (songs  of  the  Huguenots)  and  of  vigorous  ai^gument- 
ative  prose  (Calvin,  1509-64).  But  failing  to  penetrate  t  h*" 
masses  of  tne  people,  it  succumbed  to  tne  strong  inipul>r 
toward  national  unity,  and  did  not  deeply  and  permanent  ly 
inform  literature  as  in  Germany  and  England.  But  thV 
Renaissance  produced  a  very  complete  transformation.  N«  -: 
only  was  the  mind,  somewhat  baffled  in  its  search  of  fruit- 
ful developments  of  the  mediieval  way  of  looking  at  lif^. 
fascinated  with  the  new  conceptions  that  contact  with  th^ 
antique  world  gave  it,  but  it  was  charmed  by  the  forms  at:! 
art  of  the  literatures  which  revealed  them.  Compared  with 
them  the  native  language  and  literature  seemed  unctmth 
and  barbarous.  Men  looked  upon  Greek  and  Latin  as  Xh^ 
great  models,  and  addressed  themselves  ardently  to  the  ta>k 
of  reforming  their  own  in  their  semblance.  T'heir  eff«»rt^, 
more  zealous  than  well  considered,  are  visible  in  all  dirvi-- 
tions,  and  give  to  the  productions  of  the  century,  with  aii 
their  vigor  and  vitality,  an  appearance  of  confusion  that  i5 
sometimes  almost  grotesque. 

The  great  representatives  of  the  century  on  the  side  of  it^ 
ideas  were  Francois  Rabelais  (1483-1553)  and  Michel  de 
Montaigne  (1533-92).  Rabelais's  famous  works,  QarganiU'X 
and  Pantagruel,  in  which  the  whole  decaying  medix^vA. 
world  appears  in  fantastic  and  grotesque  combinations  wirr. 
ideas  ana  scraps  of  knowled^  of  all  kinds  cramn)e<l  t<- 
gether  from  all  sources,  is,  as  it  were,  the  boisterous  laucH- 
ter  of  the  old  spirit  of  the  fableaux  and  the  sotties  standi i.^ 
at  the  outer  threshold  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  tipsy  with 
the  wine  of  new  learning.  Montaigne*s  Essays  belong  mort- 
pronouncedly  to  the  new  age.  They  are  the  reflect i^ni^ 
thrown  together  in  agreeable  disorder,  of  a  man  who  vitu  > 
the  world  seriously,  but  amiably  despairs  of  finding  it  ii  > 
telligible  as  a  whole,  and  whose  essential  skepticism  allien 
him  with  the  minds  of  the  eighteenth  century,  who  wen 
the  first  to  make  him  popular. 

On  the  formal  side  the  characteristics  of  the  period  wen» 
most  noticeable  in  lyric  and  dramatic  poetry.  In  tltt 
drama,  though  in  Pans  the  representation  of  mysteries  wik- 


586 


FRENCH  LITERATURE 


Helvetius  (1715-71),  the  Systhme  de  la  Nature  of  d*Hol- 
bach  (1728-89),  and  the  writings  of  the  other  Encyclope- 
distes  asserted  a  pronounced  materialism.  This  entire  shift- 
ing of  the  point  of  view,  laying  stress  on  the  outer  world 
rather  than  on  the  mind,  lent  a  great  impulse  to  the  study 
of  the  natural  sciences,  and  Bunon  (1707-88)  was  but  the 
most  illustrious  of  a  great  number  who  applied  themselves 
eagerly  to  the  observation  of  nature.  The  comparative 
study  of  political  institutions,  as  Montesquieu  (16o9-1755) 
conductea  it,  robbed  the  institution  of  royalty  of  its  special 
authority.  The  society  which  afterward  became  the  Societe 
des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres  began  to  renew  acquaint- 
ance with  that  national  past  upon  which  French  literature 
had  turned  its  back  since  the  Renaissance,  and  to  find  there 
a  various  and  multiform  life  of  which  the  great  century  had 
been  unconscious  or  disdainful.  Foreign  literatures  also 
began  to  open  to  view  other  canons  of  taste  than  the  ones 
that  had  ruled  classicism.  Of  especial  influence  were  the 
works  of  Shakspeare  and  the  poems  of  Ossian,  both  translated 
within  twenty  years  of  the  Revolution  by  Letourneur.  At 
the  same  time,  the  complete  ascendency  of  logic,  lucidity, 
and  common  sense,  with  which,  as  has  been  said,  the  drift 
of  the  time  was  in  full  accord,  was  threatened  by  the  senti- 
mentalism  of  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (1712-78),  who,  in  dis- 
cussions of  politics  {Contrat  80ciaX)  and  of  education  {£mile)j 
in  fiction  {La  Nouvelle  ffSloUse)  and  in  autobiography  (Con- 
fessions), exalted  the  voice  of  feeling  to  an  authority  at  least 
equal  to  that  of  reason. 

These  elements  of  a  new  conception  of  life  became  effec- 
tive for  literature  but  slowly.  Rousseau  exerted  the  most 
profound  direct  influence  by  the  fascinating  and  brilliant 
style  by  which  he  dazzled  not  only]  his  own  but  subsequent 
generations ;  and  Bemardin  de  Saint-Pierre  (1737-1814)  was 
the  first  of  a  long  line  of  disciples  who  combined,  like  their 
master,  sentiment  and  nature  (Paul  et  Vir^inie),  The  emo- 
tionfd  element  appeared  again,  in  combmation  this  time 
with  the  more  democratic  conception  of  society,  in  the  sen- 
timental comedy  of  common  life  inaugurated,  under  English 
influence,  by  de  la  Chauss^e  in  the  middle  of  the  century, 
and  defended  in  theory  and  practice  by  Diderot  The  influ- 
ence of  the  same  democratic  conception  of  society  may  be 
detected  in  the  realistic  tendency  of  Le  Sage's  most  vital 
work,  Gil  Bias, 

It  was  not  till  after  the  great  breaking  up  of  all  the  old 
forms  of  life  in  the  Revolution  that  conscious  and  notice- 
able attempts  were  made  to  deduce  the  literary  consequences 
of  the  new  order  of  ideas ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  to 
create  a  literature  that  should  adequately  reproduce  and 
interpret  life  from  these  changed  standpoints,  and  as  affect- 
ed by  these  new  elements  that  were  seen  to  enter  into  it.  To 
do  this  was  the  task  of  the  romantic  school,  whose  inspiring 
principle  was  to  bring  literature  closer  to  the  reality  of  man 
and  nature— seeing  in  natui*e  a  capacity  to  influence  man 
emotionally,  and  regarding  man  in  the  concrete  as  the  in- 
finitely various  spirit  that  history  shows,  and  in  the  abstract 
as  that  absolute  being  assumed  by  the  Revolution,  created 
free  and  equal,  from  whose  capacities  the  limitations  of  un- 
natural institutions  were  forever  done  away  by  the  return 
to  liberty.  Chateaubriand  (1768-1848)  sought  in  history 
{OSnie  du  christianisme)  inspiring  examples  of  the  reality 
and  power  of  those  forces  of  hfe  which  classicism  had  largelj 
ignored ;  and  in  the  figures  created  imaginatively  out  of  his 
own  experiences  {Rene,  Atala)  he  reproduced  the  boundless 
aspirations,  the  unfettered  license  of  desire,  thought,  and 
will,  which  belong  to  this  revolutionary  conception  of  man. 
Madame  de  Stael  (1766-1817)  drew  from  her  own  experience 
somewhat  similar  figures  (fiorinne^  Delphine\  and  performed 
furthermore  the  signal  service  of  opening  to  the  French 
public  of  letters  the  strange  and  stimulating  world  of  Ger- 
man poetry  and  philosophy.  In  Lamartine  (1790-1869)  was 
opened  a  fountain  of  pure  poetic  feeling  of  essentially  lyric 
and  elegiac  quality  that  had  long  been  sealed  in  France. 
But  Victor  Hugo  (1802-85)  first  successfully  formulated  the 
principles  of  the  new  movement,  declared*  the  total  inade- 
quacy of  the  classical  forms,  and  consciously  founded  a 
schooL  The  early  volumes  of  lyrics  and  dramas  (Odes  et 
Ballades,  1826;  OHentales,  1828;  CromweU,  1827),  in  which 
he  strove  to  render  the  variety,  color,  and  striking  contrasts 
that  he  found  everywhere  in  life,  he  accompanied  with  pref- 
aces theoretically  defending  his  practice.  He  met  with 
violent  opposition — a  sign  of  the  tenacious  persistence  of 
the  classical  tradition — but  was  supported  by  an  enthusiastic 
band  of  devoted  followers.  The  performance  of  Hemani  in 
1830  has  been  regarded  as  the  critical  moment  of  the  battle 


of  romanticism :  and  from  that  time  it  was  dominant.  Vic- 
tor Hugo  continued  throughout  his  long  life  to  be  true  t«* 
the  general  conceptions  of  life  and  art  that  he  defende<i  in 
the  prefaces  of  his  first  volumes.  Of  the  group  of  his  ardent 
supporters  of  1830,  however,  most  were  more  loyal  to  th<- 
spirit  of  the  romantic  movement  than  to  Hugo's  own  formu- 
lation of  it,  and  soon  turned  away  from  a  style  of  represent- 
ing life  that  seemed  to  sin  against  reality  by  emphasis  and 
exaggeration.  So  Alfred  de  Musset  (1810^7),  whose  impulsr- 
came  wholly  from  romanticism,  took  after  1880  a  somewhat 
reserved  attitude  toward  the  school  of  Hugo.  His  fervid 
lyrics  are  peculiarly  his  own,  the  expression  of  that  capacity 
for  passionate  and  emotional  experience  which  was  his  gre&t 
gift.  Gautier  (1811-72)  alone  of  the  better  talents  of  the 
first  enthusiasm  remained  devoted  to  Hugo,  though  he  in- 
augurated a  further  development  of  the  poetic  creed  by  a 
special  emphasis  on  form,  and  became  thus  the  master  of  a 
new  generation  of  poets  of  the  second  empire,  the  Pama*- 
siens. 

In  prose  the  romantic  spirit,  which  had  drawn  so  much 
of  its  inspiration  from  history,  signalized  itself  by  ereatint: 
a  brilliant  school  of  historians,  Raynouard  (1761-1836),  («ui- 
zot  (1787-1874).  Augustin  Thierry  (1795-1856),  Mignet  (1796- 
1884),  Michelet  (1798-1874),  and  many  less  iiiuitrious.  It 
also  showed  kinship  with  history  by  compelling  almost  all 
fiction  for  the  moment  into  the  historical  form,  and  X\i\i> 
starting  the  novel  on  a  new  phase  of  development  which  it 
has  since  mainly  followed.  Of  those  novelists  who  had  c(>ti- 
spicuous  success  in  the  years  about  1830,  Victor  Hugo,  Alfre<i 
de  Vigny  (1797-1863),  Alexandre  Dumas  (1803-70),  Honnrt 
de  Balzac  (1799-1850),  and  George  Sand  (1804-76),  only  the 
last,  who  was  consumed  by  her  passionate  revolt  against  ?^ 
oiety,  and  absorbed  in  her  attempt  to  apply  the  concept i()n> 
of  revolutionary  man  to  contemporary  institutions,  faOed  at 
least  to  serve  an  apprenticeship  in  the  historical  noveh 

Since  1850  both  poetry  ana  prose,  in  harmony  with  the 
growth  of  the  democratic  idea  and  the  changed  concept  i  on  ^ 
which  the  conquests  of  the  physical  sciences  have  proaucti. 
have  ascribed  an  increasing  value  to  commonplace  persun5 
and  events,  and  to  material  things.  The  doctrine  of  **  art 
for  art's  sake  "  of  the  Pamassiens  involves  the  supremacy 
of  the  external,  material  form,  and  the  realistic  tendency  iii 
the  novel,  which  has  continued  the  movement  of  romanti- 
cism, has  more  and  more  sought  its  criteria  of  realitv  in 
extreme  democratic  and  materialistic  conceptions,  ^he 
novelists  who  represent  the  successive  phases  of  the  realistic 
novel,  de  Balzac,  Flaubert,  de  Goncourt,  and  Zola,  show 
plainly  how  literature  in  the  latter  half  of  the  century  ha> 
drawn  its  interpretation  of  life  more  and  more  from  thv 
physical  sciences.  The  method  of  impassive  observation  and 
tabulation  of  phenomena,  which  has  been  such  a  formidable 
weapon  in  the  hands  of  these  sciences,  is  demanded  for  liter- 
ature also.  Its  employment  in  the  fields  of  historical  and 
literary  criticism  by  Renan  and  Taine,  with  more  or  le*^ 
rigor  according  to  the  temperament  of  each,  has  prodnce<i 
the  most  conspicuous  examples  of  later  French  criticism. 

Since  1885  a  tendency  is  perceptible  to  demand  of  poetry 
again  a  greater  emotional  and  ideal  content,  and  to  insist 
more  strenuously  upon  the  reality  and  value  of  the  moral 
and  spiritual  forces  of  life.  Of  this  the  various  confus^i 
groups  of  decadents  and  symholistes,  and  the  more  coherent 
movement,  sometimes  called  "  Neo-Christian,'*  are  expres- 
sions. It  seems  doubtful  whether  in  most  cases  this  ten- 
dency rests  upon  an  intellectual  conviction  of  the  truth  of 
the  conceptions  of  life  sought,  or  on  a  patriotic  belief  thnt, 
were  they  present,  they  would  be  favorable  to  the  perpetuitr 
of  the  national  vigor. 

Bibliography.— For  all  periods :  D^mogeot,  Bistoire  d* 
la  litterature  fran^ise  (Paris,  1851,  frequent  new  editions •; 
Gerusez,  Histoire  de  la  literature  fran^ise  (2  Tola.,  Pari>. 
1852,  frequent  new  editions) ;  D.  Nisard,  Histoire  de  la  Itt- 
Urature  frangaise  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1861);  L.  Petit  de  Julit^ 
ville,  Le  TUatre  en  France  (Pms,  1889);  H.Van  I^utu 
History  of  French  Literature  (8  vols..  New  York,  1876-T7». 
G.  Saintsbury,  Sh<>rt  History  of  French  Literature  (Oxft^rd. 
Clarendon  Press,  1882) ;  Warren,  Primer  of  French  Liirrn- 
ture  (Boston,  1889). 

1000-1500 :  C.  Auberfin,  Histoire  de  la  langue  et  de  hi 
littiraiure  frangaises  au  moyen  dge  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1876):  U. 
Paris,  La  LittSrature  frangaise  au  tn&yen  dge  (Paris,  Sd  ed 
1890) ;  L.  Petit  de  Julleville,  Les  CoriUdiens  en  Franre  oh 
moyen  dge  (Paris,  1884) ;  Les  Mystkres  (Paris,  1880). 

1500-1600:  Darmesteter  and  Hatzfeld,  Le  XVI'  SificU  en 
Fra/nce  (Paris,  4th  ed.  1889);  C.  A.  Saintc-Beuve,  Tableof* 


588 


FREiRG 


FRESCO 


the  Samnite  wars ;  lived  in  a  fertile  hilly  region  bounded  E. 
by  the  Adriatic  and  S.  by  the  river  Tifernus.  Long  the 
allies  of  Rome,  they  joined  (b.  c.  90)  in  the  Social  war,  and 
probably  were  enfranchised  with  the  other  Italians. 

Frtre,  frfir,  Charles  Theodore:  genre  and  landscape 
painter ;  b.  in  Paris,  June  24,  1815.  Pupil  of  J.  Cogniet  and 
Roqueplan ;  brother  of  P.  fidouard  Frere ;  second-class  medal. 
Salon,  1848,  and  medal,  Salon,  1865.  His  pictures  generally 
depict  Oriental  subjects.  Arab  Caravafisary  Reatitig,  Nancy 
Museum.  W.  A.  C. 

Frere,  freer.  Sir  Henry  Bartle  Edward,  K.  C.  B.,  O.  C. 
S.  I.,  D.  C.  L. :  diplomatist ;  b.  Mar.  29, 1815 ;  educated  at  the 
India  College,  Haileybury ;  entered  the  Bengal  civil  service 
1833;  became  British  resident  in  Scinde  1856;  served  with 
distinction  during  the  Indian  mutiny ;  was  governor  of  Bom- 
bay 1862-67;  sworn  a  member  of  the  privy  council  1873; 
president  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  1873-74 ;  nego- 
tiated the  treaty  of  1873  with  Zanzibar ;  governor  of  Cape 
Colony  1877-60,  during  Kaffir  and  Zulu  wars.  D.  at  Wim- 
bledon, May  29, 1884. 

Frere,  John  Hookham:  diplomatist  and  author;  b.  in 
London,  May  21,  1769;  educated  at  Eton  and  Caius  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  master's  decree  in  1795 ; 
at  once  entered  the  Foreign  Office ;  was  in  Parliament  1796- 
1802 ;  Under-Secretary  of  St«te  for  Foreign  Affairs  1799 ; 
became  envoy  to  Portugal  1800;  envoy  to  Spain  1802-04; 
privy  councilor  1804 ;  minister  to  Spam  1808-09 ;  married 
the  Countess  of  ErroU  1812;  removed  to  Malta  1821.  D. 
at  the  Piet4,  Malta,  Jan.  7, 1846.  He  was  a  poet  of  much 
merit,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Quarterly  Review ;  au- 
thor of  King  Arthur  and  his  Round  Table  (1817,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  "  Whistlecraft ") ;  published  Translations  of 
Several  Plays  of  Aristophanes  (1^0^.  one  of  the  best  transla- 
tions of  a  classical  author  in  the  English  language ;  Theognis 
Restitutus  (1842) ;  and  other  writings.  See  his  Works^  with 
memoir  (1874).  Revised  by  A.  Gudehai^. 

Fr^re,  frSr,  Pierre  £douard  :  genre-painter ;  b.  in  Paris, 
Jan.  10, 1819.  Pupil  of  Paul  Delaroche ;  third-class  medals, 
Salon,  1852,  and  Paris  Exposition,  1855 ;  second-class,  Salon, 
1852;  Legion  of  Honor  1855.  His  pictures  are  somewhat 
anecdotal  in  sentiment,  but  are  well  painted.  He  had  many 
pupils  and  followers  at  his  home  in  £couen,  and  his  works 
are  popular  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  Three  pictures 
are  m  the  collection  of  W.  T.  Walters,  Baltimore ;  Exercise 
is  in  the  collection  of  J.  J.  Astor,  New  York  city.  D.  at 
ficouen,  France,  May  28, 1886.  W.  A.  C. 

Frdre-Orban,  -or'ba&n',  Hubert  Joseph  Walther  :  Bel- 
gian statesman ;  b.  in  Liege,  Apr.  24,  1812 ;  admitted  to  the 
bar  1832.  He  was  a  liberal  member  of  the  lower  house 
1847 ;  Minister  of  Public  Works  1847,  and  in  the  same  year 
Minister  of  Finance ;  began  the  reform  of  the  corn-laws  in 
Belgium  before  Sir  Robert  Peel  completed  that  reform  in 
England ;  was  for  the  second  time  Minister  of  Finance  1848- 
52,  and  again  1861-68 ;  head  of  the  cabinet,  with  the  port- 
folio of  Forei^  Affairs,  1878-84.  His  administrations  were 
noted  for  the  mcrease  of  state  income,  the  erection  of  great 

fmblic  buildings,  reform  of  the  school  system,  etc.  He  is  a 
eader  of  the  Belgian  liberals. 

Frerichs,  fr§'richs,  Friedricu  Theodor,  M.  D.  :  phvsi- 
cian ;  b.  at  Aurich,  Hanover,  Mar.  24, 1819 ;  graduate<f  at 
G5ttingen  and  studied  at  the  leading  European  capitals; 
became  an  exceedingly  popular  medical  lecturer  at  (jottin- 
gen ;  went  in  1851  to  Kiel  and  assumed  charge  of  the  hos- 
pital ;  became  in  1852  Professor  of  Pathology  and  Therapeu- 
tics at  Breslau  and  director  of  the  School  of  Clinical  Medi- 
cine. He  afterward  removed  to  Berlin.  His  most  valuable 
work  is  a  Practical  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Liver^  which 
has  been  translated  into  English  and  French.  D.  Mar.  14, 
1885. 

Fr^ron,  frd'ron,  ;feLiE  Catherine:  author;  b.  at  Quim- 
j)er.  Prance,  in  1718 ;  was  educated  at  the  College  Louis-le- 
Urand,  Paris ;  left  the  Jesuits,  among  whom  he  was  a  pro- 
fessor, in  1739,  for  some  unknown  cause,  but  still  wore  the 
garb  of  a  cleric.  Disappointed  of  a  benefice,  he  entered 
upon  the  life  of  a  journalist.     His  periodical,  Let f res  de 

Mme,  la  Comtesse  de (1746-49),  was  suppressed,  and 

soon  reappeared  as  Lettres  sur  quelques  icrits  du  temps 
(1749-54).     His  Annee  LittSraire  (1754-76)  was  finally  sup- 

Sressed  by  his  enemies,  and  he  died  of  chagrin  Mar.  10, 1776. 
[e  is  remembered  for  his  lifelong  hostility  to  Voltaire  and 
the  Encyclopedistes,  who  fuUjr  returned  his  hatred ;  for  his 
zealous  championship  of  ecclesiastical  and  monarchical  ideas ; 


and  as  one  of  the  founders  of  journalistic  criticism.  His 
works  are  mostly  criticisms,  poems,  translations,  andpaf>ers 
on  subjects  of  no  permanent  interest ;  author  of  Misioire 
de  Marie  Stuart  (1742)  and  Histoire  de  Vempire  d'AlU- 
magne  (1771).— His  son,  Louis  Stanislas  (1765-1802),  Ls  re- 
membered as  a  bloodthirsty  Jacobin,  who  became  an  equally 
cruel  reactionist.  He  published  in  1796  MSmoires  historiqu^* 
sur  la  reaction  royale  et  sur  les  malheurs  du  Midi, 

Fresco,  or  Fresco-painting  [fresco  is  from  Ital.  frt^ro, 
adj.,  fresh,  cool,  from  (J.  H.  Germ,  "^fre^^  frise  (>  Mod.  Germ. 
fnsch^  fresh) :  O.  Eng.  fersc,  fresc  >  Kng.  fresh^ :  a  term 
somewhat  vaguely  applied  to  different  methods  of  mural 
decoration  in  colors  or  in  chiaroscuro^  hxiX.  which,  strictly 
speaking,  belongs  only  to  paintings  executed  on  fresh  <.t 
moistened  plaster.  In  the  so-called  buon  fresco,  or  true 
fresco^  mineral  colors,  mixed  with  water  or  lime-water,  are 
applied  directly  to  the  smooth  wet  face  of  good  lime  mnr- 
tar— the  last  very  thin  layer,  called  the  intonaeo,  being  of  & 
particularly  fine  quality — in  which  case  a  new  chemic  al 
combination  takes  place,  and  a  crystalline  surface  aim*  ^t 
impervious  to  moisture  is  formed.  The  practice  of  stain- 
ing walls  with  colors  in  this  way  may  be  traced  even  to 
Egypt  and  Greece,  but  it  is  somewhat  doubtful  whether  it 
was  ever  applied  to  works  of  high  art  till  toward  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  earliest  specimens  of  bwm 
fresco  are  probably  those  of  Pietro  d'Orvieto  (continues!  bv 
Benozzo  Grozzoli)  in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa,  although 
Forster  credits  the  evidence  tnat  Altichiero  and  Avanzo 
had  employed  this  process  earlier  at  Padua.  Albert  li&r, 
in  the  notes  to  his  translation  of  Cennini,  declared  thut 
buon  fresco  was  practiced  even  in  the  Roman  period.  an<i 
has  been  practiced  occasionally  ever  since;  that  it  wh^ 
known  in  Byzantium ;  and  that  the  art  has  been  handt^i 
down  traditionally  in  the  convents  of  Mt.  Athos.  However 
this  may  be,  the  works  of  Giotto  and  his  contemporaries 
though  alwavs  spoken  of  as  frescoes,  were  not  executed  in 
this  wa^.  The  usual  method  of  painting  on  plastered  walK, 
in  his  time,  was  to  allow  the  plaster  to  dry  thoroughly  aiid 
then  to  rewet  such  portions  of  it  as  the  artist  could  cover 
with  color  at  a  single  sitting.  This  is  called  by  later  Ital- 
ians/resco  secco,  or  dry  fresco.  Many  suppose  that  the  c»li 
Roman  frescoes  were  generally  executed  m  this  way,  t»iiT 
there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  on  the  subject,  Si»n!«- 
of  them  are  certainly  in  tempera,  and  others  in  «i«a«^tr. 
(For  further  information  as  to  the  methods  employe<I  u\ 
producing  the  frescoes  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  an-j 
for  interesting  chemical  expenments  upon  these  fres<vx^'H. 
see  Overbeck  s  Pompeii  (second  revised  ed.,  1866).  vi»L  i,, 
ch.  iii.)  After  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  hutm 
fresco,  or  painting  on  undried  plaster,  became  the  favorite 
art  of  the  greatest  Italian  masters,  ana  Masaccio,  M^ui- 
tegna,  Demonias,  Ghirlandaio,  Francia,  Perugino,  Luiia. 
Fra  Bartolommeo,  Raphael,  Michaelangelo,  and  Correg-iri ' 
all  gloried  in  it  and  became  glorious  through  it.  The  <w  Tft- 
ness  of  execution  required  by  the  rapid  drying  of  the  mor- 
tar, the  impossibility  of  correcting  a  mistake  without  re- 
moving a  portion  of  the  plaster,  the  vast  spaces  to  be  filU^i. 
at  once  demanded  and  permitted  the  exercise  of  the  high- 
est artistic  faculties ;  and  Michaelangelo  went  so  far  as  w 
declare  oil-painting  to  be  work  for  only  women  and  chil- 
dren. One  obvious  advantage  of  fresco  over  oil  painting  i'« 
that  from  the  absence  of  all  gloss  of  surface  tne  picture 
may  be  seen  equally  well  from  every  point  of  view;  anotht-r 
is  its  greater  durability  under  the  same  exposure.  The  su)>- 
ject  to  be  represented  on  the  wall  was  first  arawn  ^and  shadi-*! 
on  paper  backed  with  cloth ;  this  cartoon,  as  it  was  calltHi. 
or  a  tracing  from  a  portion  of  it,  was  then  applied  to  the 
wall,  the  outlines  were  carefully  pricked  through  into  Ih- 
wet  plaster  and  a  fine  black  powder  being  blown  or  sifttni 
into  the  perforated  lines,  a  distinct  drawing  was  left  behind 
Old  cartoons  pierced  in  this  way  are  still  extant,  and  tlu 
black  dots  can  be  detected  in  the  outlines  of  many  a  bi^au- 
tiful  old  fresco.  Careful  inspection  will  also  frequent  W 
show  where  the  work  of  one  day  is  joined  to  that  of  an- 
other, for  the  mason  was  obliged  to  lay  the  plaster  fn»i!i 
day  to  day  as  the  artist  covered  it.  A  large  proiwrtion  A 
the  finest  pictures  in  Italy  are  frescoes.  Those  of  Giotto  may 
perhaps  be  best  studied  at  Assisi  and  Padua — those  of  Fni 
Angelico  at  Florence  and  Orvieto.  The  SS.  Annunziata  at 
Florence  possesses  some  of  Andrea  del  Sa^'s  best  fn»>- 
coes — the  exquisite  Madonna  del  Sacco  and  a  series  cf 
scenes  from  the  life  of  Philippo  Benizzi.  The  Camera  <*f 
San  Paolo  at  Parma  contains  surpassingly  beautiful  fnv«- 


590 


FREYTAG 


FRICTION 


School  of  Mined ;  in  1852  engineer  of  mines  of  Mont-de- 
Marsan,  at  Chartres  in  1854,  Bordeaux  in  1855.  In  the  lat- 
ter year  he  was  made  eeneral  manager  of  the  Southern  sys- 
tem of  railways.  He  held  this  position  five  years,  during 
which  time  he  gave  to  the  service  an  organization  which  was 
imitated  by  all  the  other  railways  of  France.  From  1862  to 
1870  he  was  sent  on  several  scientific  missions,  and  presented 
many  memoirs  to  the  Academy,  including  one  upon  the  la- 
bor of  women  and  children  in  factories  in  Great  Britain.  In 
1870  he  was  member  of  the  council  of  Tarn-et-Garonne,  and 
later  chief  of  the  military  cabinet  of  Gambetta  at  Tours.  In 
1876  elected  senat.or,  and  in  1877  made  Minister  of  Public 
Works.  This  position  he  retained  until  1879,  and  then  be- 
came Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  president  of  the  coun- 
cil, a  position  which  he  resigned  in  1880.  Two  years  later 
he  was  a^ain  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  president  of 
the  council,  and  has  been  in  the  cabinet  almost  continuously 
since  that  time.  He  was  made  chief  engineer  of  mines  in 
1875,  and  inspector-general  in  1883.  Officer  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  since  1870.  He  was  made  member  Hbre  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1882.  Upon  the  death  of  Bussy  he  was 
invited  to  become  a  candidate  for  the  vacancy  in  the  Insti- 
tute. Nearly  all  the  other  candidates  withdrew,  and  he  was 
elected  in  1890  and  received  in  1891.  He  has  written  La 
Ouerre  en  Province  pendant  la  Sikge  de  Paris  (Paris,  1871), 
Prificipes  de  Vassainiasement  des  villes  (1870),  etc. 

W.  R.  HUTTON. 

Frerta^,  f ri'ta^h,  Gustav,  Ph.  D. :  author ;  b.  at  Kreuz- 
berg,  Prussian  Silesia,  July  13,  1816 ;  studied  at  Berlin  and 
Breslau ;  produced  successful  plays,  tales,  and  poems ;  was 
editor  of  the  Leipzig  6hrenzboten  (1848-70) ;  held  for  some 
je&rs  a  court  position  at  Gotha ;  and  since  1879  has  lived 
m  Wiesbaden.  Of  his  numerous  works,  the  best  known  in 
the  U.  S.  are  Die  Joumalisten  (1853) ;  Soil  und  Haben  (Debit 
and  Credit ;  1855,  37th  ed.  1891),  of  which  there  are  several 
English  translations ;  Bilder  aua  der  deutachen  Vergangen- 
heit  (1859-67, 18th  ed.  1891) ;  and  Die  verlorene  Handachrift 
(1864,  20th  ed.  1891),  translated  by  Mrs.  Malcolm  under  the 
title  The  Lost  Manuscript  (3  vols.,  London,  1865) ;  Die  A?m- 
en  (1872-80,  6  vols.) ;  Geaammelte  Werke  (1886-88,  22  vols.). 

Friar  [earlier  frier  <  M.  Eng.  frere,  from  0.  Fr.  frere  > 
Fr.fr^re  <  h&t,f rater,  brother]:  a  member  of  a  monastic 
brotherhood,  especially  one  who  oelon^  to  one  of  the  mendi- 
cant orders — ^the  Franciscans,  Augustmians,  Carmelites,  and 
Dominicans.  The  Dominicans  were  called  Black  Friars, 
from  their  garments,  and  also  Prea^hinff  Friars.  The 
Franciscans  were  Gray  Friars ;  the  Carmelites  at  one  time 
were  called  Barred  Friars,  from  their  striped  robes,  but  in 
later  times  thev  were  called  White  Friars.  Monks  not 
priests  are  called  friars  in  Ireland,  of  whatever  order ;  but 
after  taking  priests'  orders  they  lose  this  distinctive  name. 
The  Franciscans  are  called  Priara  Minor,  and  there  is  a 
small  order  called  Friara  Minims,  (See  Minims.)  Crutched 
Friars  were  canons  regular  of  the  Holy  Cross. 

Friar-bird:  a  local  name  given  to  an  Australian  bird 
(Tropidorhynchua  comiculatua)  on  account  of  its  bare  head 
and  neck.  Known  also  as  the  monk,  leather-head,  poor  sol- 
dier, and  four  o'clock.  F.  A.  L. 

Frias,  TomXs  :  statesman ;  b.  in  Potosi,  Bolivia,  Jan.  14, 
1805.  He  entered  political  life  in  1828,  held  various  important 
diplomatic  positions,  and  was  Secretary  of  State  under  Ve- 
lasco  (1840).  Jos6  Ballivian  (1841-46),  Lmares  (1858-60),  and 
Morales  (1871).  After  the  assassination  of  Morales  (Nov.  25, 
1872)  he  was  president  ad  interim  until  the  accession  of 
Adolfo  Ballivian  in  Mav,  1873,  when  he  was  made  vice- 
president  By  the  death  of  Ballivian,  Feb.  14,  1874,  Frias 
Decame  president,  holding  the  office  until  1877.  His  admin- 
istration was  peaceful  and  progressive.  In  1879  he  was 
minister  to  France.  Frias  was  one  of  the  greatest  states- 
men bis  country  has  produced,  and  he  has  been  called  the 
Bolivian  Washington.    D.  in  La  Paz,  Aug.,  1884. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Frich,  frich,  Joachim  Gyldenkrantz  :  Norwegian  painter; 
b.  in  Bergen,  July  24,  1810.  In  1850  he  produced  six 
paintings  for  Oscarshal  in  Christiania,  and  at  the  National 
Gallery  he  is  represented  by  several  Norwegian  landscapes. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Norwegian  Dahl  and  the  German 
Rottmann.     D.  in  Christiania,  Jan.  29,  1858.        R.  B.  A. 

Fricke,  Gustav  Adolf,  D.  D.  :  Lutheran  theologian ;  b. 
at  Leipzig,  Aug.  23, 1822 ;  became  extraordinary  Professor 
of  Theology  there  1849 ;  ordinary  profe^or  at  Kiel  1851,  at 
Leipzig  1867.  where  he  still  lectures. 


Friction  [vi&  Fr.  from  Lat.  fric'tio,  rubbing,  deriv.  of 
frica're,  fric'tum,  rub] :  that  force,  always  acting  as  a  re- 
sistance,  which  is  experienced  when  it  is  attempted  to  movp 
one  body  upon  another  which  is  pressed  into  close  contact 
with  it.*  Friction  is  generally  supposed  to  be  due  to  tlie 
interlocking  of  the  asperities  of  the  two  surfaces,  and  i*i 
abrasion  by  tearing  them  oflf.  Friction  is  of  two  kinds- 
sliding  friction,  which  is  encountered  when  one  body  i> 
forced  to  slide  upon  another ;  and  rolling  friction,  which  is 
that  resistance  which  is  met  with  when  it  is  attempted  t4> 
cause  one  body  to  roll  upon  another.  The  friction  of  a  slfd 
upon  the  ground  or  of  a  sleigh  upon  snow  illustrates  tbf- 
first  kind.  The  resistance  of  a  carriage  or  of  a  railrr>ad 
train  consists  principally  of  the  rolling  friction  of  the  wheels 
upon  the  road  or  upon  the  track,  and  of  the  sliding  friction 
of  the  wheels  with  their  axles.  When  two  bodies  are  at  rest 
and  in  contact  it  requires  more  force  to  get  up  relative  mo- 
tion than  to  overcome  friction  after  that  motion  has  com- 
menced. The  "  friction  of  rest "  or  "  friction  of  quiescence  ** 
is  greater  than  the  "  friction  of  motion."  This  difference  is 
most  marked  with  comparatively  soft  materials  and  with 
great  pressures.  A  slignt  jar  will  usually  reduce  the  fric- 
tion of  quiescence  of  hard  smooth  surfaces  to  that  of  mo- 
tion. 

In  order  to  determine  the  real  expenditure  of  power  in 
doing  work,  and  to  ascertain  the  efficiency  of  machines,  it  l« 
necessary  to  learn  the  amount  of  f  rictional  resistance  to  be 
encountered,  and  to  estimate  the  quantity  of  work  which 
may  be  expected  to  be  absorbed  by  it  in  each  case.  It  is 
this  force  which  has  most  effect  in  reducing  the  efficiency 
of  mechanical  combinations,  and  the  losses  from  this  cau^^ 
alone  are  frequently  very  serious,  amounting  to  25  or  even 
50  per  centf 

The  investigation  of  the  laws  of  friction  and  the  deter- 
mination of  the  "coefficient  of  friction"  have  employed 
many  of  the  most  distinguished  philosophers  and  en^n<4*rs. 
The  earliest  extended  researches  were  those  of  Coulomb, 
made  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
published  in  1785. J  They  are  given  in  full  in  his  Th forte  drjf 
Machinea  aimpUa,  etc,  1821.  The  investigations  of  Geurcf 
Rennie,  as  published  in  the  Philoaophuxu  Tranaacii<mit  uf 
the  Royal  Society  in  1829,  and  those  of  Gen.  Morin,  reoonie.1 
in  the  MSmmres  de  VInatitut  for  1833,  were  more  extendi<i. 
The  latter,  which  were  made  under  the  direction  of  the 
French  Government,  were  long  accepted  as  standard.  Valu- 
able and  still  later  experiments  have  been  made  by  Uim.* 
by  Bochet,!  by  Woodbury  and  Tower,  and  some  work  ha* 
been  done  by  tne  writer.** 

In  determining  the  amount  of  frictional  resistance  the 
apparatus  used  is  often,  for  slight  pressures  and  low  speeds, 
very  simple. 
Fig.  1  repre- 
sents one  of 
these  instru- 
ments. A 
plane,  A  B,  is 
placed  hori- 
zontally, and 
loaded  with  a 
weight,  W. 
The  plane  is 
then  raised  at 
the  end  A  un- 
til the  weight 

begins  to  move.  The  force  of  friction  of  rest  has  then  a  rat  j  t . 
to  that  component  of  the  force  of  gravity  producing  pres5ur- . 
which  is  equal  to  the  ratio  of  the  perpendiculars  A  I)  aiui  Y 
E  to  the  bases  B  D  and  B  E— i.  e.  the  "  coefficient "  of  fn. 

W  sin  i     F 

tion  of  quiescence  is  measured  bv  — - — iz-!— .-  =  tan  i  =  f 

'  W  cost     P 

The  angle  F  B  E  =  t  is  the  "  limiting  angle  of  resistano**.'* 
Similarly  the  "  coefficient  of  friction  of  motion  "  is  deter- 
mined by  noting  at  what  angle  motion  will  just  comraeno*. 
and  will  continue  with  uniform  velocity  after  having  been 
started  by  a  slight  jar. 
The  "tribometer"  of  Coulomb  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.    A 

*  See  treatise  on  Friction  and  Loat  Work  in  Machinery  and  ifiu- 
toork,  by  R.  H.  Thurston  (New  York). 

t  Ibidem. 

%  Young's  Natural  FhiloBophy,  vol.  ii. 

»  Polytechniaches  CenttxUolatt.  \9SA. 

S  Annale»  den  Afines^  S"*  s^rie,  p.  xix. 

♦*  See  fViction  and  Lost  Work  in  Machinery  and  MiUwork  t*v 
accounts  of  this  latest  work. 


Fio.  1. 


592 


FRICTION 


PRIEDLAND 


ence  in  determining  the  value  of  a  lubricant,  that  which  is 
best  adapted  for  any  special  case  should  always  be  selected 
after  trial  under  the  precise  conditions  of  actual  use,  both 
of  sueed  and  pressure,  whenever  possible. 

Work  lost  in  overcoming  friction  ^ives  rise  to  heat  to 
the  amount  of  one  British  thermal  unit  for  each  772  or  778 
foot-pounds  so  expended.  Where  this  evolution  of  heat  does 
not  produce  overheating  of  the  bearing  surface  or  burning 
of  tne  unguent,  it  does  no  harm.  The  amount  of  pressure 
thrown  upon  the  surfaces  exposed  to  friction  should  always 
be  carefully  kept  far  below  the  limit  at  which  heating  is 
liable  to  occur  at  the  proposed  velocity  of  rubbing. 

The  diameter  of  the  journal  of  a  revolving  shaft  is  fixed 
by  the  consideration  of  the  stress  which  it  has  to  bear ;  its 
length  is  determined  by  the  magnitude  of  frictional  resist- 
ances and  the  limit  of  pressure  admissible.  The  following 
formula  was  first  proposed  by  the  writer  in  1862,  from  ob- 
servation of  and  expenment  upon  the  crank-shafts  of  naval 
steamers : 


eOjOgow pv_ 

^~       V     '^'"        60,00(W 


(1) 


Rankine  in  1865  published  the  following,  as  derived  from 
locomotive  practice : 

„        44,800 

^■"60r+20*  ^^ 

In  these  formulas  I  represents  the  minimum  length  of  bear- 
ing in  inches ;  d  is  its  diameter,  V  the  velocity  of  rubbing 
in  feet  per  minute ;  j9  the  maximum  pressure  per  square  inch 
of  longitudinal  section  of  the  bearing,  and  P  the  maximum 
total  load  on  the  journal  in  pounds.  Mr.  J.  D.  Van  Buren 
published  in  1869  the  formula  deducible  from  (1) : 

PN 

^  ~  350^000'  ^^^ 

where  P  is  the  total  working  load  on  the  bearing  of  a  crank- 

Sin  in  pounds,  and  iVthe  number  of  revolutions  per  minute, 
[r.  T.  Skeel  in  1873  gave  the  following : 


IffP     IHP 
""  180«       150a 


(4) 


in  which  JffP  represents  the  "  indicated  horse-power  "  trans- 
mitted by  the  crank-pin,  and  $  is  the  stroke  of  piston  in 
inches.  All  of  these  formulas  will  be  found  useful  for  plane 
as  well  as  cylindrical  surfaces.  These  several  formulas  give 
different  results,  but  those  giving  smallest  journals  repre- 
sent a  limit  of  safe  working ;  those  giving  largest  bearing  sur- 
faces exhibit  proportions  for  safe  and  conservative  practice. 

Good  practice  is  generally  considered  to  dictate  a  limit  of 
pressure  as  low  as  800  lb.  per  sijuare  inch  for  other  metals 
than  steel.  With  thorough  lubrication,  which  should  always 
be  carefully  provided,  and  pressures  below  the  maximum, 
the  kind  of  metal  of  which  the  bearing  surfaces  are  com- 
posed does  not  usually  affect,  in  any  appreciable  degree,  the 
amount  of  frictional  resistance. 

In  general,  to  reduce  the  amount  of  power  lost  in  friction, 
parts  should  be  made  as  light  as  possible  consistently  with 
proper  strengfth :  rubbing  surfaces  should  be  given  as  great 
an  area  as  possible ;  the  velocity  of  rubbing  and  distances 
moved  over  should  be  kept  well  below  the  maximum  due 
the  pressure ;  and  lubricants  should  be  carefully  chosen,  and 
should  be  supplied  to  the  journals,  if  practicable,  in  streams, 
and  collectea  and  filtered  for  use  over  and  over  again.  A 
free  supply  is  the  only  secret  of  the  remarkably  low  friction 
sometimes  observed.  A  common  length  of  journal  for  shaft- 
ing, as  made  by  the  best  builders,  is  five  times  the  diameter. 
With  ample  surface  and  effective  lubrication,  wear  becomes 
imperceptible.  Heavy  weights  are  often  carried  on  rollers, 
ana  wagons  and  carriages  are  mounted  on  wheels,  rolling 
friction  being  thus  substituted  for  the  more  serious  form  of 
sliding  friction.  "  Friction- wheels  "  supporting  the  shafts 
of  grindstones,  or  as  applied  in  the  **  Atwood  machine,"  also 
illustrate  this  case. 

Although,  in  the  operation  of  machinery  and  in  many 
other  instances,  friction  is  an  annoyance  and  the  cause  of 
even  very  serious  losses,  it  is  also  frequently  very  useful. 
The  friction  of  the  driving-wheels  of  the  locomotive  upon 
the  track  is  essential  to  the  useful  application  of  its  power. 
"Friction-gearing,"  driving  by  the  friction  produced  by 
contact  and  mutual  pressures  of  smooth  peripheries,  has 
now  many  important  applications.  Nails,  screws,  and  wedges 
would  have  no  value  except  for  the  frictional  I'esistance 
which  retains  them  in  place  when  once  "driven  home." 
The  checking  of  the  recoil  of  ordnance  and  of  the  motion  of 


railroad  trains  is  accomplished  by  "  friction-brakes."  Kvi  n 
the  act  of  walking  becomes  impossible  when,  as  uix>n  smo<>tt. 
ice,  the  foot  finds  no  frictional  resistance  to  its  niovemt'nt>. 
Rolling  friction  has  been  found  to  be  governed  by  a  kw 
which  is  expressed  with  approximate  accuracy  by  the  for- 
mula given  by  Coulomb, 

in  which  F  represents  the  resistance,  or  the  reqoired  fore 
of  traction  to  overcome  it,  when  R  is  the  load  expre^setl  iii 
similar  units  of  force,  and  r  is  the  radius  of  the  roller  «in 
which  the  load  is  carried.  The  coefficient  of  friction  a*  •l*- 
termined  by  experiment  is  represented  by  /.  The  exj^eri- 
ments  of  Gen.  Morin  confirm  the  deductions  of  Coulomh, 
while  those  of  Dupuit  and  those  of  Poiree  and  Sauvage  (^ve 
results  in  which  I*  varies  nearly  as  the  square  root  of  r.  Th- 
formula  above  given  is  generally  adopted.  Coulomb  foumi 
the  value  of  /  for  rollers  of  elm  to  be  0*082 ;  Weisbach  and 
De  Pambour  found  the  value  for  railroad  car-wheels  to  li- 
very closely  0*02.  The  total  resistance  of  railroad  trains  <n 
level  grades  and  under  favorable  conditions  is  osuaUy  trym 
8  to  10  lb.  per  ton  weight  of  train  at  all  ordinary  spet>«i>^. 
For  vehicles  mounted  on  wheels  the  tractive  iorve  is  2/^ 
since  the  impelling  force  is  applied  at  the  axis  and  its  lever- 
arm  has  but  one-naif  the  length  assumed  in  the  formula. 
The  value  of  /  is  subject  to  great  modifications  with  differ- 
ent surfaces,  and  by  the  effect  of  the  load  in  altering  tli>« 
form  of  the  wheel  or  the  roller,  and  in  indenting  and  com- 
pressing the  surface  on  which  it  moves. 
The  frictional  resistance  of  pulleys  arises  in  a  great  dt^ 

free  from  the  rigidity  of  their  cordage.  This  was  foun.i 
y  Coulomb  to  be  proportional  to  the  tension,  to  increasr- 
nearly  as  the  square  root  of  the  cube  of  the  diameter  of  th*- 
rope,  and  to  be  inversely  proportional  to  the  diameter  of  tb*- 
sheaves  over  which  the  rope  passes  or  of  the  cylinder  arourj  \ 
which  the  rope  winds.  Weisbach  has  shown  that  this  rid'l- 
ity  is  due  principally  to  the  lateral  friction  resisting  th^ 
slipping  of  the  fibers  among  each  other,  and  that  it  is  It-^^ 
with  greased  or  tarred  ropes  than  with  dry  cordage :  aiA 
also  that  wire  ropes  offer  less  of  this  kind  of*  resistance  than 
ropes  of  hemp.*  Where  a  rope  is  wound  several  tim— 
around  a  cylinder,  the  resistance  increases  in  a  geometric  jiI 
ratio.  It  18  for  this  reason  that  the  strongest  rope  may  U 
broken  by  the  friction  produced  by  a  few  turns  taken  abou' 
a  post,  as  is  sometimes  seen  in  the  common  practice  of  sea- 
men "  rendering  "  a  line  around  the  "  bitts  "  m  checking  tht- 
motion  of  a  vessel  at  the  wharf. 

Fluid  friction,  so  called,  is  a  resistance  due  to  viscosity 
of  the  fiuid,  and  to  the  resistance  of  the  inertia  of  those  f  (ar- 
ticles which  are  subjected  to  change  of  motion.  The  n-sii^^r- 
ance  of  well-formed  vessels  is  causft  almost  entirely  1>\ 
"  fiuid-friction."  The  amount  of  this  resistance  is  given  \*\ 
Rankine  f  at  "  1  lb.  per  square  foot  of  surface  moving  tt-i 
knots "  (nautical  miles)  "  per  hour."  By  Isherwood  X  it  i* 
stated  to  be  "0*45  lb.  per  square  foot  of  surface  moviiu 
with  a  velocity  of  10  feet  per  second."  This  resistance  cu- 
ries directly  as  the  area  of  surface  and  nearlv  as  the  squar 
of  the  velocity.  R.  ll.  Thtrstox. 

Friday  [M.  Eng.  Friday  <  0.  Eng.  frigedag,  frl*:u, 
love  +  woBg,  day,  the  personified  Frigu  being  identified  ^.''. 
Lat.  Venus.  Hence  frigedoRg  is  trans,  of  Cat.  Veneris  dt*^ 
>  Fr.  vendredi,  Friday]:  the  sixth  day  of  the  week,  folL-w- 
ing  Thursday  and  preceding  Saturday.  In  the  Kastom. 
Latin,  and  Anglican  Churches  all  Frida3rs,  except  wh« ;. 
Christmas  falls  on  a  Friday,  are  days  of  abstinence,  in  men.- 
ory  of  the  passion  of  our  Lord,  which  is  especially  vk*v.:- 
memorated  on  Good  Friday  {q,  v.).  In  the  folk-lore  of  man  * 
nations  Friday  is  considered  an  unlucky  day,  doubtless  » r 
account  of  the'  religious  associations  connected  with  iU 

Friedland :  town  of  Prussia;  27  miles  E.  of  K5nigsU-rj 
(see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  1-K.)  Here  the  alli^-i 
kussians  and  Prussians  under  Bennigsen  were  defeated  hv 
the  French  under  Napoleon,  June  14,  1807.  This  revrr^^ 
caused  the  retreat  of  the  Russian  general  upon  Tilsit,  wher*- 
the  treaty  known  as  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit  was  drawn  ii(>. 
Pop.  2,609. 

Friedland:  town  of  Bohemia;  68  miles  N.  of  Prairi^ 
(see  map    of  Austria-Hungary,    ref.  3-D),      Wallenstviii, 

*  Zeitachrift  fur  Ingenieur-weaen,  toI.  i..  1848;  also  FVietion  o.iui 
Lost  Work  in  Machinery  and  Millwork,  chap.  U. 
t  Shiptniilding,  p.  81. 

t  Engineering  Precedent*,  yol.  I.,  p.  18 ;  see  also  ThunlOD^B  Jfomi 
I  of  the  Steam-engine,  vol.  ii.,  chap,  f.,  art.  88. 


594 


FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES 


by  local  calculatxirs.  In  one  ease  the  justices  rejected  a  cer- 
tificate for  want  of  qualification  in  the  givers  of  it ;  but  in 
general  thej  were  not  strict.  The  village  schoolmaster  was 
a  favorite  certifier,  as  indeed  he  had  the  right  to  be. 

Somehow  this  system  broke  down  ;  it  discouraged  the 
enrollment  of  friendly  societies,  and  at  the  same  time 
did  not  insure  the  solvency  of  those  which  were  enrolled, 
and  by  the  year  1838  the  time  had  arrived  for  a  further 
inquirv  and  for  a  new  departure.  The  act  of  the  tenth 
year  of  George  IV.  omits  all  reference  to  the  persons  skilled 
in  calculation,  and  allows  of  a  legal  constitution  being 
given  to  friendly  societies  whether  they  can  satisfy  the  jus- 
tices that  their  schemes  are  sound  or  not.  It  substitutes  for 
the  justices  as  examiners  of  rules  a  barrister  to  be  appointed 
for  the  purpose,  and  gives  him  no  discretion  in  the  matter 
of  rates  of  contribution.  The  barrister  so  appointed  was 
Mr.  John  Tidd  Pratt,  who  held  office  for  forty  years,  and 
was  a  man  of  great  energy  and  force  of  character.  The  part 
taken  by  him  in  the  development  of  friendly  societies  was 
important.  He  was  strongly  impressed  with  the  necessity 
of  their  being  established  on  sound  principles,  and  with  this 
view  he  circulated  many  thousands  of  copies  of  model  rules 
and  rates  prepared  by  actuaries.  He  was  ready  to  help  all 
who  came  to  him  with  new  ideas,  and  fertile  in  suggestions 
for  carrying  them  into  effect.  He  set  his  face  against  the 
wastefulness  of  the  collecting  societies,  which  he  exposed  in 
his  periodical  reports  to  Parliament.  His  views  had  great 
weight  with  the  numerous  parliamentary  committees  ap- 
pointed on  the  subject. 

In  the  year  1846  his  official  relation  to  societies  was  al- 
tered from  that  of  the  barrister  certifying  their  rules  to  that 
of  repstrar,  having  the  custody  of  the  rules  themselves  and 
of  other  legal  documents  relating  to  the  societies.  By  sub- 
sequent legislation  the  powers  of  the  registrar  have  been 
from  time  to  time  increased.  The  act  of  1846  contem- 
plated the  requirement  from  every  society  of  a  valuation 
once  in  every  five  years  of  its  assets  and  liabilities;  but 
before  a  single  term  of  five  years  had  elapsed  the  act  was 
repealed,  and  this  very  necessary  requirement  was  not  again 
made  until  1875.  It  is  difficult  to  measure  the  loss  which 
the  hasty  repeal  of  the  excellent  enactment  of  1846  has  in- 
flicted oh  members  of  societies. 

The  requirement  of  a  periodical  valuation  marks  the  final 
sta^e  in  the  evolution  of  the  modern  scientific  friendly 
society  out  of  the  old  semi-charitable  guild  or  club.  If  the 
society  is  to  give  to  each  its  due,  to  be  the  organ  of  self- 
respecting  insurance,  and  not  the  almoner  of  a  more  or  less 
humiliating  system  of  charity ;  still  more,  if  it  is  to  be 
worked  on  such  principles  of  eciuity  that  its  benefits  are  not 
all  to  be  exhausted  by  the  earlier  claimants,  to  the  preju- 
dice of  those  wliose  claims  happen  to  be  longer  deferred,  it 
must  not  only  enter  upon  contracts  that  are  just  and  equit- 
able in  their  terms,  but  it  must  exercise  constant  watchful- 
ness over  its  affairs  during  the  currency  of  those  contracts. 
What  the  rates  of  contribution  are  that  would  be  just  and 
equitable  to  assure  a  given  benefit  is  a  question  not  easy  to 
answer.  Large  bo<lies  of  statistics  have  been  collected  and 
published  by  the  Manchester  Unity  of  Odd  Fellows,  the  An- 
cient Order  of  Foresters,  the  Independent  Order  of  Rechab- 
ites,  and  other  bcxlies,  and  a  still  larger  collection  of  facts 
is  being  digt*sted  by  the  actuary  to  the  registry  office,  but 
no  society  can  be  assured  beforehand  that  its  experience 
will  in  fac;t  correspond  with  that  shown  by  any  of  them. 
The  liability  to  sickness  varies  with  the  locality  and  the 
occupation  of  the  members,  and  the  claims  for  sick  pay 
vary  still  more  with  the  amount  of  vigilance  exercised  by 
the  society  over  the  claimants. 

The  only  test  by  which  a  society  can  ascertain  whether 
it  is  charging  just  and  equitable  rates  to  its  members  is 
that  of  the  periodical  valuation.  Once  everv  five  vears  the 
position  of  the  society  will  be  measured  by  the  standard  of 
the  rates  of  sickness  and  mortality  assumed  in  its  tables, 
or,  better  still,  by  that  afforded  by  its  own  experience,  and 
it  will  be  ascertnintMl  whether  it  is  losing  ground,  and  to 
what  extent,  or  wlictluT  it  h»is  been  so  fortunate  or  so  well 
managed  and  supervisfd  as  to  have  accumulated  a  surplus. 
In  the  one  case  a  lew  should  V)e  made,  or  the  rates  of  con- 
tribution  increasiMl,  or  the  rates  of  benetit  diminished;  in 
the  other  case  the  benefits  may  be  increased.  Such  was  the 
intention  of  the  a<'t  of  1846.  If  it  had  been  fulfilled,  socie- 
ties generally  would  have  become  awake  to  the  necessity  of 
more  careful  management,  and  much  <lisai)pointment  and 
loss  to  individuals  would  have  been  averted.  In  another  re- 
spect the  act  of  1846  sought  to  apply  a  remedy  to  a  growing 


evil  in  friendly  societies — ^that  of  the  insurance  of  the  liv.- 
of  young  children.  It  forbade  any  insurance  to  be  efT»'i  '•  : 
on  the  life  of  a  child  under  six  years  of  age.  This  i>n»h.:-. 
tion  also  was  removed  by  the  act  of  1850.  Probably  re;:ij.j- 
tion  would  have  been  lietter  than  absolute  prohibit  if  >n.  i<  / 
tlie  free  trade  in  children's  insurance  which  was  porniitu>i 
by  the  act  of  1850  has  certainly  been  productive  of  e\  il. 

The  act  of  1846  is  also  noteworthy  as  having  include^!  th 
frugal  investment  of  savings  among  the  objects  for  wl.ii  ;• 
a  friendly  society  might  be  formed,  and  thus  given  o<cm>:  u 
for  the  establishment  of  what  are  now  known  as  eo-4>}-  u- 
tion  societies,  for  which*  further  sf)ecial  provision  wa»«  lua.'- 
in  1852.  The  act  of  1850,  which  repealed  that  of  l^v;. 
and  omitted  to  re-enact  some  of  its  more  important  pr  - 
visions,  is  to  be  remembered  as  having  for  the  first  tiuu*  r^-*-- 
ognized  the  bodies  now  known  as  the  affiliated  <>r<hr- 
Thev  had  existed  for  many  years,  and  had  been  doing  p.  <  i 
work;  but  the  mistrust  which  the  legislation  of  that  ii:.- 
felt  for  societies  in  correspondence  with  one  another  hdo 
caused  them  to  be  treated  as  unlawful. 

They  were  indeed  obnoxious  to  two  cruel  penal  a  :* 
which  are  still  on  the  statute  book,  the  CorresjMiii»j.:.j 
Societies  Act  and  the  Unlawful  Assemblies  Act ;  and  t^i- 
hati  given  them  the  color  of  secret  societies.  Their  M-«r.  n 
have  doubtless  always  been  as  harmless  as  those  of  Fr— 
masonry,  from  which  indeed  they  seem  to  have  been  •)'- 
rived,  but  the  Freemasons  were  specially  exemptetl  fn-i^ 
the  operation  of  these  acts.  The  act  of  1850  exenii  '-i 
friendly  societies  with  branches  from  it  also,  and  en  ah..  : 
them  to  be  registered.  The  Ancient  Order  of  FoR»stor»  w^- 
the  first  to  avail  itself  of  the  benefits  of  registry,  and  *;i* 
soon  followed  by  the  Manchester  Unity  of  Odd  Fellowii,  x  •  - 
Nottingham  Ancient  Imperial  Order  of  Odd  Fellows,  j»[.  : 
others  of  the  leading  affiliated  orders. 

The  act  of  1855  enabled  the  branches  of  these  orders  &>• 
to  become  registered  as  separate  bodies,  but  it  was  ili«- 1.- 
tom  for  them  to  set  forth  in  their  rules  their  relati(  i.*  •  • 
and  dependence  upon  the  central  body  of  the  onler.  1  .-■ 
circumstance  of  their  having  a  separate  existence,  h(>Wf\i  r. 
raised  difficult  questions  between  them,  and  resultml  in  fre- 
quent secessions.  The  act  of  1875  effected  a  great  imprM\»- 
ment  in  this  respect.  It  provided  for  the  recognitii>n  •>: 
branches  as  portions  of  the  order  under  the  control  of  i*^ 
central  body,  but  recognized  a  qualified  independence  )  < 
making  it  an  essential  characteristic  of  a  branch  th.i*  * 
should  have  a  fund  or  funds  administered  by  itself  in  a«.'^i- 
tion  to  the  central  funds  of  the  order. 

To  quote  a  description  which  has  been  acknowledgiil  * 
be  correct :  "  In  the  most  highly  organized  orders  th»  n-  j^ 
three  stages :  the  lod^e,  by  wnatever  name  it  may  W  i'«.!.  j  . 
the  district,  which  is  an  aggregation  of  lodges ;  arid  t  r  - 
order,  which  unites  the  whole.    The  usual  arrangement  'r  i- 
that  the  lodges  insured  sick  pay,  the  districts  death  m^  i » ^ 
and  the  order  itself  insurea  nothing."    The  act  of    K'-. 
however,  required  that  every  branch  should  oontributt-  tt  ^ 
central  fund  administered  by  the  central  bodv  of  the  <.r.  .  • 
and  submit  to  the  control  of  that  body.    1* his  ha>  K- ;  ' 
the  raising,  in  several  of  the  orders,  of  a  fund  for  the  n '.  . 
of  distressed  lodges  and  districts,  so  as  to  avoid  their  It*-  .-- 
ing  up.    The  progress  of  these  affiliated  orders  illu^n.'  * 
how  powerless  the  legislature  is  to  restrain  large  nun.l*-^ 
of  the  people  from  entering  into  contracts  that  they  h 
learned  to  regard  as  to  their  own  advanta^.     Kvi  r 
highly  penal  laws  against  corresjwnding  societies  ha*l  Im 
dead  letters,  so  far  as  regards  these  perfectly  innocent  I  •■  ■«. 
long  before  they  were  in  fact  repealed.     Each  su<.x"»->-i  - 
act  of  the  legislature  has  been  a  step  further  in  the  ii:r 
tion  of  recognizing  the  real  relation  between  these  U-: 
and  their  branches,  while  the  iudicature  has  emnhati. 
laid  down  that  the  contract  embodied  in  their  rules  i^  - 
that  must  be  faithfully  adhered  to.    Societies  the  vtrv  fi  - 
tence  of  which  was  considered  contrary  to  the  public  ^^ 
fare  are  now  fully  recognized. 

Taking  the  most  recent  and  comprehensive  inform  a*    * 
that  can  be  obtained  about  these  bodies,  there  are  in  K-  > 
land  and  Wales  belonging  to  the  affiliated  orders    It'i  ♦  • 
registered  branches,  having  1,727,809  members  and    t.. 
121,202  funds.    Their  annual  incom?  and  expend  it  ur%-  1,  i 
been  estimated  as  follows:  Contributions,   £3,024,WM) :  • 
terest  and  other  receipts,  £531,000  ;  total,  £3.555,00<) :  1 1  • 
fits,   £2,681,000;   ext)enses,  £449,000;   saved  on   the    vm 
£425,000;  total,  £3,555,000,  as  before.    Of  these  rejri-f.  • 
branches,ll,242  had   made  returns  of  their  quinqm  v^ 
valuations,  showing  in  2,281  cases  an  aggregate  sur|di.> 


[J-  • 


H  *   " 


596 


FRIENDSHIP 


FRIENDS,  SOCIETY  OF 


societies  flourish,  and  are  regulated  by  legislation  based  upon 
that  of  the  mother-country.  In  these  young  communities 
the  form  of  society  which  has  found  most  favor,  and  has  in- 
deed been  almost  universally  adopted,  is  that  of  the  affili- 
ated order.  As  embodiments  of  thrift  and  self-reliance,  and 
training-schools  in  the  art  of  self-government,  the  devel- 
opment and  extension  of  the  friendly  society  system  among 
£mglish-speaklng  communities  is  full  of  bright  promise  for 
the  future. 

AuTHOEiTiES. — Friendly  Societies  and  Guilds,  by  C.  Wal- 
ford  (reprints  from  his  Insurance  Cyclopcedia,  1878) :  Hard- 
wick's  Ma/nual  of  Friendly  Sooieiies;  Pratt's  Law  of 
Friendly  Societies  (11th  ed.  1888);  The  Friendly  Society 
Movement,  by  Rev.  J.  F.  Wilkinson  (1886) ;  Mutual  Thrift, 
by  the  same  (1891) ;  Quarterly  Review  (April,  1888) ;  Odd 
Fellows'  Magazine  (passim) ;  Foresters'  Miscellany  (passim) ; 
reports  on  sickness  and  mortality  in  the  Manchester  Unity, 
by  Ratcliffe,  and  in  the  Ancient  Order  of  Foresters  and 
Independent  Order  of  Recha,bites,  by  Neison;  reports  of 
chielf^  registrar  of  friendly  societies  (1855,  et  seq.) ;  reports  of 
royal  commission  on  friendly  societies  (1872-74) ;  reports  of 
parliamentary  committees  (1817,  et  seq.) ;  article.  Friendly 
Societies,  in  Encyclopcedia  BritanniC'a  (9th  edition) ;  Ansell 
on  friendly  societies;  Scratchley  on  friendly  societies;  ac- 
count of  some  remarkable  friendly  societies,. by  H.  Tomp- 
kins. E.  W.  ^RABROOK. 

Friendship :  village ;  Allegany  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  6-D);  on  railway; 
22  miles  N.  E.  of  Olean.  It  is  the  seat  of  Baxter's  Mu- 
sical University,  and  has  five  churches,  an  academy  and 
union  school,  a  foundry,  a  sash  and  blind  factory,  and  a 
cheese-box  factory.  Principal  business,  farming  and  cheese- 
making.    Pop.  (1880)  1,134;  (1890)  1,369. 

Editor  of  "Register." 

Friends  of  God :  a  body  of  religious  persons  in  the  four- 
teenth century  who  constituted  an  unorganized  brother- 
hood. Some  were  laymen,  like  Nicholas  of  Basel,  their 
greatest  leader ;  others  were  monks,  like  Tauler,  the  great 
Dominican  mystic.  The  Friends  of  God  adhered  to  the 
Church,  but  attempted  great  reforms  within  it.  They  were 
mystics,  but  intent  upon  realizing  in  practical  life  their 
ideas  of  holiness.  **  He  is  a  per^ct  man,"  says  John  of 
Chur,  **  who  has  become  one  with  God,  wanting  nothing  else 
but  what  God  will."  They  were  very  strict  in  attending 
church  service,  but  they  gave  novel  and  often  fantastic  ex- 
planations of  the  religious  symbols :  and  they  were  unspar- 
ing in  their  denunciations  of  ecclesiastical  abuses.  They 
formed  no  sect,  but  attempts  were  now  and  then  made  at 
organizing  local  brotherhoods.  Thus  John  of  Chur  (d.  in 
1380)  retired  from  the  bustle  of  his  native  city,  built  a  chap- 
el near  the  Castle  of  RQttberg,  in  the  canton  of  St.  Gall, 
and  was  for  many  years  the  center  of  a  wide  circle  of  adher- 
ents. They  also  maintained  personal  and  epistolary  com- 
munication with  one  another,  especially  witnin  the  same 
locality.  But  something  vague  and  obscure  always  re- 
mained hovering  about  them,  their  doctrines,  and  their  re- 
lations. See  Jundt,  Les  Amis  de  Dieu  au  qumtorzieme 
Steele  (Paris.  1879). 

Friends,  Society  of,  commonly  called  Qnalters :  a  sect  of 
Christians,  distinguished  by  their  belief  in  the  "  Light 
Within,"  or  the  immanence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  by  a 
number  of  •*  testimonies  "  springing  from  that  belief. 

Foundation, — ^The  revolt  from  authority  and  tradition 
which  characterized  English  religious  thought  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  is  primarily  responsible  for  the  rise  of  a  sect 
whose  members  called  themselves  at  first  the  Friends  of 
Truth,  and  later  the  Society  of  Friends.  The  term  Quaker 
has  been  erroneously  explained  on  the  basis  of  physical  ex- 
citement during  worship;  but  Fox  says  it  was  Justice  Ben- 
nett at  Derby  in  1650  "who  was  the  first  that  called  us 
Quakers,  because  I  bade  him  tremble  at  the  word  of  the 
Lord,"  While,  as  Bancroft  says,  the  rise  of  this  sect 
"  marks  the  moment  when  intellectual  freedom  was  claimed 
unconditionally  by  the  people  as  an  inalienable  birthright," 
and  while  the  historian  Lecky  has  spoken  of  Quaker  doc- 
trine as  **that  strange  form  of  distorted  rationalism,"  never- 
theless the  origin  of  Friends  must  be  connected  with  the  life 
and  teaching  of  George  Fox.  His  biography  is  the  history 
of  early  Quakerism,  yet  it  should  be  remembered  that  he  did 
not  seek  to  organize  a  new  sect ;  he  sought  simply  to  pro- 
claim a  purification  of  the  Church  at  large,  and  a  revival  of 
Christianity  in  its  original  simplicity  and  free<lom.  George 
Fox  was  bom  in  Leicestershire,  England,  1624,  the  son  of  a 


weaver — "righteous  Christopher" — who  left  him  a  smal! 
property,  sufficient  for  his  simple  needs  during  a  life  ol 
sixty-five  years.    In  his  famous  journal  he  has  descriM  th. 
stormy  time  of  his  early  religious  experiences,  and  the  5ti>]r. 
by  which  he  was  led  into  a  mission  of  peace  to  his  frllow^ , 
despite  the  sneers  of  Macaulay  this  book  is  now  reganleii  d- 
the  sincere  and  eloquent  utterance  of  a  profoundly  spirit  lia! 
nature.    Humility  and  power  of  will  have  seldom  tje^^n  ** 
remarkably  united  as  in  George  Pox.    A  certain  digniM 
and  force  of  character,  preserved  through  manifold  im- 
prisonments and  persecutions,  led  the  civil  authorities  to  re- 
gard him  with  respect ;  he  was  not  free  from  the  hvstt- n- 
and  extravagant  tamt  which  we  meet  in  nearly  all  the  r*- 
ligious  men  of  his  day,  but  integrity,  simplicity  of  life  Hn-i 
conversation,  ^at  executive  and  organizing  power,  aiji> 
a  certain  readiness  in  all  emergencies — "  I  never  saw  hiir." 
says  Penn,  "  not  a  match  for  every  service  or  occasion  '*— 
combined  to  make  him  a  tnisted  leader  of  men.    The  (vn- 
tral  point  of  his  doctrine  is  the  direct  responsibility  of  eu* '. 
soul  to  God,  without  mediation  of  priest  or  form,  because  •»• 
the  presence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  heart  of  every  hun.aL 
being.    "  The  Lord  God  opened  to  me,"  he  sars,  **  by  hL*  u;- 
visible  power  how  every  man  was  enlightened  by  the  di\  ir  i 
light  of  Christ:  I  saw  it  shine  through  all,  and  that  tU} 
who  believed  in  it  came  out  of  condemnation  into  the  Imbi 
of  life,  and  became  children  of  the  light :  but  that  tht  \ 
that  hated  it  and  did  not  believe  it  were  condemned  by  r. 
though  they  made  a  profession  of  Christ  .  .  .  ."     From'ik> 
central  article  of  belief  radiate  the  distinguislnng  doctrinr* 
of  the  society.    Because  all  men  share  in  this  light,  th^- 
Quaker  insisted  upon  tolerance,  a  virtue  then  almost  ul- 
known,  except  among  the  Baptists,  and  upon  the  equa^tv 
of  all  members  of  the  state,  a  position  which  involved  tl.^ 
stand  against  slavery.    For  the  same  reason,  but  in  a  hun.- 
bier  sphere  of  "  testimonies,"  he  refused  to  doff  his  hat  t. 
men  of  rank  or  place,  or  to  address  them  with  the  plur. 
pronoun   "you,"  when,  as  was  the  custom,  servants  a!  '. 
common  folk  were  addressed  with  "  thou  "  and  "  thee,"    T 
justify  this  innovation.  Fox  published  in  1660,  with  tht»  ».  ■ 
of  Stubbs  and  Furley,  who  provided  the  necessary  »-iii»ihr- 
ship,  a  book  called  The  Battledoor ;  it  showed  from  the  pT^ 
nouns  of  a  long  list  of  foreign  tongues  that  '*  thou  "  ar  • 
"  thee  "  are  the  only  correct  forms  for  the  second  tiers  : 
singular.    As  a  specimen  of  Quaker  controversy  this  r»r 
book  is  notewortny  enough.    For  the  same  i^as43n — n.. 
manence  of  the  Divine  Spirit — the  Quaker  avoideti  fi»r::  - 
and  written  creeds,  rejected  music  and  all  other  aids  wKj. 
art  extends  to  religion,  and,  since  God  dwells  in  the  h»  nr 
and  not  in   wood  or  stone,  built  the   meetinc^-house    »< 
simply  as  was  possible.    A  good  example  of  earliest  QuaV  ' 
architecture  is  the  building  at  Ulverstone,  still   known  .»- 
Fox's  chapel.    For  the  same  reason,  moreover,  the  ^"^^'^ 
proclaimed  a  baptism  of  repentance  and  conviction,  ill^^- » 
of  baptism  by  water,  and  the  communion  of  the  spirit  rat  )• 
than  the  breaking  of  bread.    Xo  intellectual  preparat.  : 
can   insure  spiritual  gifts;    Oxford  and  Camoridge,   r^ 
Gi?orge  Fox*s  quaint  saying,  could  not  make  a  mini^^vr 
and  hence  the  Quaker's  testimony  against  paid  pre«<^'b'  -- 
On  the  other  hand,  he  created  an  ecclesiastical  democrsi  *• 
gave  women  equal  rights  with  men,  not  only  in  the  mir  - 
try,  but  in  the  conduct  of  business,  and  allowed  any  nn 
ber  to  lift  up  voice  in  the  meetings  for  worship.  pri»v}  i 
that  the  speaker  was  truly  **mov«l"  by  the  Spirit.     N 
the  least  logical  outcome  of  this  central  doctrine  of  t  ht- 
manence  of  the  Divine  Spirit  was  the  silent  meeting,  ^  fr-  - 
of  the  mouth  and  thaw  of  the  mind";  in  a  quiet  l'r««'v 
by  no  human  voice  each  heart  could  commune  with  i^\M\. 
Whatever  might   be  the  emphasis  which  Quakers   L 
upon  this  central  fact  of  spiritual  guidance,  it  is  qaiic  ) 
true  that  they  rejected  the  authority  of  Scripturt*,     F  \ 
contended  not  that  the  Bible  was  witnout  binmng  ant  \  ' 
ity,  but  that  it  should  be  read  invariably  by  the  light  ff 

Spirit.    "  I  saw,"  he  tells  us.  *•  that  Christ  died  for  all >» .  • 

a  propitiation  for  all,  and  that  the  manifestation   «>f  * 
spirit  of  God  was  given  to  every  man  to  profit   ^  .• 
These  things  I  did  not  see  by  the  help  of  man,  nor  b\ 
letter  of  Scripture ;  but  1  saw  them  in  the  light  of  the  1  >  r 
Jesus  (-hrist  and  bv  his  immediate  spirit  and  power,  w.^  i 
the  holy  men  of  CJod  by  whom  the  Holy  Scriptnr*^   •.- 


his  followers  to  put  a  literal  interpretation  upon  thf  i    • 
mand  of  Christ,  ''Swear  not  at  all    ;  and  although  thi5  r 


598 


FRIENDS,  SOCIETY  OP 


own  slaves  meant  loss  of  membership.  Whittier,  himself 
foremost  in  the  cause,  has  given  an  admirable  account  of 
this  whole  matter  in  the  introduction  to  his  edition  of  John 
Woolman's  Journal.  Again,  in  the  substitution  of  arbitra- 
tion for  war  Friends  have  been  distinctly  prominent ;  Frank- 
lin approved  their  efforts  in  this  direction  (see  a  speech  of 
his  in  bigelow's  Life  of  Franklin,  iii.,  393).  Among  other 
Quakers  who  have  been  active  pioneers  in  reforms  of  differ- 
ent kinds  are  Lancaster  in  education,  Elizabeth  Fry  among 
the  prisoners,  John  Bright  and  W.  E.  Forster  in  politics,  and 
Tuke  in  treatment  of  the  insane.  In  science  there  are  names 
like  Dalton  and  Young,  while  the  records  of  trade  and  in- 
dustry would  show  a  long  and  honorable  list  of  Friends.  It 
may  be  claimed  that  the  society  has  influenced  public  life 
more  than  any  other  religious  body  of  its  size. 

Schism. — The  testimonies  of  a  "  peculiar  people,*'  the  ab- 
sence of  all  forms  in  worship,  the  principle  of  birthright 
membership,  and  the  strict  precautions  against  marriage 
with  those  beyond  the  pale,  contributed  to  stop  the  growth 
of  the  sect.  As  long  as  the  milder  but  vexatious  phases  of 
social  persecution  continued  Friends  were  welded  mto  com- 
parative unity ;  but  with  prosperity  came  division  and  dis- 
cord. The  great  division  of  1827,  which  had  its  center  in 
Philadelphia  yearly  meeting,  worked  havoc  in  the  meetings 
of  New  York  and  Baltimore  as  well,  and  brought  about  a 
permanent  separation  of  Friends  in  the  U.  S.  The  contro- 
versy was  bitter ;  it  caused  disputes  about  property,  broke 
up  old  friendships,  and  led  to  many  social  and  legal  compli- 
cations, but  eventually  an  excellent  feeling  between  the  two 
branches  was  created,  and  some  attempts  have  been  made  at 
a  permanent  reconciliation.  It  is,  however,  improbable  that 
a  satisfactory  basis  can  be  found  for  corporate  union. 

The  causes  of  this  division  are  evident.  In  its  very  foun- 
dation Quakerism  had  two  distinct  tendencies.  One  aiSlrmed 
independence  of  the  letter  of  Scripture,  and  emphasized  the 
right  of  each  soul  to  follow  the  guidance  of  the  Spirit.  The 
otner  tendency — shown  in  George  Fox's  letter  to  the  gov- 
ernor of  Barbados — was  fain  to  square  the  belief  of  Quaker- 
ism with  the  creeds  of  evangelical  Christianity.  The  sepa- 
ration of  1827-28  was  upon  these  lines.  One  partj[,  the 
so-called  "  Hicksites,"  protested  against  unwarranted  inter- 
ference with  the  liberty  of  individual  belief.  The  other 
party,  known  as  "  Orthodox,"  protested  against  those  minis- 
ters, notably  Elias  Hicks,  who  threw  doubt  upon  the  abso- 
lute divinity  of  Christ  and  the  full  meaning  of  the  atone- 
ment. A  total  separation  ensued,  so  far  as  the  U.  S.  were 
concerned,  in  the  society  at  large,  the  Hicksites  taking  a  ma- 
iority  of  Friends  in  the  Middle  States.  In  England,  where 
the  yearly  meeting  sided  with  the  "  Orthodox  branch  of 
American  Quakers,  no  separation  of  the  sort  took  place. 
Another  division,  however,  was  made  in  the  U.  S.  In  1837, 
J.  J.  Gumey,  an  English  Friend,  was  engaged  in  religious 
work  in  New  England ;  John  Wilbur,  a  native  preacher, 
who  charged  Gurney  with  unsound,  i.  e.  ultra-evangelical, 
doctrine,  was  disowned  for  his  proceedings,  and  took  with 
him  a  minority  of  the  yearly  meeting,  who  are  now  known 
as  "  Wilburites." 

Oraanization. — Friends  distinguish  between  meetings  for 
worship  and  meetings  for  discipline.  In  the  latter  only 
members  of  the  society  may  take  part.  True  to  the  central 
doctrine  of  the  society,  they  do  not  record  decisions  of  a  de- 
liberative body  by  the  ordinary  course  of  a  majority  vote ; 
but  the  clerk  of  the  meeting,  on  whom  rests  tne  chief  re- 
sponsibility and  who  is  accordingly  one  of  the  foremost 
members,  is  authorized  to  take  "  the  sense  of  the  meeting," 
after  opinions  have  been  expressed  by  individual  members. 
In  other  words,  the  meeting  is  held  under  the  guidance  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  When  unity  of  sentiment  is  wanting  the 
question  is  either  deferred  or  dismissed.  In  the  same  way 
Friends  do  not  undertake  to  appoint  their  ministers.  A 
meeting  of  ministers  and  elders  records  its  approval  of  a 
certain  person's  "gift"  in  the  ministry,  and  the  person  in 
question  is  thenceforth  a  recommended  minister.  It  is  cus- 
tomary for  meetings  to  give  a  minute  of  unity  to  such  min- 
isters of  their  body  as  desire  to  travel  in  the  service  of  the 
gospel.  Women  have  their  business  meeting  separate  from 
that  of  the  men,^but  with  a  similar  organization  and  nearly 
equal  iurisdiction.  In  addition  to  the  clerk  of  the  meeting 
and  tne  ministers  whom  it  recognizes,  there  are  officers 
known  as  elders  and  overseers.  The  elders  "  watch  over  the 
spiritual  interests  of  the  congregation."  The  overseers  deal 
with  matters  of  discipline,  and  special  committees  are  ap- 
pointed for  the  management  of  property.  These  things 
touch  the  society  as  a  whole.     Kegarding  the  conduct  of  in- 


dividuals, in  addition  to  the  duties  of  the  elders  to  admonish 
the  wayward,  the  so-called  Queries  deserve  notice.  Th^^ 
are  read  at  meetings  for  business,  and  are  answei'e<l  lr*Mi\ 
the  smaller  to  the  larger  body,  until  the  yearly  mwtirij: 
gathers  the  general  results.  These  queries  touch  thf  va- 
rious ways  in  which  Friends'  testimonies  are  maintain^^i 
Finally  a  code,  made  up  of  rules  adopted  from  timv  U' 
time,  is  printed  for  the  use  of  meeting^  generally,  and  i^ 
known  as  the  Discipline. 

The  monthly  meeting  is  the  real  source  of  power.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  business  is  prepared  for  it  at  a  meetintr  «f 
each  particular  congregation,  the  preparative  me<'tin^. 
But  the  monthly  meeting  controls  memoership  in  the  s«»ci*ty. 
admits  or  disowns,  regulates  marriage,  raises  money  for  xhr- 
needs  of  the  Church,  educates  orplmns  and  destitute  cLil- 
dren,  cares  for  the  poor,  ^ants  certificates  to  ministers  trav.!- 
ing  abroad,  and  deals  with  all  cases  involving  the  monN  t 
business  affairs  of  its  members.  The  quarterly  me<tiD{:. 
held  four  times  in  the  vear,  embraces  several  monthly  me*i- 
ings,  and  is  a  body  of  appeal  from  them.  It  has  a  wi<i'  r 
supervision,  and  recommends  changes  for  the  action  of  th^ 
yearly  meeting.  The  yearly  meeting  covers  a  large  dist  ri*  r 
with  its  various  Quarterly  meetings,  and  is  a  body  of  firiH 
appeal.  In  the  U.  S.  the  Orthodox  branch  has  tKirteen  • ' 
these ;  the  Hicksites  have  seven.  The  yearly  meetings  nuiin- 
tain  correspondence  with  one  another,  but  are  mutually  in 
dependent.  Each  of  them  appoints  a  standin|^  commitri>. 
the  official  representation  of  the  yearly  meeting  itself,  t 
carry  the  doctrine  of  Friends  into  active  pubhc  servuv. 
this  is  known  as  the  representative  meeting,  except  in  PhlU 
delphia,  where  it  goes  under  the  name  of  the  Meeting  fo* 
Sufferings,  since  it  once  found  its  chief  business  in  attend- 
ing to  the  wants  of  members  who  were  exposed  to  per^ec;}- 
tion,  to  distraint  upon  property  on  account  of  reiosal  t* 
bear  arms,  or  to  the  perils  of  Indian  incursions.  These  th^k^V 
no  longer  existing,  tne  meeting  now  issues  publication^  ir 
regard  to  temperance,  peace,  and  the  like ;  or  else  api^i^i^ 
to  the  Government  for  the  suppression  of  vice  or  nbn^- 
It  may  be  called  one  of  the  aggressive  phases  of  Quaken^:i 
left  in  an  organized  form. 

Statistics. — By  the  census  of  1890  there  were  in  the  U.  > 
80,655  members  of  the  Orthodox  branch  of  the  swii-tr 
only  one-sixth  of  these  belonged  to  the  older  yearlv  m*-^^- 
ings  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  New  England,  and  I^it: 
more.  Indiana  yearly  meeting  alone  had  22,105  memUr^ 
The  value  of  property  held  bv  this  branch  amounte<l  t. 
$2,795,784.  Of  the  so-called  Uicksite  branch  there  w^r 
21,992  members,  of  whom  more  than  half  belonge<i  t 
Philadelphia  yearly  meeting,  and  only  one-sixth  to  xlf 
Western  States,  a  curious  reversal  of  conditions  in  the  utl  ^^r 
branch.  They  held  property  valued  at  $1,661  J850.  •>* 
minor  divisions  the  so-called  Wilburites  counted  4,329  aL«' 
the  Primitive  Friends  232.  In  round  numbers  there  an 
now  in  the  U.  S.  upward  of  100,000  Friends.  In  Gr  .i* 
Britain  there  are  probably  less  than  20,000  members  of  t '. 
societv,  and  all  are  of  the  Orthodox  branch ;  Canada  wit.  . 
probably  show  1,500  more.  It  may  be  added  that  the  :i.- 
crease  m  the  Western  States  is  largely  owing  to  a  pr- 
nounced  evangelical  attitude  and  to  a  relaxation  of  m.i'  ^ 
**  testimonies."  In  some  meetings  there  is  a  paid  " pa*!*-: ' 
and  singing,  even  instrumental  music,  has  b^n  intitxiuo*. 
in  public  worship. 

The  society  counts  a  respectable  number  of  periodica** 
The  Orthodox  branch  publishes  in  England  Tlie  Fn^u 
The  British  Friend,  and  The  Friend^  Quarterly  Fun 
iner ;  in  the  U.  S.  The  Friend,  The  Friends'  Ret^'ew.  ^ 
The  Christian  Worker.    The  Hicksite  branch  pnblishe*  t 
Philadelphia   The  Friends*  Intelligencer.    Education  h*- 
received  due  attention.    Ackworth  School  and  the  F'^  or- 
ders Institute,  an  institution  for  training  teachers,  art*  .: 
England.    In  the  IT.  S.  Westtown  Boarding-school  oi»i.r.'' 
nearly  a  century  of  valuable  worlj,  while  the  Friends'  S<  h* 
at  Providence  was  founded  in  1819.    Each  is  under  the  cur 
of  its  yearly  meeting.     Haverford  College,  near  Phil*i' 
phia,  was  founded  by  members  of  the  Orthodox  branch  v 
early  as  1833,  and  Swarthmore  College  by  the  Hieksitt-^  '" 
1870.    The  latter  is  for  both  sexes,  Haverford  for  ^ounc 
men  ;  but  Bryn  Mawr  College,  for  women,  was  found***!  •  ^ 
Dr.  Joseph  W.  Taylor,  an  Orthodox  Friend,  and  is  manh.— : 
by  trustees,  who  must  be  members  of  that  body.    Wilnr.^j 
ton,  Earlham,  and  Penn  are  Orthodox  colleges  in  the  W-' 
em  States ;  Guilford  College,  of  the  same  branch,  is  in  Nor 
Carolina. 

Bibliography. — The  literature  of  the  society  is  very  ei- 


600 


FRIGATE  BIRD 


FRISIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATrRE 


81.  He  caused  the  privileges  of  the  university  to  be  extend- 
ed to  women,  obtained  a  valuable  library  of  political  science, 
and  secured  from  the  Legislature  an  appropriation  of  $75,000 
for  the  university.  The  official  connection  between  the  uni- 
versity and  the  high  schools  of  the  State  is  also  due  largely 
to  his  efforts.  D.  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  Dec.  7, 1889.  Be- 
sides his  valuable  annual  reports  to  the  board  of  regents  and 
occasional  addresses,  he  published  an  edition  of  V^ergil's 
^neid  (1860)  and  of  Quintilian  (1867),  and  wrote  21ie  Story 
of  Oiova/nni  Dupri  (London,  1886). 

Frigate  Bird,  or  Man-of-war  Bird :  a  bird  of  the  family 
FregcUidcBy  order  Sieganopodes,  related  to  the  pelicans. 
They  are  distinguished  by  a  long,  deeply  forked  tail,  nar- 
row, elongate  wings,  a  small  pouch  under  the  bill,  and  a 
rather  stout,  straight  bill,  hooked  at  the  tip.  The  body  is 
small,  the  spread  of  wings  7  to  8  feet,  the  tarsus  relatively 
the  shortest  amon^  birds.  These  birds  are  remarkable  for 
their  powers  of  flight,  and  are  said  to  catch  flying-fish  on 
the  wing.  They  are  most  audacious  robbers,  lying  in  wait 
for  gannets,  flsh-hawks,  and  other  birds,  and  forcing  them  to 
drop  or  disgorge  their  food,  which  is  seized  before  it  can  fall 
to  the  water.  There  are  two  species,  Fregata  aaaila^  found 
throufi^hout  tropical  waters  and  common  on  tlie  coast  of 
Florida,  and  F,  minor,  confined  to  portions  of  the  Indian 
and  Pacific  Oceans.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Frig'ga:  in  the  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  wife  of 
Odin  and  the  most  venerable  of  goddesses.  She  dwelt  at 
Fensalir,  and  was  the  goddess  of  marriage  and  of  fruitful- 
ness.  Some  say  that  Friday  was  "  Frigga's  day " ;  others 
say  that  "  Freya*s  day  "  is  intended.    See  Freya. 

Frigid  Zone  [frigid  is  from  Lat.  fri'pidua,  cold  (>  Fr. 
froid,  cold),  deriv.  of  frige're,  be  cold,  den  v.  of  frigiis,  cold  : 
Gr.  fityos,  cold] :  in  geography,  the  arctic  and  antarctic  re- 
gions ;  the  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  which  lie  respec- 
tively N.  of  the  arctic  and  S.  of  the  antarctic  circle.  The 
north  and  south  frigid  zones  have  each  an  area  of  very 
nearly  8,229,748  sq.  miles,  and  within  these  zones  the  sun 
does  not  rise  and  set  every  day  of  twenty-four  hours.  See 
Earth. 

Frilled  Lizard :  See  Chlamydosaurus. 

Fringe-tree,  or  Old  Man's  Beard:  a  beautiful  orna- 
mental shrub  of  the  U.  S.,  growing  as  far  N.  as  Pennsylva- 
nia and  southward  to  Florida.  It  is  the  Chionanthua  vir- 
ginica  of  the  family  OleacecB.  Its  petals  are  white  and  curi- 
ously fringed,  whence  the  name.  It  has  an  oval  purple  frait, 
and  leaves  which  are  extremely  variable  in  shape.  Other 
species  are  found  in  Australia  and  the  tropical  regions  of 
both  hemispheres.  A  distinct  plant,  the  Rhus  cotinita  of  the 
Old  World,  is  sometimes  called  fringe-tree,  but  it  is  more 
properly  known  as  smoke-tree  or  Venetian  sumac,  and  it  is 
also  known  as  wig-tree.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Fringiriidte  [from  Mod.  Lat.  Fringilla,  one  of  the  gen- 
eraj:  a  family  of  small  oscinine  birds,  characterized  by  a 
conical  beak,  whose  cutting  edges  are  bent  downward  at  an 
angle  near  the  base  of  the  bill.  The  nostrils  are  well  up  in 
the  basal  portion  of  the  beak,  the  primaries  are  nine,  the 
tail-feathers  twelve  in  number.  While  the  beak  is  always 
conical,  it  varies  from  the  comparatively  slight  form  found 
in  the  snow-bunting  to  the  massive  bill  of  the  grosbeak  and 
the  curious  crossed  mandibles  of  the  crossbills.  The  family 
is  one  of  the  most  extensive  among  birds,  numbering  over 
500  species,  and  including  those  known  as  sparrows,  finches, 
buntings,  and  grosbeaks.  The  distribution  is  somewhat  pe- 
culiar, for  the  family  is  not  found  in  the  Australian  region, 
although  represented  elsewhere  over  the  greater  portion  of 
the  globe.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Frische  HaflT,  frish'c-haaf  [Low  Germ.,  fresh-water  sea] : 
a  lagoon  on  the  coast  of  Prussia  with  an  area  of  318  sq. 
miles.  In  ancient  days  it  formed  a  lake  receiving  the  waters 
of  the  Pregel,  Frisching,  Passarge,  and  Vistula,  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  Baltic  by  a  very  narrow  band  of  laud,  the 
Frische  Nehrung.  But  in  1510  the  Baltic  broke  through 
the  Nehrung  and  formed  a  permanent  passage  from  10  to  15 
feet  deep,  called  the  Gatt.  Frische  HafiP  is  so  shallow  that 
all  large  vessels  have  to  load  and  unload  at  Pillau,  situated 
at  the  Gatt,  from  which  the  cargoes  are  transported  over  the 
Haff  on  lighters. 

Frisi,  freest,  Paolo,  F.  R.  S. ;  scientist ;  b.  at  Milan, 
Italy,  Apr.  18, 1728 ;  became  a  Barnabite  monk ;  held  pro- 
fessorships of  Philosophy  at  Casale  and  the  Barnabite  Col- 
lege, Milan  ;  became  m  1755  Professor  of  Morals  and  Meta- 
physics at  Padua ;  in  1756  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Pisa ; 


and  in  1764  took  the  mathematical  professorship  at  the  Utii- 
versitv  of  Milan,  where  he  died  Nov.  22, 1787.  He  was  pr«- 
foundly  versed  in  mathematics  and  physics,  and  his  dogmat  i< 
temper  involved  him  in  nerpetual  controversies.  His  works 
include  a  Disquisitio  Maihematiea  (1751)  upon  the  phy.«:ii  al 
cause  of  the  earth's  figure  and  motion;  De  Aimoffpht^m 
c(Blestium  corporum  (1758) ;  De  IncBquaUtcUe  motus  plnut- 
tarum  (1760) ;  Del  modo  di  regulare  i  Fiumi  e  i  Torrtutt 
(1762) ;  and  many  others. 

Frisian  (friz'i-an)  Language  and  Literature  [Ffij*tot. 
is  deriv.  of  Frieze,  native  of  Friesland  <  O.  Eng.  Frisn, 
Fresa,  from  0.  Fries.  Frise,  Fresd]:  that  brancii  of  i\w 
Teutonic  group  of  languages  which  was  formerly  spoken  in 
Northwestern  Germany — along  the  coast  of  the  North  Jva, 
Although  at  present  confined  to  a  few  small  and  mostly  iso- 
lated districts,  Frisian  may  claim  to  be  for  a  student  of  Enc- 
lish  philology  one  of  the  most  important  languages  In  fomj- 
ing  a  connecting  link  between  Old  English  and  the  L^v 
German  dialects. 

In  earlier  times  almost  the  whole  of  the  coast  and  the  inl- 
ands along  the  North  Sea  between  the  southern  boun<iarT  ( f 
Jutland  and  the  Zwin  or  Sincfal  in  West  Flanders  wa>  •  if*- 
cupied  bv  Frisians.  At  only  one  |)oint  within  these  limit* 
was  the  Frisian  territory  from  the  very  earliest  times  inter- 
sected by  a  population  of  non-Frisian  origin,  the  ooa<t  jt 
both  sides  of  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  having  been  at  an  enri) 
date  occupied  by  tribes  belonging  to  the  Low  Saxon  groin.. 
Curiously  enoup^h  it  is  this  part  of  Germany,  or  more  exaj'tlv 
part  of  this  district  (viz..  Western  Holsatia,  between  ElU 
and  Eider),  from  which  the  main  body  of  the  Teutonic  ci*ti- 
querors  of  Britain  is  said  to  have  come.  As  far  back  a* 
Frisian  can  be  traced  its  geographical  area  and  the  nunittt-r 
of  the  Frisian-speaking  population  have  been  constant ir 
diminishing,  ana  compared  with  the  original  extent  th- 
preseat  area  is  a  ver^  small  one.  But  the  scantiness  of  ex- 
tent and  number  is  in  some  degree  offset  both  by  the  con- 
siderable difiference  existing  among  the  modern  FriM^n 
dialects  and  by  the  evidences  left  of  some  of  the  earlhr 
varieties. 

Modem  Frisian  is  to  be  divided  into  four  groups,  viz..  In- 
sular Frisian,  North  Frisian,  East  Frisian,  and  West  Pridian. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  same  division  t\- 
isted  in  the  period  from  which  the  earliest  literary  dixu- 
ments  date,  although  Insular  Frisian  and  North  Frisian  .nr*. 
represented  only  by  recent  sources. 

Insular  Frisian  is  limited  to  the  four  islands  Svlt,  F"hr, 
Amrum,  and  Heligoland.  Formerly  the  dialects  of  lh»>^ 
islands  were  considered  as  forming  part  of  North  Frisian— 
an  opinion  which  holds  good  so  far  as  Insular  Frisian  shart-^ 
with  North  Frisian  certain  peculiarities  which  are  not  f<»ui.<i 
in  either  East  or  West  Frisian.  But  as  there  are  s^trikiiu* 
similarities  between  Insular  Frisian — in  distinction  from  tl.t- 
other  Frisian  dialects — and  Old  English,  and  as  the  relat  ion- 
ship  of  Insular  Frisian  to  Old  English  is  apparently  of  an 
earlier  dat'C  than  the  features  which  it  has  in  common  with 
North  Frisian,  it  seems  advisable  (with  Mdller)  to  sep.nrar. 
Insular  from  North  Frisian  in  admitting  a  special  in<^t.Ur 
branch  of  the  Early  Frisian  or  Anglo-Frisian  languH:^■ 
This  separation  is  furthermore  recommended  by  the  fa- ' 
that  the  inhabitants  of  the  four  islands  and  of  the  Schle^^^^u' 
coast  find  difficulty  in  making  themselves  understtxMl  l>\ 
each  other  in  their  own  dialect.  Low  German  being  }>rv- 
ferred  for  the  sake  of  mutual  communication.  biMi.ar 
Frisian  is  in  itself  by  no  means  a  uniform  language.  Ir 
fact  each  one  of  the  four  islands  has  its  particular  diaUi  ^ 
there  being,  moreover,  a  marked  difference  between  the  ♦-»>.'- 
em  and  the  western  part  of  F5hr,  so  that  five  varietie>  •  f 
Insular  Frisian  may  te  distinguished.  Three  of  these — \i? . 
the  "  Am  ring  "  and  the  two  **F6hring"  dialects — have  'Stv- 
eral  points  in  common  with  each  other  and  partly  also  mitlL 
Nortn  Frisian,  in  which  the  two  others  disagree.'  Th»:^  dif- 
ferences between  **  Sildring  "^  and  the  **Amring-F«"hrinj" 
dialects  are  so  considerable  tfiat  both  parties  have  sonjo  diffi- 
culty in  understanding  each  other,  while  the  idiom  of  ll»  >- 
goland  takes  a  kind  of  an  intermediate  position  lK?twtip 
those  of  Sylt  and  of  Amrum-Fohr.  Heligoland  has.  t.'  » 
larger  extent  than  the  language  of  the  three  other  islan*!-. 
submitted  to  the  infiuence  of  Low  German,  its  dialect  U'ikc 
at  present  a  mixture  of  Frisian  and  Ix)w  German.  L'  * 
German  has  furthermore  invaded  the  eastern  part  of  F«~K". 
the  borough  of  Wyk,  and  the  villages  Nieblum,  Boldixr.!:\ 
and  Wrixum,  being  at  present  entirely  or  almost  entirt .. 
Low  German.    All  of  the  literarv  sources  for  Insular  Kr- 


602    FRISIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


FRITSCH 


name  of  "  Platt-Frisian  "  (i.  e.  "  Plattdeutsch  "-Frisian,  Low 
German  Frisian),  or  '* Town-Frisian"  (Stadfriesch),  is  gen- 
erally assigned ;  it  ought  to  be  said  that  the  "  Town-Frisian  " 
is  not  to  hQ  counted  among  Frisian,  the  idiom  of  the  towns 
in  question  being  a  Low  Saxon  dialect,  which  replaced  the 
former  Frisian  lan^age  and  kept  only  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  Frisian  words  and  peculiarities.  Similar 
to  the  idiom  of  the  Frisian  towns  is  that  of  the  island  of 
Ameland,  where  Frisian  was  still  found  in  the  year  1786. 
Modem  West  Frisian  has  been  used  and  is  being  used  for 
literary  purposes  to  a  ^^reater  extent  than  any  other  living 
Frisian  dialect,  the  hterarv  documents  of  Modem  West 
Frisian  commencing  with  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  the  literary  production  bemg  carried  on  both 
in  poetry  and  in  prose.  Amon^  the  better  known  of  the 
earlier  works  belong  the  Friesehe  rij-nderije^  by  the  ^eat 
Frisian  poet  Gijsbert  Japicx  (1668),  and  the  story  It  hbben 
fen  Aagfje  Ijaorants,  of  ay  frieske  boerinne,  by  Eelke  Mein- 
aerts  (1779\  Of  favorite  authors  of  modem  times  there 
should  at  least  be  mentioned  the  brothers  J.  H.  and  £. 
Halberisma  (the  ardent  and  successful  advocates  of  Frisian 
language  and  nationality),  Waling  Dijkstra  (the  most  pro- 
lific and  popular  Frisian  author),  T.  G.  van  der  Meulen, 
and  P.  J.  Troelstra.  The  interest  taken  among  the  West 
Frisians  in  the  study  of  earlier  and  in  the  conservation  of 
modem  Frisian  is  also  manifested  by  the  foundation  in  1829 
of  the  Friesch  Oenootsehap  (i.  e,  Frisian  Association),  and 
in  1844  of  the  Selakip  for  Fryske  tael-en  skriftenkennisae 
(i.  e.  Society  for  the  Study  of  Frisian  Language  and  Litera- 
ture). 

References. — On  Frisian  and  its  dialects  in  general,  see 
Johan  Winkler,  Over  de  taal  en  de  tongvcdlen  der  Friesen 
(Leeu warden,  1868);  the  same  author's  Algemeen  Neder- 
duitseh  en  Friesch  dialeeticon  (2  vols..  The  Hague,  1874 ; 
with  specimens  of  the  modem  Frisian  dialects) ;  Hewett, 
T?ie  Frisian  Languwae  and  Literature  (Ithaca,  1879) ;  Siebs, 
Zur  Geschichte  der  SnglischrFriesischen  Spra>che  /.  (Halle, 
1889 ;  with  a  full  bibliographical  list  of  books  for  the  study 
of  Frisian  and  of  Frisian  texts);  and  the  same  authors 
Geschichte  der  Friesischen  Sprache  in  Paul's  Orundrissder 

fsrman,  Philolo^ie,  vol.  i.,  p.  728,  sqq.  (Strassburg,  1891). 
pecimens  of  Frisian  dialects  are  also  found  in  Firmenich's 
(fermanien*s  Vdlkerstimmen  (Berlin,  1843-68J;  and  Leo- 
pold's Van  de  Schelde  tot  de  Weichsel  (Groningen,  1882). 
A  comparative  Frisian  grammar  was  long  ago  proposed  by 
Prof.  H.  MSller,  of  Copenhagen,  who,  however,  has  since 
been  engaged  upon  other  work.  Siebs's  Englisch-Friesische 
Sprache  attempts  to  combine  a  comparative  treatment  of 
the  Frisian  dialects  with  the  reconstruction  of  the  Anglo- 
Frisian  language ;  its  first  volume  contains,  besides  an  in- 
troduction and  a  bibliography,  only  the  vowels  of  the  stem- 
syllables.  A  chapter  of  especial  interest  for  Anglo-Saxon 
grammar,  viz.,  that  of  the  Frisian  palatal  consonants,  was 
studied  by  Miller,  Die  Palatalreihe  der  indogerm,  Orund- 
sprache  im  Germanischen  (Leipzig,  1875),  and  Siebs,  Die 
Assibilierunff  der  Friesischen  Palatalen  (TQbingen,  1887). 
On  Frisian  literature  in  general,  see  especially  Tn.  Siebs  in 
Paul's  Grundriss  (vol.  ii.,  pt.  1,  p.  494,  sqq,,  1893). 

Insular  Frisian  and  North  Frisian. — As  regards  the 
separation  of  Insular  from  the  North  Frisian,  the  theory  of 
Moller*s,  referred  to  in  the  text,  is  found  in  his  book  Das 
Altenglische  Volksepos  (Kiel,  1883,  p.  85).  Compare  the  valu- 
able essaj  by  Bremer,  Einleiiung  zu  einer  Amringisch- 
Fdhringtschen  SpraeMehrey  in  the  Jahrbuch  of  the  Low 
German  Dialect  Society,  vol.  xiii.  (Norden  and  Leipzig,  1887, 
p.  1,  sqq.).  On  single  dialects,  see  Johansen,  Die  Nordfrie- 
sische  Sprctehe,  na>ch  der  F6hri7werund  Amrumer  Mundart 
(Kiel,  1862),  and  Bendsen,  Die  Nordfriesische  Sprache  nach 
der  Moringer  Mundart  (Leyden,  1860). 

East  Frisian,  (a)  Old  East  Frisian, — The  fragments  of 
the  Old  Frisian  translation  of  the  Psalms  were  published  bv 
J.  H.  Gallee  in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  deutsches  Altertumy  vol. 
xxxii.  (1888,  p.  417).  The  best  collection  of  the  Old  Frisian 
law-books  is  tnat  by  von  Richthofen,  Friesische  Rechtsquellen 
(Berlin,  1840),  to  which  von  Richthofen  added  a  complete  dic- 
tionary {AltfriesischesW&rterbuch,  Gottingen,  1840).  Von 
Richthofen's  works  created  a  reliable  foundation  for  the 
study  of  the  Old  Frisian  language,  and  rendered  the  former 
Old  Frisian  grammars  by  J.  Grimm  (in  his  Deutsche  Gram- 
matik)  and  by  Rask  (Copenhagen,  1825)  rather  antiquated. 
A  brief  sketch  of  Old  Frisian  phonology  and  inflexion  was 
then  g^ven  by  M.  Heyne  in  his  Kurze  Laut-  und  Flexions- 
lehre  der  altgerm,  Dialekte  (Paderborn,  1862  :  4th  ed.  1881). 
A  recent  and  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  same  subject  is 


Van  Helten's  admirable  Aliostfriesische  Grammctiik  (Leen- 
warden,  1890).  Compare  also,  especially  for  the  Rftstrinp^r 
dialect,  Siebs's  Gescnichte  der  Fries.  Sprache  (mentioiie'i 
above). 

(6)  Modem  East  Frisian, — Cadovius-MUUer's  Memorink 
Ungues  FHsicm  was  edited  by  KOkelhan  (Leer,  1875),  h\A 
Westing's  Vocabulary^  by  Bremer,  in  Paul  and  Bmunr.- 
Beitrdge,  vol.  xiii.  (Halle,"  1888,  p.  530,  sqq,).  For  the  prt^tni 
East  Frisian  dialect,  see  especially  the  essays  hj  Ehrentntui 
and  Minssen  in  the  former  s  Friesisehes  Archtv  (vols.  i..  iL 
Oldenburg,  1847-54). 

West  Frisian,  (a)  Early  West  Frisian,—Some  of  thr 
West  Frisian  law-books  are  printed  in  von  Richthofen  > 
Altfries.  Rechtsquellen  (quoted  above  under  East  Fri*<iaii 
and  in  M.  de  Haan  Hettema's  Jurisprudent  ia  Frisica  (L«tj- 
warden,  1834-35).  For  charters  and  deeds,  see  E.  Epkem*'* 
Verzamelirw  van  vroeaere  charter s^  meest  in  den  oudfritM-h*^ 
tongval,  in  Visser  and  Amersfoordt's  Archief  (3  vols.,  L*'»u- 
warden,  1824-28).  Compare  M.  de  Haan  Hettem&*s  Idwii- 
cum  Frisicum  (Leeuwarden,  1874). 

(b)  ModertiWest  Frisian, — Selections  from  Frisian  wdrk? 
of  the  seventeenth,  eighteenth,  and  the  nineteenth  centurse- 
are  found  in  the  second  and  third  volumes  of  F.  Buitenni-t 
Hettema's  Bloemlezing  uit  oud-,  middel-^  en  nieutcfrif^h' 
geschriften  (Leyden,  1887-90).  Reprints  of  Gijsbert  Japicx* 
Friesche  rijmlerije  were  published  by  R  Epkema  (Ltnu- 
warden,  1821-24,  with  a  comprehensive  dictionary)  and  K^ 
W.  Dijkstra  (Franeker,  1853).  The  latter  also  reprinted  ih- 
Libben  fen  Aagtje  IjsbraMs  rLeeuwarden,  1861  J.  Further 
works  of  the  two  Halbertsma,  W.  Dijkstra,  Van  aer  Meulen. 
and  other  modem  Frisian  authors,  see  the  bibllograpbT  u 
Siebs's  Engliseh-Friesisehe  Sprache  (p.  368,  Bqq.)^  and*  tb  ■ 
same  author's  sketch  of  the  history  of  Frisian  fiteraturf  ii 
Paul's  Grundriss  (vol.  ii.,  pt.  1).  Compare  G.  Coliiij«»rr- 
Beknopte  friesche  spraakkunst  voorden  iegenwaordigen  twi 
(Leeuwarden,  1863;  2d  ed.  by  van  Blom,  1889);  J.  H.  lU- 
bertsma.  Over  de  uitsprctak  van  het  landfrieseh  (in  Tud- 
gids,  vol.  ix.,  p.  1,  sqq^ ;  and  the  books  on  Dutch  dialet  t^ 
quoted  in  the  article  Dutch  Language. 

Hermann  CoLLrrz, 

Frislang:  the  race  that  inhabits  a  territory  lying  alcn.: 
the  German  Ocean  between  the  Scheldt  and  Weser.  vhi-:: 
includes  the  modem  divisions  of  Friesland  in  HolUnd  and 
Aurich  in  Hanover.  Their  history  goes  back  to  very  earl? 
times.  Between  28  and  57  a.  d.  tney  came  in  conflict  witt; 
the  Romans,  but  were  only  nominally  subjugated.  Th^\ 
probably  aided  their  neighbors,  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  in 
the  conquest  of  England  and  Scotland.  Wilfrid  of  York 
established  the  first  successful  mission  among  them  in 
677-78.  Charlemagne  absorbed  their  territory  in  his  em- 
pire. The  three  divisions  of  the  country.  Western.  Mid<ljr. 
and  Eastern  Frisia,  passed  through  many  political  virirsi- 
tudes,  but  in  the  laist  a  confederate  form  of  indepen«it'ii: 
republican  government  was  long  maintained.  In  mo<it*n. 
times  the  people  have  not  asserted  themselves  political!^ 
but  have  been  peacefully  united  with  adjoining  nationA.i- 
ties.  C.  H.  T. 

Frith,  William  Powell  :  ^nre-painter ;  b.  in  Studl^v, 
near  Ripon,  England,  in  1819;  pupil  of  Rorai  Acadeniy. 
London;  Ro^al  Academician  1853;  seconciH^lass  med^ 
Paris  Exposition,  1855  ;  Legion  of  Honor  1878 ;  mem  Iter  .>f 
Vienna,  Antwerp,  Swedish,  and  Belgian  academies.  Dtr^' 
Day  (1858),  Railway  Station  (1862),  and  Marriage  of  t*>- 
Pnnce  of  Wales  (ISoS)  are  among  his  most  important  W(»rk- 
They  are  crowded  with  figures,  and  detail  is  carefully  (>ait  :- 
ed,  but  his  compositions  lack  harmony  of  color,  ami  i  is 
figures  are  not  very  well  drawn.  His  works  are  ven*  p*'\  u- 
lar,  and  many  of  them  have  been  engraved.  Studio  in  L«»n- 
don.  W.  A.  (\ 

Frit'illary  [from  Mod.  LaX.fritilla'ria,  fritillary,  deriv 
of  hai,  fritillus,  dice-box,  so  called  from  the  dice-lilce  mark^ 
on  the  petals] :  the  Fritillaria  malectgris  of  Euro(>e.  « 
liliaceous  plant  common  in  cultivation.  The  flower  i- 
spotted  with  purple,  red,  and  yellow;  hence  it  is  oUer 
called  checkered  lily.  Many  varieties  are  grown  in  gardon^ 
The  crown  imperial  {Fritillaria  imperialis)  is  a  fine  shuv^ 
flower  of  Persian  origin.    There  are  some  twenty  species 

Frit^h,  JoHANN :  neurologist ;  b.  at  Tepl,  Bohemia,  Fr  ^ 
10,  1849;  graduated  at  the  gymnasium  at  Eger;  studi<^. 
medicine  at  the  University  of  Vienna,  and  became  Privet - 
docent  of  Psychiatry  there.  He  is  Landeseerichts  Artzt  n 
Vienna,  editor  of  Das  Jahrbuch  fUr  Psyehi<itr%e^  and  ha- 
written  Ueber  die  primdre  Verrdoktheit  (1879) ;  Ceber  rf»- 


heard  a  rumor  rife  among  the  peasantry  that  the  world 
was  coming  Ui  an  end,  he  says  he  did  not  believe  it,  because 
the  will  of  God  had  not  been  brought  about — a  wonderful 
thought  (or  a  child  ten  veare  old.  At  thirteen  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  forester,  who  taught  him  wood-loreand  mathe- 
matics, in  which  he  made  (Treat  attainraenls.  He  studied  (or 
a  time  at  Jena  and  Berlin,  where  he  showeil  great  interest 
in  pedagogical  methods.  Twice  he  visited  Pestalozzi,  and  in 
1816.  in  connection  with  a  friend  by  the  name  of  Middendorf, 
opened  a  school  at  Keilhau.  One  who  was  a  pupil  describes 
it  asa  parailtse  of  children,  but  says  that  during  hia  stay  (from 
1816  to  1826)  it  was  in  a  chronic  state  of  baniiruptcy.  The 
plan  was  to  educate  the  children  by  putting  them  at  work, 
and  making  nature  itself,  and  what  they  produced  artistic- 
ally by  horticulture  and  their  own  hands,  their  booke.  It 
was  while  here  that  Froebel  married  his  8rst  wife  and  for- 
mer pupil  in  mineralogy.  They  never  had  children  of  their 
own,  but  she  made  his  school  a  happy  family  for  the  twenty 
years  that  she  lived  with  him.  But  they  did  not  confine 
themselves  to  Keilhau,  where  Middendorf  only  remained 
steadily  and  after  the  death  of  Froebel,  They  had  schools 
in  Switzerland  at  Wal«rsee,  Burgdorf,  and  WiUisau.  Some 
time  during  this  interval  Froebolwent  to  GSttingen  Univer- 
sity and  studied  comparative  philology,  makmg  himself 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  Latin,  Greek,  and  Sanskrit,  and 
all  to  complete  his  own  education  for  his  duties.  In  1830 
he  lost  his  faithful  wife,  and  it  was  not  till  1840  that  he 
founded  his  first  kindergarten  at  Brandenburg.  Twenty- 
three  years  liefore  ho  had  published  his  first  work.  Menaehtn- 
ertiehung  (Human  Education),  in  which  may  be  discerned 
the  seeds  of  the  kindergarten.  He  there  gives  the  process  of 
human  development  in  the  child.  But  at  that  time  it  was 
his  idea  that  the  child  until  he  was  seven  years  old  should 


and  other  family  duties  to  devote  themselves  to  the  develop- 
ment, mental  as  well  as  moral  and  physical,  of  each  child, 
but  that  from  the  time  children  were  three  years  old  till 
seven,  it  was  a  relief  for  both  parties  to  have'  them  gather 
into  companies,  to  be  taken  care  of  for  several  hours  of  every 
day  by  a  kindergartner,  thoroughly  instructed  in  the  process 
o(  development  and  the  method  of  the  kindergarten.  (See 
KiHDBaoiRTE.y.)  For  the  next  twelve  years  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  education  of  kindergartners  and  the  establishment 
of  kindergartens.  The  last  attempt  was  at  Hamburg,  where 
he  was  invited  in  1850,  He  elaborated  the  method,  and 
has  left  it  a  gospel  to  childhood,  (or  its  principle  is  that 
free  creattveness  is  at  once  the  means  and  end  of  hu- 
man education,  and  begins  in  spontaneous  play,  so  guarded 
and  guided  ea  to  coincide  with  God's  creativeness.  He 
mamed  one  of  the  kindergartners  whom  he  educated,  and 
■he  kept  a  kindergarten  in  Hamburg  for  twenty  years  after 
his  death,  which  took  place  June  21,  1853,  at  Budolstadt, 
where  he  had  a  school  for  training  kindergartners.  It  was 
in  the  course  of  these  last  twelve  years  that  he  published 
another  most  characteristic  work,  Dii  MUller-  und  Kose- 
Lieder  (Mother's  Cosseting  Songs),  illustrated  by  plates  and 
notes  addressed  to  the  mother,  interpreting  to  her  her  in- 
stincts, and  giving  her  hints  for  her  motherly  prattle  with 
her  little  chddren.  The  reform  of  education  begun  by 
Bousseau,  and  carried  on  by  Fichte,  Pestalozzi,  and  Dies- 
terweg,  finally  culminated  in  Procbel's  discovery  of  the 
method,  as  well  as  principle,  of  educating  the  human  being 
in  its  first  years  purely  by  means  of  its  own  spontaneouB 
activities.  See  Aalobiugrnpky  (London,  1886);  Joseph 
Payne's  Lectures  on  the  HUlory  of  Eduailiiin  (new  ed. 
18B3);  WiiUiaas^'a  Hiaiory  of  Education  {\m2):  Marenholz- 
BqIow,  Rtminiicencea  of  Frederick  Froebel,  translated  by 
Mrs.  Horace  Mann ;  The  Education  of  Man,  by  Priedrich 
Froebel,  International  Education  Series;  H.  Courthope 
Bowen,  Froebel  and  Education  by  Self-aetivity  (1893). 

EUZASETH  P.  PEABODV. 


b.in  Orie^heim,  Germany,  July  16,1805;  studied  at  Jena  and 
Berlin ;  held  professorshiiis  of  mineralogy  and  other  sciences 
at  the  Universitv  of  Zurich  1833-M ;  edited  a  radical  political 
"""^r;  remove<I  to  Prussia,  but —  -••■-'  ■-  -  r^ 
(or  political  reasons,  and  his 


Sper ;  remove<I  to  Prussia,  but  was  obliged  to  go  to  Dres- 
n  (or  political  reasons,  and  his  pamphlets  on  public  aff  ' 
e  suppressed;  took  part  in  the  revolution  o(  1848, 


icaflairs 


entered  the  Frankfort  Parliament;  was  arrested  and  tried 
(or  a  political  oSense  at  Vienna,  but  esca[ied  conviction ;  re- 
moved to  Switzerland,  and  thence  to  the  U.  S. ;  was  editor, 
newspaper  correspondent,  lecturer,  and  merchant  in  New 


York,  Nicaragua,  Northern  Mexico,  and  California ;  in  IMT 
went  to  Germany,  and  became  again  involved  with  the  lo- 
ttionties;  removed  to  London;  became  in  1863  an  edil'T in 
Vienna;  and  in  1867  (ounded  a  iourtial  in  Munich-  German 
consul  at  Smyrna  Id'ra-TO,  and  m  Algiers  1878-91."  AuiIi.t 
of  Ori^^za^e  einei  St/tlema  der  Eryalatlologie  (1843) :  Ss$. 
tern  der  Soiialen  Potitik  (2  vols..  1847) ;  2  vol-  of  Amwi.sn 
travels  (1857-58);  TAeorie  der  AW.i(2vols.,1861-64i:  hi. 
Wirthmbafl  de»  MengehettgesehlecklB  (3  vols.,  1870-76t  iu,<l 
other  works.    D.  in  Zurich,  Nov.  7, 1883. 

Frog  f  M.  Eng,  Frogge  <  O.  Eng./reffyo,  Connection  with 
0.  Eng.  frox  "Jroec.  frog :  0.  H.  ^erm.'/rase  >  Mod.  Gemi. 
JToech  :  leal,  fronkr,  and  with  0.  Eng.  froeta  (r^>g-  \M 
frautr  is  not  underelood]  r  any  one  of  many  leaping  t«ill~ 
Batrachians.  The  frogs  are  the  typical  represenUlive.  ai 
once  of  a  class  (the  Batrachians  or  Amphibians)  and  an  or- 
der (the  Anura  or  Salientia),  and  are  divisible  into  sevrr*: 
distinct  families  and  numerous  generw  and  species.  As  n-i- 
resentatives  of  the  family  Ranidtr.  the  true  frogs  are  distin- 
guished by  a  peculiar  sternal  apjiaratus.  the  manubriun 
being  a  robust  bony  style,  the  liphistenium  generallv  .inii- 
lar,  and  the  arciform  cartilages  wanting;  the  skull  has  n.. 
(ronto-panetal  fontanel;  there  ate  no  teeth  on  the  lun.r 
jaw;  the  tongue  has  a  broad  free  mai^n,  is  attached  m 
front  and  free  behind,  and  is  more  or  less  deeplv  no(eii«l 
behind ;  the  ear  is  perfectly  develo|icd.  the  tympaniuii  c'avHDi 
tympani,  and  Eustachian  tubes  being  present:  therp  arv  m. 
parotoid  glands.  The  (amilv  is  represented  bv  a  number  of 
genera,  the  largest  of  which  is  that  o(  the'lvpical  if- 
(Jiana),  of  which  there  are  about  fortv  spei-ies. 'found  in  al- 
most all  portions  of  the  worki  except  Australasia  and  S^mih 
Araenca.*  (For  metamorphoses  of  frog,  see  cut  in  aniil- 
Batbacbu;  see  also  Evolution.)  Nearly  a  dozen  are  foun.l 
in  the  U.  S. :  the  best  known  are— I.  the  common  buU-fr.  f 
(liana  eatetibinna) ;  2,  the  shad-frog  (Jtana  rireaeens)  -  ;i.  ihf 
wood-frog  {Rofia  eyh<alica) ;  4.  the  marsh-frog  (Aino  nn/.t 
tr\») ;  and  S,  the  spiing-frog  (Ratw  damata).    (1)  Much  th* 


imon  European  ttogiRana  Impornrfal 
largest  of  these,  and  only  rivaled  in  size  bv  a  species  (Rana 
tigrina)  of  the  East  Indies,  is  the  bull-frog.  This,  like  it* 
fellows,  feeds  upon  worms,  mollusks,  and  insects,  and  it  is 
said  that  to  those  in  the  ZoSlogica!  Gardens  of  London  arr 
sometimes  given  sparrows,  which  they  greeilily  devour;  Us 
color  is  green,  bronzed  with  olive,  and  with  dusky  bloit-lit^. 
(2)  The  shad-frog  is  recognizable  by  its  eye-like  spots,  wl.i.  b 
are  dark  brown  bordered  with  yellow,  and  in  allusion  u- 
which  it  is  also  called  leopard-frog;  the  name  shad-frcf:  lia? 
been  derived  from  its  apnearing  in  spring  nearly  at  the  suite 
time  as  the  shad.  (S)  The  wood-frog  may  be  known  bv  i:~ 
reddish-brown  color,  and  by  a  dark  bridle-like  atripe  pa.-* 
ing  from  the  snout  and  through  the  eye  backward;  it  i> 
most  abundant  in  woods,  and  is  very  closely  related  lo  or 
identical  with  the  Rana  temporaria  of  Eiimpe.     (4)  Thr 


of  ouaitrato  dark  cfx-t! 

.. ed  the  tiger  or  pickerei 

frog.    (5)  The  spring-frog,  or  green  frog,  is  of  a  bright  grw^ji 


L=  also  called  tl 


606 


FRONTENAC 


FRONTIER 


consists  of  an  outer  and  inner  hard  layer,  separated  to  some 
extent  by  a  diploe,  a  soft  cancelous  tissue  furnished  with 
large  veins.  Just  above  the  eyes  the  diploe  is  wanting,  and 
its  place  is  occupied  by  the  frontal  sinus,  a  cavity  in  two 
parts,  each  of  which  communicates  with  the  nasal  passages. 

Frontenac,  fron'tc-naak',  Louis  de  Buade,  Comte  de: 
soldier  and  governor  of  the  province  of  New  France ;  b.  in 
1620  in  France ;  servetl  in  the  army  in  Italy,  Flanders,  Ger- 
many, and  received  many  wounds ;  in  1672  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  Canada  by  Louis  XIV.,  having  already 
won  a  wide  renown  for  valor.  He  was  a  relative  of  Madame 
Maintenon  and  the  husband  of  a  court  beauty  who  used 
her  influence  against  him.  His  first  governorship  of  New 
France  (1672-82)  was  marked  by  the  building  of  Fort  Fronte- 
nac (now  Kingston,  Ontario)  and  the  expeditions  of  La  Salle, 
Marquette,  and  Joliet ;  but  Frontenac,  a  man  of  great  abili- 
ties, was  hampered  by  the  action  of  his  intendant  and  of 
Laval,  Bishop  of  Quebec,  so  long  the  virtual  ruler  of  Canada. 
He  was  accordingly  recalled,  but  in  1689,  Canada  being 
almost  ruined  under  his  successors,  he  was  sent  out  again. 
He  now  punished  the  Iroquois,  destroyed,  through  his  lieu- 
tenants, the  English  fleet  in  Hudson's  Bay,  ravaged  New- 
foundland, terrified  all  the  English-speakinff  coast-towns  as 
far  south  as  New  Jersey,  captured  Pemaquid,  Casco,  Salmon 
Falls,  Schenectady,  and  in  1690  repulsed  the  forces  of  Phips 
before  Quebec — an  event  which  Louis  XIV.  commemorated 
with  a  medal.  His  courage  and  his  activity  were  marvelous, 
and  he  actually  succeeded  in  restoring  for  a  time  the  fallen 
fortunes  of  France  in  America.  This  able  soldier  died  at 
Quebec,  Nov.  28, 1698.  See  Park  man,  Count  Frontenac  and 
New  Fratice  under  Louis  XIV.  (Boston,  1877). 

Frontier :  in  genera],  the  boundary  that  separates  con- 
tiguous states ;  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  employed  espe- 
cially in  the  U.  S.,  the  term  indicates  those  outlying  regions 
which  at  different  stages  of  the  country's  development  nave 
been  but  imperfectly  settled,  and  have  constituted  the  meet- 
ing-ground of  savagery  and  civilization. 

The  consideration  of  frontiers  in  the  former  and  more 
common  acceptation  of  the  term  has  given  rise  to  impor- 
tant questions  of  political  science  which  have  been  an- 
swered in  various  ways  at  different  periods  of  the  world's 
history,  and  in  Europe,  where  densely  populated  states  abut 
on  each  other,  the  subject  of  boundaries  has  always  been 
one  of  special  significance.  Publicists  have  discussed  the 
questions  whether  there  are  "natural  frontiers"  within 
which  a  nation  should  restrain  its  activity ;  how  the  lines 
are  to  be  drawn  along  rivers,  lakes,  straits,  and  mountains 
marking  the  frontiers ;  how  changes  of  these  natural  bound- 
aries affect  the  respective  states;  and  whether  frontiers 
should  correspond  rather  with  race  boundaries  than  with 
"  natural  frontiers."  The  growth  of  the  spirit  of  national- 
ity, the  distinguishing  feature  of  modem  political  history, 
has  tended  to  lessen  somewhat  the  importance  of  physical 
lines  of  demarkation  as  compared  witn  racial  boundaries, 
thus  sacrificing  in  many  instances  the  geographic  unity  of 
a  state  to  its  ethnic  unity.  The  same  spirit,  moreover,"  has 
striven  steadily  against  the  attempts  of  the  powers  to  mark 
the  frontiers  m  accordance  with  dynastic  interests  to  the 
disregard  of  the  racial  unity  of  their  subjects  or  citizens. 
Even  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1814-15,  with  its  excessive 
respect  for  the  theory  of  legitimacy,  reveals  in  many  of  its 
territorial  arrangements  the  strength  of  the  principle  of 
nationality  in  detennining  the  proper  frontiers  ;  and  subse- 
quent readjustments  of  the  map  of  Europe  have  proved 
tnat  this  principle  has  been  steadily  gaining  ground.  The 
modification  of  means  of  intercourse  and  of  the  art«  of  war 
has  diminished  the  importance  of  former  natural  frontiers 
from  the  point  of  view  of  offense  and  defense ;  and  the 
enunciation  of  the  doctrine  that  the  state  should  coincide 
with  racial  rather  than  with  topographic  boundaries  has 
afforded  at  least  a  pretext  for  ignoring  old-time  division- 
linos.  But  in  any  case  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  definite- 
ly marked  physiographic  frontier  instead  of  an  artificial 
boundary-line.  As  a  general  principle  it  may  be  said  that 
wherever  a  given  population  have  an  essential  unity  of  in- 
terests, whether  arising  from  topographic  facts,  race  iden- 
tity, or  social  and  economic  considerations,  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  to  political  unity ;  therefore  the  "  natural  frontier 
is  that  which  bounds  a  people  of  fundamentally  identical  in- 
terests. 

Writers  on  international  law  have  laid  down  the  principle 
that  when  the  frontier  of  a  state  is  formed  by  a  natural 
water-barrier,  not  marked  by  a  definite  line  along  this  bar- 


rier, the  gradual  accretions  from  fluvial  deposit  accrue  t«« 
the  state  along  whose  boundary  they  form.  But  when  u 
river  or  lake  suddenly  transfers  its  channel  entirely  within 
the  territory  of  one  of  the  states  bounded  by  it,  the  bound- 
ary remains  along  the  former  river-bed.  Publicists  ha\r 
also  declared  that  where  a  boundary  follows  raoant4un>  or 
hills  the  water-divide  constitutes  the  frontier.  When-  it 
follows  a  river,  the  boundary  is  determined  by  a  line  run- 
ning through  the  middle  or  along  the  center  of  the  det'i«»^t 
channel  of  navigable  streams,  provided  there  is  do  posit  ht* 
proof  that  the  entire  river-bed  oelongs  to  either  of  tne  c«'D- 
tiguous  states.  The  same  principle  applies  to  lake^.  Sf 
Hall,  Intematiotial  Law,  §|  37-^. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  frontier  is  not  a  fortified  boundary-lin^ 
separating  populous  States,  but  by  common  usage  implies 
the  outskirts  of  civilization,  the  regions  but  partially  re- 
claimed from  savagery  by  the  pioneer.  In  the  reports  of 
the  U.  S.  census  the  frontier-line  has  been  defined  as  the  ni- 
land  line  limiting  the  area  which  has  an  average,  count  v  h> 
county,  of  two  or  more  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile.  Thi* 
area  is  called  the  settled  area.  Between  this  census  frontier- 
line  and  the  Indian  country  the  belt  of  territory  spiarstiy 
occupied  by  Indian  traders,  hunters,  miners,  fanfhiueT!. 
backwoodsmen,  and  adventurers  of  all  sorts,  corustitut*- 
the  traditional  frontier.  In  the  course  of  American  histor> 
the  frontier  has  been  advanced  steadily  westward,  and  iii 
its  advance  settlement  has  also  widened  out  N.  and  S.  aloiii: 
its  flanks.  The  continuity  of  the  settlement  has  been  bn)ken 
by  passing  over  certain  regions  which  have  remained  to  1*^ 
occupied  later;  thus  the  less  desirable  regions  of  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains  and  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  were  left 
isolated,  and  regions  occupied  by  Indians,  as  well  as  th< 
Great  Plains,  were  left  behind  the  general  advance.  In  thi- 
advance  of  the  frontier  successive  waves  of  industrial  Iif»- 
have  crossed  the  continent,  and  these  waves  have  corre- 
sponded to  the  stages  of  the  economic  progress  of  societv. 
The  Indian  traders  and  hunters,  exploiting  the  fur-bearini: 
animals,  worked  their  way  from  the  Atlantic  coast  al^n.: 
the  rivers  and  lakes,  until  as  early  as  1830  thev  were  trav- 
ersing the  passes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  while  the  fHnn- 
ers  were  stdl  near  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri.  The  hunt»r 
life  was  followed  by  the  pastoral  life  of  the  cattle-raiscr.  *>r 
in  the  mountainous  regions  by  the  miner's  activity.  Tli- 
pioneer  farmers  (whose  earliest  representatives  merged  ^I'h 
the  previously  mentioned  classes)  came  next  and  clearf^l  ili. 
lana  and  used  up  the  virgin  soil  of  the  prairies  with  unn^ 
tated  crops  and  careless  farming. 

Statistics  for  determining  the  settled  area  in  the  cx)loniaI 

?eriod  are  lacking,  but  at  the  date  of  the  first  census  in 
790  the  settled  area  was  bounded  by  a  line  which  ran  near 
the  coast  of  Maine  and  included  New  England^  excej>t  .i 
portion  of  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  New  York  alon - 
the  Hudson  and  up  the  Mohawk  for  some  distajice,  East^nj 
and  Southern  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  well  across  llie  Grvat 
Valley,  and  the  Carolinas  and  Eastern  Georgia. 

By  the  census  of  1820  the  settled  area  included  (Jhi-. 
Southern  Indiana  and  Illinois,  Southeastern  Missouri,  anl 
about  half  of  Louisiana.  The  continuity  of  this  area  urn- 
interrupted  by  Indian  tribes,  the  management  of  whuh 
now  came  to  be  an  important  question.  The  frontier  n^gio^ 
of  the  time  lay  along  the  Great  Lakes,  where  Astors  coiu- 
pany  operated  in  the  Indian  trade,  and  beyond  the  Missis- 
sippi, where  the  Indian  trade  extended  to  tne  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  in  the  Florida  country.  The  Mississippi  was  th* 
scene  of  tvpical  frontier  settlements.  By  the  miadle  of  ils^ 
century  tlie  Indian  region  proper  lay  along  the  eastrni 
boundary  of  what  is  now  the  Indian  Territory,  Ncbr»i>ka. 
and  Kansas.  Minnesota  was  still  a  re^on  of  frontier  c<'i.- 
ditions :  but  for  the  most  typical  frontier  conditions  at  thi^ 
period  one  must  look  to  the  settlements  of  California,  when- 
the  gold  discoveries  had  sent  a  sudden  tide  of  adventur- 
ous miners  to  the  Oregon  territory  and  to  the  Momi<m 
settlements  in  Utah.  As  the  ailvance  of  the  frontiersnuiii 
beyond  the  Alleghanies  had  caused  the  rise  of  importarit 
questions  of  transportation  and  internal  improvement,  ^ 
now  the  settlements  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains  niHMlM: 
means  of  communication  with  the  East.  Accompanving  th 
creation  of  these  arose  the  settlement  of  the  region  of  tlie  G  n  a' 
Plains  and  the  development  of  still  another  kind  of  front i.  r 
life.  Railroa^is  fostered  by  land  grants  sent  an  increasini- 
tide  of  immigrants  into  the  far  West,  the  U.  S.  army  fouirht 
a  series  of  decisive  Indian  wars  in  Minnesota,  Dakota,  aiM 
the  Indian  Territory.  By  1880  the  settletl  area  had  N-ti. 
pushed  into  Northern  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota. 


608 


FROTH  PLY 


miles  W.  of  Cumberland.    It  has  foundries  and  a  fire-brick 
manufactory.    Pop.  (1890)  3,804. 

Froth  Fly :  See  Frog-spittle. 

Frothinghain,  fro/A'ing-am,  EujEn:  translator;  daughter 
of  Nathaniel  Langdon  Frothingham ;  b.  in  Boston,  Mar.  25, 
1835 ;  devoted  herself  to  the  study  of  the  German  literature 
and  language.  She  has  inheritea  her  father's  literary  taste 
and  talent,  and  has  distinguished  herself  by  remarkably  fine 
translations  of  three  difficult  masterpieces—Lessing's  iVa//ian 
der  Weiae  (1868),  Goethe's  fTenykmn  und  Dorothea  (1870),  in 
verse,  and  Lessing's  Laokoon  (1874). 

Frothingham,  Nathaihel  Langdon  :  clergyman  and  au- 
thor;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July  23, 1793;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1812 ;  in  1812  receivea  the  appointment  of  teacher 
of  rhetoric  and  oratory  at  Harvard ;  prepared  for  the  min- 
istry, and  from  1815  to  1850  was  pastor  of  the  First  church 
in  Boston.  He  published  Sermons  in  the  Order  of  a  Twelve- 
month  (ia52);  two  volumes  of  Metrical  Pieces  (1855-70); 
and  contributed  to  literature  poetical  translations  from  the 
Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  and  German.  He  was  one  of  the  earli- 
est students  of  German  in  the  U.  S.  D.  in  Boston,  Apr.  4, 
1870. 

Frothinffham,  Octavius  Bbjooks:  author;  third  son  of 
Nathaniel  L.  Frothingham;  b.  in  Boston.  Nov.  26,  1822; 
educated  at  the  Latin  School;  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1843 ;  studied  theology  at  Cambridge ;  was  settled  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  Mar.  10, 1847;  removed  to  Jersey  Citv,  N.  J.,  in  Apr., 
1855 ;  in  1859  went  to  New  York  and  established  the  Third 
Unitarian  Societv,  of  which  he  was  many  years  pastor.  Mr 
Frothingham  belonged  to  the  extreme  left  or  radical  wing 
of  the  Unitarians  for  a  time,  but  finally  assumed  the  at- 
titude of  an  independent  preacher  and  drew  to  himself  the 
largest  congregation  in  New  York.  For  several  years  from 
its  Deginning  he  was  president  of  the  Free  Religious  Asso- 
ciation, of  which  he  was  one  of  the  founders  iu  1867.  Mr. 
Frothingham  is  the  author  of  manv  valuable  books,  includ- 
ing Stories  from  the  Lips  of  the  'teacher  (1863) ;  Stories  of 
the  Patriarchs  (1864) ;  A  Child's  Book  of  Religion  (1866) ; 
The  Religion  of  Humanity  (1873);  The  Life  of  Theodore 
Parker  {Wl^)\  Transcendentalism  in  New  England  (1876); 
Oerrit  Smith,  a  Bioaraphy  (1878) ;  The  Cradle  of  the  Christ 
(1877) ;  Beliefs  of  the  Unbelievers ;  The  Safest  Creed,  a  vol- 
ume of  discourses  (1874) ;  Oeorge  Ripley,  in  American  Men 
of  Letters  (1882);  Memoir  of  William  Henry  Channinp 
(1886);  Boston  Unitarianism,  including  a  memoir  of  his 
father.  Dr.  N.  L.  Frothingham  (1890);  Recollections  and 
Impressiofis  (1891).  In  1889  he  published  a  Memoir  of  Rev. 
David  A.  Wasson,  with  selections  from  his  sermons.  For  a 
year  he  was  art-critic  for  the  New  York  Tribune ;  for  sev- 
eral years  a  regular  contributor  to  The  Index,  an  organ  of 
free  religion  printed  in  Boston.  In  1864  he  translated  a 
volume  of  Essays  by  Ernest  Renan.  In  1879  he  was  obliged 
by  failing  health  to  give  up  preaching.   J.  W.  Chadwick. 

Froade,  frood,  James  Anthony,  LL.  D.  :  historian ;  b.  at 
Dartington,  England,  Apr.  23, 1818 ;  educated  at  Westmin- 
ster and  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  with 
honor;  became  a  fellow  of  Exeter  College  1843;  was  or- 
dained a  deacon  in  1845 ;  published  Shadows  of  the  Clouds, 
a  tale  (1847),  and  Nemesis  of  Fmth  (1848),  which  were  con- 
demned by  the  authorities  of  the  university,  and  he,  as  a 
consequence,  lost  an  appointment  as  teacher  in  Tasmania. 
In  1850  he  began  to  write  for  Eraser'' s  Magazine,  the  West- 
minster Review,  and  other  periodicals.  His  greatest  work, 
The  History  of  Englaiid  from  the  Fall  ofWolsey  to  the 
Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  (12  vols.,  1856-70),  is  re- 
markable for  the  brilliancy  of  its  style,  for  the  novel  views 
taken  of  many  of  the  lea(ling  characters  who  figured  dur- 
ing the  time  of  which  it  treats,  and  for  the  abundance  of 
fresh  material  introduced.  In  1869  he  was  installed  rec- 
tor of  the  University  of  St.  Andrews.  In  1871  he  resigned 
the  editorship  of  Eraser's  Magazine,  and  in  1872-73  lec- 
tured in  the  U.  S.  He  has  also  written  Short  Studies  on 
Chreat  Subjects  (1867);  a  little  book  on  Cnlvinisjn  (St.  An- 
drews, 1871);  The  English  in  Ireland  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century  (3  vols.,  1871-74);  Ccesar,  a  Sketch  (1879):  Remi- 
niscences of  the  High  Church  Rpinval(lS81);  Reminiscences 
of  Thomas  Carlyle  (2  vols.,  1881) ;  Thomas  Carlyle  :  a  His- 
tory of  the  First  Forty  Years  of  his  Life  (1882) ;  Reminis- 
cences of  his  Irish  Journey  in  1849  (1882) ;  Oceana,  or  Eng- 
land and  her  Colonies  (1886);  The  Englinh  in  the  West 
Indies,  or  the  Bow  of  Ulysses  (1888).  In  1889  he  published 
The  Ttoo  Chiefs  of  Dunboy,  an  Irish  romance  of  the  eighteenth 


FRY 


century;  in  1890,  a  Life  of  Lord  Beaeonsfieid i  in  MM, 
The  Divorce  of  Catherine  of  Aragon;  in  V^fSl,  The  Smt>- 
ish  Story  of  the  Armada,  and  Other  Essays.  On  the  dcatj. 
of  Prof.  Edward  A.  Freeman,  Mar.  16,  1892,  Mr.  Fr«>vi' 
succeeded  him  as  Regius  Professor  of  History  in  the  I'ni^.r 
sity  of  Oxford.  Revised  by  C.  K.  Adaxs. 

Frnctldor  [=  Fr.  Fructidor,  fruit-month,  deriv.  of  \ji\ 
fruetus,  fruit  J:  in  the  French  republican  calendar  of  \7si- 
1806,  the  twelfth  and  last  month  m  the  year,  extending  from 
Aug.  18  to  Sept.  16.  In  the  year  5  (1796-07)  occum^i  t>. 
''coup  d'Stat  of  the  18th  Fructidor"  (Sept  4, 1797), iu  %hu'\. 
Augereau,  acting  for  the  majority  of  the  Directory,  reint»v.<i. 
the  minority  from  that  body. 

Frnits  [M.  Eng.  fruit,  frut,  from  O.  Fr.  fruit  <  Lit. 
/r«^7M«,  proceeds,  fruit,  liter,  enjoying,  enjoyment,  derir 
of  frui,  fruetus,  enjoy  <  Indo-Eur.  J^ni^-  >  Teuton,  bn^k- 
>  Germ,  brauchen,  use;  cf.  Eng.  brook,  endure]  :  in  a  w). it- 
sense,  are  the  perfected  ovaries  of  a  flowering  plant.  «i''i 
proper  envelopes.  Some  fruits,  like  the  strawberrj-,  n^'i;^ 
from  the  blenuing  of  many  ovaries  with  a  flesh v  rec'eptm  i. . 
In  others,  as  the  ng,  the  fleshy  receptacle  is  hollow,  and  *h«- 
whole  inflorescence,  including  many  pericarps,  is  blended  m 
the  fruit.  Strictly  speaking  a  fruit  consists  of  the  j*^i  hmI 
its  surrounding  pericarp,  and  fruits  receive  varioos  gvn»ra) 
names  according  to  the  nature  of  the  pericarp :  for  instjuuf. 
the  achenium,  the  samara,  the  drupe,  the  fx>rae,  the  b»»rr>. 
the  sorosis,  the  pepo,  and  many  otner  forms,  of  which  tr* 
more  important  are  noticed  in  this  work  under  their  alplu- 
betical  heads.     For  the  use  of  fniits  as  food,  see  Food. 

Fruit-culture :  See  Pomology,  Nursery,  and  the  artiL!.- 

dealing  with  the  different  fruits. 

Framen'tius,  Saint  :  a  Christian  missionary  of  the  four  L 
century;  b.  in  Phoenicia.  Ruflnua,  his  biographer.  .vtv« 
that  he  was  captured  by  the  Abvssinians  while  travelin);  ir 
their  country  in  company  with  liis  kinsman,  a  Tyrian  pi 
losopher,  who  was  murdered  by  them.  Frumentiu^  wa- 
taken  to  the  court,  where  he  ultimately  became  tutor  to  tl.r 
young  prince,  on  whose  succession  he  returned  home.  (*<■'.- 
secrateu  bishop  by  Athanasius  at  Alexandria,  he  again  ihr-ir. 
to  Abyssinia,  where  he  passed  many  years  as  a  missionun. 
and  became  the  recognized  founder  and  apostle  of  the  Abyv- 
siuian  Church. 

Fry,  Elizabeth  :  philanthropist ;  daughter  of  John  Our- 
ney,  and  wife  of  Joseph  Fry,  of  London ;  b.  at  Erlbani.  X<'r- 
folk,  England,  May  21,  1780 ;  was  brought  np  a  Frit*n  .. 
and  under  the  ministrations  of  William  Savery,  an  Ani»  r - 
can  Quaker,  in  1798  became  awakened  to  a  new  n*H:ri<  '-^ 
Ufe;  was  married  in  1800,  and  then  resumed  her  ti>nv*T 
habit  of  visiting  the  poor  and  sick,  afterward  extent liii*:  hrr 
attention  to  seamen,  prisoners,  outcasts,  and  the  vi«i.  a^ 
classes,  not  only  in  London,  but  in  all  parts  of  Great  Bnt  a:: 
and  Ireland,  and  later  even  in  many  continental  eountrit-* 
In  1809  she  became  an  occasional  preacher,  and  notwitL- 
standing  the  great  extent,  importance,  and  success  of  h'*' 
benevolent  labors,  she  found  time  to  train  with  cart'  a*  1 
thoroughness  a  large  family  of  her  own.  It  is  in  conntn.  t .  :. 
with  her  prison  work  that  she  is  chiefly  remembered.  H»r 
reading  the  Scriptures  in  the  woman*s  prison  at  XewjTH'r 
London,  is  the  scene  of  a  familiar  painting.  She  dieft  &t 
Ramsgate,  Oct.  12,  1846.  See  her  Memoirs,  by  Thon.a- 
Timpson  (London,  1846) ;  by  her  daughters  (1847) :  by  .^^u- 
sanna  Corder  (1853). 

Fry,  James  B.  :  U.  S.  military  officer;  b.  in  CarroUton, 
Greene  co..  111.,  Feb.  22,  1827;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy  1847;   was  commissioned  as  brevet    s*\i«Ti'i 
lieutenant  in  the  Third  U.  S.  Artillery,  and  joined  it  in  th* 
city  of  Mexico  during  the  Mexican  war ;  served  as  aRsi>t a:i* 
instructor  of  artillery  at  the  Military  Academy  in  1847,  ai;  1 
again  in  1853-54,  and  as  adjutant  of  the  Military  Acadt>nn 
1854-59;  appointed  assistant  adjutant-general  1861;  cii  • 
of  staff  to  Brig.-Gen.  McDowell  during  his  Gam}mi{rn  ■•: 
1861,  taking  part  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run ;  as  t  huf  -f 
staff  to  Mai.-Gen.  Buell  in  1861-62,  took  part  in  the  KsttV 
of  Shiloh,  the  advance  upon  and  siege  of  Corinth,  the  «^|-»t 
ations  in  Northern  Alabama,  and  the  battle  of  Penrwilu  . 
provost  marshal-general  of  the  U.  S.  (brigadier-generah  fr  •• 
1863  to  1866  under  the  Enrollment  Act  of  1863,  p&ss^nI  t 
enforce  military  service  after  the  system  of  voluntary*  enh'i* 
ment  had  proved  inadequate.    As  provost  marshal-fri'nt>f.. 
he  put  into  the  army  by  conscription,  substitution,  and  \ . ! 
untary  enlistment  1,120,621  men ;  arrested  and  retume<i  r. 
the  army  76,562  deserters;  made  an  exact  enrollment  of  t^ 


riation  arising  chieA;r  tTom  the  varyiDir  humidit;  or  diy- 
ness  of  the  seasons.  In  1810  it  covered  42,000  acres,  with 
a  maiimum  depth  ol  TH  iBct:  in  1835  its  area  was  but  " 


tween  these  extremes  was  of  course  attended  with  ri^k  of 
loss,  and  at  low  water  tlie  freshly  bared  soil  sent  up  mias- 
matic exhalations  prejudicial  to  the  healthtuluess  of  the  ad- 
iaceot  country.    To  0Dviat«  such  evils,  and  to  gain  an  addi- 
tion of  fertile  soil  for  agricultural  purposes  by  permanently 
reducing  the  lowest  known  level  of  the  lake,  Julius  Cssar 
contemplated  the  excavation  of  a  tunnel  under  the  moun- 
tain-ridge on  the  western  side  of  the  basin  to  discharge  the 
superfluous  water  into  the  river  Liris,  now  called  the  Qari- 
gliano,  the  bed  of  which  is  63  feet  lower  than  the  bottom  of 
the  lake.     This  work  was  actually  commenced  by  Claudius, 
and   substantially  completed  after  eleven   years  of   lalwr. 
The  length  of  the  Claudian  Hinnel  was  1S,508  feet,  or  rather 
more  than  3^  miles,  with  an  inclination  of  about  tViRr,  and  a 
cross-section  measuring  103  sq.  feet,  admitting  a  delivery  of 
434  cubic  feet  to  Che  second.    The  tunnel  was  admirably  en- 
gineered, but  poorly  constructed,  and  soon  fell  into  total 
decay.     At  vanous  subsequent  periods  attempts  were  made 
to  restore  the  tunnel,  but  it  does  not  satisfactorily  appear 
that  anything  was  effected  until  1852-62.  when,  by  the  en- 
terprise and   liberality  of  Prince  Alessandro  Torlonia,  of 
Rome,  the  entire  line  was  rebuilt  at  a  cost  of  more  than 
$6,000,000.  and  on  a  far  grander  scale  than   that  of  the 
ancient  imperial  work.     The  new  tunnel,  which  drained  the 
entire  lake  by  1875.  follows  the  original  course,  and,  though 
at  a  somewhat  lower  level,  includes  the  entire  ancient  chan- 
nel, every  vestige  of  the  Roman  tunnel  having  been  neces- 
sarily removed  in  excavating  the  new.    It  is  constructed 
with  the  utmost  solidity,  l>eing  everywhere  lined  with  a 
thick  revetment  of  cut  stone ;  its  cross^section  measures  213 
sq.  feet,  allowing  a  discharge  of  2,400  cubic  feet  to  the  sec- 
ond :  and,   as   its 
axis  is  lower  t^an 
,  th^of  the  Claudi- 
■J  an    emissary,   and 
the  bottom  of  the 
lake  has  been  con- 
siderably raised  in 
later  ages  by  wash 
from    the   shores, 
the  new  tunnel   is 
longer     than     the 
old   by  2,200  feet. 
Hence     its     total 
length    falls   little 
short  of   4  miles. 
From  the  entrance 
of  the  emissary  a 
canal  8  miles  long 
and  62  feet  wide  at 
bottom,   requiring 
4,000,000       cubic 
yards   of    cutting, 
was   excavated   to 
the  deepest  part  of 
the  lake.   See  Kra- 
mer, Der  Fttcitier- 
Stt    (4to,    Berlin, 
1839) ;     Leon     de 
Rotron,     Progein- 
gamento  ad  Logo 
I'uciiio  (8vo,  Vien- 
na, 1871). 

G.  P.  MiRSH. 

FncoldB,    fyu- 
koidz .  the  Fucoi- 
.  dem.  an   order   of 

"  brown       seaweeds 

commonly  repre- 
sented on  the 
coasts  of  the  U.  S. 
tiy  the  rockweeils 
(Fig.  A).  They  are 
^._'","°?^  •'^  ^y«  t™™Jo««  '^^^  planU  of  consider- 
e.  able  size,  ranging 

from  a  few  inchos 
to  several  feet  in  extent,  and  oft«n  show  a  differentiation 
into  stems  and  leaves.     Their  outer  tissues  are  composed  of 


small  and  closely  crowded  cells,  forming  in  some  iiw-  i 
hard  mass,  while  the  interior  cells  are  loosely  arrasged.  leic 
tng  large  intercellular  spaces. 

They  reproduce  by  sesual  means  only.  In  the  end*  "'. 
certain  branches  (see  illustration.  A,  f)  may  Ix-  foond  rirurii 
closed  cavities  ("eontcptacles"),  which  are  lined  with  hji:r;. 
some  of  which  are  antherids  (producing  motile  antluriiliii'i- 
white  others  produce  egg-cells  (see  illustmtioii,  B).  Tr 
latter  when  mature  are  set  free  by  the  rupture  of  the  ci:., 
containing  them,  when  they  Qoat  out,  where  they  nicei  ii.-' 
antherozoids ;  the  latter  unit*  with  the  egg-«ells,  am!  llii.. 
transform  them  into  spores,  which  quickly  germinsir.  ■'.. 
eventually  give  rise  to  a  new  plant. 

There  are  about  twenty  genera,  all  of  which  are  imluili'. 
in  the  single  family  Fucactm.  The  common  mckvenj-'! 
the  coast  are  species  of  fucusand  AscophyUum.  Tbi-il<«r;> 
related  Gulf  weed  which  Soats  abundantly  in  the  oci-nn.  ■• 
pecially  in  the  Sargasso  Sea,  is  Sargatmtm  bacexftrum. 

The  fucoids  are  all  of  a  brownish  or  smoky-gtveD  r  •'.  r. 
resembling  the  Kelps  {q.  c),  which  have  often  iwn  \l- 
eluded  with  them  under  the  same  name.  Many  frrv-ii  r>- 
mains  bear  the  name  of  "  fucoids,"  although  it  is  often  ii-r 
doubtful  whether  they  were  at  all  related  to  the  ^■nt.-  ul- 
der  consideration.  Crasl^  E.11es.''1t. 

FnCDg:  See  Seaweeds. 

Fnel  [M.  Eng.  fuel.  fotuayU,  from  0.  Pr.  fovaillff  <  1,' 
'Lti.t.foealium.foea'le,  fuel,  deriv.  nt  foeu»,BK  =  LmI.  /■•'■r, 
hearth]:  any  substance  which  mayl>e  used  for  theinairv 
tion  of  heat  by  its  combustion  in  air.  Many  chemic-al  T\h  - 
tions  evolve  heat  from  factors  which  are  in  no  proper  >•■■,  •■ 
fuels ;  e.  g.  lime  slaking  with  water,  sulphuric  wid  iiilii:; 
with  water,  quicklime  drenched  with  sulphurie  ai-iil.  u  : 
other  like  cases,  evolve  much  beat  although  these  suh-idv<-~ 


with  each  other,  and  with  oxygen,  nitrogen.  et<'-,  ari-  ti  .• 
This  clBSsiflcation  includes  all  the  forms  of  coal,  iiike.  '..'r-'- 
coal,  wood,  turf,  oils  of  every  kind,  and  combuftilil''  i.-.l-'. 
such,  for  example,  as  escape  from  artesian  boring>  iu  ■■  ■ 
bearing  and  salifcrous strata.  It  excludes  sulphor.  vli.'  .  - 
free  or  evolved  from  the  roasting  of  ores,  alihoupli  i:  • 
element  is  practically  utilized  as  a  source  ot  litui  ' 
some  chemical  and  metallurgical  processes,  ks  in  t\-({r:'.; 

Fuels  differ  verv  greatly  in  the  amount  of  volatile  nmTt-- 
they  contain  or  which  are  produced  from  them  in  thr  )<r.-- 
ess  ot  combustion.    Thus  wood  and  turf  contain  a  larip-  \r:- 
ccntage  of  free  water,  which  is  driven  out  or  evaporate-i  -k-- 
ing  combustion,  while,  in  common  with  bituminou?   i-.- 
ano  lignites,  they  evolve  also  a  large  volume  of  oombii?*r 
gases,  tar,  and  other  pyrogenic  products.     Such  fueU  I . ' 
with  abundant  Same,  often  with   smoke,  from    imfvil 
combustion,  and  are  well  adapted  to  the  genera  tion  or:^''^ 
the  production  of  illuminating  gas.  and  are   prefprr-'    : 
many  metallureical  processes.     On  the  other  hauil.  »t  i  ■  r.- 
cite  coal — of  the  harder  variety — coke,  natural  or  art'' 
and  charcoal  from  wood,  bum  with  liut  little  flanie  an;  : 
smoke,  evolve  little  or  no  watery  vajior,  and  from  Ihi'ir:.-  - 
ness  under  the  weight  of  a  load  and  the  high  temptrii .' 
they  evolve  are  specially  adapted  to  smelting  iroit  ainl  <  -    ' 
metals,  and  to  the  production  of  a  steady,  intense,  and  1 '  . 
continued  heat  for  any  purDosc.     Fuek  also  diffrr  niiir'..   ~ 
the  amount  of  ash  left  by  tneir  combustion.    In  a  few  i-i.^ - 
the  ash  is  less  than  1  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  tho  fui  1  -'  . 
albertite).    The  best  coal  yields  5  per  cent  of  ash  or  t!.> 
abouts,  while  many  more  contain  10  or  even  20  and  m  * 
per  cent,  of  incombustible  mineral  matter.    The  pn?-.ii  ■ 
foreign  matter  of  an  incombustible  nature  in  foei  i«  a  |.~ 
useful  effect,  not  only  by  reducing  the  actual  amount  I'f  -i 
ban,  etc.,  but  in  that  it  requires  a  certain  amount  of  fi» ' 
fuse  the  ash  into  a  slag,  which  then  encumbers  Ihe  firt  ■ 
clinkers.     Water  is  another  foreign  element  which  gr-  ,i' 
reduces  the  value  of  fuels.     The  common  experi^otT  • '. 
superior  excellence  of  well-seasoned  wood  over  grwn  •-  ^ 
cently  cut  wood  is  a  familiar  example.     Water  not  onh    ~ 
pedes  combustion  by  reducing  its  temperature.  I>ut  a  i.<'. 
amount  of  heat  is  removed  and  rendered  usele«i)  iti  om.'-  - 
ing  the  water  into  vapor.     PHimaces  have  been  con-iln.  ' 
however,  tor  the  purpose  of  consuming  wet  fueLsnc-h  »-". 
bark,  bagasse  ot  sugar-cane,  etc.,  in  wliich,  by  an  inp  i. 
arrangement  of  parts,  a  high  temperature  and  int(^ii~4' 
bustion  are  maintained,  even  when  very  wet  fue^l   is    .- 
One  of  these  will  he  noticed  hereafter.    Evencosl  c>i'- 


612 


FUEL 


The  use  of  the  vapor  of  the  li(|iiid  hydrocarbons  used  un- 
der boilers,  and  even  under  the  iron  stills  employed  in  the 
distillation  of  coal-tar  of  gas-works,  as  well  as  of  petroleum 
products,  has  given  most  satisfactory  results,  reducing  the 
time  required  for  distilling  a  given  charge  fully  one-half, 
and  acting  almost  without  injury  to  the  stills,*  which  are 
rapidly  injured  by  the  use  of  coal-fires.  This  difference  is 
yn^bably  in  great 'measure  due  to  the  much  smaller  amount 
of  air  required  to  feed  the  vapor-flame  than  is  used  for  a  coal- 
fire  ;  800  cubic  feet  of  air  (^  lb.)  to  the  pound  of  coal  be- 
ing required,  while  not  over  half  that  amount  is  required  to 
burn  the  hydrocarbon  vapor  supplied  by  a  blast  of  its 
own  production  in  place  of  the  draft  of  a  high  chimney 
required  for  air-burning  coal.  The  oxidation  of  the  iron 
surface  is  thus  largely  saved,  and  the  injury  from  sulphur 
in  coal  completely  saved  by  the  use  of  the  hydrocarbon  vapor. 
The  conclusions  reached  by  the  commission  referred  to  are  that 
the  evaporative  efficacv  of  liquid  fuel  for  generating  steam 
is  much  greater  than  tnat  of  coal ;  and  that  on  board  ships 
there  is  an  important  saving  of  space  for  storage,  as  well  as 
in  labor  of  stoking,  removing  ashes,  etc.,  with  a  proportional 
reduction  of  running  expenses ;  while  steam  could  oe  raised 
much  quicker  by  the  use  of  liquid  fuel,  and  save  the  cost  of 
banking  up  fires,  and  the  immersion  of  the  vessel  more 
evenly  maintained  by  tanks  between  the  outer  and  the  inner 
skins*  of  the  vessel,  to  be  filled  with  water  as  the  oil  is  re- 
moved. On  the  other  hand  certain  obvious  dangers  attend 
the  storing  and  use  of  volatile  hydrocarbons,  whue  the  odor 
of  the  heavy  or  dead  oils  would  be  very  annoying,  however 
carefully  stored  on  board  ship.  These  objections  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  overcome,  while  for  various  purposes 
on  land  they  have  little  force,  Thus  in  iron-works  dead  oil 
has  been  use  with  advantage  in  the  furnaces  for  heating  iron 
plates,  etc.  It  has  been  found  possible  to  produce  a  higher, 
steadier,  and  more  even  heat  with  liquid  fuel  than  with 
coal,  while  8  cwt.  are  said  to  have  replaced  a  ton  of  coal, 
and  the  time  occupied  in  heating  the  iron  is  said  to  have 
amounted  to  only  one-fourth  or  even  one-fifth  that  re(]uired 
with  coal.  So  that  there  was  a  manifest  economy  m  the 
number  of  furnaces  required  to  do  a  given  amount  of  work. 
Thus,  for  instance,  while  the  heating  of  a  half-inch  plate 
sufficient  for  bending  would  require  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
minutes  with  coal,  it  would  require  only  four  or  five  min- 
utes with  the  liquid  fuel ;  and  a  4-inch  armor  plate  recjuir- 
ing  three  hours  to  heat  with  coal  required  only  thirty- 
ei^ht  minutes  with  the  liquid  fuel.  The  "  scale  **  of  magnetic 
oxide  of  iron  formed  in  the  process  of  heating  is  mucn  less 
when  liquid  fuel  is  used  than  with  coal,  for  the  reason  that 
there  is  less  free  oxygen  from  the  air  present,  while  the 
vapor  of  the  hydrocarbon  affords  a  reducing  flame.  In 
fact,  the  use  of  liquid  fuel  when  burnt  with  a  blast  affords 
the  same  advantages  as  the  gas  furnace  introduced  by 
Mr.  Siemens,  which  is  mentioned  further  on.  The  unprece- 
dented increase  in  the  production  of  petroleum,  not  only  in 
Pennsylvania,  but  in  other  parts  of  the  world  also,  and 
which  seems  far  from  having  reached  its  limits,  renders  the 
use  of  liquid  fuel  a  subject  at  the  present  time  of  consider- 
able importance.  It  is  largely  a  question  of  relative  cost, 
and  it  is  obvious  that  it  must  needs  be  a  very  low  cost  in- 
deed which  will  enable  any  description  of  liquid  fuel  to 
compete  with  coal. 

Gas. — Natural  gas,  chiefly  marsh-gas,  was  early  observed  in 
the  salines  of  the  Kanawha,  and  has  been  successfully  used  as 
fuel  to  heat  the  kettles  of  certain  salt-works.  In  the  city  of 
Erie,  Pa.,  gas  obtained  from  artesian  borings  has  also  been 
used  under  steam-boilers  to  produce  steam :  and  the  marsh- 
es from  an  artesian  well  ifear  Rochester  has  been  conveyed 
into  that  city  for  economical  purposes.  In  the  oil-regions 
of  Pennsylvania  the  use  of  the  gas  escaping  from  the  arte- 
sian wells  is  frequent  for  producing  steam.  The  village  of 
Fredonia  in  New  York  was  as  early  as  1830  lighted  by  a 
natural  flow  of  marsh-gas.  Since  1883  natural  gas  has  come 
into  ^reat  prominence,  both  as  a  heat-producer  and  as  an 
illuminant.  The  composition  of  the  gas  varies  between  the 
limits  here  stated :  60-80  CH4,  5-20  H,  1-12  N,  IS  CH., 
0-2  (yall*,  0'3-2  COj.  For  the  purpose  of  generating  steam, 
1,000  cubic  feet  of  natural  gas  is  equal  to  80  to  133  lb.  of  coal. 

Water-gas  is  of  great  value  as  a  fuel.  It  consists  of  a 
mixture  of  carbon-monoxide  and  hydrogen,  which  is  made 
by  passing  steam  over  highljr  heated  anthracite  coal.  The 
heat  of  a  water-gas  flame  is  very  high,  and  this  gas  is 
used  to  advantage  for  the  production  of  high  temperatures. 

"  The  regenerative  gas  furnace  "  has  worked  a  revolution 
in  the  methods  of  producing,  applying,  and  economizing 


heat.  The  burning  of  a  pound  of  carbon  in  pore  oxygen  to 
carbonic  acid,  as  oefore  stated,  evolves  8,060  calorie^  nr 
units  of  heat  (=  14,544  English  units).  As  each  unit  < ' 
heat  is  convertible  into  774  units  of  force  or  mechani'Ti. 
energy,  it  follows  that  1  lb.  of  carbon  represents  really  R- 
544  X  744  =  10,820,786  units  of  potential  energy.  The  d»'- 
chanical  power  set  free  in  the  combustion  of  1  lb.  of  pur- 
carbon  is  as  much,  therefore,  as  would  be  requin&d  to  TKii^ 
nearly  11,000,000  lb.  weight  1  foot  high.  This  would  <i..- 
tain  the  work  called  a  horse-power  for  about  five  and  a  h«/ 
hours.  This  is  a  result  quite  unattainable  in  practif-*'.  I 
course,  since,  if  for  no  other  reason,  the  two  element*  f 
combustion  can  never  be  employed  in  a  state  of  purity,  ar^i 
the  oxygen  is  unavoidably  mixed  with  about  four  tim»^  ir* 
own  volume  of  inert  nitrogen. 

To  realize  how  wide  the  margin  for  improvement  wa>  .1 
the  application  of  heat  for  smelting  and  met&llurigical  |>  .r 
poses  prior  to  the  invention  of  the  regenerative  gas  fum.i  ♦. 
and  wnat  this  invention  has  done  to  economize  fuel  it  > 
only  necessary  to  consider  a  few  simple  facts.  The  ii -jj- 
needed  to  smelt  a  ton  of  iron  or  steel,  or  to  raise  the  trn  - 
perature  of  a  like  (quantity  of  iron  bars  to  the  welding  [»->.r>' 
of  malleable  iron,  is  obviously  very  much  more  in  ext-t-K*;  "f 
the  amount  theoretically  required  for  these  purposcj^  x\m 
is  required  in  the  production  of  steam,  because  it  l<  uu^ 
voidable  that  the  products  of  combustion  in  the  ordinftn 
form  of  heating  furnaces  should  leave  the  furnace  at  tr^ 
temperature  of  combustion,  while  only  the  small  exc»-- 
stored  up  in  the  heated  iron  could  be  utilized.  The  remai;  - 
der  escaped  unutilized  into  the  chimney,  and  was  U  -' 
Taking  tne  specific  heat  of  iron  at  '114  and  the  weldi:.;: 
heat  at  2,900*  F.,  it  would  require  -114  x  2900  =  331  um:^ 
of  heat  to  heat  up  1  lb.  of  iron.  Assuming  that  a  pound  < ' 
common  coal  develops  12,000  heat-units,  one  toD  of  r< .' 
should  heat  up  to  the  welding  point  36  tons  of  iron.  ?>.. 
the  ordinary  reheating  furnace  neats  only  about  If  ton<  •  f 
iron,  and  therefore  produces  only  about  one  part  in  twenty - 
one  of  the  maximum  theoretical  effect.  In  melting  stcf!  .1 
pots,  in  the  ordinary  Sheffield  furnace  for  that  purpr*?**.  *it 
tons  of  coke  are  consumed  to  one  ton  of  steel  melted.  A-»- 
suming  the  melting-point  of  steel  at  3,600'  F.,  and  its  5^^- 
cific  heat  at  '119,  it  takes  '119  x  3600  =r  428  heat-unit^  t. 
melt  a  pound  of  steel ;  while  with  12,000  units  at  the  ben:- 
producing  point  of  common  coke,  one  ton  of  such  Cf«>< 
should  theoretically  melt  28  tons  of  steel.  In  other  won- 
the  Sheflield  pot  furnace  utilizes  in  the  melting  of  «it^. 
only  Vjyth  part  of  the  theoretical  heat  of  combustion.  Her- 
there  was  obviously  a  wide  margin  for  securing  an  imp-r- 
tant  portion  of  this  great  loss,  and  the  regenerative  ea*  fnr 
nace  is  the  means  which  in  the  hands  of  Messrs.  C.  W.  »:•. 
Frederick  Siemens  has  solved  the  problem,  in  part  at  It-A-' 
See  Furnace. 

In  the  Siemens  furnace  the  objects  to  be  heated  are  v^^. 
tained  on  a  solid  support  in  an  atmosphere  of  burning  kra>* 
the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  arriving  by  one  inlet  m. . 
the  combustible  gases  by  another,  and  the  two  uniting  u:  • 
true  Hare's  blowpipe  flame  to  do  their  work.  The  ac^-*- 
sory  contrivances,  so  essential  in  the  economy  of  fuel,  f  " 
the'  alternation  of  the  flow  of  gas  and  air  through  the  rr- 
generative  cellular  flues  of  flre-brick  are  evidences  uf  a 
high  degree  of  inventive  skill  applied  to  the  solution  of  \ 
problem  which,  in  its  essential  features,  was  clearlv  v 
forth  by  Robert  Hare  in  1802. 

It  is  evident  from  these  facts,  which  could  be  great h  ci- 
tended  did  space  permit,  that  for  many  purpose  gas  i<>  *l 
best  form  in  which  fuel  can  be  applied*  for  producing  t^ 
highest  temperature  with  the  least  loss  of  heat,  and  t'  • 
the  invention  of  the  gas  regenerative  furnace  of  SiemiTi^  - 
the  most  important  one  yet  made  in  the  generation  anil  h\ 
plication  of  heat. 

Wood. — The  value  of  wood  as  fuel  depends  mainly  on  .  - 
density  in  the  dry  state.    Wood  is  composed  of  carb  i 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  with  a  small  proportion  of  nitn^c* ' 
and  the  mineral  matter  derived  from  the  soil,  oonstituti: . 
when  burned,  its  ash.    Fresh  or  green  wood  contain;^  fr- 
one-flfth  to  one- half  its  weight  of  water,  which  diminw- 
its  value  as  fuel  more  than  its  proportion  by  weight.  ^:i  • 
a  certain  amount  of  heat  is  absorbed  in  converting  t!^  - 
water  into  steam.    Exposed  to  dry  air,  wood  gratlub- 
loses  a  portion  of  its  water,  but  being,  by  its  porous  tiatur' 
peculiarly  liable  to  absorb  moisture,  it  will  take  up  a  \^  " 
tion  of  water  from  damp  air,  so  that,  however  well  **  ^  * 
soned  "  wood  mav  be,  it  is  never  free  from  hvgrosivr 
moisture,  and  is  always  in  a  condition  of  unstable  e>quiiu^ 


614 


PUERO 


FUH-CHOW 


1866-69 ;  Kerl's  Metallurgy,  by  Crookes  and  Rfthring,  in  3 
vols. :  vol.  iii.  Sted — Fuel — JSupplement  (New  York,  1870). 
The  second  chapter  of  this  treatise  offers  a  full  and  satis- 
factory discussion,  with  the  important  advantage  of  refer- 
ences to  all  the  more  important  sources  of  original  infor- 
mation. See  PhUlips,  Metallurgy  (1874),  art..  Fuel ;  Bell, 
Chemical  Ffienomena  of  Iron-smelting  (London,  1872); 
Box,  Practical  Treatise  on  Heat  ^London,  1868);  Schinz, 
Researches  on  the  Action  of  ths  Blast  Furnace,  translated 
by  Maw  and  Milller  (London,  1870,  etc.) ;  Wagner's  Chemi- 
cal Technology,  translated  by  William  Crookes  (London, 
1893);  Ost,  Lehrhuch  der  Technischen  Chemie  (Berlin, 
1890).  See  also  Anthbacite,  Coal,  Charcoal,  Coke,  Can- 
cel Coal,  Lignite;  also  the  articles  Gas-liohtino,  Fue- 
NACB,  Heat,  Flame,  Metallurgy,  Natural  Gas  ;  while  the 
fuels  suitable  for  various  special  used  are  noted  in  the  differ- 
erent  articles  on  industrial  processes  and  appliances. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Fdero,  fwS'ro  [Span.,  jurisdiction,  judicial  code,  (formerly) 
court,  seat  of  justice  <  Lat.  forum,  market-place,  court- 
town]  :  the  Spanish  name  for  the  old  local  codes  of  certain 
towns  and  districts,  chiefly  in  the  north  of  Spain.  The  fueros 
are  very  ancient,  and  are  regarded  with  jealous  affection  by 
the  places  that  possess  them.  They  are  mostly  of  Basque 
and  Gothic  origin. 

Fnerteyentara,  f wer'to-ven-too'ra' :  a  mountainous  and 
volcanic  island,  second  in  size  of  the  Canary  islands,  and 
the  most  thinly  populated  of  the  group.  It  is  but  little  cul- 
tivated. Area,  665  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1887)  10,041.  Chief 
town,  Puerto  de  Cabras. 

Vngger,  foo' get :  a  celebrated  German  family,  now  rep- 
resented by  two  lines  of  princes  and  several  lines  of  counts 
and  "  most  illustrious  counts." — Johann  Fugobr,  a  weaver 
of  Graven,  near  Augsburg,  was  the  founder  of  the  family, 
which,  however,  acquired  more  influence  from  the  success 
of  his  eldest  son,  Johann,  who  became  a  citizen  of  Augs- 
burg 1870,  and  died  1409,  leaving  a  fortune  of  3,000  florins. 
— Andrew  Fugoer,  the  eldest  son  of  the  second  Johann, 
foimded  the  noble  line  of  Fugger  vom  Reh,  which  died  out 
in  1583.  The  descendants  of  the  younger  line  became  lead- 
ing bankers,  miners,  and  merchants,  and  the  familv  was  en- 
nobled in  1504  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  who  borrowed 
largely  from  them.  Charles  V.  was  also  a  borrower  from 
the  house  of  Fugger,  whose  famous  representatives  in  his 
day  were  Antony  and  Raimund,  who  received  the  county 
of  Kirchberg  and  Weissenheim,  were  given  the  title  of 
counts,  and  awarded  princely  privileges.  They  were  stanch 
Roman  Catholics,  ana  used  tneir  money  freely  in  opposing 
the  progress  of  the  Reformation.  Several  were  distin- 
guished soldiers  and  statesmen,  and  many  were  liberal  pa- 
trons of  art. 

Fnghetta,  foo-get'tak  [Ital.,  dimin.  otfuga,  by  form  of 
foga :  Fr.  fugute  <  Lat.  fuaa,  flight.  See  Fugue]  :  in  music, 
a  composition  in  fugue  style,  but  usually  shorter,  less  elabo- 
rate, and  with  more  freedom  of  movement  and  structure 
than  the  regular  fugue. 

FneitiTe-slaTe  Laws :  two  acts  of  the  U.  S.  Congress 
passed  (under  the  provision  of  Art.  IV.,  Sect.  II.,  Clause  3, 
of  the  CJonstitution)  to  enable  slave-owners  to  recover  fugi- 
tive slaves  escaping  into  other  States.    See  Slavery. 

Fngae,  fyug  [from  Fr.  fugue  :  Ital.  fttga,  foga,  lit«r., 
flight  <  Lat.  ftiga,  flight :  Gr.  ^vy^,  flight  <  fndo-Eur.  bhug-, 
bheu^',  bhoug-,  vield  >  Sanskr.  bhuj-,  bend :  Gr.  ^vytitf,  flee] : 
a  form  of  musical  composition  in  which  a  certain  theme 
or  subject  (consisting  of  a  short  melodious  phrase)  is  first 
given  out  by  one  of  the  parts,  and  then  taken  up  suc- 
cessively by  the  other  parts,  elaborately  treated  in  various 
keys  and  with  various  harmonies,  with  the  view  of  develop- 
ing its  beauty  or  interest  by  presenting  it  in  a  diversity  of 
aspects  and  relations.  "The  designation  of  /m^wc,"  says 
Albrechtsberger,  **  doubtless  originated  from  one  part  ap- 
parently ^yi'n^  before  another,  while  the  pursuing  part,  or 
answer,  imitates  the  intervals  of  the  first  subject,  generally 
precisely  on  the  fifth  above  or  fourth  below,  or  on  the  octave 
above  or  below."  ,  Fugles  are  written  for  two,  three,  four, 
or  more  voices  or  parts,  each  of  which  in  turn  takes  up  the 
leading  theme,  and  afterward  continues  its  course  as  tribu- 
tary to  the  general  harmony.  Besides  the  simple  (i.  e.  a 
fugue  with  only  one  theme  or  subject)  there  are  also  double 
fugues,  with  two  or  more  subjects.  Fugues  are  also  distin- 
guished as  strict  or  free ;  fugues  in  double  counterpoint  of 
the  octave,  tenth,  or  twelfth,  ete. ;  and  others  in  which  the 


«>:li- 


mofion  of  the  theme  is  changed  into  the  reverse  or  the  retr. 
grade.  A  choral  fugfue  is  one  in  the  course  of  which  a  fiL  : 
choral  song  or  chant  is  introduced  as  a  new  element,  staini 
ing  out  in  oold  and  stately  form  amid  the  interworkin?  ••' 
the  other  parts,  and  giving  an  air  of  grandeur  and  sublimit t 
to  the  whole  composition. 

The  principal  or  leading  theme  of  a  simple  fu^e  i<<  call^'i 
the  "subject.  The  fugue  commences  with  this,  either  ir. 
the  bass  or  some  other  part,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  comfv  ^  r 
The  subject  thus  given  out  by  the  leading  part  is  taken  u; 
by  one  of  the  other  parts  and  in  another  key  (or  grade  <f 
the  scale),  usually  by  the  dominant  in  answer  to  the  toni'i 
or  by  the  tonic  in  answer  to  the  dominant.  This  is  call>: : 
the  "  answer."  Meanwhile  the  first  part  proceeda.  in  nov* 
forming  an  accompaniment  to  the  answer.  A  full  and  » 
curate  knowledge  of  this  form  of  composition  requires  mu-  r 
study  with  a  master,  and  can  not  be  neglected  by  any  w<>ul:- 
be  composer,  because  of  its  intrinsic  educational  value,  M  •  -c- 
em  music,  with  its  greatly  intensified  harmonic  and  emi- 
tional  effects,  makes  but  comparatively  small  ose  of  \bi- 
form,  per  se,  but  it  emphatically  does  of  its  spirit.  Both  ttr 
technical  and  esthetic  sides  of  this  form  of  composition  fin : 
their  loftiest  exposition  in  the  works  of  Bach  and  U&I]0^. 
Treatises  on  the  subject  may  be  found  in  the  works  of 
Cherubini,  Albrechtsberger,  Richter,  Bridges,  Front,  etc.,  but 
self-instruction  is  worth  but  little  in  conquering  this  ar.- 
form.  Dudley  Bicl 

Fah-chow,  or  Foo-chow  [locallv  pronounced  Hok-chia. 
and  sometimes  spelled  Foo-choo,  Fu-chow,  and  Fra-CHAr  j 
a  walled  city  and  treaty-port  of  China,  capital  of  the  [^r-  -^ 
ince  of  Fuh-kien,  and  tne  residence  of  tne  viceroy  of  r}.- 
united  provinces  of  Cheh-Min,  i.  e.  of  Cheh-kiang  and  F\  i 
kien.    It  is  beautifully  situated  in  a  plain  bordered  byhij:. 
well-wooded  hills,  about  2  miles  N.  of  the  northern  bm'. 
of  the  river  Min,  and  34  miles  from  its  month ;  lat.  26  "' 
N.  and  Ion.  119**  20'  E.  (see  map  of  China,  ref.  1-K\,    li- 
walls  have  a  circuit  of  6^  miles,  are  about  Siis  feet  high,  a:  : 
are  pierced  by  seven  gat-es  surmounted   by   high  wa**   - 
towers.    From  the  nuniber  of  mock-banian  trees  fouiil    i 
the  temple-gardens  and  in  the  inclosures  in  which  stand  *  h- 
yamuns  or  official  quarters  of  the  numerous  provincial 
cers  stationed  here,  the  city  has  received  the  name  of  Y\r 
Ch'ing,  or  "  Banian  City."     The  streets  are  narrow  a' 
dirty,  and  the  shops  poor,  though  well  ffUed  with  ^^•. 
The  eastern  part  of  the  inclosure  contains  the  Tartar  to u 
where  a  Manchu  garrison  has  been  maintainetl  sinoe  t* 
Manchu  conquest  of  Fuh-kien  in  the  latter  half  of  the  •-' 
enteenth  century.    On  one  of  the  three  hills  (about  v^>  :*•- 
in  height)  within  the  city  stands  the   British  e<>n«u.H: 
though  the  consular  offices  and  the  residence  of  the  (>  - 
sul  are  in  the  foreign  settlement,  on  the  northern  slojit: 
Nantai,  the  lon^  narrow  island  (about  17  miles  in  ler.^*' 
which  here  divides  the  Min  in  two.    The  most  inipi.tn«' 
suburb  is  that  which  stretches  from  the  south  gate  lo  ^ 
river-bank,  where  a  stone  bridge,  the  Bridge  of  Ten  Th  > 
sand  Ages,  1,350  feet  in  length,  connects   it  with  Ch-ir . 
chow  (Middle  Island),  from  which  another  and  simila- 
constructed  bridge  (less  than  300  feet  in  length)  stretcht-- : 
the  island  of  Nantai.    The  river  here  swarms  with  j'.- » 
and  boats,  large  numbers  of  which  are  used  bj  the  nat..^ 
as  dwellings.    Sea-going  junks  anchor  below  this  bri..* 
while  foreign  ships  discharge  their  caries  into  light vr^ 
miles  lower  down  off  an  island  called  Lo  Sing  by  the  C'r 
nese  and  Pagoda  Island  by  foreigners,  from  a  small  ]iac 
on  the  island.    Here  on  the  leit  bank  of  the  river  l^  it 
Fuh-chow  arsenal  (founded  in  186T),  the  most  impvra  • 
naval  establishment  in  the  empire.    It  includes  a  soo<^>:    ' 
navigation  and  extensive  shops  and  ship-building  yard<  i^ 
under  foreign  superintendence),  from  which  many  war-^  •-*• 
sels  have  been  launched.     Owing  chieflv  to  its  situat-  : 
Fuh-chow  was  never  molested  by  the  l^aipings.     In  1>M 
however,  during  the  French  hostilities  in  Cnina,  a  short  ir 
equal  engagement  was  fought,  in  which  a  Chinese  fleet  »*• 
destrojed  and  much  injurv  done  to  the  arsenal  and  the  f-  r 
tifications  on  the  Min.    The  C'hinese  loss  was  estimated  & 
1,000  killed  and  3,000  wounded^  while  the  French  loss  « i< 
onlv  seven  killed. 

I^uh-chow  is  one  of  the  five  cities  opened  to  foreign  trs*-  • 
by  the  treaty  signed  at  Nanking  in  1842.  The  total fon. j- 
ira ports  in  1892  amounted  to  4,396,217  haikwan  or  cu^t  • 
house  taels,  and  exports  to  foreign  countries  to  6.7i4.  '*. 
taels ;  the  gross  value  of  the  trade  of  the  port  (foppicii  ■  » 
port  and  export,  as  well  as  native  products  carried  b> 


1. 


\r- 


616 


FULGURITES 


FULLING 


written  in  a  slovenly  and  diffu^  style  and  full  of  inaccura- 
cies, still  have  a  value  in  preserving  certain  details  elsewhere 
omitted.  The  first  of  these  works  is  entitled  Mythologicon 
or  Mythologiarum  lihri  IIL^  of  considerable  service  in  the 
study  of  ancient  mythology,  but  full  of  strange  explanations. 
The  second  is  Expositio  Sermonum  Antiouorum,  or,  more 
correctly,  De  abstmsis  Sermonihus,  a  brief  list  of  rare  or  ob- 
solete ejmressions,  with  explanations,  most  of  which  have  no 
value.  The  third  is  De  ExposH^one'Vir^iliancB  Contifientim 
(contents,  subject-matter),  or  De  cUUgorta  Hbrorum  Virgihi, 
an  allegorical  explanation  of  Vergil's  ^neid^  as  representing 
human  life.  Fuigentius  appears  further,  from  some  expres- 
sions, to  have  been  a  Christian,  and  is  sometimes  confounded 
with  Fulgentius,  Bishop  of  Ruspe,  whose  theological  writings 
are  extant.  Another  work  has  come  down  in  part  which  is 
ascribed  bv  Teuffel  (in  his  Hist,  Rom,  Lit)  to  this  Fulgen- 
tius, though  the  name  of  the  author  is  given  as  Fabius  Clau- 
dius Gordianus  Fulgentius,  and  he  is  ^nerally  considered 
t^  be  neither  the  grammarian  nor  the  bishop.  The  title  of 
the  work  was  Ltber  absque  litteris  de  cetatihua  mundi  et 
hominis,  in  as  many  books  as  the  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
with  the  trivial  intent,  apparently,  of  enabling  him  to  omit 
in  each  book  one  letter.  ()f  the  twentv-three,  only  fourteen 
have  been  preserved ;  edited  by  J.  Hommey  (Paris,  1696). 
The  works  of  the  grammarian  Fulgentius  are  best  edited  in 
the  Auciores 3Mhographi  Latini,  by  Van  Staveren  (Leyden, 
1742).  See  Fulaentius  de  abstrwtis  Sermonibtig,  by  Dr.  L. 
Lerseh  (Bonn,  1844) ;  Zink,  Der  Mutholog.  Fulgentius  (Wttrz- 
burg,  1867) :  Jungmann,  in  RitschVs  Act,  Soc.  PhiloL  Lips,, 
vol.  i.  (Leipzig,  1870).  Revised  by  M.  Wabben. 

FnFgurites  [from  Lat.  fulauri'tus,  perf.  partic.  of  ful- 
gurircy  strike  with  lightning, deriv.  olfulgur,  lightning,  de- 
riv.  of  fulgeOf  lighten.  See  Fulminates^:  tubes  of  vitrified 
sand  found  in  sandbanks  and  sandy  soils.  They  are  pro- 
duced by  the  intense  heat  of  electrical  discharges,  wnich 
fuses  the  sand  together.    See  Silica. 

Falham,  foblam :  a  western  suburb  of  London,  England ; 
situated  on  the  Thames  opposite  Putney  (see  map  of  Eng- 
land, ref.  VZ-J).  It  contains  the  palace  of  the  Bishops  of 
London.     Pop.  (1891)  188,877. 

Faller,  Andbbw  :  theologian ;  b.  at  Wicken,  Cambridge- 
shire, England,  Feb.  5,  1754 ;  became  the  Baptist  pastor  of 
Sohaiu  in  1775,  and  in  1782  removed  to  Kettering;  bore  a 
prominent  part  in  the  propagation  of  Calvinistic  doctrines 
of  a  loss  extreme  type  than  generally  prevailed  at  that  time 
in  his  denomination,  and  was  one  of  tne  leaders  in  the  re- 
vival of  the  foreign  mission-work  among  the  English  Protes- 
tants. Author  of  The  Gospel  Worthy  of  all  Acceptation 
(London,  1784);  Dialogues  and  Letters  (1806);  Calvinistic 
and  Socinian  Systems  Compared  (1793);  The  Oospel  its 
own  Witness  (1800) ;  and  of  many  other  treatises.  His  com- 
plete Works  (8  vols.,  1824)  have  been  often  reprinted.  He  re- 
ceived the  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  from  the  Col- 
lege of  New  Jersey  (1798)  and  also  from  Yale  College  (1805), 
but  he  never  used  it.  D.  at  Kettering,  North  Hants,  May  7, 
1815.  Fuller's  writings  are  all  characterized  by  intense  devo- 
tion to  ** evangelical"  Christianity,  by  vigorous  common 
sense,  and  by  a  subtle  insight  into  men  and  things.  He  has 
been  stvled  "  the  Franklin  of  theology."  See  his  Life  by 
John  Ilvland  (London,  1816) ;  by  T.  E.  Fuller  (1863) ;  anS 
by  A.  G.  Fuller  (1882). 

Faller,  Geoboe  :  figure  and  portrait  painter ;  b,  in  Deer- 
field,  Mass.,  in  1822 ;  studied  in  Boston,  rJew  York,  London, 
and  on  the  C/ontinent;  associate  National  Academy,  New 
York,  XHT)!;  member  Society  of  American  Artists  1880.  He 
returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  1860  from  his  studies  abroad  and  en- 
gageil  in  farming  at  Deerfield.  He  did  not  exhibit  his  work 
again  until  1876,  when  he  showed  fourteen  canvases  in  Bos- 
ton. In  1879  he  exhibited  in  New  York  his  Romany  Girl 
and  And  She  was  a  Witch ;  in  1880  the  Quadroon  and  Wini- 
ire<i  Dysart ;  other  works  followed  untfl  his  death.  Fuller 
has  lieen  given  a  high  reputation  by  some  writers  on  art, 
who  preteml  to  see  masterly  qualities  in  his  pictures.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  his  reputation  is  entirely  unaeservcd ;  his 
work  is  disagreeable  and  muddy  in  color  and  absolutely 
lacking  in  form.  Most  of  his  pictures  are  owned  in  Bos- 
ton ;  the  study  for  the  Romany  Girl  is  in  the  collection  of 
T.  B.  Clarke,  New  York.     D.  iii  Boston,  Mar.  21,  1884. 

William  A.  (^offin. 

Falter,  Maboabet  :  See  Ossoli. 

Fuller,  Melville  Weston,  LL.  D.  :  jurist;  b.  in  Augusta, 
Me.,  Feb.  11,  1838;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  1853; 


studied  law  with  his  uncle,  George  M.  Weston,  at  Bang«>r. 
Me.,  and  attended  lectures  at  law  department  of  Harvani 
University;  commenced  practice  of  law  in  Augusta,  Mc. 
in  1855,  but  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  editorial  duties  on  th«' 
Age,  In  1856  he  was  president  of  the  common  council,  and 
also  city  solicitor,  but  resigned  both  offices  and  removal  to 
Chicago,  111.,  where  in  1888  he  had  practiced  law  thirty-t«o 
years  with  great  honor  and  success.  He  was  delegate  to  tht 
State  constitutional  convention  1861,  and  to  the  Democratir 
national  conventions  of  1864, 1872, 1876, 1880;  roemlKT  of 
State  Le^slature  1863.  He  is  an  old-school  Democrat.  aiHl 
was  nominated  by  President  Cleveland  for  chief  justice  of 
the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  Apr.  90, 1888 ;  confirmeii  July  2f». 
and  took  the  oath  of  office  and  his  seat  Oct.  8. 

Faller,  Thomas,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and  author;  b.  at  Al<i> 
wincle,  England,  June,  1608;  graduated  B.  A.  at  Queen's 
College,  Cambridge,  with  the  highest  honors  1625;  M.A. 
1628;  entered  holy  orders  1680  as  perpetual  curate  of  St. 
Benet's,  Cambridge;  became  prebendary  of  Sanun  1631; 
resigned  St.  Benet's  1688  and  became  rector  of  Broad  Wind- 
sor, Dorsetehire,  1684;  was  a  member  of  the  convcx^ation 
1640;  resigned  his  prebend  1641  and  settled  in  Tjondon; 
later  he  openly  espoused  the  royal  side,  and  led  an  unsettles! 
life  during  the  troublous  times  of  the  Commonwealth  ;  waic 
made  chaplain  to  Charles  II.  in  1660  and  was  create<l  I>.  I>. 
Author  oi  David's  Hainous  Sinne  (a  poem,  1631) ;  History 
of  the  Holy  War  (1689) ;  Good  Thoughts  in  Bad  Time^*  ( 1 645 : 
2d  "century"  of  the  same,  1646);  Good  Thoughts  in  Wotk 
Times  (1646) ;  Mioced  Contemplations  u»  Better  Times  ( I66O1 . 
Fisgah'Sight  of  Palestine  (1650) ;  ffoly  and  Profane  Sfatt 
(164J)  ;  Church  History  of  Britain  (1656) ;  Worthtejt  of  Eug- 
kmd  (1662) ;  and  a  few  less  important  works.  His  wntinl^ 
are  remarkable  for  quaintness  of  style,  for  wit,  sagacit). 
leamine^,  and  moral  elevation;  and  the  Good  Though t\ 
Worthies,  Church  History,  and  Holy  and  Profane  State  art- 
English  classics.  D.  in  London,  Aug.  15, 1601.  The  b«-:>t 
biography  is  by  J.  K.  Bailey  (London,  1874). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Fnller's  Earth:  a  greenish- white  oClitic  clav,  chiefly 
found  in  Bedfordshire,  Kent,  and  Surrey  in  England,  and 
at  many  points  on  the  Continent.  From  one-fourth  to  ont*- 
flfth  of  the  mass  is  alumina,  the  rest  chiefly  silica  and  water, 
with  some  lime  and  other  ingredients.  It  was  fomit-rlT 
much  used  by  cloth-dressers  for  cleansing  the  oil  fntni 
woolen  fabrics.  Though  in  part  supersede  by  soap,  it  i& 
still  used  to  a  considerable  extent  by  European  manuftii" 
turers  because  it  is  much  cheaper  than  soap,  and  if  of 
good  quality  is  scarcely  less  effective.  CimoUan  earth  ami 
various  argillaceous  substances  share  this  detergent  l>ro{»- 
erty.  The  annual  consumption  of  fuller's  earth  in  Gnn* 
Britain  is  said  to  have  amounted  at  one  time  to  6,(kmi 
tons. 

Fnllerton,  Lady  Geobgiaka  Charlotte  (Gower):  Eng- 
lish author;  daughter  of  Lord  Granville  Ijcveson  Gower;  h. 
at  Tixall  Hall,  Staffordshire,  Sept.  28,  1812.  She  was  mar- 
ried to  an  Irish  gentleman,  Alexander  George  Fullerton.  iii 
1888,  and  in  1846  followed  her  husband  into  the  Roni&i: 
Catholic  Church.  She  was  distinguished  for  her  wr)rks  •■: 
benevolence  and  philanthropy,  and  her  books,  some  thirty  m 
number,  and  including  several  novels,  are  of  a  strongly  n- 
ligious  and  Catholic  temper.  Among  them  are  Conj^fati^* 
Sherwood  (1865);  Mrs.  Gerald's  Niece  (1869);  The  iif^^d 
Digger  and  other  Verses  (1871);  besides  numerous  lives  i»( 
saints,  memoirs  of  Catholic  worthies,  and  translations  fn>iu 
the  French  and  the  Italian.  See  The  Life  of  Lady  (i^or- 
giana  Fullerton,  translated  from  the  French  of  Madame 
Augustus  Craven  by  Rev.  Henry  James  Coleridge  (Lonclon. 
1888).    D.  Jan.  19, 1885.  H.  A.  Bkkr8. 

Fulling  [deriv.  of  full,  whiten  <  M.  Eng.  fuUen,  frc»m  •  >. 
Fr.  fouler  (but  prob.  under  influence  of  fuller  <  ().  Enj. 
fullere,  from  Lat.  fullo,  fuller)  <  Ijow  Lat  fullare^  full,  di  - 
riv.  of  fulU),  fuller] :  an  operation  by  which  fabrics  matle  of 
carded  wool  are  shrunk,  thickenea,  and  partially  ft-Ite«i. 
The  woven  goods  are  scoured  and  boiled  (to  remove  knnf^ 
and  lumps),  then  soaped  very  thoroughly,  and  finally  eit  ht-r 
beaten  in  the  ful ling-stocks  or  passed  through  great' n)lli'rsk 
This  operation  is  much  like  the  previous  scouring,  exi»»  p* 
that  fuller's  earth,  hog*s  dung,  and  urine  are  used  in  th* 
scouring,  while  soap  and  hot  steam  are  usetl  in  the  fulliKc 
proper.  The  fulling  process  lasts  Irom  forty-eight  to  sixtv- 
five  hours.  When  complete,  the  threads  of  the  cloth  an* 
scarcely  perceptible,  the  tendency  to  unravel  is  overcome, 
and  the  cloth  shrinks  often  nearly  one-fourth  in  length  and 


._i 


618 


PUNCHAL 


FUNDS  AND  FUNDING 


Lat.  fumua-terrcB ;   fumus,  smoke  +  terra^  of  the  ground, 

fm.  of  terra,  groand]:  the  Fumaria  officinalis  \  a  weed  of 
urope,  now  naturalized  in  the  U.  S.;  belonging  to  the 
family  FwnariacecB.  It  is  a  rather  handsome  herb,  with  a 
strong,  disagreeable  taste.  Its  sap  abounds  in  saline  matter 
and  a  principle  called  fumarin.  Fumaric  acid  is  also  re- 
ported to  be  found.  This  herb  is  in  parts  of  Europe  valued 
as  a  tonic,  diaphoretic,  and  aperient,  and  is  esteemed  for 
the  treatment  of  skin  diseases.  The  climbing  fumitorjr  of 
the  U.  S.,  called  also  mountain-fringe,  is  a  delicate  bien- 
nial, the  Adlumia  cirrosa  of  the  same  family,  which  is  very 
fine  in  cultivation  when  trained  in  a  shady  place  upon  lat- 
ticework. Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Fanchal,  foon-shaal'  [Portug.,  liter,  (place)  of  fennel,  de- 
riv.  of  funcho,  fennel  KhaX.feni'cultim,  whence  Eng.  fen- 
nel] :  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Madeira ;  situated  on  its 
southern  coast ;  Ut.  32^  87'  N.,  Ion.  16'  54*5'  W.  It  is  a 
handsome  place,  with  a  good  harbor,  and  the  center  of  the 
wine-trade  of  the  island,  and  is  a  bishop's  see.  The  climate 
is  salubrious,  and  the  place  has  a  hospital  for  consumptives. 
Pop.  20.000. 

Fanck,  foonk,  or  Func'cias,  John  Nicholas:  Latin 
scholar;  b.  at  Marburg,  Mar.  29,  1693;  appointed  in  1730 
Professor  of  Eloquence  and  librarian  in  the  academy  at 
Rinteln,  at  which  place  he  died  Dec.  17, 1777.  His  chief 
contribution  to  classical  learning  is  a  history  of  the  Latin 
language,  which  he  divides  into  periods  corresponding  to  the 
difSrent  periods  of  man's  life,  to  each  of  which  a  separate 
treatise  is  devoted.  The  titles  and  dates  of  publication  are 
De  Origine  Latinoe  linguce  tractatus  (Giessen,  1720;  2d  ed. 
Marburg,  1735);  De  Pu^ritia  Latinm  lingnm  (Marburg, 
1720) ;  De  Adolescentia  ling.  LatituB  (t6.,  1723) ;  De  VirUi 
^tate  ling.  Latince,  in  2  parts  (i6.,  1727-30);  De  immi- 
ne7iU  Itfiguw  Latince  Senectute  (i6.,  1736) ;  De  Vegeta  ling. 
Lat,  Senectute  {ib.,  1744) ;  De  inertia  et  de^repita  lifw. 
Lat.  Senectute  (Lerago,  1750).  Besides  these,  Funck  pub- 
lished the  fragments  of  the  Lai€8  of  the  XII.  Tables  (Kin- 
teln,  1744),  a  volume  of  academic  dissertations,  and  several 
minor  works.  H.  Dbisler. 

Fniiction  [from  0.  Fr.  function  >  Fr.  fonction  <  Lat. 
func'tio,  performance,  execution,  deriv.  of  fungi,  functus 
sum,  periorm] :  in  mathematics,  a  quantity  which  is  con- 
ceivea  to  depend  upon,  or  be  produced  by,  some  other  quan- 
tity to  which  values  can  be  assigned  at  pleasure.  The  latter 
quantity  is  called  an  independent  variable.  We  then  con- 
ceive tliat  for  every  value  we  choose  to  assi^  to  the  inde- 
pendent variable  a  certain  value  of  the  function  will  result. 
A  simple  illustration  is  afforded  by  the  relation  between  the 
time  required  for  a  train  to  pass  oVer  a  certain  distance  and 
the  velocity  of  the  train.  Tne  distance  from  New  York  to 
Washington  being  225  miles,  a  train  running  at  a  mean 
speed  of  45  miles  per  hour  will  make  the  distance  in  five 
hours ;  at  a  speed  of  37i  miles  an  hour,  it  will  make  it  in  six 
hours.  If  we  assign  any  value  we  please  to  the  speed,  we 
can  compute  a  corresponding  value  of  the  time  by  simple 
division.  The  mathematician  would  then  say  that  the  time 
is  a  function  of  the  speed.  Conversely,  we  may  say  that  the 
speed  is  a  function  of  the  time ;  that  is,  assign  any  time  we 
please  as  that  within  which  the  train  is  required  to  run,  and 
we  can  compute  a  corresponding  speed  at  which  the  train 
must  run. 

In  mathematics  a  function  is  commonly  expressed  as 
equal  to  a  certain  algebraic  expression  containing  an  inde- 
pendent variable.  It  is  then  called  an  explicit  function.  It 
follows  from  this  that  there  may  be  as  many  kinds  of  ex- 
plicit functions  as  we  can  form  algebraic  expressions,  and 
they  are  therefore  classified  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
expression  which  represents  them.  Entire  functions  are  so 
called  because  they  are  of  the  nature  of  an  integer,  or  en- 
tire number.  They  are  those  the  formation  of  which  in- 
volves no  operation  except  addition,  subtraction,  and  mul- 
tiplication. Thus  ax  -^-oy  is  an  entire  function  of  the 
Quantities  which  enter  into  it.  So  also  is  a  +  &x  +  cx^  + 
aa^  +  etc.  This  expression  is  called  an  entire  function  of 
X,  because  it  may  be  formed  bv  multiplying  x  by  itself,  thus 
forming  its  powers;  then  multiplying  these  powers  by  the 
factors  a,  If,  c,  d,  etc.,  and  then  adding  them,  thus  requiring 
no  operations  except  those  we  have  named. 

A  rational  function  is  one  which  involves  only  the  opera- 
tions of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division 
upon  the  quantities  which  enter  into  it.    Such  a  function  is 

ax  +  by 
mx  +  ny 


An  irrational  function  is  one  which  requires  the  extrac- 
tion of  a  root  and  which  can  not  be  represented  by  a  ra- 
tional quantity.  Thus  the  cube  root  of  a*  is  not  irrational, 
because  it  is  equal  to  a  simply ;  but  the  cube  root  of  a'  i> 
irrational.  ^ 

The  three  classes  of  functions  just  defined  are  sometinio 
called  algebraic,  and  all  others  transcendental. 

An  implicit  function  is  one  which  is  expressed  a^^  the  un- 
known quantity  or  root  of  an  equation.  Such  a  root  de^iond^ 
for  its  value  upon  the  coefiicients  of  the  unknown  quant  it  v. 
and  is  therefore  considered  as  a  function  of  those  c^^n^tti- 
cients.  If  the  equation  by  which  the  roots  are  define*!  f]f)>^ 
not  exceed  the  fourth  degree,  the  root  may  be  repre-Nfiitiil 
as  an  irrational  function  of  the  coefficients  (see  Ek2i'ATio\< 
but  if  the  equation  is  general  in  its  form,  and  is  of  the  fifil. 
or  any  higher  degree,  no  such  representation  is  possible. 

S.  Newcomb, 

Fanctioii  (mental) :  See  Pbycbologv. 

Fundamental  Bass:  in  music,  the  lowest  term  of  a 
chord  when  that  chord  is  in  its  ori^nal  or  natural  form— 
the  root  r>r  tonic  as  contradistinguished  from  the  ba»  c»f 
inverted  chords. 

Fnndamental  Chord :  (1)  a  chord  in  its  original  or  n«pr- 
mal  form,  not  inverted  ;  (2)  a  chord  not  accidental,  anoma- 
lous, derived,  etc.,  but  essential  and  indispensable ;  as,  e.  ^ . 
the  major  and  minor  triads  and  the  chord  of  the  seventh. 

Fundamentals,  or  Fundamental  Artieles  of  Faith 

[fundamental  is  from  Low  Lat.  fundamentalis,  pertainini: 
to  a  foundation,  concerning  the  foundation  ;  deriv.  of  fuh- 
damen'tum,  foundation  ;  deriv.  of  funda're,  found  ;  deriv.  «.f 
fundus,  bottom]  :  those  doctrines  which  lie  at  the  basi^  of  .i 
system  or  are  involved  in  the  right  of  a  system  to  exi^t— it* 
foundation.  It  is  a  relative  term,  and  when  a  doctrine  is  flL<i- 
serted  to  be  fundamental  a  necessary  question  always  is  Tn 
wJiat  f  It  is  also  expressive  of  degrees  of  necessity,  and  allows 
of  the  question  In  what  respect  f  It  is  therefore  never  a  «le- 
fining word  till  it  has  been  defined.  There  may  be  a  iMrfe- 1 
agreement  on  the  general  sense  of  the  word,  and  a  total  <livr  r- 
sity  as  to  the  propriety  of  its  application.  Fundamentals  nr*' 
more  or  less  generic  as  that  to  which  they  are  related  has  m*  re 
or  less  of  the  generic  in  it.  If  a  doctrine  be  concede<i  to  Ik- 
fundamental  to  Christianity,  it  must  be  held  by  every  o[ir 
entitled  to  the  name  of  Christian.  But  each  Christian  Ix •It 
has  doctrines  fundamental  to  its  system  which  are  not  hel-l 
by  the  entire  Christian  Church.  Fundamentals  have  U-^'n 
divided  into — (1)  primary,  or  those  doctrines  the  expli*  ii 
knowledge  of  which  is  necessary  to  salvation ;  and  (2)  st't*- 
ondary,  or  those  doctrines  which  are  implied  in  the  primary, 
and  the  denial  of  which  logically  involves  the  denial  of  the 
primary  fundamentals.  Tney  have  also  been  divide<l  inr 
(1)  constituent  and  (2)  conservative,  or  those  doctrines  whi«  h 
enter  into  a  system  as  constituent  parts  in  the  sense  th^a 
the  system  can  not  be  stated  without  explicitly  stating  thi  lu. 
and  those  doctrines  which  are  on l]j^  logically  involved  in  a 
system,  in  the  sense  that  the  denial  of  them  logicaily  in- 
volves the  denial  of  the  system  in  some  of  its  constituent 
parts.  They  have  still  further  been  divided  into  (1)  fomiH- 
tive  and  (2)  distinctive,  or  those  doctrines  which  so  lie  at 
the  basis  of  the  system  as  that  the  system  is  but  the  unf")«i- 
in^  of  their  contents,  and  those  which  differentiate  and  <ii>- 
cnminate  a  system  from  some  other  system  or  from  all 
other  systems.  These  distinctions  obviously  cover  lanr'-.j 
the  same  ground.  Involuntary  ignorance  of  the  set^ndar* 
fundamentals  does  not  remove  the  foundation  of  salvat:<tn. 
but  denial  of  them  does.  And  in  like  manner  ignomnr- 
or  neglect  of  the  conservative  or  distinctive  fundamentn.s 
does  not  invalidate  a  system,  but  denial  of  them  d***^ 
The  doctrine  of  fundamentals  has  been  most  agitaled  in  Hi'' 
efforts  to  unite  the  Lutherans  and  the  Refonn^  ;  but  it  nts^ 
essarily  forms  a  part  of  all  controversy  between  parties  n 
all  communions.  Revised  bv  B.  B.  Warfield. 

Funds  and  Funding  [fund  is  from  O.  Fr.  fond.  U>ttoi: . 
foundation, capital  >  Ft.  fond  <  IjaU  fundus.ior *jfudttu.*  - 
Indo-Eur.  bhudhnos  >  Sanskr.  budhna  :Gr.  wtf'^r :  Ir.  ^".'i, 
sole  of  foot :  Teuton,  bndma  >  Germ.  Boden,  floor  :  Ki..: 
bottom]:  money  or  other  form  of  wealth  accumalate<l  ani 
devoted  to,  or  available  for,  some  special  purpojv  or  oiit4  r- 

Srise.    In  Great  Britain  the  securities  issued  for  the  natu>nH 
ebt  are  known  &s  the  public  funds,  or  simply  as  the  fun'i* 
The  process  of  funding  a  debt  consists  in  dividing  it  in; 
parts  or  shares  (l)onds)  with  stated  times  of  payment  of  in- 
terest and  principal,  the  latter  usually  at  a  remote  date,  Th* 
substitution  of  bonds  of  lower  rate  for  those  of  higher  rtiU 


I) 


-'iK!» 


>f  Syiichytrium  mercuriaiii.  Irx  ft  wArt  upon 
nirialla  :  B.  tbe  same  sermlamEiiig. 

myetlet).  differing  mainljr  in  the  fact  that  in  tho  first  cer- 
tain end-cells  form  apores  by  internal  cell-division  (endo- 
sporouB.  Fig.  3,  A),  while  in  the  second  they  are  lormed  by 
the  Bnlar^inent  of  external  protniBions  (exosporous,  Fig. 
2,  B). 

A  cell  of  the  type  A  in  the  tlgure  is  a  sac  or  aaeus  (pi. 
oaci),  and  its  spores  are  sac-sporea  or  ascospores.  A  cell  of 
tjie  tfpe  B  b  a  biuidmm  (pi.  bandia),  anil  its  spores  are 
basidiospores. 

Undar  the  Sac-Fungi,  which  include  more  than  16.000 
known  species,  may  be  dis- 
tinguished six  or  seven 
Sretty  plainly  marked  or- 
er?  as  follows : 
The  Simple  Sac-Fungi 
{Perisporiateo')  consist  of 
slender  branching  threads 
(cell-rows),  which  form  a 
vegetative  mould  -  like 
mass  (the  macflium)  of 
greater  or  less  extent. 
From  this  certain  branches 
grow  up  vertically,  and  by 
simple  abstriction  of  the 
end  -  cells  form  asexual 
spores  (summer-spores  or  \ 

Gonidia),  whose  function  is 
rapid    propagation    while 

conditions   are    favorable    pjo,  «.-A.  fnilw  of  Jfetono.ix™  dli- 

(Flg.  3).     nomewhat  later  Daldinia  conctnl 

the  little  dark -colored  sex- 
ually formed  fruits  (pertlheeia)  are  formed.  These  are 
mostly  globular  structures  containing  a  number  of  spore- 
sacs.  It  is  now  thought  that  in  many  cases  the  sexual  or- 
Sans  are  abortive  through 
^generation,  and  that 
the  fruits  develop  with- 
out an  actual  fertiliza- 
tion. Many  of  the  spe- 
cies (especially  in  the 
Powdery  Mildews — Ery- 
siphtir)  are  surface  para- 
sites upon  the  leaves  an<l 
stems  of  the  higher 
plants.    See  Mildew. 

The  Subterranean  .Sac- 
Kungi   {.Tuberoidetp) 


■e  to  be  found  in  this  order,  which  contain* 


'amilies.  e.  g.  Chroo- 

•<r,  A'oatocacar,  Pal- 
meilaeev,  Chroolepedia- 
car.  These  funci  are 
very  closely  relal«a  to  the 
Blai^k  fungi  and  t'up  fun- 
gi, from  which  they  are 
scarcely  to  be  separated. 
See  LiCBG!fs. 

The  Cup  fungi  {Dxteo- 
mycffem)  are  pretty  gen- 
erally fleshy  and  more  or 
lessdisk-likeorcup-shaiieii  1 
in  the  fruiting  stage.  Tnev 
are  mostly  saprophytic,  al- 
though a  good  many  spe- 
cies are  parasites.  In  the  saprophytic  species  the  slender 
white  threads  of  the  plant  creep  through  the  decaying  or- 
ganic matter,  and  Hnally  form  sexual  organs,  a  flask -slin[ir<) 
carpogone  (the  female  organ)  and  a  club-shaped  antheriil. 
the  male  organ  (Fig.  5,  A).  Aft«r  fertiliiation  many  th^e8li^ 
grow  upward  and  form  a  disk  or  cup  shaped  s"  ~    ' 


lo.  S.— A,  formaiioD  of  cooidift  ii 
Roae  HUdew  (SpkoroUrca  pan- 
lUMs  :  B,  Ideal  aectiaa  ol  ■  tniit 
of  a  Powder7  MUdew. 


OD  a  le«f-fr«(nnent ;  B.  a  fnilt  cnl  vertkallj  ;  C.  •pi«v-«i.ii 


ID  a  twtc 


fruits.  They  are  sapro- 
phytic, living  upon  de- 
caying organic  matter  n 
the  soil.  Tho  Truffles 
(family  THberacfif)  are 
familiar  examples  of  th  a 
order.    See  TRurrLF 

TheBLA(-KFusoi(oi) 
{Pyrenomyceii'ir)  inclu  le 
a  great  number  of  most- 
ly parasitic  or  semi-par- 
a-itic  s|>ei'ies.  referable  to 
six  or  seven  families,  and 
pretty  largely  character- 
ized bv  a  sooty  or  blackish  color.  The  simpler'forms  (Fig. 
<,  A,  B,  C)  are  scarcely  to  be  separateil  from  the  Perisporia- 
eete,  but  in  the  greater  niunber  of  apecies  the  compound 
fruits  are  characteristic  (Fig.  4,  D,  K.  F).     Many  of  the  most 


lo.  !.— A.  cells  wiUi  iporea  formed 
Internally  :  B,  ipores  formed  ei- 
lemall;. 


the  fubstanee  of  which  spore-sacs  develop  (Fig.  5,  B,  C).  In 
the  common  Morel  {Morckella  t*cuUnta,  Fig.  «)  the  sj-m^- 
bearing  tissue  U  everted,  pitte<l,  and  folded,  so  as  tu  givi*  ir 
the  appearance  of  a  compound  cup-fungos  raised  upon  » 

In  addition  to  manv  interesting  genera — Ptzita.  A'r-'- 
hrfua,  IlehvUa,  Phaddmm — there  are  a  number  of  ciC''*- 
ively  reduced  forms,  as  the  parasitic  Leaf  Curl  and  PhiTti 
Pockets  (ExoaseuH,  Fig.  7,  A),  and  other  similar  fungi  '■! 
the  genera  Taphrina,  Eremateu*.  Oymnoateut,  etc.  Tl.- 
plants  are  here  re<luced  lo  little  more  than  sporp-sac*.  i!i' 
vegetative  orj^ans  bavinif  nearly  disappearetl.  This  d.'L-r*- 
dation  is  carried  a  step  further  in  the  veasT-fHnpi  (.S'o'-^'"'- 


rmai/cp/acivF).  now  considered  to  be  greatly  degraded  n 
bers  <)f  this  order  (Fig.  7,  B). 

The  Rusts  {Urrdinea)  may  be  regarded  as  greatly 
graiied  parasitic  sac-fung^ in  which  the  spores  al  — *■ 


eediiiR  tbe  red-rusl.  vi/,,  the 
"cluster-cup"  stage,  which  U 
probably  to  be  regarded  as 
strielly  the  originar  summer- 
apore  stape.    See  Rl'fts. 


n  with  the  greatest  d 
ciiity.  nowever,  they  may  oe 
regarded  as  aac-fuiiRi  whose 
8piiri!-sacs  are  much  ilistorted. 
or  in  many  cases  arc  so  reiluced 
as  to  form  but  a  single  Hp<jre. 


The 


-  called    ■•  Imperfect 


M.l.reil  as  members  of  the  class  of  sac-funKJ,  allhough  their 
truth. «1  of  spore  fonnation  is  known  only  for  the  couidia 
(iwvual  spores).  Ko  less  than  11,500  species  are  teinpo- 
rjirilv  placed  here  awaiting  full  invest igatiim.  At  pres- 
■■lit  they  are  arranged  under  three  orders,  vi/.;  (1)  Sphip- 
r'//wii/ri>.  in  which  there  is  a  peritheciiim  (but  no  spore- 
n:!!-'!.  ill  which  the  spores  are  produced  on  the  ends  of 
ri.r.'«ds  [Fig.  9,  A,  B).  Here  are  placed  many  of  the  moat 
hHrrrifvd  parasites  on  cultivated  plants,  e.  g.  many  species 
■  ■t  I'hylloalicia  and  Sep(on"o,  which  produce  diseased  spots 
uii  fi-iiiaue,  stems,  and  fruits.  (2)  Melanamifm,  in  which 
tiiiTv  is  no  perithecium,  but  the  spores  are  proiiuced  subcu- 


Kus  of  tbe  Aider  :  B,  reut-fiiDgi,  ii 
McosporeB  Ihighlj  Inagoiflwh, 


-atieously  on  the  ends  of  threads  (Fig.  10).  The  guniis 
irUr.,ipi,riam  contains  many  harmful  species.  {SJ  Hypho- 
msift'if.  in  which  there  is  no  perilhetium,  liut  the  sjiores 
■  tree  upon  snporflcial  or   sub-superficial  threads 

"     "        *' —  ■■'■•-■■    '^—kladiiim, 

.'ultii-ated 
piants. 

1  lie  Higher  Fungi  (Sagidiomi/efi'ii)  include  somewhat 
ni'iri-  than  10.000  descrilied  species  many  of  which  attain  a 
on^id'Tublesize.  In  all  casc«  the  plant  is  a  mass  of  di'li- 
:i'v  llircails  (mi/efUiim)  ramifMnR  throuf,h  the  organic 
ruulTcr  (Niostly  dead)  on  which  it  fee  li  an  1  later  nr(«liic- 
__  ing  large     fruiW     (com- 

m  >n!>  supposed  to  ite  the 
plants  ihemnelves)  in 
which  are  bonie  the 
spores.  The  nuniennis 
families  are  grouped  into 
tw      prcttv    well-marked 

The  Puff  balls  (Oai-te- 


^ 


'^ 


tfluT 


Tier 


(he 


e-spore.«cl"teleutospo«e",   i^P're-bcaring  thremis(b 
nf  a  niHl,  eacb  coDtalninR  two  a»    sidia)  are  always  iiilemal, 
cn9i«n«.  Hnd  the  "  fruits  "  (at  ma- 

liiritT  filled  with  diistv 
r. -1  tire  n-iial!r  more  nr  less  Rl„l,uliir.  See  Pitk-balls." 
ti.'  Toa.Uiools  (nijm^noiniic'l'-t).  In  these  the  siHire- 
riiig  ihrwuls  are  from  the  lirnl  exteriiHl  or  soon  become 
In  the  tvpical  forms  the  "  fniiis"  are  more  or  less  uin- 
lia-ihnped,  and   the   :ipiin?<   are   borne   m\  the  surfaces 


M.  C.  Cooke,  the  author  of  Britinh  Edibit  Fungi,  ape&ka 
of  the  uses  of  fungi  as  follows :  "  In  Kuropean  countries  the 
commou  inushroiim  {Agarieat  campesler)  enjoys  the  widest 
nupuluritv  as  an  esculent,  esi)ecially  the  cultivated  varieties. 
The  meadow  mushroom  (Agarieiis  arvenaig)  is  scarcely  in- 
ferior, tliongh  s-tronger  in  flavor,  and  is  preferred  by  many 
to  the  cultivated  species.  In  France  the  champignon  (itfa- 
ranming  oritadpH)  is  largely  caleti,  and  in  Austria  CoUyhia 
ex/iiberanii.  which  has  no  ailniirers  in  England,  finds  a  con- 
slant  plaop  in  the  markets  <lnring  the  summer.  Truffles 
(Tiiber  iF«(ivum,  etc.)  and  morels  (MorehtUa  eteulenta)  an 


Fio,  lO.-A.  Bectlon  tt 


rouRh  two  il[ 
;  U,  iporea  fr 


apol*  ol  Glaotpo- 


favoritCB  not  only  in  Kuropo,  but  also  in  the  vn!es  of  Kash- 
mir, where  two  or  three  species  of  morels  are  dried  for 
consumption  throughout  the  year.  The  great  puff-ball 
(Ciilraliii  marima)  is  increasing  in  reputation  as  a  break- 
fast delicacy  in  Great  Britain,  while  LtKlarius  deliriog'u, 
the  chaiitarelle  [CanlharelUm  eibariua),  and  the  hedgehog 
fungus  {Hjidmim  rfpimdum)  have  each  their  circle  of  ad- 
mirers. N  uineroiis  other  species  are  also  eaten  liv  myeopha- 
gists,  allliough  they  are  never  found  in  the  ptihfic  mnrkets. 
BoUlug  fdvHa  cut  in  slices  and  dried  may  be  purchased 
throughout  the  year  in  most 
of  the  continental  cities. 
In  Tahiti  the  Jew's  -  ear 
{Ilimfola  aiirien/a  -jvd)F) 
is  dried  in  large  quanti- 
ties nn<l  cx|>»rl('d  to  Chi- 
na, while  a  s|iccies  of  aga- 
ric {I'lfiirotiiii  BulMiertaiusj 
comes  into  the  markets  of 
SJingKiMire.  and  sncrther 
dried  agaric  {IHturolua  foit- 
nalalut)  is  sent  from  the 
Caliul  hills  into  the  plains  of 
Nortliweslem  India.  Sev- 
eral spwies  of  (- Vila ria  are 
eaten  in  the  southern  parts 
of  South  America,  and  in 
Australia  the  MglUta  aiit-  ' 
Iraiiii  is  a  favorite  article  of 
fo'Kl.  In  faK,  a  very  long 
catalogue  niicht  be  made  of  the  species  which  are  more  or 
less  cotisiime<T  in  different  parts  of  the  world ;  but  we  luust 
rest  content  with  suggesting  some  of  the  most  iniportant  or 
inlen-stiiig.  referring  the  reader  to  more  special  treatises  fur 
further  information.  The  cultivation  of  fungi  for  esculent 
purpises  has  not  hilherlo  been  iiuccessful  with  any  other 
species  than  the  ordinary  mushroom.    Attempts  were  made 


PUNGIUIDE 


with  considerable  promise,  but 
gattafaction.    There  is  no  good  reason  to  suppose  it  impos- 
sible or  improbable  that  maiiT  species  might  be  cultivated 
if  proper  care.  time,  and  attehtioa  could  lie  devoted  to  ex- 
periments in  that  direction.     Fungi  useful  to  man  in  medi- 
oiueorthearts  are  by  no  means  numerous  or  of  importance. 
Some  species  of  Polfporus  have  been  employed  bs  slypties. 
or  beaten  till  soft  and  used  as  amadou.     One  species  in 
Burma  has  a  good  reputation  as  an  anthelmintic.     Some 
species  of  Poljaaccum  and  Geaster  are  employed  medicinally 
in  China.    Species  of  )<Ilapho- 
myces  were  at  one  time  sup- 
pcwed  to  possess  great  virtues, 
nowdeemed  apocryphal.    Er- 
got still  msintkios  its  position 
m  the  pharraaeoiHPia,  but  is 
almost  the  only  fungus  now 
employed  (and  that  sparing- 
ly) l)j^  the  legitimate  medical 
practitioner. 

It  is  impossible  within  the 
limits  of  this  article  to  enu- 
merate the  fun^  which  arq 
injurious  to  cultivated  plants, 
many  of  which  are  attacked 
by  a  great  number  of  species. 
Thus  wheat  is  the  host  of  no 
than  14  fungi,  Indian 
•  "~,  the  apple  of  70. 
>u««»u-««.«.  .     ,        ,    ic  inycoW  the  in- 

jurious fungi  are  commonly 
referred  to  under  the  diseases  which  they  produce,  and  will 
be  so  treated  hero.  Accordingly  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  follovfing  articles;  Blight  (on  apple,  pea,  quince,  straw- 
berry, tomato,  potato,  and  grape),  Eroot,  Lgif-spot  (on 
cherry,  plum,  strawberry,  etc.),  OIdium  (on  many  leaves), 
MiLDBW  (downy,  on  grape,  lettuce,  potato,  etc. ;  powdery,  on 

Sple,  cherry,  grape,  hop.  pea,  etc.).  Peach  Yellows,  Peach 
BL,  PLitir  Knot.  Plum  Pockets.  Itor  (bitter-rot  of  apples 
and  grapes,  black-rot  of  apples  and  grapes,  brown-rot  of 
grapes,  bird's-eye-rot  of  grapes,  dry-rot  of  timlier.  plum-rot. 
potato-rot,  root^rot  of  grapes,  tomato-rot,  white-rot  of  grapes, 
wet-rot  of  timber).  Rusts  (of  apple,  blackberry,  Indian  corn, 
raspberry,  wheat,  etc.).  Scab  (on  apples,  pears,  etc.),  Shi't  (on 
barley,  Irtdian  corn,  oats,  su^-cane,  wheat,  etc.). 

Aside  from  the  bacteria,  there  are  few  fungi  which  are 
productive  of  diseases  in  animals.  Quite  a  number  are 
actively  poisonous  when  eaten ;  in  fact  many  which  so 
closely  resemble  the  edible  siiecies  as  to  be  trecjuently  mis- 
taken for  them  have  been  found  to  be  fatally  poisonous. 
Qreat  care  must  always  be  exercised  in  the  collection  of 
wild  species  for  eating;. 

.  LrrEBATURB. — Prom  the  enormous  mass  of  literature  re- 
lating to  the  fungi,  the  following  works  are  suggested  to  the 
student:  Cooke's  Brilish  Edme  Fumi  (lesi);  Cooke's 
Mieroacopic  Ftmgi  (1871) ;  DeBary's  Morphology  and  Bi- 
ology of  the  Fungi.  Myeetozoa,  and  Baeleria  (1M87);  Bills 
and  Everhart's  North  Ameriean  PyrenomycetM  (1892) ; 
Luerssen's  Handintch  der  SyalemaliMhen  Botanik,  vol.  i. 
(1879);  Saccardo's  Sylloge  Fungomm,  10  vols.  (1883  to 
1892);  Seribner's  Fungue  Diteaws  of  tkf.  Grape  arid  Other 
Plants  (1890) ;  Smith's  Diieaaes  of  Field  artd  Garden  Crops 
(1884);  Ward's  Timbsr  and  some  of  Its  Diteaxes  (1889); 
Zopf's  Die  Pilze  (1890);  also  the  volumes  of  GrevitUa  (Lon- 
don, England):  nfdioi^ta  (Dresden) ;  JofimfU  of  Mycology 
(Washington,  U.  S,);  Revue  Myeologique  (Paris) — period- 
icals devoted  mainly  to  the  fungi.       Charles  EL  Bessey. 

Fnnglclde:  a  preparation  which  is  fatal  lo  fungi,  and 
which  may  be  used  for  combating  fungous  diseases  of 
plants  and  animals.  Most  fnngicides  contain  copper  or 
sulphur  in  some  form.  The  most  popular  fungicides,  es- 
pecially for  plant  diseases,  for  which  fungicides  are  mostly 
used,  are  those  which  are  applied  in  water,  either  in  solu- 
tion or  in  suspension.  Since  the  knowledge  of  fuoKous  dis- 
eases of  plants  lias  so  greatly  increased,  fungicides  have 
come  to  be  one  of  the  chief  instruments  in  agriculture. 
The^  are  of  particular  use  in  all  branches  of  horticulture. 


?  which  throws  the  finest  spray  1 
greatest  distance.     If  the  material  can  be  applied  in 
i  cloud-like   mist  the  best  results  are   to   t 


pected.  The  value  of  any  fungicide  depends  to  k  consid- 
erable extent  upon  the  time  and  method  of  it«  appli<'al  ':• : 
Timeliness,  thoroughness,  anil  persistence  are  the  cs^^cniTu 
of  success.  The  disease  must  be  dispatched  before  it  ha^  L.  - 
come  thoroughly  established,  or,  lietler,  it  most  be  pn-vcri- - 
ed  from  obtaining  a  foothold.  For  such  common  'Iim-k'.  - 
as  grape-mildew,  apple-scab,  pear-scab,  and  the  like.  ;■ 
first  application  should  usually  be  made  before  the  leuv.- 
appear.  and  the  material  should  be  applied  at  intervn 
thereafter,  as  recommended  for  the  vanous  plants  un-I-* 
their  respective  heads.  The  two  most  important  fungiiidr- 
at  the  present  time  are  Bordeaux  mixture  and  aoimonim.* 
carbonate  of  copper.  The  former  is  more  adhesive.  Inil  ■ 
is  dinicult  to  apply  to  tail  trees  unless  much  diluteiL  1''i 
latter  is  cheaper  and  more  easily  applied.  The  Bonlvai.; 
mixture  can  be  added  to  such  insecliaes  as  Paris  gre^n  an 
London  purple,  and  insects  and  fungi  may  be  coml>Ht<-i!  ^: 
the  same  time.    The  following  are  the  leading  f un}:ii'i<i- - 

Ammoniaeal  Carbonate  of  Copper. — 1,  Into  a  vessel  ha\n : 
a  capacity  of  3  quarts  or  more  pour  1  quart  of  ainm<<ii . 
(strength  33°  fiaume).  add  &  oz.  carbonate  of  copper.  >''- 
rapidly  for  a  moment,  and  the  carbonate  of  copper  will  >!>- 
solve  in  the  ammonia,  forming  a  very  clear  uquid.  T' 
concentrated  liquid  thus  prepared  may  be  kept  indefinit,-: 
For  use,  dilute  to  36  gal. 

3.  Carbonate  of  copper,  S  oz. ;  ammonia  (2S°).  3  pinr-. 
water,  4S  gal.    This  is  probably  the  better  method. 

It  is  bettor  to  wet  the  carbonalfi  before  dissolving  it.  ?•  ■ 
graoe-rot  and  mildew,  apple-scab,  and  many  other  disea.-?. 

Ammoniated  Copper  Sulphate  (mixture  No.  5  of  I>p|uir?- 
ment  of  Agriculture). — Equal  puts  of  ammoniated  oi|>i-^r 
sulphate  and  ammonia  carbonate.  Put  1  lb.  of  the  mafins 
in  25  gal.  of  water  when  desired  for  use.  For  the  sam' 
uses  as  ammoniaeal  carbonate  of  copper. 

Bordeaux  Mixture  (copper  mixture  of  Gironde). — 1.  Ih- 


When  the  latter  mixture  has  cooled,  it  is  slowly  poured  \n:- 
the  copper  solution,  cure  being  taken  to  mix  the  flm  :• 
thoroughly  by  constant  stirring.  Prepare  some  dara  ln'f'T. 
use.  Stir  before  applying.  Stronger  mixtures  were  at  fir-; 
recommended,  but  are  not  now  nsed.  Mixtures  about  b&lf 
the  strength  of  the  above  have  been  used  with  good  rrulu 

a.  Powdered  sulphate  of  copper,  12  lb.  in  lS-20  gal.  ■ ; 
water;  lime,  8  lb.  in  10-13gal.  of  water.  When  the  iimr.- 
rials  are  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  water,  adii  th' 
two  mixtures. 

For  downy  mildew  and  black-rot  of  the  grape,  blight  ui'i 
rot  of  the  tomato  and  potato,  blights  of  fruils>.  and  mani 
other  diseases. 

Sometimes  the  mixture  is  not  washed  off  the  grapes  by  tb' 
rains.  In  this  case  add  1  quart  of  strong  cider  vinecar  t  ■ 
5  gal.  of  water,  and  din  the  gra[)es,  allowinfc  them  [<'  ^- 
main  a  few  minutes,  then  rinse  once  or  twice.  Dip  lln 
grapes  by  placing  them  in  a  wire  basket. 

Eaa  Celeste. — 1.  (Audovnaud  process.)  Dissolve  1  IL  ■■' 
sulphate  of  copper  in  3  gal.  of  hot  water.  When  rompIiriFi} 
dissolved  and  the  water  has  cooled,  add  H  pints  of  commer- 
cial ammonia  (strength,  33°  Baume).  When  ready  to  U'^. 
dilute  lo  25  gal.  For  treatment  of  downy  mildew  anl 
black-rot  of  tne  gr^P*-  anthracnose.  and  blight  and  rol  ■ ' 
the  tomato  and  potato,  and  many  other  diseases. 

2.  Dissolve  1  lb.  of  sulphate  of  copper  in  2  gal.  of  wa;- ' 
In  another  vessel  dissolve  1  lb.  of  carbonate  of  soda.  >ii> 
the  two  solutions.  When  cbeniicol  reaction  has  ceased.  ;ii<<! 
1^  pints  of  ammonia,  then  dilute  to  25  gal.  For  the  -aiur 
purpose  as  No.  1.  and  probably  better. 

Sulphate  of  Copper. — 1.  Dissolve  i  lb.  of  pure  sulpha:! 
of  copper  in  5-12  gal.  of  water.  For  treatment  of  douny 
mildew  and  black-rot  of  grape  and  apple-scab  in  winter,  cr 
in  spring  before  the  buds  swell. 

2.  Disiiolve  5-8  lb.  in  10  gal.  of  water.  Por  soaking  grsn< 
previous  to  sowing  to  destroy  spores  of  smuls.  The  Grr- 
mans  use  a  ^per-cent  solution,  and  soak  the  gnins  ['  r 
almut  10  hours. 

Sulphide  or  Sulphurel  of  Fofasst'um  (liver  of  sulphur',- 
Simpte  solution  In  waterof  t  to  1  02.  to  the  gallon.  Purii  .1- 
dew  in  greenhouses,  mildew  on  roses,  gooseberry-mil r|i  i. 
orango-leaf  scab,  celery-ieaf  blight,  pearand  Bpple'wali.  ;,*iii 

Siilphidt  of  Soda  Wa»h  ( Hi Igard's).— Dissolve  30  lb,  ■■• 
whale-oil  soap  in  60  gal.  of  water,  by  heating  Ihe  Iwr-  r  •■ 
getlier  thoroughly.  Then  boil  3  lb.  of  concentniteii  lii 
(American)  with  0  lb.  of  sulphur  and  2  gaL  of  water.    ^'Iiec 


624 


FtJRBKINGER 


FURNACE 


occasionally  of  badger,  Virginia  opossum,  or  raccoon.  The 
greater  part  of  these  skins  are,  however,  exported  to  Ger- 
many and  Poland,  where  they  are  largely  used  for  trim- 
ming overcoats.  The  muskrat  fur  is  mostly  employed  in 
the  hat  manufacture.  A  cheap  imitation  of  sealskin  is 
made  from  this  fur  by  dyeing.  The  choicer  grades  of  fox 
furs  are  used  to  some  extent  for  trimming,  but  very  rarelv,  if 
at  all,  for  muffs,  collars,  or  tippets.  The  color  of  the  wtite 
fox  is  only  white  in  winter ;  in  summer  he  is  brown,  gray,  or 
bluish,  and  is  then  called  a  cross  or  pied  fox.  The  choicest 
of  all  the  Arctic  varieties  of  fox  is  tne  silver  fox.  Its  color 
when  in  prime  fur  is  a  deep,  glossy  bluish  black,  with  a 
silvery  grizzle  on  the  forehead  and  flanks.  One  of  these 
skins  has  been  sold  for  $500  in  London.  The  skins  of  the 
different  species  of  bears,  wolves,  Canada  lynxes,  badgers, 
panthers,  and  wild-cats,  as  well  as  those  of  the  buffalo,  are 
made  up  into  carriage  roljes,  and  are  in  great  demand. 

When  brought  to  the  manufacturers,  the  pelts  have  been 
usually  merely  stretched  and  dried  by  the  captors,  or  possi- 
bly a  solution  of  alum  has  been  applied  to  the  flesh  side.  If 
not  to  be  manufactured  immediately,  they  are  strewn  with 
camphor,  protected  from  dampness,  and  every  few  weeks 
carefully  beaten  with  a  stick.  W  hen  they  are  to  be  dressed 
for  making  up  into  muffs,  collars,  etc.,  they  are  placed  in 
tubs  with  a  quantity  of  rancid  butter  and  then  trampled  by 
the  bare  feet  of  men  until  the  pelt  is  softened  and  partially 
tanned.  They  are  next  scraped  on  the  flesh  side  with  a 
strip  of  iron  to  remove  portions  of  the  flesh  or  cellular  tissue 
which  have  adhered  to  tne  skin,  and  the  grease  is  removed  by 
trampling  them  again  very  tharoughly  with  flne  sawdust  of 
mahogany,  lignum-vita?,  or  some  other  hard  wood.  They  are 
next  beaten  many  times  and  the  fur  combed  out.  They  are 
then  ready  for  cutting  out  and  making  up  into  the  various 
patterns  of  collars,  boas,  muffs,  jackets,  caps,  gloves,  etc. 

Revised  by  George  J.  Haoar. 

Fttrbringer, fQr'bring-er, Max,  M. D., Ph. D. :  anatomist; 
b.  at  Wittenberg,  Saxony,  Jan.  30, 1846 ;  educated  at  the  Latin 
School  (gymnasium)  of  Gera,  and  at  the  Universities  of  Jena 
and  Berlin.  He  devoted  himself  particularly  to  the  study  of 
zoSlogv  and  anatomy  under  Haeckel,  Peters,  W.  Mttller,  and 
Gegcnbaur.  He  was*  successively  assistant  in  anatomy  under 
Gegenbaur,  prosector,  and  later  on  Professor  Extraordi na- 
nus of  Anatomy  at  Heidelberg.  From  1879  to  1888  he  was 
Professor  of  Descriptive  and  Comparative  Anatomy  and 
Embryology  and  director  of  the  Anatomical  Institute  of 
Amsterdam,  and  since  1888  he  has  held  the  same  positions 
in  Jena.  Among  the  many  important  papers  by  Prof.  FQr- 
binger  may  be  mentioned'  Knocken  U7id  Muskeln  der  Ex- 
tremitdien  bei  den  achlangendhrUichen  Saurien  (Ijeipzig, 
1870);  Zur  vergleichenden  Anatomie  der  Schultermunkeln 
(Leipzig  and  Jena,  1873-75) ;  and  Zur  Lehre  von  den  Urn- 
hildungen  der  Nervenplexua  (Leipzig,  1879).  His  chief  work, 
however,  is  Untersuchungen  zur  morphologie  mid  Syatematik 
der  Vogel  (published  in  two  folio  volumes  at  Amsterdam  in 
1888).  This  exhaustive  treatise  on  the  morphology  and  sys- 
tematic classification  of  birds  is  the  most  important  work 
on  the  subject  that  has  yet  appeared,  and,  full  as  it  is  of 
anatomical  information,  it  must  ever  remain  a  monument  to 
the  knowledge  and  untiring  industrjr  of  its  author,  and  an 
indispensable  aid  to  the  student  of  avian  anatomy. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Fnretidre,  Antoine:  lexicographer  and  satirist;  b.  in 
Paris,  1620;  studied  canon  law  and  became  Abbe  of  Chali- 
voy;  wrote  some  successful  satires,  and  in  1662  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Academy,  where  his  sharp  tongue  made  him 
enemies.  For  many  years  the  Academy  had  been  collecting 
materials  for  a  dictionary  of  the  French  language,  and 
Furetiere  was  accused  of  stealing  from  these  stores  for  the 
similar  work  which  he  had  in  preparation.  He  was  expelled 
from  the  Academy  in  Jan.,  1685,  on  the  charge  of  plagiar- 
ism, and  mercilessly  attacked  by  Charpentier,  one  of  the 
Academicians.  Furetiere  avenged  himself  on  the  Academy 
by  his  satire  Couches  de  VAcademie,  and  retorted  to  Char- 

S  en  tier  in  Factwns^  which  ran  through  four  editions.  He 
id  not  spare  his  former  friend  La  Fontaine,  whom  he  treat- 
ed with  injustice.  But,  on  the  whole,  the  public  and  the  court 
sympathized  with  the  satirist  in  his  controversy  with  the 
Academy.  D.  Mky  14, 1688.  His  chief  work  was  his  Dic- 
Hormaire  Universel  de  la  Langue  Fran^aiae,  published  two 
years  after  his  death.  He  claimed  to  have  spent  forty  years 
of  labor  on  this  book.  Among  his  other  works  Le  Koman 
Bourgeois  (1666)  is  valuable  for  the  knowledge  that  it  af- 
fords of  the  everyday  life  of  his  contemporaries.    He  also 


wrote  Poiaiea;  Fables  Morales  et  Nouvelles  (1666);   and 
Voyage  de  Mercure  (1673).  F.  M.  Colby. 

Furies,  or  Fa'rlsD :  See  Eumenides. 

Fn'rins :  the  name  of  many  Roman  historical  characters, 
mostly  of  the  old  patrician  gens  Furia ;  but  some  pleWian^ 
bore  the  name  also.  The  gens  was  very  old.  Of  its  ori^iri 
nothing  is  known ;  the  name  is  common  on  inscriptions  <>( 
Tusculum,  from  which  it  has  been  inferred  that  the  ern*» 
came  to  Rome  from  that  place.  The  most  famous  of  aW 
was  L.  Furius,  a  praetor  wno  overthrew  the  Gauls  in  tl»« 
great  battle  of  Cremona  (200  B.  c.)  and  received  a  triumph. 

Revised  by  George  L.  HKNDRitKM>x. 

Fnrius,  Aulus,  frequently  called  Fnrins  Antios:  a  Latin 
epic  poet  who  flourished  abibut  100  b.  c.  A  few  short  frajr- 
ments  are  given  by  Bflhrens  in  his  Frag.  Fbetarum  Ro- 
ma?iorum  (Leipzig,  1886).  See  also  R.  Btittner,  P^cius  di- 
cinus  und  der  litterarischer  Kreis  der  S,  Lutatius  Cahilu.* 
(Leipzig,  1893,  p.  180).  M.  W. 

Farins,  Marcus  Furius  BibIculus:  a  Latin  poet  •)f 
some  eminence,  who  was  b.  in  Cremona  about  1(^  B.  c^  and 
lived  as  late  as  24  b.  c.  He  wrote  lampoons,  hendecai>\lU' 
bles  in  the  manner  of  Catullus,  and  one  or  more  epicv 
Horace  {Sat,  i.,  10,  36,  and  IL,  5,  40)  appears  to  have  ri<ii- 
culed  his  inflated  style.  See  B^irens,  Frag.  Poet.  Rom. 
(pp.  817-^19).  M.  W. 

Fnrlanetto,  foor-laii-net'td,  Giuseppe:  successor  in  Latin 
lexicography  to  Facciolati  and  Forcellini;  b.  in  Padun. 
Aug.  30, 1775 ;  was  educated  at  the  seminary  in  Padua ;  lie- 
came  corrector  of  the  seminary  press;  professor  in  th'- 
College  of  Sta.  Justina;  teacher  of  churcn  history  in  tht* 
seminarv;  Professor  of  Hermeneutics  in  the  university: 
and  finally  director  of  the  seminary.  In  1816  he  nublish«<>i 
two  fasciculi  of  additions  to  the  lexicon  of  Forcellini,  sum 
then  undertook  a  thorough  revision  of  the  whole  work,  whi<  h 
was  published  in  4  vols.  (4to,  Padua,  182S-31).  D.  Nt>v.  2, 
1848.  Revised  by  Alfred  Gudexan. 

Fnrlon^  [M.  Eng.  furlongy  furlaiiaKO.  Eng.  fuHautj. 
furlungy  liter.,  a  furrow  long;  furh,  furrow  +  lang,  lonfr] : 
40  rods  in  linear  measure;  the  eighth  of  an  English  "T 
U.  S.  statute  mile,  corresponding  to  the  stadium,  which  wa^ 
the  eighth  of  a  Roman  mile.  There  are  also  several  local 
furlongs,  and  the  word  is  sometimes  used  for  the  name  of  n 
square  or  land  measure. 

Furnace  [M.  Eng.  fornais,  from  0.  Fr.fomaise  >  Fr.  for- 
naise  <  hoi.  for' nax^  deriv.  ot  fur'nus^  *for'nus,  oven,  dtriv. 
of  the  root  of  for'mus,  warm :  Sanskr.  dharmd  :  Gr.  B^pfuit : 
En^.  warm] :  m  general,  any  structure  or  inclosed  plac^e  in 
which  heat  is  generated  by  the  combustion  of  fuel  for  a 
particular  purpose;  specifically, a  structure  of  iron  or  brirk 
lined  with  some  refractory  substance,  as  fire-brick,  for  the 

feneration  of  intense  heat  for  use  in  some  process  of  the  in- 
ustrial  arts,  especially  in  the  treatment  and  utilization  ^-f 
metals  and  minerals.  While  special  varieties  of  heating  af*- 
paratus  will  be  described  or  referred  to  in  articles  on  mana- 
factures  wherein  such  apparatus  is  employed,  the  geneml 
principles  of  furnaces,  anu  their  classification  according  u> 
the  methods  of  utilizing  fuel,  are  subjects  of  sufficient  indi- 
viduality and  magnitude  to  warrant  a  separate  essay ;  and 
as  nearly  all  important  types  of  furnaces  are  employed  in 
the  iron  and  steel  manuiacture,  the  illustrations  will  U 
drawn  from  this  source.  Furnaces  may  be  classified  as  fol- 
lows :  I.  According  to  the  methods  of  applying  heat.  <  I 
Open  fires,  in  which  the  material  under  treatment  is  heat  r- 1 
in  the  fuel-chamber  either  in  contact  with  the  fuel  or  witli 
the  heat  radiated  directly  from  it,  or  with  both.  Iron-«meit- 
ing  or  blast  furnaces  are  of  this  class,  but  as  complex  chtni< 
ical  processes  other  than  those  generating  heat  takes  pliuv 
in  them,  they  are  better  referred  to  in  a  separate  articlr^. 
Furnaces  for*  heating  steam-boilers  are  of  this  variety,  an^l 
are  considered  in  the  article  STEAM-ExoiinE.  The  metallur- 
gical furnaces  of  this  class  are  the  cupola  for  melting  inai 
for  castings,  etc.;  the  smith's  "fire"  in  all  its  forms;  th*- 
pot  furnace  for  melting  st«el  in  crucibles ;  also  the  usual 
forms  of  cementing  furnaces.  In  pot  and  cementing  fur- 
naces the  vessel  that  holds  the  metal,  rather  than  the  nu^t^ 
itself,  is  in  direct  contact  with  the  fire.  All  forms  of  ap[^- 
ratus  for  heating  air  for  domestic,  metallui*gical,  or  manu- 
facturing purposes,  by  means  of  conducting  walls  plactsi 
^tween  the  heat-imparting  medium  and  the  air  to  be  ht^atcd. 
are  properly  classified  as  **  stoves,"  and  are  treated  in  vani>u> 
articles  referring  to  the  warming  of  buildings,  also  under  the 
head  Blast  Furnace.     The  Bessemer  converter  and  the 


626  FUR 

Cinder  tiiat  forms  from  the  oiidizing  metftl  sad  the  melting 
sand-bottom  when  high  heats  are  employed  occumulates  and 
is  tapped  off  at  C.     The  furnace  is  a  stroiijily  bound  iron 
abelllined  with  Gre-brick.     Upon  a  bed  10  to  13  feet  lon^, 
ail   7  by  T-inch   iron   rail 
piles  can  be  heat«d  to  weld- 
ing in  \i  houre  with  about 
l.mo  lb.  of  coat  per  ton  of 
I  iron.     The  engraving  also 

shows  one  of  the  various  ar- 
ran^ments  of  boilers  tor 
Utilizing  the  waste  heat  of 
the  furnace.  The  boiler  F 
and  its  brick  casing  are 
placed  over  the  furnace  (to 
j.,0  4  save  room),  and  upheld  by 

iron  columns.  The  hot 
products  of  combustion  |>ass  up  the  flue  D.  under  the  boiler 
at  E,  and  through  the  boiler  flues  into  the  chimney  Q.  The 
tubes  are  acc*saib!e  for  cleaniuK  through  the  doors  H.  In 
mills  for  rolling  iron  rails  all  the  steam  for  driving  the  en- 
gines may  be  generated  by  the  waste  heat  from  the  fur- 
naces. Steel-heating  furnaces  are  worked  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature, and  the  boileri  over  them  do  not  furnish  all  the 

The  Ttyerberatory  melting  furnace,  or  "  air"  furnace  (or 
solid  fuel,  is  of  similar  construction.  In  the  older  form 
(Fig.  4)  the  flame  and  any  free  air  it  may  contain  are  drawn 
from  the  flre-box  A  along  the  root  of  the  furnace,  and  do 
not  come  in  ilirect  contact  with  the  metal  lying  on  the  bed 
B,  In  the  later  form  (Fig.  5)  the  flame  from  A  is  thrown 
by  the  roof  directly  upon 
the  iron  lying  at  B.  This 
tn mace  there Rire  melts  fast- 
er, but  it  oxidizes  the  met- 
al more  rapidly.  Thearer- 
age  air-furnace mcltsS  tons 
of  pie  iron  with  a  ton  of 
coat.  In  European  practice 
Fia.  B.  reverberatory  melting  and 

heating  furnace  flres  are 
maintained  by  the  draught  of  Urge  and  high  chimneys. 
The  $ame  is  true  of  the  reverberatory  furnaces  almost  uni- 
versally employed  in  the  U.  S.  for  melting  iron  for  cannon 
and  rolls.  But  in  the  later  foundry  and  rolling-mill  practice 
flres  are  maintained  more  uniformly  and  with  less  expense 
hj  blast  from  power  blowing- mat  hi  nes,  usually  rotatory 
high-speed   fans.    Iron  melted  in   an  air-furnace,  as  com- 

Kr«d  with  that  melted  by  direct  contact  of  fuel  in  a  cu[>o- 
escapea  contamination  by  the  sulphur  in  the  fuel,  and  ila 
cartmn  and  silicon  may  be  oxidized  to  any  extent  required 
for  castings  in  the  air-furnace,  thus  increasing  its  strength. 
The  practice  of  melting  6  to  20  per  cent,  of  soft  steel  scrap, 
aa  required,  with  cast  iron  in  the  cupola  is  found  to  make 
castings  ei(uatly  strong  for  many  purposes. 


The  cemfnhns  furnace  is  shown  in  vertical  section  by 
Jig.  6.  and  m  horizontal  section  by  Fig.  7.  It  is  employed 
for  heating  wrought  iron  in  contact  with  carbon  to  make 
earhunzcil  iron,  calleii  "blister  steel,"  which  is  then  rolled 
into  marketable  shapes  or  broken  up  and  melted  in  cruci- 
bles to  make  cast  steel.  The  same  general  typ<>  of  furnace 
is  suitable  for  annealing  metals  and  for  reversing  the  ojicr- 
ation  o(  cementing— viz.,  heating  bars  or  castings  in  contact 
with  oxide  of  iron  to  withdraw  carbon.    The  furnace  con- 


sists of  two  pots  or  troughs  of  refractorv  material  (defined 
in  Fig.  7  by  the  letter  G  at  the  four  corners  of  each  poi.. 
each  about  18  by  4  feet  in  plan  and  4  feet  deep,  cajikble  of 


Fid. 


\ — CemeDliaK  turn 


e  [horlEontal  arclion}. 


o  ascertain  the  progn»^  «: 


holding  15  Ions  of  iron  bars.  The  pots  are  surrounded  and 
heated  by  means  of  numerous  flues,  c.  which  pass  under  tht- 
bottom  and  up  the  aides,  and  flues  d  e.  all  of  which  cnnvev 
flame  from  the  common  Are  A  to  the  chamber  m,  wheni'-  it 
is  discharged  by  the  chimneys  N.  The  flre-giales  lie  on  t  ta- 
bcaring  bars  a  (Fig.  6).  and  form  a  fireplace  about  16  inch-^ 
wide  and  18  feet  long.  The  large  doors  B  B  give  acit-^>  •<■ 
the  pots.  H  H  are  pits  at  each  end  of  the  furnace  tor  vTDrk 
ing  the  flres, and  K  K  are  tunnels  connecting  the  pits  '>f  > 
series  of  furnaces  through  which  fuel  is  brought  and  tiAn' 
are  removed.  Layers  of  charcoal  about  one-fourth  of  an  in<  h 
thick  and  layers  of  ir«n  bars  are  laid  alternately  in  the  \—'- 
(in  such  manner  that  no  bars  shall  touch  each  other)  unii. 
the  pots  are  full.  Then  sand  and  a  cover  of  fire-clay  i- 
ti^htly  rammeil  upon  each  pot,  and  the  doors  BB  arecl<p-'-i 
with  l)rick  walls,  except  a  sight-hole  in  each.  A  fire  is  Ih-n 
built  upon  the  grate  at  a,  and  a  yellow  to  white  hen'  L- 
maintained  on  the  pots  for  six  to  ten  days,  according  to  ;h> 
degree  of  carburization  required.  Test  bars  are  f run :  '' 
to  time  withdrawn  at  the  hole  g  tc 
the  cementation,  and  when  it  is 
completed  the  ash-pit  doors  are 
closeii  and  the  flre  is  allowed  to 
smolder  and  go  out.  The  pots  are 
then  opened  and  the  bars  are  re- 
moved. Furnaces  for  heating-re- 
torts in  the  production  of  illumi- 
nating gas  are  simpler  forms  of 
the  above-described  apparatus. 

The  cupola  furnace,  in  a  form 
commonly  used  for  melting  iron 
in  foundries,  is  shown  in  vertical 
section  by  Pig.  8.  It  consists  of  a 
plate-iron  shell  lined  with  flre- 
briek.  The  internal  diameter  Is 
ordinarily  from  8  to  6  feet.  The 
engraving  show  a  Mackenzie  cu- 
pola, which  is  elliptical  in  cross- 
section  in  order  to  shorten  the 
travel  of  the  blast  from  the  tuyere 
Btothecenterofthecupola.  The 
tuyere  is  a  slit  1  inch  to  1^  inches 
high,  and  extending  entirely 
aroimd  i^he  furnace.      Air  is  sup- 

flied  through  the  wind-boxes  D 
'om  a  high-speed  fan  or  a  piston 
blow  ing- machine  at  a  pressure  of 
I  lb.  to  1  lb.,  aceortling  to  the 
amount  and  duration  of  the  work. 
The  furnace  is  narrowed  at  the 
melting  zone  by  the  boshes  C. 
Iron  (either  pig  or  cast  scrap)  and 
anthracitccoalorcokearecharged 
in  alternate  layers,  and  the  me1l«d  *"■  (VerthilWviwni 
metal  accumulates  in  the  hearth 

below  the  tuyeres,  and  is  tapped  off  at  A.  Bituminous  ov>l. 
being  compacted  by  the  heat  and  the  pr<«sut«  of  su|a'ni'- 
cumbent  charges,  will  not  permit  tree  passage  of  the  bli-t. 
and  is  hence  an  unsuitable  fuel  tor  cupolas.  From  5  ti>  IT. 
lb.  of  iron  are  melted  with  n  pound  of  uoal,  according  ii>  i  h-- 
kind  and  size  of  furnace.  When  the  day's  melting  is  i-v>r 
the  bottom  doors  are  opened  and  the  sand  bottom  and  thr 
slag  and  any  remaining  inm  are  dropped  into  the  pit  bel.-w. 


combustion  of  the  gaaes  emplojed.  2.  The  other  form  of 
reKeiierator  is,  properly  S[)eaking,  a  stove,  in  which  the  out- 
going Kases  pass  on  one  side  of  thio  conducting  partitions, 
while  the  incoming  gasos  flow  along  the  opposite  side,  the 
heat  beine  continuously  tnuismitteatbrougn  the  partitions. 
This  continuous  system  of  re^neration,  although  employed 
in  a  liniit«d  or  an  imperfect  manner  long  prior  to  Siemens's 
experiments,  and  considerably  improved  by  Gorman  in  the 


Fia.  11— Siemens  gas-turuaoe. 

Bnglish  fumooe  bearing  his  name,  has  again  fallen  into 
disuse.    The  gas-producer  has  also  been  the  subject  of  many 
inodiflcations  to  suit  different  tueis.    The  one  illustrated  in 
longitudinal  section  br  Fig.  10a,  and  in  cross-section  by 
Fig.  IOb,  is  the  form  designed  by  Wellman  for  bituminous 
coaL     It  is  a  strongly  bound  Qre^rtck  chamber,  from  7  to  8 
feet  square  in  its  largest  dimensions  and  7  to  10  feet  deep. 
Goal  charged   through   the   gas-tight    hopper  A  is  slowly 
burned  on  the  ^rate  B.     The  fire  is 
stirred  by  a  bar  inserted  at  the  hole  C. 
By  means  of  the  flue  D  the  gas  onterB 
the  flue  E  to  the  main  iindergiound 
flue  M,  which  is  also  the  outlet  of  other 
producers     arranged    in    line  with   it. 
Thence  the  gas  is  conducted  to  the  fur- 
naces, which  may  adjoin  the  producers 
or  be  hundreds  of  feet  away.     Air  for 
combustion   was    formerly  drawn   into 
the  grate  by  means  of  the  furnace  chim- 
ney, but  blast  is  now  generally  intro- 
duced  under    the    grates   in  order  to 
control  the  rate  of  combustion  better. 
Some  3  tons  of  coal  arc  burned  in  34 
hours  in  each  producer.     The  anthracite 
producer  is  usually  larger  and  has  more 
grate  surface,  and  jets  of  steam  are  em- 
ployed, chiefty  to    soften   the  clinker. 
The  use  of  water  as  a  means  of  furnish- 
ing combustible  gases  liiu  not  proved 
advantageous,  because  their  combustion 
produces  no  more  heat  than  that  ab- 
stracted in  decomposing  the  water  into 
these  gases.     Bituminous  coal   having 
been  lighted  in  the  producer,  the  volatile 
constituents,  chiefly  hydrocarbons  and 
water,  are  first  evolved.    Of  the  remain- 
ing 60  or  70  per  cent,  of  solid  carbon, 
that  next  the  grate  is  burned  to  carbon-  „ 

ic  acid,  which,  by  risiiiB  through  3  or  3 
feetthicknessof  ineandesoent  carbon,  is  changwi  to  carbonic 
oxide.  The  eases  passing  to  the  furnace  consist  chiefly  of 
carbonic  oiiiTc,  35  per  cent. ;  hydrocarbons,  10  per  cent. ; 
and  nitrogen,  60  per  cent.  The  pro<iucer  and  gos-tlue  should 
contain  a  slight  cxcfss  of  pressure  over  the  atmnsjihere  to 
prevent  the  inflow  of  air  tlinmgh  crevices  and  the  conse- 

3uent  combustion  and  waste  of  gas.  Placing  the  gus-pro- 
ueers  below  the  furnace,  or  supplying  them  with  air  by  a 
fan  rather  than  by  the  furnace  chimney  draught,  best  ac- 
complishes this  purpose.    The  modifications  of  the  t>iemens 


producer,  now  generally  preferred  in  American  metallnrgiijl 
practice,  are  those  of  S.  T.  WeUman,  of  Tburlow,  P*.^  ami 
5.  W.  Taylor,  of  High  Bridge.  N.  J. 

The  Sitmen»  Oas-ftimaee. — The  general  structure  anil 
details  of  this  furnace,  for  both  melting  and  heating,  an' 
illustrated  by  Figs.  11  to  14,  which  represent  a  6-ton  open, 
hearth  furnace  for  the  manufacture  of  Martin  at<>el  out  ■1 
cast  and  wrought  iron,  as  built  by  S.  T.  Wellman  for  ibc 
Otis  Iron  and  Steel  Company.  Clevelanil. 
0.  Although  the  design  is  now  ant.- 
quated.  the  drawings  well  serve  the  pij- 
pose  of  illustrating  the  principles  of  oit,- 
struction  and  operation.  A  fuma<T  ■ : 
modem  design,  m  which  natunl  gas  u 
used  as  the  fuel,  is  shown  in  the  arth  '< 
Steel.  Above  the  floor-line  W  (Fig,  1^ 
the  furnace  is  a  rectangular  iron  b-'i 
about  32  by  10  feet  in  plan,  strengthriii^i 
with  buckstavea,  roofed  and  lined  *~:i' 
fire-brick,  and  furnished  with  chargiiii: 
doors,  U,  like  the  ordinao-  reverfieral:; .; 
furnace.  The  sand-bed  or  hearth.  T, 
upon  which  the  materials  are  [ii>'::->i 
rests  in  a  heavy  cast-iron  basin,  beni-a'  . 
which  there  is  free  circulation  of  aii :" 

S reserve  the  parts  from  exoessive  h.st. 
y  means  of  the  spout  V  the  sttri  i- 
conducted  to  the  casting  l&dle.    Fig.  1  -1 
is  an  exterior  view  o(  the  charging  si.it 
of  the  furnace  and  of  the  rcgenersi' ' 
below.    The  regenerator  consists  of  1-  .r 
fire-brick  ch8mT>ers,  K  L  M  N  (Fip.  11. 
shown  in  horizontal  section  at  Fig.  Vi 
and  in  cross-section  at  Fig.   13),  wt:.  r. 
are  flUed  with  a  checkerwork   of  fir- 
bricks  stacked  loosely  together,  so  as  to  present  the  UrL-- 
est  amount  of  surface  to  any  gas  entering  the   chauiii'T 
From  each  of  the  end  chambers,  K  N.  two  gas-ports,  S.  Ksi 
up  into  the  furnace  (as  shown  on  the  right  of  Fig.  II.  a^<l 
in  plan  on  the  right  of  Fig.  12).     From  each  chamber.  L  .'>, 
three  air-ports,  P  (Fig.  11)  and  R  (Figs.  11  and  13),  lea-l  uf 
alongside  the  gas-ports  to  a  higher  point  in  the  tum&iv.  in 
order  to  promote  a  ihore  thorough  mixture  of  air  and  gu. 


IB  gas- rural 


e  (horif»nitai  sectlonl. 


The  ports  thus  form  a  sort  of  vast  argand  burner  at  «-f 
end  of  the  furnace.  The  gas,  air,  and  reversing  valve?  i' : 
flues  are  shown  in  cross-section  at  Kg.  13.  in  plan  '.■'.' 
over  a  horizontal  section  of  the  flues)  at  Fig.  13.  an<l  •■' 
longitudinal  section  (laid  over  a  longitudinal  section  of  t':' 
regenerators)  at  Fig.  11.  The  operation  is  as  follows:  liw 
from  the  producers,  regulateii  by  the  puppet-valve  B,  pa— ■ 
down  through  the  reversing  valve,  C  (Fig.  11),  which  i-  )■ 
set  as  to  throw  it  into  the  flue,  F,  and  the  regeneraior.  K, 
where  it  percolates  through  the  mass  of  red  to  .vellow  IC 


630 


PURNES 


FURNITURE 


{tastj  mass  of  malleable  iron.  Its  general  construction  is 
ike  that  of  the  heating  furnace  (Fig.  8),  except  that  its 
hearth  is  formed  like  that  of  the  open-hearth  furnace  (Figs. 
11  to  14).  When  gas  fuel  is  employed  the  regenerative  sys- 
tem is  substantial^  that  shown  in  the  last-named  engrav- 
ings. The  single  puddling  furnace  has  a  door  at  one  side 
of  the  hearth  by  which  the  iron  is  inserted  and  the  "  ball " 
is  removed.  Through  a  notch  in  the  door  the  workman  in- 
serts the  "  rabble  "  or  hooked  iron  bar  by  which  he  stirs  the 
bath  and  forms  the  iron  into  balls.  A  double  furnace  has 
doors  on  both  sides,  through  which  two  men  work  in  the 
same  bath.  The  product  of  a  double  furnace  is  about  2 
tons  in  ten  hours.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  in- 
crease the  product  of  the  puddling  furnace  and  to  relieve 
the  severe  manual  labor  of  stirring  the  charge  by  mechan- 
ical appliances,  chiefly  by  means  of  the  revolving  furnace. 
These  contrivances  have  all  been  abandoned. 

The  use  of  rotary  furnaces  is  now  confined  in  American 
metallurgical  practice  to  the  different  modifications  of  the 
Brueckner  cylinder,  employed  in  the  roasting  (expulsion  of 
sulphur)  of  copper  ores.  These  rotary  furnaces  are  simple 
large  brick-lined  iron  shells,  resting  on  rollers  and  driven 
by  power,  having  at  one  end  the  fire-box  in  which  the  fuel  is 
burned  and  at  the  other  end  the  flue  from  which  the  gases 
of  combustion  and  of  roasting  escape. 

Conclusion. — A  treatise  on  furnaces  without  descriptions 
of  the  different  smelting  furnaces,  and  of  numerous  stand- 
ard forms  of  apparatus  for  applying  heat  in  the  various 
arts,  is  obviously  incomplete.  They  are  aU,  however,  spe- 
cial applications,  and  as  such  are  described  in  the  treatises 
on  these  arts,  and  thev  are  all  modifications  of  the  typical 
forms  herein  described.  In  those  arts  where  fuel  is  used  on 
the  largest  scale,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  wrought  iron, 
steel,  and  glass,  and  where  the  highest  temperatures  are  re- 
quired, the  grand  improvement  of  the  period,  already  be- 
coming general,  is  the  use  of  gaseous  fuel,  and  its  regenera- 
tion by  means  of  the  escaping  heat  of  the  furnace.  One,  at 
least,  of  the  most  important  modem  manufactures — ^that 
of  open-hearth  steel — is  the  direct  result  of  the  regenerative 
gas  furnace.  Heat  of  sufficient  intensity  and  of  suitable 
chemical  character  was  unattainable  by  any  other  known 
means.  The  temperature  of  dissociation  havine  been  at- 
tained, further  improvements  would  appear  to  lie  in  the 
direction — first,  of  economy — less  than  one-tenth  of  the  the- 
oretical value  of  fuel  is  utilized  in  the  best  furnaces ;  sec- 
ond, of  more  enduring;  refractory  materials — fire-bricks  are 
melted  at  easily  attamable  heats,  and  all  refractory  com- 
pounds are  soon  destroyed  by  chemical  reaction  with  the 
ingredients  under  treatment.  Alex.  L.  Holley. 

Revised  by  C.  Kirchhoff. 

Fnrnes,  ffirn  [from  Flemish  Veume^  Fumes] :  town  of 
Belgium ;  province  of  West  Flanders ;  at  the  junction  of 
three  canals ;  13  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Dunkirk,  France  (see 
map  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  9- A).  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  linen  and  leather,  and  a  large  trade  in  grain,  but- 
ter, cheese,  and  linen.  Noticeable  among  its  public  buildings 
are  the  Church  of  Walpurgis,  erected  in  the  ninth  century, 
and  the  city-hall,  erected  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Pop. 
(1891)  5,465. 

Fairness,  Horace  Howard  :  Shakspearean  scholar ;  b.  in 
Philadelphia,  Nov.  2, 1833 ;  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
1854 ;  studied  law ;  was  admitted  to  practice  1859 ;  fur- 
nished chapters  in  Troubat  and  Haly's  Pnxcttce  on  Eject- 
ment, Domestic f  and  Foreign  Attachment,  etc. ;  has  pub- 
lished ei^ht  volumes  of  a  New  Variorum  ed.  of  Shakspeare's 
plays — VIZ.,  Romso  and  Juliet  (1871) ;  Macbeth  (1873) ;  Ham- 
let (2  vols.,  1877) ;.  iTtn^r  Lear  (1880);  Othello  (1886);  The 
Merchant  of  Venice{\m^) ;  As  You  Like  It  (1890) ;  and  The 
Tempest  (1892). 

Farness,  William  Henry,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  clergyman  ;  b. 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Apr.  20,  1802 ;  a  graduate  of  the  Boston 
Latin  School  and  of  Harvard  College  1820 ;  studied  theol- 
ogy at  Cambridge,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  First 
Congregational  Unitarian  church  in  Philadelphia  in  1825  ; 
there  he  has  since  remained.  Dr.  Furness  is  widely  known 
as  an  author ;  has  published  a  volume  of  prayers  (1850),  a 
volume  of  sermons  (1855) ;  has  written  devotional  poetry 
of  tender  feeling;  has  made  numerous  translations  from 
the  German  poets,  and  has  published  a  volume  of  prose 
tales  from  the  German  (1856).  He  has  printed  many  ser- 
mons in  pamphlet,  has  contributed  articles  to  the  Christian 
Examiner,  mostly  on  his  favorite  subject,  the  New  Testa- 
ment Gospels,  ana  was  for  three  years  editor  of  The  Diadem, 


an  annual  published  in  Philadelphia.  But  h\»  name  wtil 
be  remembered  in  connection  with  the  anti-slavery  move- 
ment, in  which  he  took  an  intense  interest,  and  on  whic-i. 
he  frequentlv  and  earnestly  preached  ;  and  with  theatteni)»t 
to  recover  t^e  character  of  Jesus  by  a  fresh  study  of  hi< 
biographers.  His  chief  literary  works  are  on  this  theme,  the 
successive  volumes  being  simply  attempts  at  more  ci»m- 
plete  and  convincing  statement.  The  first.  Remarks  on  th^ 
^our  Gospels,  appeared  in  1836 ;  Jesus  and  his  BiographfrK 
in  1838;  a  History  of  Jesus,  in  1850;  Thoughts  an  th^  Li  fr 
and  Character  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  in  1859:  The  Vn] 
Partly  Lifted,  1864 ;  and  Jesus,  in  1871.  These  volumes  h- 
has  followed  up  with  many  minor  studies  of  the  same  p-n- 
eral  theme.  He  has  translated  from  the  German,  with 
notes  and  comments,  Dr.  Daniel  SchenkeFs  Charaetrt- 
hild  Jesu,  an  elaborate  essay  written  as  a  reply  to  Renan* 
work  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1866).  (For  an  estimate  of  his  viKW 
of  Jesus,  see  Hie  North  American  Review  for  Oct.,  \f<%K. 
In  1886  he  published  Verses  and  Translations  from  the  (M- 
man  Poets ;  in  1893,  Pastoral  Offices,  Dr.  Pumess  has  nev^r 
taken  part  in  sectarian  controversies,  nor  has  he  been  inter- 
ested in  the  extension  of  the  Unitarian  faith  as  a  |)eculiaritT. 
preferring  to  stand  outside  of  organizations. 

Revised  by  J.  W.  Chadwick. 

Farness,  William  Henry,  Jr.:  artist;  b.  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  May  21, 1828 ;  d.  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Mar.  4,  li^T. 
On  leaving  school  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  he  went  into  a 
counting-room,  but  was  there  only  one  year,  his  passion  b*- 
ing  for  art.  His  skill  in  crayon  portraits  gained  him  repu- 
tation and  money ;  he  went  to  Brooklyn,  'S.  Y.,  thence  sotr, 
after  to  Boston,  where  a  residence  of  two  or  three  years  en- 
abled him  to  accumulate  sufficient  means  by  his  pencil  to 
spend  more  than  two  years  abroad,  studying  art  in  Dussel- 
dorf,  Munich,  Dresden,  and  Venice.  On  his  return  he  »?*- 
tablished  himself  as  a  portrait-painter  in  Philadelphia,  mar- 
ried, removed  his  studio  to  Boston,  and  lived  in  Cambridcv. 
His  improvement  as  an  artist  was  rapid,  and  at  the  time  of 
his  death  he  stood  in  the  front  rank  of  his  profession.  Hi^ 
best  work  is  marked  by  firmness  of  drawing,  truth  of  oMor. 
fidelity  to  characteristic  traits  of  feature,  and  fine  feeliris: 
of  expression.  His  genius  was  delicate,  his  spirit  gentle,  hi^ 
taste  refined ;  but  earnest  study  saved  him  m>m  weaknt-SN 
and  his  simple  love  of  truth  imparted  to  his  portrait jt  a  liv- 
ing charm.  He  was  fortunate  in  his  subjects,  rh&rlr^ 
Sumner,  Lucretia  Mott,  Dr.  Furness,  John  W.  Field,  Hair.- 
ilton  Wilde  the  painter,  J.  P.  Lesley,  the  daughter  of  R  W 
Emerson,  with  many  jjersons  besides  of  inteUect  and  char- 
acter, sat  to  him. 

Farniture  [from  Fr.  foumiture,  furnishing,  suppljine 
deriv.  oifoumir,  furnish  <  0.  Fr./t>mt>,  from  Teuton" ;  •  f 
0.  H.  Germ,  frummjan,  deriv.  of  fruma,  use,  advantage :  cl 
Mod.  Germ,  fromm,  advantajgeous,  useful,  good,  execute', 
do] :  that  with  which  anything  is  furnished ;  hence  ihaT 
which  is  needed  to  help  anything  discharge  its  functions  or 
to  help  any  person  do  nis  or  her  work.  Thus  the  locks  anc 
hinges  in  a  house  are  a  part  of  the  furniture,  as  called  for  ii 
the  contract  for  building,  and  we  speak  of  horse-furniture  Jt- 
including  saddles  and  bridles  and  all  their  minor  parts:  s> 
table-furniture  includes  all  necessary  and  ornamental  disii^" 
and  other  vessels,  knives  and  forks  and  spoons,  table-<»lo:b 
and  other  such  accessories.  But  the  word  used  absolute} 
means,  generally,  the  tables  and  chairs,  bedsteads  and  che<^ 
of  drawers,  which  are  used  in  a  dwelling-house,  the  writin.:- 
desks,  book-cases,  etc.,  of  a  library  or  office,  or  in  a  full -r 
sense  the  above  together  with  the  bed-linen,  carpets,  cur- 
tains, and  the  like.  It  is  not  customary  to  include  in  fun^t- 
ture  the  pictures  on  the  walls  or  the  vases  on  the  mant^l 
shelves,  nor  other  articles  of  art  and  ornament  having  n  • 
utility. 

Something  of  convenient  height  to  sit  on  has  always  be«c 
found  necessarv  for  comfortable  life,  except  among  th* 
Japanese  of  the  so-called  feudal  period  which  ended  ii 
1868,  who  were  wholly  independent  of  such  convenience.  A 
frame  upon  which  to  lav  tiie  cushions,  rugs,  or  mattn*»t-^. 
which  constitute  the  bed  has  also  been  found  ntce^^ary 
probably  because  it  raises  the  sleeper  out  of  the  draught^  •  f 
air  which  sweep  along  the  floor,  and  out  of  reach  of  man* 
insects  and  creeping  thin^  Here  again  the  Japanese  hav. 
been  an  exception,  needmg  no  be£tead  at  aU.  Pers.»c« 
seated  on  chairs  or  reclining  on  beds  or  couches  need  tahk^ 
upon  which  to  lay  small  objects  in  use,  and  especially  t'l- 
dishes  and  other  table-furniture  at  meal-time:  and*  t^> 
Japanese,  seated  on  their  floor-mats,   also  require  tabl.s 


632 


FURNITURE 


less  necessary.  And  their  life  was  more  generally  that  of 
the  agora  and  the  forum,  of  out-of-door  intercourse,  busi- 
ness and  politics,  than  we  can  well  imagine. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  furniture  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  de- 
rived from  allusions  in  literature,  from  representations 
or  suggestions  in  architectural  and  decorative  sculpture, 
from  paintings  in  manuscript  books,  from  tapestries,  and 
from  the  objects  themselves  which  remain  to  us.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  from  all  these  sources  alike  the  amount  of  our 
information  is  very  slight  for  the  most  ancient  period,  and 
grows  rapidly  more  abundant  as  we  pass  the  twelith  century 
and  approacn  modem  times.  What  Charlemagne  had  about 
his  private  rooms,  or  what  his  nobles  or  their  retainers,  or 
the  townspeople,  or  the  rustics  of  his  time  owned  and  used, 
we  can  only  guess  by  inference  from  later  times.  Of  the 
epoch  two  centuries  later  we  can  gather  some  few  facts,  but 
onlv  a  few.  Fortunately  it  is  not  very  misleading  to  reason 
bacKward  from  a  time  we  know  .more  about.  Thus  that 
the  walls  were  very  'rarely  covered  with  hangings  of  any 
sort  in  Europe,  before  the  fourteenth  century,  follows  from 
the  low  state  of  the  textile  industry  of  the  time,  and  is  also 
known  from  the  miniatures  which  show  us  walls  rudely 
marked  off  with  lines  and  simple  patterns  in  two  or  three 
colors,  probably  done  with  water  color  on  the  stone.  So  it 
is  easy  to  see  tnat  the  seats  of  the  ninth  or  of  the  eleventh 
century  would  not  differ  widely  from  those  of  the  thir- 
teenth ;  that  they  would  naturally  be  first,  and  chiefly,  the 
chests  which  were  ranged  along  the  walls,  and  which  con- 
tained clothing,  table-linen,  bed-linen,  and,  on  occasion  and 
in  rare  cases,  pieces  of  rich  stuff  brought  from  the  East  and 
serving  for  decoration ;  secondly,  the  state  chair  which  each 
high-placed  family  kept  for  its  head  and  representative  on 
frequently  recurring  days  of  ceremony;  tnirdly,  benches 
anci  stools,  large  and  small,  a  survival  of  which  one  finds 
to-day  about  the  choirs  and  sacristies  of  Italian  churches. 
About  the  bedsteads  we  know  less ;  that  is  to  say,  very  lit- 
tle. Concerning  cabinets  and  cupboards  we  neeti  only  rea- 
son that  they  were  very  few,  even  fewer  than  the  bed- 
steads probably  were,  for  there  was  little  to  keep  in  high 
armoirea  and  bahutSj  which  low  and  simple  chests,  useful 
also  to  sit  on  and  to  sleep  on,  would  not  hold  as  well, 
while  skillful  woodworkers  were  not  numerous.  There 
were  no  books.  There  were  no  pieces  of  decorative  art. 
There  was  no  fine  china  and  no  glassware  at  all.  And  as 
for  mere  adornment  of  the  apartment,  the  nobles  thought 
little  of  indoor  life,  and  had  but  one  private  room  to  serve 
for  sleeping,  and  for  such  affairs  of  society,  eating  or  busi- 
ness, as  were  not  to  be  carried  on  in  the  great  hall  amid  vas- 
sals and  followers,  while  all  below  the  highest  ranks  would 
find  such  pieces  of  furniture  wholly  unatte.inable. 

These  remarks  apply  to  the  whole  epoch  from  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  last  remains  in  Western  Europe  of  the 
customs  of  the  Romanized  provincial  nobility  to  the  time 
when  our  sources  of  information  became  more  frequent 
and  more  trustworthy.  It  is  a  tendency  of  recent  archeeo- 
logical  writing  to  claim  a  more  advanced  state  of  physical 
civilization  for  the  early  Middle  Ages,  on  the  strength  of 
special  discoveries  of  documents  and  monuments  of  the 
time,  but  these  point  only  to  exceptional  and  very  rare  in- 
stances of  lingering  tradition,  or  oi  enlarged  ideas  brought 
from  over  seas.  The  Byzantine  empire  was  the  center  of 
art  and  of  material  civilization  until  the  ill-omened  sec- 
ond crusade,  and  undoubtedly  a  traveler  brought  home 
ideas  of  comfort  and  articles  of  luxury  now  and  again  from 
the  great  capital  of  the  East.  In  the  south  of  Italy  and 
in  Sicily  something  of  Gneco-Roman  suavity  of  manners 
and  ease  of  life  had  been  retained,  even  to  the*  iron  time  of 
the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries.  But  generally  the  world 
of  Europe  of  those  days  can  best  be  judged,  so  far  as  its 
physical  state  of  well-being  goes,  by  means  of  a  study  of  the 
peasants'  houses  in  out-of-the-way  parts  of  France  or  South 
Germany,  or  perhaps,  as  indeed  travelers  tell  us,  in  Bul- 
garia and  Servia,  and  in  like  regions  of  traditional  and 
slowly  changing  customs.  The  bedstead  is  built  perma- 
nently into  tlie  structure  of  the  house,  and  forms  part  of  it ; 
it  is  rather  pretty,  with  its  paneling  in  hard  wood  and 
its  bit  of  carving  here  and  there ;  there  is  only  one  such, 
and  that  is  in  the  living-room,  for  the  younger  members  of 
the  family  sleep  no  matter  where,  in  the  garret  on  some 
sacks,  or  in  the  hay-loft,  or  rolled  up  in  a  blanket  in  front 
of  the  living-room  fire.  The  coffers  or  chests  are  hand- 
somely worked  and  tastefully  though  slightly  decorated  with 
carving,  or  a  bit  of  inlay  in  wood,  and  even  ivory,  or  shell 
on  the  sea-board ;  and  they  have  each  a  splendid  wrought- 


iron  lock  with  a  powerful  bolt  and  a  key  as  heavy  a'^  a 
horse-pistol,  and  quite  beautiful  in  its  naif  and  barbaric  <<r- 
nament,  but  there  are  not  more  than  one,  or  at  most  two,  of 
them  in  one  house.  The  table  is  massive  but  not  %  en- 
showy.  Besides  the  chests  there  are  no  seats  but  »Utu:>, 
either  three-legged,  made  by  fixing  round  bars  into  a 
piece  of  plank,  or  made  with  two  plank  uprights,  each  <  nt 
out  at  bottom  to  form  two  feet  with  a  graceful  enoui:>< 
sweep  between  them,  and  two  shorter  and  thinner  pif<  ^> 
nailed  across  between  the  uprights  to  stiffen  the  whole.  Tut- 
chimney  gleams  with  bright  copper  vessels  which  are  1 1  " 
mistress's  pride  and  joy,  and  which  are  of  ail  dates  fm',. 
five  centuries  ago  to  yesterday.  All  this  would  be  iuuh-. 
much  in  the  same  condition  in  the  house  of  a  well-t<Ki.. 
family  of  the  Middle  Ages,  if  we  could  visit  one  icwiar. 
and  with  it  would  be  found  a  display  of  ooats-of-nuii. 
head-pieces  and  serviceable  weapons,  hung  upon  tho  vtkll. 
The  noble  family  would  have,  in  addition,  the  ehimnt-y- 
piece  adorned  with  the  armorial  bearings  of  its  chief.  aiA 
the  chair  of  state  in  the  lord's  chamber,  which  chamber  i:- 
self  would  be  more  of  a  separate  and  a  di^ified  afmrt- 
ment  than  any  piece  except  the  living-room  m  the  maJt^rr 
house  we  have  been  consiaering.    See  House. 

With  the  fourteenth  century  there  came  a  very  mark-i 
increase  in  the  standard  of  comfort,  both  among  the  nol>lv^ 
and  among  the  more  well-to-do  tovmspeople.  The  nobi*-* 
sought  in  their  castles  something  of  the  space  and  con  v^- 
nience  of  a  country  residence,  combined  with  the  tlnU-u- 
sible  fortress  which  they  could  not  yet  spare.  The  towr.- 
men  built  much  larger  houses  than  before,  with  semrat** 
rooms  for  the  several  needs  of  life,  and  with  a  good  cien]  •/ 
care  taken  to  provide  large  windows,  pleasant  places  to  -« i 
by  the  window  and  by  the  fireside,  and  out-of-door  toggvts 
andporches. 

With  all  this  came  a  great  increase  in  the  number,  an«i 
also  in  the  richness,  of  the  pieces  of  furniture  emplojt  i. 
But  the  variety  was  not  largely  increased;  the  bea5ttv<i. 
the  table,  the  chest,  and  the  unbacked  stool  or  bench,  ^tl.. 
made  up  the  greater  part  of  any  man^s  furniture.  Cush- 
ions were  more  numerous,  as  we  may  suppose ;  at  lea<t  thvy 
were  not  few  in  the  fourteenth  century,  for  the  uiiniatun-* 
show  them  in  use  in  chairs,  on  benches,  on  ch(»ts — soft  urii.> 
like  pillows',  firm  and  square-shaped  ones  like  those  of  c^ur 
old-fashioned  wooden-seated  armchairs.  Hangings,  d«-  :• 
curtains,  window-curtains,  table-cloths  are  common  in  tL. 
richer  houses,  and  are  not  unknown  in  the  others,  at  li-.&>* 
of  the  towns.  And  in  one  respect  the  pieces  of  furniture  of 
wood  were  different  from  those  of  the  twelfth  century 
and  before,  namely,  in  the  much  freer  use  of  9culj>tun*  iL 
their  adornment.  The  earlier  pieces  had  been  deoi>rat».i 
with  inlaying,  more  or  le^,  but  especially  with  color  a{- 
plied  by  the  paint-brush;  they  were  massive  and  raiti- 
grotesquely  ponderous,  with  huge  square  sticks  and  th;-t. 
planks  for  their  framework,  and  color  for  their  chui 
adornment.  But  with  the  fourteenth  century  came  thi*  jh- 
fluence  upon  all  woodwork  and  all  minor  omamentiition 
of  the  wonderful  system  of  Gothic  architectural  sculpt ur-. 
The  end  of  every  arm  of  a  chair  or  bench  was  carvea  in*' 
a  dog  or  a  strange,  semi-heraldic  lion  or  a  dragon,  or  &: 
least  a  dragon's  head;  the  wood  of  it,  wherever  unnt\t>- 
sarily  thick  was  cut  away  for  lightness,  but  a  little  of  x\\> 
was  left  behind  in  a  delicate  and  rich  group  of  leafac^ 
and  small  animal  forms,  helping  by  the  general  mii«t^  f 
the  sculpture  the  main  lines  of  the  piece;  even  the  dit-^- 
received  their  share,  though  a  less  liberal  one,  but  the  iv  i- 
stead  and  the  chair  of  state  received  the  richest  sculpture', 
while  the  settle  of  the  fireside,  the  state  chair's  donif-i  • 
and  popular  enlargement,  now  growing  common,  h&i  \ 
share.  The  carving  in  oak  of  Northwestern  Eunipe,  a:. ' 
especially  of  France,  from  1350  to  1400  is  marvelous  j 
beauty.  But  little  of  it  remains,  but  enough  to  show  it  t  • 
be  the  early  maturity  of  that  splendid  art  w^hich  rea*h-: 
its  culmination  in  the  stalls  of  Amiens  cathe^lral  of  a^<  i\y 
1510,  which  kept  its  place,  though  with  diminished  imj  -r- 
tance,  through  the  three  following  centuries,  undestn■^^! 
even  by  the  pomposities  of  the  Louis  XIV.  period,  ar.  • 
which  lingers  on  even  at  the  close  of  the  ninet'Centh  ti  ii 
tury  in  the  traditions  of  the  workshops  in  the  towns  • ' 
France.  Besides  the  settle,  the  cupboard  or  drtsfter  niakt  ^ 
it^  appearance  in  the  fourteenth  century — a  combination  •  f 
shelves  upon  which  to  show  off  pieces  of  plate,  with  pt^rh.n  * 
a  locker  or  shut-up  place  beneath,  and  worked  into  a 
showy  piece  of  furniture.  Perhaps  the  distinction  shouli 
be  made  between  the  cupboard  or  dresser  which  was  of  gn^ 


634 


FURNITURE 


teenth  ceDtnrf.  It  may  also  be  inferred  that  when  a  piece 
of  velvet  was  nailed  fast  lo  the  bock  with  cilt-heoded  nails, 
the  doing  of  the  same  to  the  seat  as  well,  aud  the  stuff- 
ing with  wool  beneath  each  of  the  pieces  of  velvet,  would 
foUow.  Still  there  was  not  much  upliolstered  furniture  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  tiie  seventeenth  century.  Then  all  at 
once,  in  the  times  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France,  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land, and  their  contemporaries,  the  seats  of  armchairs  and 
of  chairs  appear  as  covered  with  leather  or  brocade,  suffi- 
ciently atuflfed  and  ornamented  with  rows  of  nails  and  fringes. 
The  backs  of  these  pieces  of  furniture  are  more  commonly 
covered  with  a  single  thickness  of  the  material,  and  not 
stuffed  at  all.  The  evidence  for  all  this  is  mainly  in  the  pic- 
tures of  indoor  life,  far  more  numerous  in  the  seventeenth 
century  than  before,  but  the  wooden  frames  of  many  chairs 
of  the  time  eiist,  and  the  seats  are  often  made  with  a  recess 
for  the  stuttlng,  the  sides  rising  above  the  flat  part  of  the 
seat,  while  nail-holes  show  all  along  the  edges.  Some  few 
pieces  exist,  also,  in  what  appears  to  be  their  original  state. 
Later,  and  under  Louis  XIV.,  the  seats  made  for  elegant 
rooms  put  on  the  air  familiar  to  us  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury ;  t^e  seats,  backs,  and  arms  are  all  stuffed  and  covered 
alike:  pieces  of  tapestry  or  silk  damask  are  woven  for  the 
purpose,  and  fit  the  wocden  frames  accurately ;  the  forms  of 
the  woollen  frame,  previously  square  and  firm,  become  yield- 
ing and  as  it  were  pliant  in  the  c;urves  they  aSect;  the  sofa 
takes  the  place  of  Uie  settle :  pieces  of  furniture  are  made  in 
sets,  the  two  sofas,  two  armchairs,  and  four  or  six  chairs 
being  covered  with  the  same  pattern  of  tajiestry,  as  well  as 
alike  in  the  woodwork.  This  movement  m  of  coarse  con- 
temporary with  a  very  great  advance  in  luiury  and  comfort, 
and  even  the  simpler  homes  of  the  citizens  had  their  varied 
seats  of  handsome  fashions  made  in  sets  to  match.  Strange 
modifications  of  chair  and  sofa  came  into  being,  some  of 
which  the  nineteenth  century  seems  to  have  lost,  to  its  dis- 
advantage; there  was  the  ehaiw-longae,  originally  a  sofa 
without  back  but  with  a  high  arm  at  each  end ;  or,  as  il 
might  also  be  called,  a  union  of  two  chairs  by  their  front 


ria.(> 


Dchalr  or  fauteuil,  eigbCeeDth  c* 


tasv. 


edges,  the  two  backs  rising  at  the  outer  or  opposite  edges. 
There  was  a  modt&cation  of  that,  by  which  one  larger  chair, 
or  armchair,  could  be  combined  in  a  moment  with  a  smaller 
one  and  an  ottoman,  the  ottoman  coming  in  the  middle,  and 
the  three  pieces  of  furniture  forming  a  very  luxurious  sofa 
to  lie  upon.  There  was  the  sofa  with  settees,  in  which  a  long 
and  large  sofa  had  its  two  en<ls  cut  off,  and  separated  from 
the  rest  by  "arms,"  these  two  end-pieces  being  very  often 
rounded  away  toward  the  back,  so  that  each  became  a  quar- 
ter-circle comer  scat.  In  all  these  an  extraordinary  amount 
of  fancy  was  employed,  and  great  power  of  graceful  design 
within  certain  very 'well  marke<i  limits.  Inileeil,  all  the  dec- 
orative design  of  the  year?  from  I6T5  to  172S,  especially  in 
Prance,  however  it  might  iaek  in  ilignity,  was  full  of  appro- 
priateness and  a  kind  of  retined  luxury.     The  snuff-boxes. 


watches,  £fuM,  etc.,  of  the  time  are  marvels  of  delicate  (ami. 
The  bad  tendency  of  the  time,  as  to  decoration,  was  li>vriirii 
excessive  curvature  in  scrolls  and  border! ngs.  and  1i>irari1 
a  treatment  of  the  solid  parts  of  house- fittings  and  fumitu^ 
as  if  they  were  metal  instead  of  wood.  Indeed,  they  wcr- 
made  of  metal,  more  or  less.  Quantities  of  furniture  wei- 
made  of  silver  for  the  service  of  Louis  XIV.,  all  or  miet  i:[ 
which  was  sent  to  the  melting-pot  during  the  national  hil- 
fortunes  of  the  closing  years  of  his  reign.  Silver  latij— 
and  frames  for  chairs  exist  in  the  United  Kingdoni,  mo!i  ■  ' 
them  dating  from  this  epoch.  Drawings  and  prints  of  (urr.i 
ture  of  the  time  exist,  as  to  which  it  is  impossible  to  be  err 
tain  whether  a  metal  or  a  wooden  piece  is  intended. 

A  reaction  came  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.,  wti-r 
there  was  a  return  toward  more  natural  forms.  Slrai^" 
lep  and  straight  horizontal  pieces  became  the  fa^bK.ri 
These  wholesome  changes  were  accompanied  by  eltn-mi 
lightness  of  parts.  The  workmanship  of  the  time  was  n- 
quisite,  and  there  was  a  very  full  use  of  small  plaqutf  •.■I 


Fm.  B.— WalJ-table  or  gueridon.  lUe  plKhteentb   ceatnrr,  rnn  i>r 
Xouis  XV.  of  Frntice. 

porcelain,  delicate  comer-pieces  and  mountings  of  gild"! 
lironze,  and  similar  accessories ;  moreover,  the  use  of  coiot'  i 
veneers  and  inlays  of  metal,  shell,  and  similar  material  nis-:! 
great  progress  during  the  years  from  1675  Xa  the  KeT'li- 
tion.  (See  Marquethy.)  So  that  the  most  dainty  and  char'. 
ing  furniture  known  to  us  is  undoubtedly  that  of  France  ai.<: 
of  the  years  1750-80. 

The  furniture  of  the  nineteenth  century  lacks  charatir: 
as  does  decorative  art  of  other  kinds.  Since  1850  there  Ls- 
been  a  very  marked  increase  in  the  splendor  and  coil  ' : 
interior  fittings  and  furniture,  not.  only  in  the  private  bous-- 
of  the  \firf  wealthy,  but  in  hotels,  public  offices,  businT~- 
offices,  and  the  dwellings  of  the  jieople  of  moderate  meBr<.~ 
and  with  this  has  come  a  (■ertain  limited  supply  of  ralht- 
spirited  designing.  In  the  great  cities  of  Europe  and  tr- 
IT.  S.  fashionable  cabinet-makers  turn  out  furniture  <i  r. 
perfect  in  make  and  finish,  and  Bomelimes  good  in  de>i;.-: 
There  is  a  marked  difference  l)elween  the  aim  of  the  <l  - 
signers  in  different  countries.  In  France  it  would  seem  ir. 
fixed  purpose  of  nearly  all  the  desigtiets  of  furniture  1<  ^■.■ 
here  cioselv  to  some  oue  of  the  accepted  styles  of  not  anc  \:  •:. 
dates,  as  Itenaissance,  by  which  is  meant  either  the  it<\-  ■■'. 
Francis  I  or  that  of  Benrr  II..  accordingly  as  it  is  early  <  r 
late  Renaissance,  Uenry  IV.  (for  the  intermediate  n-uT  • 
with  their  religious  wars  and  confusion  hardly  con: ; 
Ijouis  XIII.,  Louis  XIV.,  Regency,  Louis  XV..  Louis  XVL. 
or  Empire.  In  one  or  the  other  of  these  stvles  the  dranpil-* 
men  are  taught  to  compose  and  the  work mel>  to  exe-.:'' 
The  result  is  exquisite  in  completeness,  finish,  tranquiUi;;- . 
the  finest  pieces  seem  as  near  perfection  as  one  can  tiiiga  ' 
obtain :  the  old  processes  are  revived,  the  old  manner!  ■'. 
work  imitated,  and  an  artist  of  one  of  the  periols  nan-.,', 
might  think  his  great  efforts  surpassed  by  his  modem  e--iy 
ists.  But  they  arc  copyists  i  and  there  is  bnt  little  atien  ; : 
to  do  anything,  no  matter  how  trivial,  that  was  not  il>'' 
a  century  or  more  ago.  On  the  other  hand,  the  En(.-i:-: 
makers  are  continually  in  setitch  of  novelties  of  form  sc^ 
compOTition.  The  meat  artistic  designers  have  beien  ln;r.- 
ever  since  1850,  at  least,  to  work  out  each  design  Bcciin'l'i .: 
to  the  purpose  and  make  of  the  piece :  this  had  its  i^nc\' 
perhaps,  in  the  Gothic  revival  which  affected  all  the  dei.i>r» 


636 


FUSELI 


FUSIBLE  METALS 


Fu^seli,  Henry,  or  Fnessli,  Heinbich  :  historical  painter ; 
b.  in  Zurich,  Switzerland,  Feb.  7,  1741 ;  son  of  Johann  Cas- 
par Fuessli,  portrait-painter  (1707-81).  After  graduating 
at  the  Universitjr  of  Zurich  in  1761  he  entered  the  Church. 
He  left  the  ministry,  however,  after  two  years,  and,  visiting 
En&:land  1765-67,  liegan  the  study  of  painting.  Studied  in 
Italy  1770-79,  and  returning  to  London  attracted  public 
notice  by  the  exhibition  of  a  picture,  The  Nightmare,  in 
1782.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1790,  and  a 
professor  in  the  academy  in  1799.  He  lectured  on  art  and 
wrote  eloquently  on  art  subjects,  but  his  nictures  are  very 
deficient  in  technical  qualities  and  conf  usea  in  composition. 
D.  in  London,  Apr.  16, 1825.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Fusel  Oil  [Germ.  Fiisel,  poor  liquor,  perh.  from  Lat.  fusi- 
lis,  liquid] :  a  collective  name  for  a  variety  of  alcohols  and 
compound  ethers  which  are  produced  during  vinous  fer- 
mentation, and  which  pass  over  with  the  alcohol  when  fer- 
mented lictuors  are  distilled.  It  is,  in  fact,  to  the  fusel  oil 
that  the  oifferent  kinds  of  spirits  owe  their  distinguishing 
qualities,  as  when  the  fusel  oil  is  completely  removed  from 
tnem  pure  alcohol,  more  or  less  dilute,  alone  remains.  Fusel 
oil  varies  with  the  material  from  which  the  spirits  are  pre- 
pared :  that  from  the  potato  consists  chiefly  oi  amylic  alco- 
hol, with  some  propylic  and  butylic  alcohol,  etc. ;  that  from 
Indian  corn  is  chieny  amylic  alcohol,  with  compound  ethers 
consisting  of  the  acetate,  caprylate,  formate,  caproatc,  and 
oenanthylate  of  ethyl  and  amyl.  Fusel  oil  from  beet-mo- 
lasses contains  butylic  and  amylic  alcohols,  and  compound 
ethers  of  valerianic,  caproic,  oenanthylic,  caprylic,  and  pelar- 

fonic  acids,  with  ethyl,  amyl,  etc.  The  fusel  oil  from  marc 
randy  contains  considerable  propylic  alcohol,  with  methylic, 
ethylic,  butylic,  amylic,  and  caproic  alcohol.  Ethylic  or  com- 
mon alcohol  is  contained  in  all  fusel  oil.  The  following  table 
exhibits  the  alcohols  found  in  fusel  oil,  with  their  boiling- 
points  and  specific  gravities : 


NAME. 


Methyl  alcohol. 

Ethyl 

Propyl       " 

Butyl 

Amyl 

Hexyl 


ti 


FonnoU. 


CH.OH. 

C,H»OH. 

C.HtOH. 

C4H.OH. 

CeHjiOH. 

CeH„OH. 


Sp.  grhTfty. 


BoUlng-pobt. 


0-798 
0-794 
0-890 
0  803 
0-811 


66  6«» 

r8-4«» 

96» 

110« 

182'» 


C. 
C. 
C. 
C. 
C. 


152«  F. 
173«  F. 
aOA'W*  F. 
230OF. 
275 -e*  F. 


The  following  acids  have  been  observed  in  fusel  oils,  either 
free  or  forming  compound  ethers  with  the  alcohol  radicals 
methyl,  ethyl,  etc. : 


Formic HCHO,. 

Acetic HCjHjO,. 

Propionic HCgHeOa. 

Butyric HC\HtO,. 

Valerianic HCeH.Oa. 


Caproic HCeH„0,. 

CEnanthylic HCtH„09. 

Caprylic. HCgHnOa. 

Pelargonic HCpH^O,. 

Capric  or  rutic HCioHi»Oa. 


Amyl  alcohol,  being  in  most  cases  the  predominating  con- 
stituent, is  often  called  fusel  oil,  even  when  freed  entirely 
from  the  other  alcohols,  etc.  It  is  a  colorless  liquid,  having 
a  peculiar  sickening  odor  which  causes  coughing.  It  has  a 
burning  taste.  Sp.  gr.  0-811  at  19='  C. ;  boils  at  132"  C. ;  bums 
with  a  white  smoky  flame ;  freezes  at  —  22°  C. ;  is  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  in  ether ;  nearly  insoluble  in  water.  The  ordi- 
nary amyl  alcohol  consists  of  two  liquids  having  the  same 
composition  and  vapor  density,  but  differing  in  optical  prop- 
erties—one rotating  the  plane  of  polarized  light  to  the  left, 
while  the  other  is  inactive.  Some  of  the  compound  ethers 
of  amyl  derived  from  this  alcohol,  as  the  acetate,  butyrate, 
valerianate,  etc.,  constitute  the  fruit  essences  strawfcerry, 
pineapple,  banana,  apple,  pear,  etc.,  now  so  generally  used 
lor  flavoring  confectionery,  sirups,  etc. 

Defuselation  of  Alcohol. — As  the  fusel  oil  has  a  higher 
boiling-point  than  common  alcohol,  it  distills  over  with  the 
last  portions  which  come  from  the  still,  and  in  the  column 
still,  when  the  more  condensable  vapors  are  liquefied  and 
flow  back  to  the  still,  the  greater  part  of  the  fusel  oil  re- 
mains behind.  Thus  alcohol  nearly  free  from  fusel  oil  can 
be  obtained.  To  remove  it  completely  other  means  must  l^e 
resorted  to.  Filtration  over  fresh  wood-charcoal  is  the  proc- 
ess most  generally  employed.  Sometimes  the  vapor  of  the 
alcohol  is  passed*  through  a  chamber  filled  with  charcoal. 
The  following  substances  have  also  been  recommended  :  bin- 
oxide  of  manganese  for  filtration ;  slaked  lime,  soda  lye.  chlo- 
ride of  lime,  manganate  of  soda,  milk,  olive  oil,  arid  soap. 
The  process  of  aging  or  keeping  really  results  in  a  partial 
defuselation  of  spirits ;  by  oxidation  the  fusel  oil  is  gradually 
changed,  probably  to  compound  ethers,  and  the  flavor  and 
bouquet  of  the  spirits  are  greatly  improved.    Spirits  are  not 


considered  suitable  for  medicinal  use  till  they  are  two  or 
three  years  old. 

Detection  of  Fusel  Oil, — On  distilling  whisky  and  ot  h^  r 
spirits,  and  diluting  the  distillate  with  water,  it  is  often  ren- 
dered milky  by  the  fusel  oil  which  separates.  By  aliowir^ 
spirits  to  evaporate  slowly  from  the  hand,  or  from  a  ^li-^ 
which  has  been  rinsed  out  with  it,  the  peculiar  smell  of  t li- 
fusel  oil  comes  out  after  the  ethylic  alcohol  has  evap<>niU-«J 
By  mixing  ether  with  the  spints,  and  then  adding  wat.r, 
wnich  causes  a  layer  of  ether  to  separate,  the  oil  may  U>  .  \. 
tracted.  On  evaporating  some  of  the  ethereal  layer  «»n  \ 
watch-glass  the  fusel  oil  is  left  behind.  Nitrate  of 'pilv».T  l-. 
not  a  very  reliable  test,  as  it  is  blackened  by  a  great  vari*-^ » 
of  substances.    See  Fermentation  and  Whisky. 

Revised  by  Ira  Rem  .sex. 

Fusibility  [deriv.  ot  fumble  <  M.  Eng.  ftimhU^  from  n 
Ft,  fusible  <  Lat.  *fusibilis,  deriv.  ot  fun'dere/fusum,  m*  /. 

gour.  See  FoundeyI  :  the  property  by  which  solids  l»et-».!ii. 
uid  when  heated.  Most  solids  are  fusible;  some,  b<^>vri-\ .  r. 
under^  decomposition  without  fusing.  The  temperature 
at  which  solids  melt  (the  melting-point)  differs  greatly  1-  r 
different  substances,  but  it  is  always  constant  for  the  sani. 
substance.  The  temperature  remains  constant  daring  ih- 
entire  period  of  melting.  (See  Freezing-mixtures.)  Mmii- 
bodies  are  usually  liquid  (melted),  because  the  tempera:  ur. 
of  the  air  is  much  above  their  melting-points.  Most  s<.l  .]- 
when  heated  to  their  melting-points  pass  from  solids  tu  j»  r- 
fect  lic^uids,  but  some  pass  through  an  intermediate  f«.i-t\ 
condition  {vitreous  fusion)  before  they  become  fluid.  TL- 
property  in  glass  enables  workmen  to  blow  and  pre^  it  ir/. 
form,  and  the  forging  and  welding  properties  of  wn^u^-  : 
iron  and  platinum  are  due  to  the  same  circumstance,  T  :• 
freezing-point  is  the  temperature  at  which  the  melted  1--.-. 
solidifies;  it  is  generally  identical  with  the  melting-p<.,r'. 
We  can,  however,  often  cool  a  liquid  below  its  meltinf:-f*j  '•: 
without  its  solidifying.  We  may  cool  water,  if  we  kt^p  v 
perfectly  still,  to  —  15'  C.  (-1-  5"  F.)  without  its  freezin^r.'hjr 
if  we  drop  in  a  gi-ain  of  sand  or  agitate  it,  it  at  once  ri>*->  t 
0°  C.  (32  F.)  and  freezes.  A  change  of  volume  ocfun-  »: 
the  moment  of  melting,  usually  an  expansion,  but  in  tI- 
case  of  water  and  a  few  metals  it  is  condensation.  Th- 
melting-points  of  bodies  are  slightly  affected  by  pres*!urv— 
that  of  ice  being  lowered,  that  of  wax  being  raise<l.  >'i  - 
stances  which  expand  on  liquefying  have  their  melt  1:11:- 
points  raised — ^those  which  contract  have  their  meltinu- 
points  lowered.  Mixtures,  as  of  fatty  acids,  alkaline  c  hi  - 
rides,  or  alkaline  carbonates,  or  of  metals  (see  Frsiisir 
Metals),  often  fuse  at  temperatures  below  the  melting-^H  .i:  r-s 
of  the  simple  bodies.  Fluxes  (see  Flux),  partly  by  i;i..r 
chemical  action  in  reducing  compounds  to  the  metaili'r  5ia'". 
and  partly  by  presenting  a  readily  fusible  medium,  pn.n:-  !t 
the  fusion  ot  metals.  The  following  table  of  melting-p<'iii> 
is  taken  from  Pouillet : 


SUBSTANCES. 

Mercury. 

Ice 

Phosphorus 

Spermaceti 

Stearin 

Potassium 

White  wax 

Stearic  acid 

Sodium 

Iodine 

Sulphur 

Tin 

Bismuth 

Lead 

Zinc 

Antimony 

Silver 

Gold 

White  cast  Iron 

Gray      "       "    

Steel 

Wroujfht  iron 


CwtigimdiL 


-S9« 

— <*  ^ 

0 

^      *-! 

+48 

](»■     « 

49 

!>'■■  i 

4»-4S 

190 

t-U\-   4 

58 

1>   4 

68 

::-•'  » 

70 

:> 

90 

\M 

10? 

-i^A  " 

114 

isr  i 

880 

4i' 

908 

?r*-  f 

8S0 

t*> 

860 

f>. 

488 

h«;f 

1,000 

l.K« 

1J8S50 

2,-JSS 

1,050-1,300 

1,939-5  V-«: 

1,100-1.200 

8.012 

_**  "J" 

1,800-1,400 

2,872 

2..V^ 

1,600-1,600 

«,7» 

-s  yr. 

Fk!in<J«n 


C.  F.  Cha>'dlfs 

Fusible  Calculns :  See  Calculus. 

Fusible  Metals:  alloys  which  melt  at  comparativelT  1'^ 
temperatures.     It  is  a  curious  fact  that  allojrs  often  ni«I'  • 
temperatures  far  below  the  melting-points  of  their  con>:i' : 
ents.      Bismuth,  fusing  at  202'  C.  (305-6"  F.),  tin,  at  2;;<^  • 
(446°  F.),  and  lead,  at  320^  C.  (608**  F.),  form  alloys  wh:  - 
melt  in  boiling  water.    Cadmium  lowers  the  meltin^-j»«ir ' 
still  further.    An  alloy  of  1  bismuth,  2  tin,  1  lead  is  u>*^l  »- 
a  soft  solder.    The  following  table  gives  the  name  and  •  1  r 


638 


FUTL^RE  STATE 


FUZE 


stances  evoked  an  extremely  gross  and  carnal  view  in  op- 
position. The  patristic  theory  of  the  resurrection  passed 
into  the  Middle  Ages  with  little  variation.  The  poetry  of 
Dante  and  the  painting  of  Angelo  powerfully  exhibit  it.  In 
the  Protestant  Church  the  existence  of  a  real  body,  and  of  a 
body  that  preserves  the  personal  identity,  is  affirmed ;  but 
the  materialism  of  the  papal,  and  to  some  degree  of  the 
patristic.  Church  is  avoidea  by  a  careful  attention  to  St. 
Faul's  dictum :  "  There  is  a  natural  body  {<r&fAa  i^vxuc6v\  and 
there  is  a  spiritual  body  (ir&fM  w^wfiorueivy 

The  doctrine  of  the  tost  judgment  was,  from  the  first,  im- 
mediat-ely  connected  with  that  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
body.  Mankind  "  must  all  appear  before  the  judgment-seat 
of  Christ,  that  every  one  may  receive  the  things  done  in  his 
body "  (2  Cor.  v.  10).  The  Fathers  founded  their  views  of 
the  day  of  doom  upon  the  representations  and  imagery  of 
Scripture.  They  believed  that  a  general  conflagration  will 
accompany  the  last  judgment  which  will  destroy  the  world, 
though  some  ascribed  a  purifying  agency  to  it.  Some  of 
them,  like  TertuUian  and  the  more  rhetorical  of  the  Grreek 
Fathers,  enter  into  minut«  details,  while  others,  like  Augus- 
tine, endeavor  to  define  dogmatically  the  facts  couched  in 
the  figurative  language  of  the  Bible.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
representations  varied  with  the  bent  of  the  individual  theo- 
logian. One  popular  opinion  was  that  the  judgment  will  be 
held  in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  Aquinas  maintained  that 
the  last  judgment  will  take  place  mentaliter,  because  the 
oral  trial  of  each  individual  would  require  too  much  time. 
In  the  modem  Church  the  course  of  thought  upon  this  doc- 
trine has  been  similar  to  that  in  the  ancient  and  mediasval. 
The  symbols  of  the  different  Protestant  communions  explic- 
itly amrm  a  day  of  judgpntient  at  the  end  of  the  world,  but 
enter  into  no  description.  Individual  speculations,  as  of  old, 
vibrate  between  the  extremes  of  matenalism  and  idealism. 

That  the  blessedness  of  the  redeemed  is  endless  has  been 
the  uniform  faith  of  the  Church.  Representations  concern- 
ing the  nature  of  this  happiness  vary  with  the  culture  and 
intellectual  spirit  of  the  age  and  the  individual.  Justin 
Martyr  regards  the  blessedness  of  heaven  as  consisting 
mainly  in  the  continuation  and  increase  of  the  happiness  of 
the  millennial  reign.  Origen  holds  that  the  blessed  dwell 
in  the  atrial  regions,  and  pass  from  one  heaven  to  another 
as  they  advance  in  holiness ;  at  the  same  time  he  condemns 
those  who  expect  merely  sensuous  enjoyment.  The  Greek 
theologians  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa 
follow  Origen.  Augustine  believed  that  the  heavenly  hap- 
piness consists  in  the  enjoyment  of  peace  which  passes  knowl- 
edge and  the  beatific  vision  of  God.  One  important  element 
in  it  consists  in  deliverance  from  all  hazard  of  apostasy — 
the  non  posse  peccare  et  mori.  The  Schoolmen  held  the 
patristic  theories,  but  with  an  endeavor  to  systematize. 
They  divided  heaven  into  three  parts — the  visible  heaven, 
or  t'he  firmament;  the  spiritual  heaven,  where  saints  and 
angels  dwell ;  and  the  intellectual  heaven,  where  the  beatific 
vision  of  the  Trinity  is  enjoyed.  The  modern  Church  main- 
tains the  doctrine  of  everlasting  blessedness  in  substan- 
tially the  same  fonn  with  the  ancient  and  mediaeval.  The 
tendency  to  materialize  or  to  spiritualize  it  varies  with  the 
grade  of  culture  and  modes  of  thinking. 

The  jmnishment  inflicted  upon  the  lost  was  regarded  by 
the  ancient  Church  as  endless.  The  principal  exception  ap- 
pears in  the  Alexandrine  school,  representea  by  Clement  and 
Origen.  But  Clement  is  careful  to  say  that  the  doctrine  of 
endless  perdition  must  l>e  preached,  in  order  to  deter  men 
from  sin,  although  the  hope  of  the  final  restoration  of  all  is 
permitted  to  the  thinker.  Some  faint  traces  of  a  belief  in  the 
remission  of  penalty  in  the  future  life  are  visible  in  the 
writings  of  Didymus  of  Alexandria.  Gregory  of  Nyssa 
speaks  more  distinctly,  pointing  out  the  corrective  design  of 
punishment  infiicted  upon  the  wicked.  The  annihilation  of 
the  wicked  was  broached  by  Amobius.  The  mediaeval 
Church  was  likewise  a  unit  in  holding  to  the  endlessness  of 
punishment.  The  modem  Church  nas  also  received  the 
nistorical  faith  upon  the  subject,  though  a  tendency  appears 
in  individuals  and  parties  to  the  doctrine  of  a  second  proba- 
tion and  the  final  restoration  of  all  mankind.  The  argu- 
ment most  relied  upon  is  derived  from  the  general  nature 
of  the  Divine  benevolence,  rather  than  from  the  testimony 
of  Scripture.  It  is  generally  allowed,  even  by  opponents, 
that  the  Bible,  taken  as  a  whole,  apparently  teaches  the 
doctrine  of  endless  punishment,  and  especially  that  the 
descriptions  which  Christ  gives  of  the  transactions  and  de- 
cisions of  the  day  of  judgment  preclude  the  idea  of  a  second 
probation.  W.  G.  T.  Shedd. 


III.  NoN-ORTHODOX  THEORIES. — ^Two  theories  respeotitiL' 
the  future  statue  of  those  who  die  impenitent,  which  difitr 
radically  from  one  another  and  equally  from  the  Churf-r. 
theory,  have  found  many  adherents.  1.  The  theory  of  rrm- 
ditioncU  immortality^  i.  e.  that  the  human  soul  is$'not  n^^- 
urally  immortal;  also  and  perhaps  more  commonly  calUti 
annihilationism.  It  asserts  that  immortality  or  eternal  lif' 
is  given  only  to  those  who  have  faith  in  Christ.  Those  «Ih^ 
titute  of  such  faith  do  at  death  pass  into  an  estate  uf  j>iii.- 
ishment,  and  are  finally  destroyed.  The  advocates  of  Ui- 
theory  appeal  to  the  biblical  assertions  that  the  wicke<l  aiv 
destroyed,  and  to  the  passages  which  set  forth  eternal  lift-  a- 
the  gift  of  God,  and  that  those  only  truly  Uve  who  an-  .n 
Christ.  The  theory  has  been  accepted  as  satisfactory  I'V  » 
large  number  of  English  Congregationalists,  and  by'  man-, 
in  other  communions  at  home  and  abroad.  The  cla^^ic  wr>ri> 
on  the  subject  is  hy  an  English  Congregationalist,  Rev.  K«i- 
ward  White  {Life  in  Christ,  London,  1875). 

2.  The  theory  of  restorationism,  or  technically  of  Ap^iku- 
tcistasiSf  i.  e.  that  the  time  will  come  when  the  impenit«M 
will  repent,  and  then  be  restored  to  the  favor  of  Go<l.  Tb 
tenn  comes  from  Acts  iii.  21,  and  the  theory  is  defended  .  n 
biblical  and  philosophical  grounds,  l)oth  in  connection  wi^h 
the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  and  entirely  independent  <  / 
it.  Such  passages  as  Rom.  v.  18,  xi.  32,  1  Cor.  xv.  22  ar 
appealed  to,  and  much  use  is  made  of  the  idea  that  the  oU 
ject  of  punishment  in  the  future  life  is  remedial  and  re- 
formatory. The  theory  seeks  to  do  away  with  the  sup}>"-*.i 
dualism  of  the  Church  theory.  It  has  bieen  a  favorite  « i!  r> 
speculative  minds  from  Origen  to  to-day,  and  is  prt^i^on- 
nant  in  the  present  Universalist  Church  in  Great  Bnt^jn 
and  America,  and  held  by  very  many  in  orthodox  chunh^. 
Thus  recently  it  has  been  ably  defended  by  Rev.  Th«»nii» 
AUin  {UniverscUism  Asserted^  London,  1888),  of  the  V^idl^ 
lished  Church  of  England,  and  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Samun 
Cox  {Salvator  Mundi,  1877,  and  The  Larger  Hope^  it4<  sttji;-  . 
1883),  of  the  General  Baptist  Church. 

Literature. — On  the  entire  article,  besides  the  appropri- 
ate sections  in  the  systematic  theologies,  see  W.  R,  AL--  r. 
Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life  (with  Ezra  Abbot's  well-uii:t>  »i- 
haustive  bibliography;  10th  ed.  Boston,  1878);  Dom^r  »•• 
the  Future  State  (trans,  and  edited  by  Newman  Sni\'!-. 
New  York,  1883);  A.  Hovey,  Biblicai  Esehalolooy  (PlIiU- 
dclphia,  1888);  James  Fyfe,  The  ^ereo//er  (London,  Inv* 
James  Strong,  The  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life  (New  V-r*:. 
1891).  For  the  discussion  whether  there  wiU'  be  a  return  « f 
Christ  to  the  earth  prior  to  the  final  judgment  of  all  rn&n- 
kind,  see  Second  Advent  ;  for  fuller  statement  in  re^ni  tt' 
Heaven  and  Hell,  see  those  articles.  S.  M.  Jac-km»n. 

Faze  [abbrev.  of  fuzee,  fusee,  fusil^  from  Fr.  /»*#•/.  flir :, 

fun  <  Low  Lat.  foctle,  hearth  flint,  deriv.  of  foeuA,  fire  >  = 
*at.  focus,  heartn)] :  a  device  whereby  an  explosion  mav  it- 
effected  at  a  safe  distance  from  its  destructive  action.  Y^.^ 
charge  may  be  in  motion  or  be  stationary,  and  a  short, «  t  » 
long,  or  an  indefinite  time  may  be  desirable  between  the  :y : 
of  the  operator  and  its  effect.  Hence  numerous  and  wide.) 
different  contrivances  are  employed. 

For  projectiles,  including  shells,  shrapnel,  carcassk-s.  ex- 
plosive Dullets,  and  grenades,  fuzes  are  now  classified  as  tinv. 
percussion,  and  combination;  a  class  "concussion"  wa-*  f'  r- 
merly  added,  but  it  gave  rise  to  confusion,  and  has  U-ii. 
dropped.  In  modem  practice  both  point  and  base  iuzL>  art> 
usea. 

Time-fuzes  consist  of  cases  of  paper,  wood,  or  metal  ir-u- 
taining  the  ingredients  of  gunpowder,  varied  to  suit  i^j* 
required  rate  of  burning.  Being  selected  or  cut  in  t  » 
proper  length,  they  are  inserted  in  the  fuze-bole  of  the  jn- 
jectile,  where,  being  ignited  by  the  flame  of  discharge  «»r  .  * 
a  match,  they  communicate  fire  to  the  inclosed  bursfru' 
charge  at  the  desired  point  of  the  trajectory.  To  this  «S:i>'' 
belong  most  fuzes  used  with  smooth-bore  ammunition,  sm-. 
as  the  Bormann  and  its  numerous  modifications,  the  mc*rTnr. 
and  the  seacoast  fuze.  With  rifled  guns  the  length  of  t  :  • 
projectile,  and  in  many  varieties  the  rotating  device,  cut  *  f 
the  flame  of  discharge  from  a  time-fuze,  and  thus  prvv<  i.* 
its  ignition.  In  such  guns  the  shock  in  the  bore  of  th- 
piece  is  utilized  to  ignite  a  time  fuze  of  proper  length  f- : 
the  range  required.  A  primitive  type  of  igniter  was  t*.- 
"McEvoy  attachment,"  consisting"  of  a  hollow  wo<^if^ 
cylinder  fitted  to  the  projecting  end  of  an  ordinary  tinv^ 
fuze;  within  was  a  gun-primer  loaded  with  lead/whn -.. 
ignited  by  inertia  at  the  discharge,  fired  the  fuze.  A  bet!.  • 
application  of  the  same  idea  was  displayed  in  theSa«T  r 


640 


PYENS 


FYZABAD 


used  in  the  Austrian  torpedo  service,  is  adapted  to  the  extra 
current  from  a  large  primary  coil,  which,  with  an  electro- 
motive force  rather  less  than  that  of  most  magneto-electric 
machines,  may  be  made  to  possess  enormous  quantity.  The 
fuze-bridge  at  first  consisted  of  a  plumbago  line  primed 
with  fulminating  mercury  and  a  mixture  of  sulphuret  of 
antimony  and  chlorate  of  potassa,  but  at  present  only  the 
latter  mixture  is  employed.  To  fire  any  considerable  num- 
ber of  such  fuzes  as  the  foregoing  it  is  necessary  to  make 
use  of  a  derived  circuit,  and  hence  the  explosion,  although 
nearly,  is  not  al:»olutoly  simultaneous.  For  a  long  time 
this  was  regarded  as  a  serious  objection  with  detonating 
compounds.  To  overcome  it  fuzes  adapted  to  electricity  of 
high  tension,  such  as  condensed  frictional  or  secondarv  cur- 
rents, have  been  prepared.  They  were  made  by  replacing 
the  bridge  with  a  layer  of  some  chemical  compouna  which 
is  so  strongly  polarized  by  the  passage  of  the  spark  as  to  in- 
duce explosion.  Such  primings  are  the  following,  some  of 
which,  however,  are  sufficiently  conducting  to  allow  the  use 
of  magneto-electric,  and  even  voltaic,  currents.  The  Statham 
compound  is  subsulphide  of  copper ;  that  of  Abel  is  45  parts 
of  subsulphide  of  copper,  10  parts  of  subphosphide  of  copper, 
and  15  parts  of  chlorate  of  potassa ;  that  of  Dowse  is  ful- 
minating copper ;  fhat  of  otner  parties  (including  Abel  in 
his  submarine  fuzes)  is  fulminating  mercury,  with  a  greater 
or  less  proportion  of  some  conducting  substance,  like  graph- 
ite or  powdered  metal,  added  for  conductivity.  Of  all  tnis 
class,  tne  fulminating  copper  priming  makes  the  most  sen- 
sitive fuze.  It  mav  easily  be  so  prepared  as  to  explode  in  a 
dry  atmosphere  wnen  the  exposed  ends  of  the  wires  are 
brushed  with  a  feather,  or  when  an  ebonite  comb  is  passed 
through  the  hair  of  a  person  grasping  one  wire  terminal, 
the  other  being  insulated  in  the  air.  One  hundred  blast- 
holes  mav  be  fired  simultaneously  with  such  fuzes,  connected 
in  straight  circuit,  when  a  good  ebonite  frictional  machine 
with  a  suitable  condenser  is  emploved ;  but  it  is  needless  to 
add  that  their  use  is  criminally  dangerous.  Fuzes  of  the 
platinum  wire  type  are  now  used  to  the  practical  exclusion 
of  all  others  of  the  electric  class.  Bv  suitably  adjusting  the 
battery  power  and  the  grouping  oi  the  fuzes,  all  require- 
ments even  for  the  largest  blasts  can  be  met — as,  for  ex- 
ample, at  Hallet's  Point,  New  York  harbor,  in  1876,  when 
SfiiO  fuzes  were  simultaneously  fired  without  accident. 
They  are  exclusively  used  in  the  submarine  mining  service, 
and  very  largelv  in  modem  cannon.  Even  small-arms  adapt- 
ed to  employ  them  are  in  the  market.  H.  L.  Abbot. 

Fjens,  fi'enz,  or  Fienns,  fi-ee'ntis,  Thomas  :  physician ; 
b.  at  Antwerp,  in  the  Low  Countries,  Mar.  28, 1567 ;  studied 
medicine  with  great  success  at  Leyden  and  in  Italy,  whose 
schools  then  abounded  with  famous  instructors ;  became  in 
1598  Professor  of  Medicine  at  Louvain,  and  soon  had  a  Eu- 


ropean reputation  for  skill ;  was  for  a  time  court-physiriar 
to  the  Duke  of  J3avaria,  and  afterward  first  phvsii'ian  t' 
the  Archduke  Albert  at  Brussels.  Author  of  some  v«rT 
curious  medical  works,  of  which  I)e  Cauteriis  (15S^)  and  //» 
prcBcipuis  ariis  chirurgicm  controversiis  (1649)  are  the  n..  ■>' 
noteworthy.  His  works  have  only  an  historic  value.  I>,  M  a' 
15,  1631. — His  father,  John  Fienus  (d.  1584),  was  a  faiin.»u> 
physician,  author  of  a  singular  work,  De  FkUibus. 

Fyke-nets :  See  Fisheries. 

Fyrouz  (fee-rooz'^  I.:  an  Arsacide  King  of  Persia  i^^. 
name  is  also  spelled  Feboze  and  Firou2:e),  usually  idf  i.*: 
fied  with  the  Pacorus  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers,  enl  -^\ 
also  Arsaces  XXIV.  as  King  of  Parthia ;  reigned  83-103  a.  l- 
The  name  Fyrouz  signifies  *•  victorious." 

Fyrouz  II. :  the  seventeenth  Sassanide  monarch  of  Per- j 
(the  Perozes  of  Byzantine  writers),  reigned  459-^  a.  i>.  11- 
succeeded  his  younger  brother,  Homiuz,  whom  he  over- 
threw by  the  aid  of  the  White  Huns  and  put  to  death.  A 
dreadful  famine  marked  the  first  part  of  his  reign,  and  t}> 
king  became  involved  in  wars  with  the  White  Huns,  wi 
finally  defeated  him  with  great  slaughter,  Fyrouz  and  tw.u:  .- 
nine  of  his  sons  being  among  the  slain. '  The  accounts  <  f 
historians  regarding  many  points  of  his  reign  conflict. 

Fyrouz  III.:  titular  King  of  Persia;  son  of  Yozrlej^-ri 
III.,  the  twenty-eighth  and  last  Sassanide  monarch,  « h  ^ 
kingdom  was  overthrown  by  the  Arabs  in  641  a.  d.  Vi- 
pelled  by  the  Mohammedans  from  Persia,  he  fled  to  llie  tu  - 
mains  of  the  Chinese  emperor  Kao-Tsoune  (Tait-8ori^'i.  \^ 
whom  he  was  recoGrnized.  and  who  by  fruitless  nec<  »t  in:  :••:.- 
strove  to  restore  him  to  the  throne.  He  is  the  /V/o»/<r  ■ ' 
Chinese  historians,  and  seems  to  have  been  a  Chinese  rierr' } 
in  Bokhara.    D.  679. 

Fyrouz  (or  Feroze)  8hah  I.  (Rokn-ed-Deen,  the  .h  iw 
port  of  the  Faith):  a  Mohammedan  King  of  Delhi  v* 
succeeded  his  father,  Altamsh,  in  1236,  having  previou-i? 
been  governor  of  Lahore.  He  was  a  vicious  prince,  vl:A 
was  deposed  by  the  Sultana  Rezia,  his  sister,  in  12'i6.— 
Fyrouz  Shah  II.  (Jelal-ed-Deen,  glory  of  the  Fa:*': 
reigned  at  Delhi  1289-96;  was  an  Afghan  usurper  wh  • 
succeeded  the  last  Gouride  sovereign,  and  who  is  chit^r^r 
memorable  for  his  cruelties ;  was  murdered  by  his  nepht  « 
and  successor,  Allah-ed-Deen,  in  1296. — Fybouz  Shah  111. 
King  of  Delhi;  b.  1296;  succeeded  Mohammed  HI.  i:. 
1851 ;  abdicated  1886,  and  died  1888.  His  reign  was  nn  r  - 
orable  for  its  tranquillity  and  the  material  prosperity  of  t-^ 
kingdom.  He  founded  in  1854  a  citv  now  called  ^eb<*zk* 
pooE  {a,  v.),  formerly  Fyrouzabad,  and  began  the  construt^ 
tion  of  the  great  canal  system  now  known  by  his  name. 

Fyzabad :  See  Faizabad. 


-•'!<(■  of  K  it  had  tome  to  bo  a  sitrii  (or  the  voiceless  (A-)  a^ 

I  II-  1  In'  Toii'tii  ((/)  Riillural.    Thp  original  lliird  letter  V 

.-  I  li.rr^fore  liiffervntiutwl  inio  the  two  forms  C  aliJ  Q. 

,.  ■I'liT  r<jrm  retaining  the  old  place  in  the  alphabet,  but 

-  riccing  iiself  alraost  eiclusivt-ly  to  the  newly  ac<|iiire(t 
..III'  lA).  nhile  the  new  form  was  assigned  to  the  plaee  of 
'    iliMis.'il  sixth   letter  zeta  (1),  and   aitsumed  the  older 

\-i'-ii; — The  Greek  name  gamma  is  an  adnplutiun  of  a 
..j^iiiite  nanio  reiireseiiteflin  Heb.  pinir/,  ineaiiiiig  eanie) 
:.  liro'.'k  niifMiAiH).     The  letter  was  proliably  so  Dalniil  on 

■  iiiil  "f  rf^mblanee  to  a  camel's  hump  (a).  The  Eng- 
■!i  [Kitrie  ((/.!Ae*)  t-omes  thnmgh  the  Old   Pre  nth  from  the 

■  ii  !/■".  a  siibstitiile  tor  gamma. 

>,,„;,, /.—The  letter  has  two  principsl  values  in  English: 
^■|||■l'l  giiltnral  explosive,  involving  the  breaking  with 
r  •li  liriiHlh  of  a  closure  between  the  hoilv  of  the  tongue 
I   I  ri->   paUte.  as  in  gun.  agn.  gift,  aigntil,  s<>nietLiiies  hs- 

■  I  ■irihographically  by  an  hot  ti.as  in  j/hoil.  ouill ;  (3) 
loiililt-  consonant  dzK  coniposc<l  of  Ihe  voiced  dental  ex- 

-ui'  (•/)  and  the  voiced  bniuU  sibilanl  lih  in  a^uru).  us  in 
"■"V.  ii'.itrral,  logic,  crijigt;  it  is  often  assisted  ortho- 
;'-l]i^;illy  by  an  achled  rf.as  in  bridge,  judge.  In  recent 
■1-1*.  inli  from  the  French  the  letter  has  sometimes  also 
I  value  iif  Ihe  voiced  broad  sibilant  alone,  bs  in  mirage. 
It  i:i  oflen  silent  t>ctore  n  and  m,  as  iu  gnat.  »ign, 
i,i-)iijm.  and  in  the  combination  ji A, as  in  high.ioiir/h.  In 
'  e'l.iiibiiiaiion  n^  at  ihe  end  of  syllables  tmng,  long)  it  is 
r.'ly  11  !^igii  that  n  is  the  guttural,  and  not,  as  usuhU  the 
'li  iiH^l.  In  the  combination  yk  it  sometimes  has  the 
.  1.   i.f  /.  aa  in  eoiiph,  roitgh. 

••■■■irrr. — The  mam  sources  of  the  voiced  explosive  i?  are 
111  Tciilun.  words  the  Iniio-Kurop.  gh  (jA),  as  in  gimn  : 
.  x'h'  ■■  l-at.  (AwJM^riSkr.  haiisn-  <  Indii-Eurim.  gliann-; 
'.':.' '/<if  languages  from  which  the  English  has  Wrowud  ; 
.-  Ill  (/"'"'''■''"r.  yrnin.  through  Kreneh  from  lM,.gHber- 
■■■r.  i/niniim,  in  garnish,  gngt,  guide,  from  French  repre- 
.'I'.ii;  (jenn.  w,  etc.  The  most  im|)ortant  souree  ot  the 
ii.i.'  ooiisonant7(=(^^A|  is  the  Kreneh.  as  in  penile,  mur- 
">'iiii;k.  but  it  alBoa]>|>ears  in  naliva  English  worils  us 
:-.iilk.  Kiiglish  rpsiiltaiLt  from  the  Old  English  palalalize.1 
:.  itiv  ().  t;iig.  crjml)iiiuti(>n  nj  and  cff.asiii  »i/io^(ll.  Eng. 
,■1111.  hinge  (0.  Eng.  heiige),  bridge  (0.  Eng.  bracnV  elt. 

Bknj.  Ilii:  Wbeeleb. 
;  :   in  music.  Ihe  fifth  degree  in  Ihe  ascending  scale  of  C, 
'  -T  •<T  minor.  Iieing  llie  dominant  in  that  scale.     Gamut 

-  I  iif  nute  on  the  lowest  line  of  the  bass  stave,  a  seventh 
.  w  F  cm  the  clot  line.  Double  O  is  one  octave  lowerthaii 
■,.ii   (!,  i>n  the  space  below  three  ledger  lines.    <i  diir  is 

I  ;.-ri>iu[i  for  Q  major,  and  0  imill  tor  U  minor.     Gie.  in 

-ri.nii.  is  (i  sliarn,    G  in  alt.  Ihe  first  note  in  alt,  situated 

1  -uivc  aiiove  the  treble  elef  line.     O  t«  aJliiuimo.  a  note 

i-i.ive  higher  than  O  in  all.  or  a  fifteenih  above  the 

,.■  .l.-f  line,     ItM  place,  as  the  first  mile  in  altissinio.ison 

ti.iirth  lerlger  line  above  the  stave. 

.iil>l>ro:   a  name  pineraily  applied  to  a  rather  coarse- 

II'  '1    F-'ranular  rock  of  basic  cumpiisilion.     In  structure 

I  .irit-'in  it  is  analogims  Iu  granite,  of  which  it  fonns  the 

.     ■-i(>iivalenl.   Mineralogically  gubliro  iscompowdessen- 

.    ..f   pyroxene  (variety  d inl'lagr)  nni\  triclinic  feldspar 

r^Mly  labradorite  or  anorlhit.).     It  also  contains  mime 

'  \  :•  1<\  usually  ilmenite.  while  an  orthorhombie  pvnixenv 

.viiu-  may  or  may  not  be  pnscnl-     The  coni|»wilioM  of 

.r.  •  i:^  Ihiisseen  to  be  id>-ntical  with  that  of  diabase,  fnnn 

1.   ri  fk  it.  however,  dillers  in  its  entirely  eraniiliir  stnic- 

Tlifnamegabbroiirigiiiatcd  in  Itnly,  wlicre  it  was  used 

las 


in  sufBcleiit  mass  it  is  available  for  all  the  c< 
which  granite  is  applied.  The  best  known  gabbros  are  those 
of  Northern  Italy  and  the  Ali>s.  of  Silesia  and  the  Hartz 
.Mountains  in  Germany.  In  the  U.  S.  gabbros  are  found  m 
the  White  Mountains,  on  the  north  shore  of  lAke  bujienor 
in  Hintiesota.  and  near  Baltimore  in  Maryland 

The  two  essential  constituents  of  gabbro  are  peculiarly 
liable  to  aheration,  whereby  the  diallage  becomis  fibrous 
hornblenile  (sniaragditc)  and  the  feldspar  a  compact  whiti 
substanci'  known  as  saussurile.  The  resulting  rock  may  or 
may  not  l>e  schistose,  but  It  is  not  less  crystalline  and  resist- 
ant than  the  original  gabbro  from  whii'h  it  has  lie<'n  derived. 
Such  secondary  rix-ks  resulting  from  the  mctamorphism  of 
gabbros  are  variously  known  aseuphotide.gabbro-diorite.or 
saussurite-diorite.  Gto.  U.  Willmxs. 

Gabelenlz,  Hixs  Conon,  von  der:  pliiiologist ;  b.  at  Al- 
tenburg.  Germany.  Oct.  18.  1807:  studied  finance,  law,  and 
Oriental  languages  at  Leipzig  and  at  Gottingen;  served  his 
native  duehv  for  manv  vcars  as  government  counsel  and  tor 
one  year  (1843-49)  as  I'rinie  Minister.  He  is  chiefly  known, 
however,  for  his  cshaustive  investigations  in  p'hilology. 
Among  his  most  important  works  are :  Etemrntu  dr  In  gram- 
maire  mmidehmie  (Altenburg.  IMri);  a  critical  eilitinn  ot 
Ulfilas's  tran.''lation  of  the  Bible,  with  grammar,  dictionary. 
and  Latin  translulior  (Leipzig.  1843-48) ;  Die  melanesiKchen 
Npriirhrn  (1660-7S);  (irammalik  der  h'asniaeprache  (1858); 
Irber  dne  Paeeii-um  <1861).  D.  at  I^mnitz,  near  Weimar. 
Sept  8,  1874.— His  son  Hams  Gjxjbo  Conos  von  dkb  Gask- 
LE.xTZ :  philologist :  b.  at  Posehwitz,  near  Altenburg,  Mar.  16, 
1840;  studied  flnance  and  law  at  Jena  am)  a(  Lctjizig,  and 
held  several  minor  governnient  [Kisitlons  till  1878,  when  he 
became  Profesiiornr  Orient  al  Languages  at  licipzig.  In  1889 
he  aei-e[ited  a  similar  position  in  the  University  ot  Berlin. 
He  is  author  of  (.'AinrnirrAeoniniMftM (1882);  Die  Spraeh- 
u-imrnifctiaft  (1891);  Ilandbuch  lur  Aufnalime  fremder 
Sprucli'H  (imi).  B.  B.  II. 

ea'btl :  an  aneient  Latin  eitv  which  stood  12  inil<-s  E.  of 
Itome,  on  the  banks  of  a  small  lake  in  a  volcanic  crater, 
from  which  flows  (he  stream  i-allcd  Osa,  and  not  far  from 
the  Lake  Ki'gilhiSi  now  drained.  In  early  Konian  days  il 
was  an  im|>ortant  town,  but  it  decayed,  as  ailusions  in  Cltero. 
Horace,  and  Juvenal  show.  Itaftefward  revived  and  became 
a  bishop's  see,  but  is  now  deserted. 

OHbin'ins.  Ai'i.i's:  Roman  [hiI it ician ;  liecamc  tribimeat 
Rome  in  66  B.  c. ;  brought  forward  and  carried  the  law  which 
gave  I'oni|)ey  the  supreme  tommand  against  the  pirates; 
served  under  Pom|>ey  tt4-ftJ.  and  gaiiHil  liiimense  wealth ; 
was  pneliir  in  61 :  i-onsul  in  US  ;  proconsul  in  Syria  and  Ju- 
da-a  S7;  reslfircil  Ptolemy  Aulctcs  in  5S:  was  indicted  on 
the  chai^'  ofcomiplion  in  the  latter  affair.  an<l.  though  de- 
feuded  by  Cicero  al  l*omp<'y's  niinest.  he  was  convictcl  and 
sentcnceil  to  exile.  lie  wu.s  recalle<l  towani  the  end  of  49  by 
C'lesar.  anil  stationed  nilh  troojis  in  Illy ricuin,  where  he  died 
almut  47  8.C.  Keviseil  bv  G,  L.  Hesubickbos. 

Oa'bfon  [via  FV.  from  Ital.  gnbbiane.  largi-  cage,  deriv.  of 
giihliia  :  Fr.  eiii/f  <  I.ftt.  fii  'fa.  cavity,  imliisure,  cage];  in 
militarv  o|H'ralions.  a  h'lllow  cvlinileruf  sticks  set  in  a  circle 
and  wattled  togelher.  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  basket. 
It  is  cif  various  dimensions,  and  is  designc<l  to  1*  si>t  on  end 
and  filli-d  willi  earth  or  slic^ks.  Galiimis  are  pnHif  against 
orilinary  musket -lulls,  and  arc  useful  In  repairing  breaches 
anil  in  constructing  fleld-wiirks,  elc. 

(iabtc  [O.  Kr.^H/i/i-  (Low  iMt./jalHitum)  from  II.  II.  Germ. 
aifiil.  (rout  sidi'.  pr..balilv  nii.i.T  inllocnce  of  q;l..ila  {> 
Mi«l.Germ.  0*(iAf;),rork|:  the  triiingiilar  iipi«'r  imrt  of  a  wall 


642 


GABLENZ 


GADDI 


which  receives  the  end  of  a  pitched  roof.  When  inclosed, 
as  in  classic  architecture,  between  a  horizontal  cornice  be- 
low and  "  raking"  cornices  above,  it  is  called  &  pediment 

The  steep  roofs  of  the  Middle  Ages  led  to  special  develop- 
ments in  tne  design  of  gables,  which  became  important  fea- 
tures of  external  architecture.  They  were  usually  pierced 
with  rose-windows,  and  crowned  with  molded  coping  which 
were  often  adorned  with  crockets  and  terminated  in  a  rich 
finial  at  the  summit.  In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies false  gables,  wholly  independent  of  the  roofs  behind 
them,  were  used  as  decorations  over  porches,  doorways,  and 
window-heads,  and  were  designed  with  rich  open-work  trac- 
ery in  trefoils,  cusps,  and  other  fanciful  patterns.  Gables 
continued  to  be  prominent  and  picturesque  features  in  the 
Eienaissance  architecture  of  England,  Germanv,and  the  Low 
Countries.  In  France  the  architects  of  the  early  Renaissance 
decorated  their  dormers  with  rich  gables ;  but  this  fashion 
passed  away,  and  in  the  later  Renaissance  of  France,  as 
throughout  that  of  Italy,  gables  are  replaced  by  classic 
pediments. 

The  term  "gable  wall"  is  used  by  builders  in  New  York  city 
and  in  some  other  cities  of  the  U.  S.  to  designate  the  side 
walls  or  party  walls  of  houses  built  in  continuous  blocks, 
irrespective  of  the  actual  form  of  these  walls.  This  usage 
arose  from  the  practice  which  formerly  prevailed,  of  pitch- 
ing the  roof  to  the  front  and  rear  from  a  ridge  parallel  with 
the  street,  the  party  walls  and  other  side  walls  forming  low 
gables.  A.  D.  F.  Hamlin. 

Oablenz,  gaa'blents,  Ludwio  Karl  Wilhelm,  Baron  von : 
Austrian  general ;  a  son  of  the  Saxon  lieutenant-general  Ga- 
blenz ;  b.  at  Jena,  July  19, 1814,  and  educated  at  the  Mili- 
tary Academy  of  Dresden.  He  served  first  in  the  Saxon 
horse-guard,  but  in  1838  entered  the  Austrian  service,  and 
became,  after  six  years,  a  captain  of  horse.  He  was  often 
employed  in  honorary  service.  In  1848  he  fought  in  Italy 
unaer  Radetzky  with  great  distinction,  and  was  made  a 
major  of  the  staff,  lie  next  became  chief  of  staff  to 
Count  Schlick ;  distinguished  himself  especially  at  Kaschan ; 
obtained  the  Maria  Theresa  cross,  and  was  promoted  to  be 
colonel.  Soon  after  he  was  employed  in  diplomatic  negotia- 
tions. In  1853  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  bureau  of 
statistics  in  Vienna ;  in  \o5d  distinguished  himself  in  the 
disastrous  battle  of  Solferino,  and  by  his  defense  of  Caoriana 
covered  the  retreat  of  the  center.  In  1863  he  was  made  a 
lieutenant-marshal,  and  in  1864  received  the  command  of 
the  Sixth  Army-corps,  which,  together  with  a  Prussian  corps, 
and  with  the  Prussian  field-marshal  Wrangel  as  commander- 
in-chief,  was  sent  against  the  Danes  in  Schleswig-Holstein. 
As  governor  of  Holstein  he  made  a  very  favorable  impression 
by  his  liberality.  In  1866  he  commanded  the  Tenth  Army- 
corps,  and  at  Trautenau  on  June  28  he  gained  the  only  ad- 
vanta^  which  the  Austrians  could  boast  of  in  that  disas- 
trous war.  He  also  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Sadowa,  and 
was  sent  to  the  Prussian  headquarters  to  negotiate  after  the 
battle.  When  the  war  was  over  he  retired,  and  was  chosen 
member  for  life  of  the  Austrian  upper  house,  in  which  he 
belonged  to  the  liberal  party.  In  1867  he  entered  once 
more  into  service,  and  oecame  commandant  of  Croatia 
and  Sclavonia ;  in  1868  was  made  a  general  of  horse  and  in 
1869  general  in  command  of  Hungary.  Nov.  28,  1871,  he 
retired.  Becoming  implicated  in  stock  speculations  which 
proved  unfortunate,  he  shot  himself  in  Zurich,  Jan.  28, 1874. 

Gablonz,  gaa'blonts:  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Neisse;  8 
miles  S.  E.  of  Reichenberg  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary, 
ref .  2-E) ;  the  center  of  a  manufacturing  district  where  more 
than  10,()00  men  are  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  orna- 
mental glassware.     Pop.  (1890)  14,658. 

Gaboon^  or  Gaban :  a  so-called  river,  but  properly  an 
estuary  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  near  the  equator,  extend- 
ing 50' miles  or  more  inland,  with  a  width  of  7  miles  or  more. 
It  receives  two  small  rivers  near  its  upper  end.  It  has  given 
its  name  to  the  adjacent  coast.  It  was  early  visited  by  Por- 
tuguese traders,  and  became  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the 
slave-tratie.  In  1839  the  French  acquired  rights  on  its  shores, 
and  in  1845  a  regular  colony  was  estAblishcd  at  Libreville  on 
the  right  bank  near  the  mouth.  The  Gaboon  has  been  a 
center  for  considerable  missionary  activity.  M.  W.  H. 

Gaboon-Congo,  or  Gabun-Congo;  also  called  French 
Congo:  a  French  colony  in  Western  Africa;  extending 
along  the  coast  from  5^  S.  lat.  to  about  2°  N.,  and  inland 
to  the  Congo  and  Mobangi  rivers.  On  the  latter  the  bound- 
ary extends  to  5°  N.  lat.,  but  the  northetustern  boundary  is 
not  defined.    It  embraces  the  region  of  the  Gaboon  river. 


Area,  250,000  sq.  miles.  There  are  twenty-seven  station!^  in 
the  coast  region  of  Gaboon,  Congo,  and  Ogowe.  I  vory ,  eU  »i » \ . 
caoutchouc,  and  palm  oil  are  exported,  and  such  trupiid. 
staples  as  coffee  and  vanilla  are  cultivated.  The  cfmntr\  i^ 
covered  with  extensive  forests  which  are  the  habitat  of  iZ'-r]':- 
las.  Total  commerce  of  the  colony  in  18^  $1.200«000.  m  ar  \ 
all  with  France.  Pop.  native  estimated  at  6,900,000,  fon  j^". 
300,  not  including  troops.  There  is  neither  postal  nor  i«  i»- 
graphic  service.  M.  W.  11. 

Gaborian,  gak-bo'ri-d,  £mile:  novelist;  b.  in  Sanj--. 
France,  in  1835.  He  began  contributing  to  the  Pari^  iw*^- 
papers  early  in  life;  published  his  first  story,  L'Affnirr  L*^ 
rouae  (1866),  and  followed  it  with  Le  Dossier  113  (lb67) ;  L- 
Crime  d'Ordval  (1868) ;  Monster  Lecog  (1869) :  Les  AV/n  ^ .  ^ 
de  Paris  (1869);  La  Vie  Infemale  (1870);  La  Clique  [h.r.^ 
(1871);  and  La  Corde  au  Cou  (1873).  He  left  MSS.  : 
L' Argent  des  Autres  (1874)  and  La  Digringolade  d^TH. 
D.  in  Paris,  Sept.  28,  1873. 

Ga'briel  [Heb.,  man  of  God,  mighty  one  of  God ;  gtbhrr^ 
man  +  el,  God] :  the  name  of  the  heavenly  being  who  ct'n.- 
municated  prophetic  tidings  to  Daniel  (Dan.  viii  16,  ix.  'Jl . 
and  foretold  in  later  times  the  birth  of  St  John  the  Bai';-' 
and  of  Jesus  Christ  (Luke  i.  19,  26).  Gabriel  in  JtM*,-:;. 
Christian,  and  Mohammedan  traditions  is  reckoned  as  i>ii^  •  f 
the  great  archangels.  In  the  Koran  he  is  said  to  W  tr.-^ 
special  medium  of  communication  between  God  and  Moha- 1- 
med,  for  he  caused  the  Koran  to  descend  on  MohAmmir.i  .- 
heart  {Koran,  Sura  2). 

Gabriel,  Order  of  St  (Roman  Catholic) :  (1)  a  con^nvLi- 
tion  of  lay  conventual  brethren  {conviventes)  ^jid  of  ri<'i- 
conventual  gentlemen  {confluentes)  at  Bologna,  fonndt-^l .:: 
1638.  They  are  engaged  in  the  work  of  instruction.  - 
The  order  of  the  Brotners  of  St  Gabriel  in  France,  f«  .ui- 1 
ed  in  1835  by  the  Abb4  Deshayes.  They  are  also  er\i:ui  •. 
in  instructing  the  young,  especially  in  rural  places ;  but  t  h  t 
chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  devot«  themselves  to  instrm  i'  - 
in  matters  of  doctrine. 

Gad  [Heb.,  fortune] :  seventh  son  of  Jacob   by  ZI1[m' 
and  founder  of  the  Israelitish  tribe  of  Gad,  which,' afi«r  1.- 
conquest  of  Canaan  under  Joshua,  settled  E.  of  the  Jcini,.:. 
N.  of  Reuben,  and  S.  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh ;  I  / 
subsec^uently  the  Gadites  were  found  far  to  the  N.,  K.,  hdi.  > 
of  their  prescribed  limits.    They  were  a  warlike  peoph-  ^  \" 
manj  flocks.    Little  is  known  of  .them  after  Tiglath-Piir-- : 
carried  them  into  captivity  about  740  b.  c.  (1  Chron.  v.  6, 2tj  - 
Gad,  the  "  king's  seer,"  a  prophet  who  was  a  personal  ' 
lower  of  David,  wrote  the  acts  of  David  (1  Chron.  xiix.  *Jf' 
His  writings  are  not  extant,  unless  in  the  form  of  {K>rti  \i- 
of  the  books  of  Judges  and  Samuel. 

Revised  by  Willis  J.  Beei  hul 

Gad'ara  :  a  stronghold  of  Tran»Jordanie  Palestine.  •>? 
hill  just  S.  of  the  Hieromax,  about  8  miles  S.  E.  of  U.^ 
Tiberias.    It  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture,  although  )  >Ia'  i 
indicated  by  the  expression  "country  of  the  Gadartr>- 
(Mark  v.  1 ;   Luke  viii.  26,  37).    It  is  first  meniionet  '  • 
Polybius  {Hist,  v.  71),  who  relates  its  capture  by  Anti.-  : 
the  Great  (218  b.  c),  and  speaks  of  it  as  *' the  stmn  ;:»•>• 
all  the  cities  in  that  part  of  the  country."     It  wa^  4»i.t 
the  cities  of  Decapolis,  and  had  a  mixed  populati<.)n.  |  r 
dominantly  Greek.    In  later  times  several  oiimoiis  of  <t 
ara  are  enrolled  in  the  general  councils  of  the  Church,    i '  > 
ruins,  called  by  the  Arabs  Umm  Keis,  occupy  a  spaeo  a^  • 
2  miles  in  circumference.     The  ancient  pavement  of   ' 
principal  street  is  described  bv  Porter  as  almuti^t  \hz\^ 
There  are  hot  baths  on  the  oank  of  the  river  n^ar   i  < 
The  swinging  stone  doors  of  the  old  tombs  in  the  ii:- 
stone  rock  are  a  remarkable  sight 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jack-m»s 

Gaddl,  gaad'dee,  Gaddo:  painter;  b,  in  Floremv,  I^*  ■ 
about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.    He  bopm 
imitating  Bvzantine  art,  but  he  became  known  to  Ciina^ 
and  followed  his  artistic  advice.    Gaddi  was  distingui^il•^'• .  . 
a  mosaic  worker,  and  executed  several  works  in  Flon.MiO' 
gether  with  Andrea  Tafl.    He  was  called  to  Rome  in  1  -  '^ 
and  there  adorned  the  ancient  basilica  of  St  Peter  aTi<i  .-i  - 
that  of  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore  with  mosaics,  which  >t:! 
main.     He  also  painted  in  Florence  several  work$  i:i  ' 
manner  of  Cimabue.    He  was  living  in  1333.         W^.  J.  S 

Gaddi,  Taddeo:  painter;  b.  in  Florence,  Italy,  in   1>- ' 
a  son  of  Gaddo  Gadai,  with  whom  he  studied  art' till  hi    ■ 
twelve  years  old,  when  Gaddo  died  leaving  him  under 
care  of  Giotto,  his  godfather.    He  remained  twciit> -^    ' 


644  GAELIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


GAGERN 


Gaelic  Language  and  Literature  [Mod.  Irish  Gaoid- 
hilge,  Gael.  Oaidhlig] :  in  its  wider  application,  the  language 
ana  the  literature  of  the  Ooidil — i.  e.  of  the  Celtic  population 
of  Ireland,  which  from  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  a.  d. 
had  acquired  a  footing  in  Scotland  also.  (Cf.  Celtic  Lan- 
OUAOES  and  Irish  Language.)  The  term  goidelic  has  also 
come  to  be  used  in  this  sense ;  the  form  gndMlic  is,  however, 
wrong.  In  the  more  restricted  sense  Gaelic  or  Erse  (i.  e. 
Irish)  denotes  the  language  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Scot- 
tish Highlands  and  tne  western  islands  so  far  as  they  have 
preserved  their  old  Celtic  idiom.  Though  originally  not  dif- 
fering from  Irish,  as  the  scanty  records  from  the  Middle 
Ages  show,  the  Gaelic  has  in  the  course  of  the  centuries  dif- 
ferentiated itself  in  the  different  districts  where  it  is  spoken. 
It  is  constantly  losing  ground  before  the  English.  Gaelic 
literature  had  its  rise  early  in  the. sixteenth  century.  It  be- 
gins with  a  collection  or  poems  by  the  Dean  or  Lismore 
(1512),  which  contains,  however,  several  poems  of  Irish  origin. 
The  dependence  of  the  Gaelic  literature  uoon  the  Irish  shows 
itself  even  on  the  surface  in  the  later  (Gaelic  orthography, 
which  closely  resembles  the  Irish.  The  most  familiar  liter- 
ary name  is  that  of  James  Macpherson  with  his  Poems  of 
Osaian  (1762).  It  is,  to  he  sure,  becoming  ever  more  appar- 
ent that  the  later  published  Gaelic  text  was  subsequently 
translated  from  the  so-called  English  translation.  These 
poems  indeed  represent  an  extremely  free  and  even  arbitrary 
use  and  elaboration  of  certain  fnotives  drawn  from  the  Gaelic 
legends.  The  forgery  offered,  however,  the  impulse  to  a  col- 
lection of  the  tales  and  songs  actually  in  circulation  among 
the  people.  See  especially  J.  F.  CampbeH's  Popular  Tales 
of  the  West  Highlands  afid  Heroic  Gaelic  Ballads  (1872). 
They  prove  to  be  a  mixture  of  a  late  form  of  the  m3rthological 
legenas  introduced  from  Ireland  and  the  common  legendary 
lore  of  Europe.  The  remaining  Gaelic  literature  is  chiefly 
religious  in  character,  Bible  translations,  sermons,  etc.  Yet 
in  no  century  are  the  secular  poets  entirely  lacking ;  they 
may  in  a  certain  sense  be  regarded  as  the  successors  of  the 
old  Irish-Gaelic  bards.  (See  Irish  Literature.)  An  agree- 
able introduction  to  this  literature  is  afforded  by  John  Stuart 
Blackie's  Language  and  Literature  of  tJve  Scottish  High- 
lands (1876).  R.  Thurneysen. 

Gaeta,  gaa-fi'tak  [Ital.  <  Lat.  Cajeta\\  a  strongly  forti- 
fied seacoast  town  of  Southern  Italy;  m  the  province  of 
Caserta;  about  40  miles  N.  W.  of  Naples;  lat  41°  30  N., 
Ion.  13**  40  E.  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  5-E).  It  was  an  an- 
cient Greek  colony,  most  picturesquely  situated  on  a  steep 
promontory  overlooking  tne  Bay  of  Gaeta,  and  was  a  favor- 
ite resort  of  the  Roman  aristocracy — Cicero,  Augustus,  Ti- 
berius, Faustina,  and  many  others  had  luxurious  villas  here. 
Monuments  of  this  period  still  exist,  as  the  tomb  of  Lucius 
Munatius  Plancus,  the  reputed  founder  of  Lyons,  and  that 
of  Sempronius  Atratinus.  The  famous  duodecagonal  col- 
umn or  tower,  inscribed  with  the  Greek  and  Latin  names  of 
the  winds,  is  now  a  ruin.  Gaeta  has  the  honor  of  being  the 
first  among  the  Italian  towns  to  form,  after  the  downfall  of 
the  Roman  power,  an  indejwndent  communal  government, 
such  as  gave  birth  to  the  great  republics  of  Genoa,  Venice, 
and  Florence.  This  little  commonwealth  was  a  republic 
in  the  time  of  Charlemagne ;  coined  money  and  was  ruled 
by  its  own  dukes  or  doges  until  1230.  It  sustained  many 
noteworthy  sieges  during  the  Middle  Ages ;  was  the  retreat 
of  Pius  Ia.  in  1848-49 ;  and  was  the  only  stronghold  that 
made  a  spirited  resistance  to  Victor  Emmanuel^  forces  in 
1860  in  defense  of  Francis  II.,  ex-King  of  Naples.  It  was 
during  this  siege  that  rified  cannon  were  first  used  as  batter- 
ing-guns on  a  large  scale.  The  citadel  surrendered  to  Gen. 
Cialdini  on  Feb.  13,  1861,  after  three  months'  defense. 
The  population  of  the  town  in  1892  was  16,848,  chiefiy  occu- 
pied in  the  coasting-trade  and  in  fisheries. 

GtDta'lla :  ancient  name  for  the  western  part  of  the  desert 
of  Sahara.  It  was  situated  S.  of  Mauritania  and  Numidia, 
and  inhabited  by  the  Gsetulians.  who  are  supposed  to  have 
been  the  aboriginal  Berbers.  The  Gwtulians  first  came  in 
contact  with  the  Romans  during  the  war  with  Jugurtha,  in 
whose  army  they  served  as  light  chivalry.  They  were  sub- 
dued by  Lentuliis,  who  from  his  victory  over  them  received 
the  surname  of  Gcetulicus. 

Revised  by  G.  L.  Hendrickson. 

Gag^e,  Matilda  Josltn  :  woman  suffrage  advocate ;  b.  in 
Cicero,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  24,  1826 ;  educated  at  home,  at  Hamil- 
ton Seminary,  I)e  Ruyter  Academy,  and  Clinton  Liberal 
Institute;  early  became  interested  in  the  woman  suffrage 
movement,  and  was  corresponding  secretary  of  the  New 


York  State  Woman  Suffrage  Society  1869-70;  prestident  of 
the  same  for  nine  years ;  president  of  the  National  Woman 
Suffrage  Association  1875-76;  for  many  years  chairman  i>f 
the  executive  committee  and  general  secretary  of  the  sanu- ; 
president  of  the  Woman's  National  Liberal  Union  \>^\, 
editor  and  publisher  of  The  National  Citizen  1878-81 :  on«- 
of  the  editors  of  the  History  of^  Woman  Suffretge  (1881-H>»: 
and  is  the  author  of  Woman  s  Riahts  dateenism  (]h70j; 
Woman  as  an  Inventor  (1871) ;  Who  Planned  the  TVw/i**- 
see  Campaign  f  (1880) ;  Woman,  Church,  and  State  (1893). 

C.  H.  Thurber. 

Gag^e,  Simon  Henry,  B.  S.  :  physiologist;  b.  in  Marylan^i. 
N.  Y.,  May  20, 1851.  He  was  educated  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sit3r ;  apjpointed  instructor  there  in  1878 ;  and  has  been  A^ 
sociate  Professor  of  Physiology  since  1889.  He  is  author  of 
Ancttomical  Technology  (with  Prof.  B.  G.  Wilder,  1882).  an  i 
The  Microscope  and  Histology  (1881 ;  4th  revised  ed.  IKjfi. ; 
signed  articles  in  the  Reference  Handbook  of  the  Ifedifn! 
Science ;  was  collaborator  on  Foster's  JSncyclopadic  Mt^imi 
Dictionary;  and  has  published  many  papers  in  scientih* 
periodicals  and  in  the  proceedings  of  learned  societies. 

C.  H.  Thurber. 

Gaj^e,  Thomas  :  English  missionary  and  author ;  b.  nrotw 
ably  in  Surrey  about  1596.  His  father  sent  him  to  a  Je>u:i 
college  in  Spain,  but  he  conceived  a  dislike  for  the  onier 
and  joined  the  Dominicans.  In  1625  he  started  for  tht- 
Philippine  islands  with  a  party  of  missionaries ;  going  t-\ 
way  of  Mexico  he  deserted  the  party  there,  and  for  tweh< 
years  was  a  missionary  and  parish  priest  in  Chiafuis  an . 
truatemala.  In  1637  he  returned  to  Europe,  and  in  1641  iv- 
nounced  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  for  the  P^ote^tant: 
joining  the  parliamentary  party  he  was  appointed  rector  <>f 
Acrise,  Kent  (1642),  and  in  16^1  at  Deal.  In  1648  he  nulv- 
lished  his  English- American  or  New  Survey  of  the  tlV*/ 
Indies,  in  which  he  described  his  travels  in  Mexico,  ai  i 

Cointed  out  that  that  country  was  defenseless  against  ati«ck 
y  the  English;  it  attracted  wide  attention  and  soon  M\>^ 
privateering  expeditions  against  the  Spanish  colonies.  T:i' 
Dook  has  had  several  editions,  and  has  been  translated  iijt«< 
French,  Dutch,  and  German.  Ga^  also  published  a  coutr>»- 
versial  work,  and  was  active  against  the  Roman  CathMii>->. 
even  betraying  his  own  friends.  He  was  appointed  chaplaii. 
of  the  expedition  of  Venables  and  Penn  to  the  West  Indi*-^. 
and  died  at  Jamaica,  1656.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Gage,  Thomas  :  last  Colonial  Governor  of  MassachuM  it- 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  force  in  North  Amer- 
ica during  the  Revolutionary  war;  b.  in  England  in  1?J1 : 
a  son  of  the  first  Viscount  Gage;  served  as  lieutenant-(^>l«^ 
nel  in  Braddock's  expedition  against  Fort   DuaueMie  ir 
1755 ;  was  appointed  (Governor  oi  Montreal  in  1760,  and  vi 
the  departure  of  Gen.  Amherst  succeeded  him  as  comman«!- 
er-in-cnief  of  the  British  forces  in  America.    Being  orni>i'i 
ered  the  most  suitable  person  to  execute  the  tyrannical  lnw« 
of  Parliament  intended  to  subdue  the  rebellious  spirit  mani- 
fested in  Massachusetts,  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  that 
province,  and  arrived  in  Boston  May  17, 1774.    Several  n- ji- 
ments  soon  followed  him,  the  repair  of  fortifications  on  b'^f- 
ton  Neck  was  begun,  the  powder  in  Charlestown  arsenal  «&-> 
seized,  and  on  tire  night  of  April  18, 1775,  detachment>  wi'-r 
sent  out  to  LexingU)n  and  Concord  to  take  nosses>ii>n  •-' 
stores,  a  proceeding  which  led  to  the  battle  of  Lexington  v: 
Apr.  19.    In  May,  1775,  the  provincial  congress  of  Ma>-sa- 
chusetts  declared  Gen.  Gage  unworthy  of  obedience,  and  tii- 
exercise  of  his  functions  was  henceforth  confined  to  B(>st«>') 
In  June  he  issued  a  proclamation  offering  pardon  t«>  a' 
rebels  excepting  Samuel  Adams  and  John  Hancock,  an! 
established  martial  law.    The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  oeinim  ■ 
a  few  days  later,  after  which  Gage  was  relieved  by  Sir  W: 
iam  Howe,  and  returned  to  England  the  following  Ck:t«»l-r. 
where  he  died  Apr.  2, 1787. 

Gagern,  gaa'gern,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  August,  Freih*  r 
von:  statesman;  b.  at  Baireuth,  Germany,  Aug.  550,  ITW* 
studied  at  the  military  school  in  Munich  1812-14,  and  ir 
1815  fought  as  an  officer  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo.     Af*  •' 
the  war  he  studied  law  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  aide<l  ]' 
founding  the  Burschenschaft,  and  at  Jena,  G5ttingen.  an  '. 
Geneva.    He  then  entered  politics,  and  after  holding  sevoni 
government  offices  was  elected  t-o  the  second  chaniKr  • ' 
grand  ducal  Hesse,  where  he  steadily  opposed  the  p<>li<-\  • 
the  Federal  Diet  and  of  the  state  governments ;  but  tho  rt^a* 
tionary  party  triimiphed,  and  von  Gagem  retired  for  a  tiiL- 
from  puolic  life.    In  1846,  however,  he  was  re-elected  to  tL 
chamber,  where  his  influence  consolidated  and  strengthens 


646 


GAINES'S  MILL,  BATTLE  OF 


GAINSBOROUGH 


On  June  26  Lee,  leaving  about  one-third  of  his  force 
under  Magruder,  moved  A.  P.  HilFs,  Longstreet's,  and  D. 
H.  Hiirs  corps  to  his  left,  crossed  the  Chickahorainy  at  Me- 
chanicsville  and  above,  drove  in  the  outposts  covering  the 
crossings,  and  turning  to  the  right  attacked,  at  3  p.  m.,  Por- 
ter's works  at  Beaver  Dain  creek.  These  were  defended  by 
McCairs  division  of  Pennsylvania  reserves,  re-enforced 
later  in  the  day  by  a  detachment  from  Morell's  division. 
The  Confederates  made  two  gallant  attacks,  but  were  re- 
pulsed with  great  slaughter.  Their  losses  were  nearly  2,000 
out  of  the  10,000  making  the  attack,  while  the  Union  losses 
were  only  about  250  out  of  the  5,000  engaged.  This  fight 
is  known  as  the  battle  of  Mechanicsville  or  Beaver  Dam 
creek.  While  this  action  was  in  preparation  and  in  prog- 
ress, Jackson's  corps,  consisting  of  his  own  and  Ewell  s  di- 
visions, which  haa  eluded  the  Union  forces  in  the  Shen- 
andoah valley,  was  approaching  the  scene  of  battle  from  the 
N.  W.  During  the  night  of  the  26th  it  became  evident 
that  Jackson  would  arrive  in  time  to  come  into  action  the 
next  day,  and  would  extend  the  Confederate  line  so  far  to 
the  N.  and  E.  as  to  render  the  position  at  Beaver  Dam  creek 
untenable;  consequently  in  tne  early  morning  (about  8 
o'clock)  of  the  27th  this  position  was  abandoned.  The 
troops  fell  back  and  took  up  a  new  line  about  6  miles  to 
the  eastward  on  the  bank  of  a  small  stream  lying  to  the  E. 
of  Powhite  creek.  This  line  was  approximately  semicircular 
in  form,  its  left  resting  in  the  low  ground  near  the  Chicka- 
hominy,  and  its  right  nearly  S.  of  Old  Cold  Harbor  in  Elder 
swamp.  Through  the  center,  which  faced  nearly  N.  W., 
ran  the  road  to  New  Cold  Harbor  and  Gaines's  Mill.  This 
position  was  strong,  but  owing  to  deficiency  of  axes  and 
lack  of  time  was  but  partly  and  imperfectly  fortified  with 
breastworks  of  logs,  rails,  knapsacks,  etc.  The  east  bank  of 
the  creek  was  high,  sloping,  and  covered  with  brush  and 
timber  which  afforded  cover  to  the  infantry.  Good  positions 
existed  from  which  the  artillery  swept  the  ground  in  front, 
and  the  high  ground  behind  the  line  was  gently  rolling, 
affording  more  or  less  cover  to  the  reserves;  while  the 
bridges  m  the  rear  allowed  re-enforcements  to  cross  from  the 
south  bank  if  ordered  to  do  so.  The  number  of  troops  in 
the  right  wing,  however,  was  not  great  enough  to  man  the 
whole  line  as  strongly  as  was  desirable.  The  line  was  occu- 
pied by  Sykes's  division  on  the  right  and  Morell's  on  the 
left,  with  McCall's  in  reserve.  Slocum's  division  of  Frank- 
lin's corps  crossed  the  river  and  arrived  upon  the  field  late 
in  the  day,  and  rendered  most  valuable  services,  as  did 
French's  and  Meagher's  brigades  of  Sumner's  corps  still 
later. 

A.  P.  Hill,  advancing  from  Mechanicsville,  came  up  to 
Powhite  creek  near  Gaines's  Mill,  where  his  crossing  was  re- 
sisted by  the  Ninth  Massachusetts  Volunteers,  and  his  ad- 
vance delayed  until  he  was  compelled  to  deploy  a  large 
force  to  drive  this  regiment  back.  This  brought  on  an  en- 
gagement which  lasted  from  about  12.30  to  2  p.  h.,  and  gave 
the  name  to  the  battle.  Meanwhile  the  other  corps  moved 
forward  and  took  up  their  positions.  The  Confederate  line 
when  finally  formed  was  nearly  parallel  to  the  Union  line, 
with  Longstreet  on  the  right,  then  in  order  A.  P.  Hill,  Jack- 
son, Ewell,  and  D.  H.  Hill,  the  corps  of  the  latter  forming 
the  left  of  the  line.  Shortly  after  2  p.  m.  the  main  action 
commenced  with  an  advance  by  A.  P.  Hill,  who  moved  out 
from  the  direction  of  New  Cold  Harbor  towanl  the  Union 
left  center.  The  battle  extended  in  both  directions  along 
the  whole  front,  and  continued  without  intermission  for 
nearly  two  hours,  when  the  Confederates  were  repulsed 
along  the  whole  line.  After  a  short  interval  the  attack  was 
renewed.  The  Union  reserves  were  placed  in  line  where 
needed,  and  finally,  when  all  had  been  thrown  into  the  first 
line,  Slocum's  division  arrived  at  about  4  p.  m.,  and  his  bri- 
gades were  separated  and  sent  where  their  services  were 
most  required.  This  general  attack  was  repulsed  at  about 
5  p.  H.,  but  minor  combats  continued  at  parts  of  the  line. 

At  about  6.30  p.  m.  another  determinea  attack  was  made 
which  was  also  repulsed :  but  a  final  assault  made  just  as 
dusk  was  approaching,  although  unsuccessful  along  most  of 
the  line,  broke  through  the  left  center  and  compelled  the 
rest  of  the  line  to  fall  back.  The  right  retired  in  good 
order,  the  left  hurriedly  but  without  confusion,  resist- 
ing as  it  fell  back,  and  all  finallv  rallied  near  the  Adams 
House  on  the  high  ground  near  ^'<K)dbury's  bridge,  under 
the  cover  afforded  by  Sykes's  division  and  the  brigades  of 
French  and  Meagher,  which  had  been  sent  over  to  re-enforce 
the  right  wing.  During  the  night  of  the  27th  the  troops 
were  safely  transferred  to  the  south  bank  of  the  Chicka- 


hominy,  and  the  bridges  were  destroyed  soon  after  sunriv 
of  the  28th.  Magruder,  by  vigorous  demonstrations  duriii^- 
the  day,  had  led  the  corps  commanders  of  the  left  wjhj; 
to  believe  that  the  main  attack  might  be  made  upon  Xhviu. 
and  had  caused  them  to  doubt  the  propriety  of  weaken  ni^ 
themselves  in  order  to  re-enforce  tne  right  wing.  Evi»-ii. 
moving  down  the  north  bank  of  the  river,  destroyed  j-iirt 
of  the  railway  near  Dispatch  Station  on  the  28th.  ana  oi. 
the  29th  was  at  Bottom's  bridge,  but  was  recalled  by  Ltr  t^* 
join  in  the  subsequent  movements. 

McClellan  no  longer  controlling  the  north  bank,  ar:<i 
therefore  comoelled  to  abandon  his  base  at  White  Huu«<. 
transferred  to  nis  new  base  on  the  James  river  all  the  <h\h 
plies,  etc..  which  he  could  load  upon  his  transtiorts  mA 
wagons,  and  destroyed  the  rest.  The  other  battW  of  \i. 
"Seven  Days"  followed  in  quick  succession.  The  tot  a 
Union  force  engaged  in  this  battle  was  alK>ut  30,000'  in»T\ 
and  the  losses  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing  6,8;^,  l»e^i^ir> 
22  guns.  The  Confederate  force  and  lo^es  are  not  at<u- 
rately  known.  Their  force  was  probably  about  60,000,  \u 
round  numbers,  and  their  losses  greater  than  Porter  s,  par- 
ticularly in  killed  and  wounded.  For  full  description  am 
discussion,  see  Official  Records,  Battles  and  Leaders  of  tht 
Civil  War,  and  The  Peninsula,  of  Scribner's  War  Series 

Jas.  Mestur. 

Gainesville:  city;  capital  of  Alachua  co.,  Fla.  (for  Vv-.k- 
tion  of  county,  see  map  of  Florida,  ref.  3-1) ;  on  the  Fla.  S.. 
the  Fla.  Cen.  and  Peninsular,  and  the  Savannah.  Fla.  ar.ii 
West.  Railroads;  57  miles  N.  E.  of  Cedar  Keys,  60  nr...^ 
S.  W.  of  Jacksonville.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  oran;:«'- 
growing  region,  has  become  a  noted  winter  resort  for  in- 
valids from  the  Northern  States,  and  contains  .^ver.i 
churches.  East  Florida  Seminary,  hotels  and  boanliKc- 
houses,  2  banks,  and  2  daily  and  3  weekly  newsr*aiit  > 
Pop.  (1890)  2,790. 

GalneSTille :  city ;  capital  of  Hall  co.,  Ga.  (for  location  «f 
county,  see  map  of  (Jeorpa,  ref.  2-H) ;  on  the  Ga.  and  t:. 
Richmond  and  Danv.  Railroads;  53  miles  N.  EL  of  Atlaii'A 
It  is  the  seat  of  Georgia  Seminary  and  Gainesville  C<»11.  j»- . 
has  six  churches  for  whites,  and  contains  car-shofia,  ma^-liMi.  - 
shops,  and  mills.  It  is  situated  on  the  summit  of  the  Chnt- 
tahoochee  ridge,  which  fonns  the  watershed  between  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  has  a  number  <if  fir » 
springs — chalybeate,  limestone,  and  freestone;  and  is  tli'  r  - 
fore  a  very  popular  health  resort.  Pop.  (1880)  1,919;  (l>^t«i 
8,202.  Editor  op  •*  Eagle." 

GainesTllle:  citv  (founded  in  1849);  capital  of  Coi>ke  o.. 
Tex.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ret  2-11 ) ;  .  ti 
the  Gulf,  (*ol.  and  S.  F.  and  the  Mo.,  Kan.  and  Tex.  Railway^ . 
6  miles  S.  of  Red  river  and  810  miles  N.  of  Galveston.  1' 
has  2  colleges  and  5  brick  school-houses.  The  chief  indu^ 
tries  are  manufacturing,  agriculture,  and  stock-raisine.  P< ; . 
(1880)  2,667 ;  (1890)  6,594 ;  (1893)  estimated,  9,50a 

Editor  op  "  Hespekiax." 

Galns'borough :  town  of  Lincolnshire,  England ;  on  t'  • 
right  bank  of  the  Trent;  21  miles  above  its  junction  ik  *  : 
the  estuary  of  the  H  umber  (see  map  of  England,  rrf.  7-1 . 
It  has  larg^  manufactures  of  linseea  oil,  and  carries  on  a: 
important  transit  trade  between  the  interior  and  the  Nortr 
Sea,  vessels  of  200  tons  burden  being  able  to  reach  it.  it^ 
old  hall,  now  used  for  exchange,  assembly-rooms.  etc.«  v^  a 
curious  structure,  forming  the  three  sides  of  a  quadrar ;:.». 
with  a  tower  75  feet  high,  and  is  supposed  to  have  U.n  r. 
built  by  John  of  Gaunt.     Pop.  (1891)  14,372. 

Gainsborough,  Thomas:  painter  of  landscapes  and  {«•"- 
traits;  b.  at  Sudbury,  Suffolk,  England,  in  1757.     lie  V.v 
an  artist  from  childhood,  and  at  eighteen  began  to  s\ip{->n 
himself  as  a  portrait-painter.    Marriage  at  ninet4>en  wi'l.  n 
voung  lady  of  moderate  fortune  made  him  com[i«u-ati\t  !• 
independent,  and  for  several  vears  he  lived  at  Ipswich  u:. . 
Bath,  painting  portraits  with  rapidly  increasing  suo^*^^ 
Returning  to  London  in  1774,  he  gained  reputation  by  \^r- 
traits  of  the  royal  familv  and  eminent  people.    The  y  - 
traits  of  Mrs.  Sheridan,  Mrs.  Siddons,  and  Mrs.  Graham  au 
among  his  best;  and  one  of  his  most  famous  is  that  ot   i 
young  man   named  Buttall,  the   picture   being  knowTi  .v 
The  Blue  Boy,  and  now  belonging  to  the  Duke  of  W*-: 
minster  and  kept  at  Grosvenor  House,  in  London,     liani- 
Iwrough's  fame,  however,  rests  largely  on  his  laml^'n:  ■  ^. 
which  have  a  character  of  their  own  for  simplicity  of  tlu- . 
and  treatment,  subdued  tone  of  color,  and  idyllic  charm  •  • 
feeling.    He  has  been  called  by  good  authorities  the  fathf 


648 


GAITS 


same  side,  then  the  opposite  hind  foot,  and  finall}[  the  other 
fore  foot.  The  time  interval  between  the  striking  of  the 
hind  and  fore  feet  is  longer  than  tliat  between  fore  foot  and 
hind  foot;  hence  while  there  are  four  sounds  they  are 
grouped  in  twos,  the  right  fore  foot  and  left  hind  foot  form- 
mg  one  couple  and  the  other  pair  the  other.  In  the  gallop 
three  sounds  are  noted.  In  this  gait  the  support  is  diago- 
nal, but  on  one  pair  the  support  is  for  a  longer  period  than 
on  the  other,  hence  an  irregular  interval ;  besiaes  this  the 
hind  legs  are  co-operating  so  as  to  cause  jumping  move- 
ments, while  the  fore  feet  are  brought  forward  almost  to- 
gether, one  of  wliich  strikes  much  sooner  than  the  other  and 
simultaneously  with  the  diagonal  hind  foot ;  the  othef  hind 
foot  then  strikes,  followed  by  the  fore  foot.  In  the  run  two 
strokes  are  heard,  the  first  being  due  to  the  striking  of  the 
two  hind  feet  and  the  second  to  that  of  the  two  fore  feet. 
In  none  of  these  instances  do  two  feet  strike  absolutely 
simultaneously. 

In  the  walK  the  body  is  supported  and  propelled  bv  at 
least  two  legs,  and  during  a  part  of  the  time,  especially  dur- 
ing a  slow  movement,  as  in  pulling  a  heavy  load,  by  three. 
There  is  also  a  continual  shifting  of  the  pairing  from  the 
diagonal  to  the  lateral  and  from  the  lateral  to  the  diagonaL 
Thus  if  the  now  active  legs  are  the  right  hind  leg  and  left 
fore  leg,  the  next  active  pair  will  be  the  two  right  legs,  and 
then  the  right  fore  leg  and  left  hind  leg,  and  tnen  the  two 
left  legs,  and  so  on ;  but  in  the  intervals  of  these  shifts  a 
third  leg  has  come  into  activity,  and  is  now  an  additional 
factor  in  the  work ;  soon,  however,  one  of  the  two  previously 
active  legs  has  finished  its  movement,  and  the  foot  is  raised, 
thus  relegating  the  labor  to  two. 

The  movements  of  the  legs  in  the  different  gaits  have 
been  accurately  studied  by  means  of  instantaneous  photog- 
raphy. Such  observations  show  that  when  the  animal  m 
walking  has  reached  a  period  when  the  support  and  propel- 
ling power  are  diagonal  and  dependent  upon  the  right  hind 
leg  and  left  fore  leg,  the  right  hind  leg  is  well  under  the 
bcxiy,  the  left  hind  leg  is  fully  extended  and  directed  back- 
ward, the  fore  foot  has  just  left  the  ground,  and  the  right 
fore  leg  is  flexed  and  has  completed  about  three-fifths  of  its 
movement  forward.  The  body  now  moving  forward,  the 
supporting  hind  leg  approaches  the  vertical,  while  the  paired 
leg  IS  directed  backward ;  the  passive  hind  leg  is  flexed  and 
being  pulled  forward,  and  is  hanging  flexed  almost  verti- 
cally, while  the  foot  of  the  fore  leg  has  just  reached  the 
ground,  and  now  adds  additional  power  to  the  pair.  In  the 
next  phase  the  fore  foot  of  the  pair  is  lifted,  thus  throwing 
the  work  upon  the  right  lateral  pair ;  during  this  time  the 
left  hind  loot  has  l^en  brought  forward  under  the  body, 
and  strikes  the  ground,  thus  adding  another  active  leg  to 
the  lateral  pair,  so  that  now  the  two  right  and  left  hind  legs 
are  efficient.  The  body  continuing  its  forward  movement 
causes  the  right  hind  leg  to  become  fully  extended,  then  the 
foot  is  raised,  shifting  the  work  to  the  right  hind  leg  and 
left  fore  leg.  During  each  complete  act  there  are  seven  dis- 
tinct perimis  which  are  determined  by  the  legs  that  are 
active — 1,  right  hind  leg  and  left  fore  leg;  2,  right  hind 
leg,  left  fore  leg,  and  right  fore  leg;  3,  right  hind  leg  and 
right  fore  leg ;  4,  right  hind  le^,  right  fore  leg,  and  left 
hind  leg;  5,  left  hind  le^  and  right  fore  leg;  6,  left  hind 
leg,  right  fore  leg,  and  right  hind  leg ;  7,  left  hind  leg  and 
left  fore  leg.    The  next  period  again  begins  the  series. 

In  the  walk,  as  in  most  gaits,  the  body  is  supported  and 
propelled  during  most  of  the  time  by  two  legs,  but  in  this 
gait  there  are  never  less  than  two ;  so  that  in  this  respect  it 
(lilfers  from  all  others,  in  which  during  certain  periods  one 
leg  alone  is  active  or  all  the  feet  entirelv  off  the  ground. 

In  walking  the  feet  touch  the  ^rouncf  in  succession,  as  is 
obvious  from  the  fact  that  there  is  a  continual  shifting  from 
two  to  three  feet  and  vice  versa.  Thus  they  strike  in  what 
the  musician  would  t<*rm  four  tempo,  and  in  this  order — 
right  hind  foot,  right  forefoot,  left  nind  foot,  left  forefoot. 
The  intervals  are,  however,  not  regular,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  movements  of  the  hind  legs  are  slower  than  those 
of  the  others,  so  that  the  sounds  are  in  couples,  there  being 
a  longer  interval  l>vtween  the  touching  of  tne  fore  foot  ana 
hind  foot  than  l>etween  that  of  the  hind  foot  and  fore  foot. 
In  this  gait  the  associated  diagonal  fore  fcx)t  is  always  behind 
in  its  movement  about  half  of  the  extent  of  the  movement 
of  the  hind  foot,  and  when  the  support  is  lateral  the  differ- 
ence is  little  less. 

The  amble  is  a  gait  in  which  the  lateral  legs  are  paired, 
the  support  and  propulsion  being  transferred  from  one  lat- 
eral pair  to  the  other.    In  this  mechanism  the  hind  and  fore 


legs  are  moved  together,  so  that  the  positions  of  both  of  th<- 
pairs  are  identical.  Assuming  that  the  movement  is  in  tL< 
phase  where  the  body  is  supported  by  the  left  legs,  their  ]-  - 
sitions  bein^  vertical,  both  tne  right  legs  are  flexed  and  )u-' 
about  opposite  the  active  legs.  The  inactive  legs  are  drav  •• 
forward,  the  hind  legs  are  strongly  inclined  backward,  tl,» 
left  hind  foot  is  then  raised  from  the  ^otmd,  the  supfH.r 
being  now  alone  on  the  left  fore  leg:  m  another  room,  r,' 
this  foot  is  raised  and  the  body  is  poised  in  the  air.  Tn^ 
feet  of  the  right  side  strike,  the  hina  foot  a  little  in  adv.-in*- 
of  the  fore  foot,  the  passive  legs  are  flexed  under  the  In^k 
and  being  swung  forward;  then  the  hind  foot  leave?  tK. 
ground,  the  body  now  being  supported  by  the  right  fore  {<m.\, 
then  the  left  hind  foot  strikes,  thus  affonling  for  asl^r 
period  a  dia^nal  support ;  the  right  fore  foot  is  then  rawti. 
and  immediately  thereafter  the  left  fore  foot  strikes.  Th' 
reiison  for  the  occurrence  of  this  diagonal  sapport  during 
one  of  the  periods  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  tne  degnH»  « f 
movement  of  one  of  the  hind  legs  is  not  as  extensive  as  tha' 
of  the  other  (sometimes  the  right  and  sometimes  the  left :  ir. 
this  case  the  left),  the  consequence  being  that  one  exec^utii'L' 
a  shorter  movement  strikes  sooner  than  it  should  in  pn>[>^r 
relation  to  the  rhythm  of  the  others,  and  thus  breaK>  x\a 
regular  sequence  of  the  sounds.  In  this  gait  but  two  <iL'- 
tinct  hoof -sounds  are  heard,  which  are  due  to  the  strikini' 
of  the  lateral  pairs,  but  each  is  a  double  sound,  the  hin : 
foot  striking  a  little  sooner  than  the  corresponding  f«'rv 
foot. 

The  pace  differs  from  the  amble  essentially  only  in  it< 
greater  speed. 

The  word  rack  is  applied  to  several  gaits  which  are  m«  .i> 
or  less  closely  related  to  the  amble  and  pace.  Acconliuj:  t*. 
some  the  main  differences  are  that  the  propelling  himl  f«»>t 
leaves  the  ground  sooner  than  the  associated  fore  foi>t,  a  r- 
sequently  affecting  the  time  when  they  strike  the  gn>un.:. 
thus  causing  four  sounds  instead  of  two.  Others  speak  «f 
the  rack  as  being  a  combination  of  trotting  motions  in  tJ.f 
anterior  lep  and  galloping  movements  of  the  hind  legs.  \'..\ 
such  a  gait  clearly  belongs  to  the  type  of  the  gallop.  A- 
generally  regarded,  the  rack  is  a  slight  modification  (»f  tri- 
amble.  In  the  trot  the  pairing  of  the  legs  is  diagonal.  U'.'- 
left  hind  leg  being  associated  with  the  right  fore  leg  and  ih«- 
right  hind  leg  with  the  left  fore  leg.  The  movement.*  an 
different  from  those  observed  in  the  walk,  but  like  tho-k*  ol- 
served  in  the  amble,  the  pairs  moving  together  backw^r': 
and  forward.  Assuming  tnat  the  active  pair  eonsi<»is  of  li.r 
left  hind  foot  and  the  right  fore  foot,  and  that  they  \\n\  e 
just  been  firmly  implanted  on  the  ground,  being  ext»ni  ••1 
forward  to  the  extreme,  the  opposite  pair  will  be  found  al- 
most midway  between  extension  and  flexion — i.  e,  almost 
vertical.  As  the  body  moves  forward  and  the  act i it-  K^> 
are  almost  straight  up  and  down,  the  passive  leg^.  wh:<  U 
have  since  finished  their  work  and  left  the  ground,  havt- 
been  brought  forward  so  that  now  they  are  flexeil  and  >u- 
pended  almost  opposite  the  active  legs.  With  the  continii»'*l 
progress  of  the  body  the  supporting  legs  are  directed  Vni«'k- 
wara  while  the  passive  legs  are  swung  forward,  but  Ufi  r* 
the  active  legs  cease  their  efforts  the  body  has  been  pn*]!!-!!-!: 
with  such  force  that  when  their  feet  are  raised  from  it." 
ground  neither  of  the  feet  of  the  before  passive  legs  ha^f 
yet  touched,  so  that  for  a  period  the  body  is  snspendod  in 
the  air.  It  alights  on  the  passive  (right)  Hind  foot  and  tin  - 
the  paired  (left)  fore  foot  strikes,  so  that  there  is  a  continue 
shifting  from  one  diagonal  pair  to  the  other,  and  a  (xti'^1 
during  each  operation  when  all  the  feet  are  off  the  grounti. 
In  a  moderate  speed  all  the  feet  are  not  off  the  gnmnd  u:j- 
til  the  active  legs  are  directed  well  backward  and  the  i^a^- 
sive  legs  well  forward,  but  in  a  fast  trot  the  feet  of  th*-  » - 
tive  legs  are  off  the  ground  when  the  inactive  legs  have  \x*  n 
drawn  forward  in  the  vertical  position,  the  force  with  whi.  I 
the  body  is  projected  being  sufficient  to  allow  time  for  :h' 
full  extension  forward  of  the  passive  legs.  In  the  tA>t  bu: 
two  distinct  strokes  are  heara;  the  sounds,  howevtT,  at* 
double,  since  the  hind  feet  strike  sooner  than  the  as^x.-iat-'^i 
fore  feet. 

The  canter,  gallop,  and  run  belong  to  the  same  tyj>*»  uf 
gait,  the  canter  being  a  slower  movement  and  thenin  •» 
faster  one.  The  type  is  characterized  by  a  succo^i<m  ••' 
springing  or  jumping  movements  execute<l  chiefly  by  thf 
hind  extremities,  while  the  fore  legs  are  mainly  engas:V«l  ii 
affording  support.  There  is  a  double  pairing  of  the  h'u>- 
the  two  hind  legs  and  the  two  fore  legs  being  paired,  ar-i 
then  a  diagonal  pairing  between  the  hind  and  fore  lep* :  or- 
sequently  the  gait  is  of  a  rather  more  complicated  eharair'-r 


650 


GALABAT 


GALAXY 


a  practical  jurisconsult.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous 
works  upon  the  Roman  law,  of  which  the  most  important 
was  the  Institutes.  This  work  was  freely  used  in  compiling 
Justinian's  Institutes,  and  was  the  basis  of  the  Lex  Ramana 
Visigothorum  (506  a.  d.),  but  was  supposed  to  be  lost.  In 
1816  Niebuhr  discovered  a  palimpsest  at  Verona,  which  was 
afterward  found  to  contain,  almost  entire,  the  long-lost  /n- 
stitutes  of  Gains.  The  palimpsest  was  afterward  deciphered 
in  spite  of  great  difficulties,  and  the  text  was  published  first 
in  1820,  and  thereafter  in  other  editions  with  additions  and 
emendations,  until  the  parchment  became  practically  de- 
stroyed by  the  chemicals  used  upon  it.  first  by  Bekker  and 
Goschen,  then  by  Bluhme,  and  lastly  by  Studeman,  who 
with  KrQger  published  an  edition  in  '1884  (Berlin).  There 
is  now  lacking  only  about  one-t«nth  of  the  whole  t«xt,  made 
up  of  the  undecipherable  parts  and  the  parts  lost  in  the  man- 
uscript. An  English  edition  by  E.  Poste  (Oxford,.  1890)  is 
very  complete,  containing  an  English  translation  and  full 
commentary.  See  also  Gaius^  the  Institutes  and  Rules  of 
Ulpian^  with  notes  by  J.  Muirhead  (Edinburgh,  1880),  and 
Institutes  of  Oaius  and  Justinian,  Y.  L.  Mears  (London, 
1882).  Revised  by  M.  Wabrkn. 

Galabat,  or  Metemone:  a  district  and  town  on  the 
frontier  between  Egypt  and  Abyssinia ;  was  down  to  1873 
the  center  of  the  Egyptian  slave-trade,  and  is  still  a  place 
of  considerable  commercial  importance  as  the  great  entrepot 
between  Egypt  and  Abyssinia.  The  town  and  the  district 
were  ori^nally  peopled  by  a  colony  of  Tokruris  from  Dar- 
fur.    It  IS  now  under  Italian  control. 

Galactom^eter,  or  Lactom^eter  [galctctometer  is  from 
Gr.  T^a,  ydxuitrosy  milk  -I-  fUrpoy,  measure ;  lactometer  is 
from  Lat.  lac,  lactis,  milk  -i-  Gr.  iJi*rpo»\ :  an  instrument  for 
determining  whether  milk  has  been  watered  or  not.  In 
some  cases  it  is  a  mere  hydrometer  or  specific-gravity  glass 
— in  other  cases  a  graduated  test-tube,  the  richness  of  the 
milk  being  judged  by  the  percentage  of  cream  which  ap- 
pears after  standing. 

Galam  Gam :  See  Gum. 

Galangal,  gft-l&ng'gal  [from  O.  Fr.  galingal,  deriv.  of 
galangue  <  Mediaev.  Lat.  galan'ga,  vi&  Arab,  from  Chinese 
KaO'tiang-kiang,  literally,  mild  ginger  from  the  district  of 
Kao ;  Kao,  a  district  of  China  -i-  lian^,  mild  -»-  kiang,  gin- 
ger] :  a  stimulant,  aromatic  drug ;  denvetl  chiefly  from  the 
Alpinia  officinarum,  of  the  order  Zingiheracem,  a  native  of 
Southern  China.  It  resembles  ginger,  and  is  used  for  the 
same  purposes,  but  is  seldom  seen  in  the  U.  S.  Greater 
galangal,  a  substitute  for  the  true,  is  the  root-stock  of  Al- 
pinia galanga  of  Java. 

Galanthus:  See  Snowdrop. 

Galap'agros  Islands  [from  Span,  galdpago,  turtle]:  an 
archipelago  in  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  between  lat.  0"  44'  S.  and 
1"  3'  N. ;  800  miles  W.  of  Ecuador,  and  claimed  as  a  posses- 
sion of  that  republic.  The  group  consists  of  about  a  dozen 
mountainous  islands,  besides  numerous  islets  and  rocks,  with 
a  total  area  of  about  2,400  sc^.  miles ;  the  largest  Is  Albe- 
marle, a  long,  narrow  island  with  over  half  the  entire  area ; 
others  are  Indefatigable,  Narborough,  James,  Charles,  and 
Chatham,  or  Grande.  All  are  of  volcanic  origin  and  full  of 
extinct  craters ;  the  highest  peak  is  in  Albemarle,  directly 
under  the  equator  (5,020  feet).  The  soil  is  barren,  and  the 
flora  and  fauna  are  both  poor  in  species,  but  very  interest- 
ing owing  to  their  relations  with  those  of  the  continent. 
Many  of  the  forms  are  peculiar  to  the  archipelago  and  some 
of  them  to  particular  islands ;  the  relations  arc  rather  with 
temperate  than  with  tropical  forms.  Large  marine  turtles 
are  very  numerous.  The  climate  is  comparatively  cool  and 
healthful,  but  showers  are  infrequent.  Tiie  Galapagos  archi- 
pelago was  certainly  discovered  before  1570,  but  it  was  first 
clearly  described  by  Dampicr  ir>  1684.  In  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  islands  were  the  resort  of  buccaneers  and  freeboot- 
ers.* Fitzroy  and  Darwin  explored  them  in  1836,  and  they 
have  l)een  visited  by  various  other  geographers  and  natural- 
ists. The  Ecuadorian  Government  has  made  several  attempts 
to  people  the  archipelago,  and  for  a  time  it  had  a  penal  set- 
tlement on  Charles  island ;  in  1893  there  were  only  a  few 
fishermen,  turtle-hunters,  and  wreckers,  mainly  on  Chatham 
island.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Galashiels,  gftl-a-sheelz' :  town  of  Scotland ;  on  both 
sides  of  the  Gala;  partly  in  St^lkirkshire  and  partlv  in  Rox- 
burghshire (see  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  13-1).  It  lias  large 
woolen  manufactures,  twenty-three  in  number,  which  pro- 
duce Scotch  tweed  almost  exclusively.    It  is  the  chief  seat  in 


J".  / 


!*>« 


Scotland  for  the  manufacture  of  this  kind  of  goods.    Va]'j» 
of  product  in  1890,  £1.250.000,    Pop.  (1891)  17,249. 

Galate'a  ^in  Gr.  TaKar^ia);  in  Greek  mythology  tL' 
daughter  of  Nereus  ('*the  old  man  of  the  deep")  and  (iaih, 
sister  of  Thetis,  and  aunt  of  Achilles.  She  was  lovt^l  h}  t  ■.> 
Cyclops  Polyphemus,  who  slew  her  lover  Acis  in  a  fit  of  j-.i.- 
ousy.  The  love  of  Polyphemus  was  a  favorite  subject  w/L 
the  Greek  and  Latin  poets;  cf.  Theocritus,  Idyl  xi.  (trai.-L 
by  A.  Lang).  See  Holland,  De  Pblyphemo  et  Gniatrin.  ::. 
Leipziger  Studien,  vi.,  p.  141  ft.,  and  feoscher's  Lejirim, 
Poems  in  English  on  the  subject  are:  Sfmg  of  Polyphf.t' 
by  John  Gay;  A  Tale  of  Polyphtme,  by  A u^ in  Dul— .i 
Poly^heme's  Passion,  by  liobert  Buchanan ;  37k€  Cychf^<  • 
Eunmdes,  by  Shellev;  Galatea,  by  J.  S.  Blackie:  7' 
Deatn  of  Acis,  by  B.  W.  Procter.  See  also  Gavley's  ( In 
Myths  %n  English  Literature,  p.  464,  where  a  list  of  ni'.«l -rT 
paintings  that  refer  to  the  m^-ths  relating  to  Galatea  ;? 
given.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett, 

Gala'tla  [Galaiia  =  Lat.  Galatia  =  Gr.  raX«r(a.  deriv.  f 
TaXdru,  Gauls] :  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  hnng  I tet  «»<-'. 
Bithynia,  Phrygia,  Lycaonia,  Cappadocia,  Pontus,  ixi- : 
Paplilagonia.  The  Gauls,  with  Thrace  and  the  lowvr  I»nr- 
ube  as  their  base  of  operations,  overran  and  devastat*'(i  a 
great  part  of  Asia  Minor  for  a  period  of  forty  years,  u:'.. 
they  were  finally  conquered  in  235  b.  c.  by  Attalos,  Kin;:  ■  ■ 
Pergamon,  who  forceti  them  to  settle  permanently  in  a  j-  -- 
tion  of  Phrygia  and  Northern  Cappadocia.  Thenceforwar: 
the  country  tnus  occupied  was  called  Galatia,  after  the  Gnu  -. 
They  were  divided  into  three  tribes:  the  Trocmi  {TpdmutnK 
occupjring  the  country  east  of  the  river  Ilalys,  with  Tavn.n 
as  tneir  center  (Tavium  located  in  1884  by  Sterrett):  M 
Tektosages (Tfirria'ayej),  with  Ancyra  (now  Angora);  anil  ti  - 
Tolistobogii  {ToXurrofiAyuu),  with'  Pessinus  as  their  ct-r.t'r. 
occupying  territory  west  of  the  Ualvs.  They  gra<iuall>  l"-r 
their  identity  by  intermarriage  with  the  natives,  ih»n._-, 
ultra-Gallophiles  claim  that  traces  of  Gallic  blood  are  \  .- 
ible  in  the  present  inhabitants  of  Galatia,  some  of  v,\.  ■ : 
have  light  hair  and  blue  eyes.  The  country  is  distingui^i  -. 
chiefly  as  the  home  of  the' Angora  goat,  which  pro<luot^  tii- 
much-prized  mohair. 

Literature. — Droysen,  Geschichte  des  IleUenismmt  {\  •! 
iii..  Gotha,  1878);  ^errot.  Exploration  Arehtologi^ut  d-  .'. 
Galatie;   Ramsay,  Historical  Geography  of  Ama   J//  ■• 
(London,  1890);  Kamsay,  The  Church  %n  the  Rornan  /.-n- 
pire  before  A.  D,  170 (New  York  and  London,  1893) ;  Stt- rr. " 
Epigraphical  Journey  in  Asia  Minor  in  J8S4  (Boston,  l*^'*^! . 
Mommscn,  Monumentum  Aiicyranum ;  Mommsen.  Tltt  I*r  •> 
inces  of  the  Roman  Empire ;  Hirschfeld,  TaHum ;  Hem -it 
and  Puchstein,  Reisen  ifi  Kleinasien  und  Nordsyrifu  « !>■  :- 
lin,  1890);  Ritter,  Kleinasien;  Texier,  Asie  Mineurt\  K:- 
pert,  Geaenbemerkungen  zu  Prof.  G.  Uirschftld.    S<v  a.^- 
St.  Paul  s  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.         J.  R.  S.  Sterrltt. 

Galatians,  Eptstle  of  St  Paul  to  the:  a  book  <>f  t  - 
New  Testament  written — ^some  say  from  Ephesus  in  .m  .  ^ 
56,  but  more  likely  from  Corinth  in  57  or  58— to  i\w   ii- 
ciples  in  Galatia,  where  Paul  himself  had  founded  chnnrj  - 
It  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  epistle  that  it  is  addre$se<l  n«'t  • 
a  particular  churcn  or  individual,  but  to  the  churL-hf>  -  -f  a 
district.    The  occasion  of  the  epistle  was  the  interftr*  i. 
of  certain  persons  who  sought  to  impose  Jewish  law-*  •  • 
Paul's  converts.    He  is  led  into  a  discussion  of  the  n'lati.-.« 
of  Christianity  to  Judaism,  and  his  treatment  of  this  oi.^^ 
tion  shows  more  of  the  influence  of  his  rabbinical  e<inraM  •. 
than  any  other  of  his  writings.    This  is,  next  to  the  RorM»  - 
doctrinally  the  most  important  of  his  epistles.     Thfn   > 
scarcely  any  dispute  as  to  its  authorship.    The  bosst  ti-ri- 
mentaries  are  by  EUicott,  Lightfoot,  and  Schaff  (in  L«r.j^' 
See  Pauline  Epistles.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackm».\. 

Galatz,  gaa'laats,  or  Galacz:  commercial  city  of  K<  w- 
mania;  on  the  Danube,  which  here  is  navigable  for  vo>>*  !• 
of  300  tons,  85  miles  above  the  Sulina  mouth  (set*  mnj-  ■ ! 
Turkey,  ref.  2-D).  It  is  the  great  center  of  trade  ln^iv^it.. 
Vienna  and  Constantinople,  exporting  grain,  wine.  wtH>l,  an  i 
timber,  and  importing  cloth,  cotton,  and  silk  gtvwis.  ir.r- 
ware,  leather,  and  tobacco.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Eun*!*  i' 
Danube  commission  and  of  a  bishopric.    Pop.  (1890)  oJM  4-- 

Galaxy,  or  Mtlky  Way  [galaxy  is  from  O.  Fr.  galtu*' 
Ital.  galassia  <  Lat.  galaxias,  from  Gr.  ytXa^ias.   nni-.^ 
way,  deriv.  of  yiKa,  ydXmtrn,  milk] :  a  circle  of  nebuliu>    • 
cloud-like  light  spanning  the  entire  heavens,  with  tht^  .i: 
pearance  of  which  every  one  is  familiar.    One  of  the  a,i\c\»    ■ 
philosophers  is  said  to  have  conjectured  that  it  was  n'*..  - 


652 


GALENA 


GALILEE 


talline  rocks  of  the  Alleghany  belt  of  New  England,  the 
Adirondacks,  and  Canada.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Silurian 
rocks  of  the  Shawangunk  Mountains,  at  Rossie,  N.  Y.,  at 
Lexington,  Ky.,  where  it  occurs  in  fissure-veins,  and  in  the 
lead-regions  of  the  upper  Mississippi  and  Southern  Mis- 
souri, where  it  fills  or  lines  crevices  called  gash-veins  in  the 
Carboniferous  and  Lower  Silurian  limestones.  Galena  is 
met  with  throughout  most  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  silver- 
mining  districts.  Though  not  constantly  present  in  the  sil- 
ver ores  of- this  region,  it  is  s(3  abundant  as  to  afford  impor- 
tant aid  in  the  process  by  which  the  silver  is  obtained  from 
the  ore. 

Galena  is  frequently  found  in  the  ancient  mounds  of  the 
Western  U.  S.,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  mound-builders  at- 
tached some  value  to  it ;  but  no  proof  has  yet  been  gath- 
ered that  they  smelted  it  or  made  any  use  of  metallic  lead. 
Probably  thev  employed  it  for  ornament,  as  they  did  the 
mica  which  they  brought  from  North  Carolina,  and  much 
of  the  copper  they  mined  near  Lake  Superior.  Some,  and 
perhaps  all,  of  the  galena  of  the  mound-builders  came  from 
Lexington,  Ky.,  where  they  worked  a  large  vein  which  con- 
tained much  of  it.  Revised  by  Charles  Kirchhofp. 

Galena :  city  and  port  of  entry ;  capital  of  Jo  Daviess  co., 
111.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  1-C) ;  on 
the  Galena  (or  Fevre)  river,  5  miles  from  its  iunction  with 
the  Mississippi,  and  on  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.,  the  Chi.,  Burl, 
and  Q.,  and  the  111.  Cent.  Railroads;  180  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
Chicago  and  445  miles  by  water  above  St.  Louis.  It  is 
built  on  bluffs  above  the  river,  which  by  a  lockae^e  system 
constructed  in  1891  has  been  made  navigable  by  the  largest 
steamboats.  1'he  city  is  named  from  the  mines  of  lead 
sulphide  (galena)  which  abound  in  the  vicinity.  Galena  is 
the  business  center  of  the  seventy-two  lead-producing  town- 
ships in  Wisconsin  and  Illinois,  which  cover  1,000,000 
acres  of  land,  mostly  very  fertile.  The  city  has  abundant 
water-power,  a  large  pork-packing  interest,  manufactures  of 
woolens,  furniture,  castings,  lumber,  and  flour,  large  smelting- 
works,  and  extensive  manufactories  of  axle  grease  and  hot- 
water  heaters.  Besides  the  trunk  lines  centering  here,  there 
is  a  heavy  trade  by  river  in  zinc  ore,  pig  lead,  g^in,  flour, 
pork,  provisions,  and  manufactured  gocKls.  In  the  beautiful 
public  park  is  a  bronze  statue  of  Gen.  Grant,  who  at  one 
time  lived  in  Galena.  The  city  is  picturesc^ue  by  reason  of 
the  high  and  broken  character  of  its  site ;  it  has  beautiful 
houses  and  flne  public  buildings,  notable  among  the  latter 
being  the  U.  S.  custom-house  and  the  high  school.  It  has 
an  excellent  public-school  system,  two  Roman  Catholic 
schools,  and  a  convent  of  Dominican  nuns.  Pop.  (1880) 
6,451 ;  (1890)  5,635.  EDnoR  op  "  Gazette." 

(4alena :  city ;  Cherokee  co.,  Kan.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  8-K) ;  on  the  Kan.  City,  Ft.  S.  and 
M.,  ana  the  St.  L.  and  S.  Fe.  Railways ;  7  miles  £.  of  Baxter 
Springs.  It  is  in  a  rich  lead  and  zinc  region,  and  mining  is 
the  principal  business.  It  has  two  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,463 ;  (1890)  2,496. 

Galeopithe'cns :  See  Paying  Lemurs  and  Insectivora. 

Gale^rias,  or  Maxim^lan  II.,  Galerius  Valerius  Maxim- 
lANUs,  calleri  also  Armentarius:  a  Dacian  peasant,  who 
served  with  such  distinction  in  the  Roman  army  that  Diocle- 
tian gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and  in  293  a.  d.  de- 
clared him  C«esar  of  the  East.  The  failure  of  his  expedi- 
tion (297)  against  the  Persians  brought  him  into  disj^-ace, 
but  his  second  campaign  won  him  great  glory.  lie  was  the 
prime  mover  in  the  Di(x;letian  persecution,  for  he  always 
regarded  the  Christians  with  deep  aversion.  In  305  he  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Augustus,  jointly  with  Constantius  Chlo- 
rus ;  in  307  the  revolt  of  Maxentius  robbed  him  of  Italy 
and  Africa,  Gaul  and  Britain  having  been  already  lost  to 
Constantine,  but  he  still  reigned  in  the  East,  ami  distin- 
guished himself  bv  important  works  of  internal  improve- 
ment— draining  lakes,  clearing  forests,  etc. 

Revised  by  G.  L.  IIendrickson. 

Galesbnre:  city;  capital  of  Knox  co..  111.  (for  lo<'ation, 
see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  4-(') ;  on  the  Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  Fe  and 
the  Chi.,  Burl,  and  Q.  Railroa<ls,  and  the  Fulton  County 
Narrow-Gauge  Railway;  53  miles  N.  W.  of  Peoria,  99  miles 
N.  E.  of  Quincy,  and  163  miles  S.  W.  of  Chicago.  It  is  in  a 
rich  agricultural  region ;  has  important  manufactures,  and 
is  the  center  of  a  lar^  trade.  It  contains  the  shops  and 
stock-yards  of  the  Chi.,  Burl,  and  Q.  Railroad,  four  brick- 
yards, agricultural-implement  works,  carriage  and  wagon 
factory,  and  other  inaustrial  establishments.    The  city  is 


lighted  with  gas  and  electricity ;  has  street  railways,  2  opera- 
houses,  public  library,  costly  water- works,  several  hotels,  aij<i 
5  banks;  and  contains  19  churches  and  10  publie-s-('hi«>. 
buildings,  including  a  high  school.  It  is  also  the  seat  t.f 
Lombanl  University  (Universalist),  Knox  College  OH»n- 
sectarian),  and  St.  Joseph's  Academy  (Roman  (*atboIi<  < 
There  are  2  daily,  5  weekly,  and  3  monthly  periodicitiv 
Pop.  (1880)  11,437;  (1890)  15,264. 

Galeworts:  the  Jtfyrt^oreo',  a  family  of  monoE^iouf  «•- 
dioecious  shrubs  with  reduced,  apetalous  flowers  and  oftii. 
with  a  glandular  or  waxy  pubescence,  comprising  thirty  t.i 
thirty-flve  widely  distributed  species.  There  are  five  sfkAi*-- 
in  North  America,  all  belonging  to  the  genus  Jfyriea  and  in- 
cluding the  sweet  gale  (JiL  gale),  baylierry  (IT.  rerif^m.. 
and  sweet  fern  {M,  asplenifofia).        Charles  K  Bes>ey. 

Galia^iii,F£RDi»ANDo:  statesman  and  politick  economi-^ . 
b.  at  Chieti,  Southern  Italy,  Dec.  2,  1728;  was  edncate^l  for 
the  Church,  but  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  arrh*<>i«'j. . 
letters,  history,  and  political  and  commercial  science ;  \'i>r-i 
England ;  publishea  in  1750  his  ^reat  work,  Deila  Jfonffn  . 
resided  for  ten  years  (1759-69)  m  France,  and  publi>l)«'i 
shortly  after  his  return  to  Naples  his  Dialoaues  sur  ItJ*  W/* : 
became  councilor  to  the  Neapolitan  board  of  trade  17(>i«: 
its  secretary  1770;  Finance  Alinister  1782.  D.  in  Xnpl*^. 
Oct.  30,  1787. 

Galic'la:  a  province  of  Austria,  consisting  of  the  <>'.ii 
territories  of  (^alicia,  Lodomeria,  Auschwitz,  Zator«  ni'r. 
Cracow,  and  divided  into  two  governmental  districts,  Lt-n- 
berg  and  Cracow.  It  is  bounded  S.  by  Ilungarv,  fr«j: 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Carpathians;  E.  and  N.  l\ 
Russia  and  Poland,  toward  which  it  hi^  no  natural  Immu.'*- 
aries,  except  in  some  places  where  the  Dniester  and  the  \':- 
tula  make  the  line  of  demarkation.  The  surface  is  a  terrai  f . 
through  which  the  Carpathian  Mountains  gradually  sii.k 
into  the  great  East  European  plain.  The  soil  is  fertile,  bu: 
the  climate  is  cold — long  winters  with  deep  snow  and  >h«'r 
hot  summers.  Grain,  flax,  hemp,  and  hops  are  gniwn,  h^\' 
the  grape  will  not  ripen.  .  Fine  norses  and  excellent  c-att  It- 
are  reared,  and  the  forests  are  stocked  with  deer  and  w<»1t.^. 
Of  minerals,  iron  and  rock-salt  abound;  the  latter espet-ifil'v 
is  of  great  importance.  There  is  a  class  of  nobles,  wtin  iui^-r 
warlike  passions,  a  romantic  temper,  and  el^ant  maniur^i 
and  there  is  a  peasantry,  rude,  fllthy,  ignorant,  and  inTtri- 
perate.  But  there  is  no  middle  cfass,  and  there  are  if 
manufacturers  and  no  merchants,  except  the  Jews,  whi>  ]ivr» 
in  abject  and  miserable  conditions,  despised  and  ill-tn'»u<i 
both  by  the  peasantry  and  the  nobility.  In  this  unforturKitr 
structure  of  society  lay  the  possibility  of  the  division  of  p..- 
land;  and  since  Galicia  (in  1772)  came  to  Austria  it  iit^ 
made  great  advances  in  the  track  of  modem  civilization,  i: 
spite  of  the  rebellions  which  have  convulsed  it,  whoese  giiu r- 
ai  character  has  been  the  murtler  of  the  nobility  by  ti.. 
peasantry.  The  Ruthenians  are  mostly  Roman  Caihnlii'M'f 
the  Ruthenian  rite ;  the  Poles,  Roman  Catholics  of  the  I^t:'> 
rite ;  their  number  is  about  equal.  Are^,  30,307  sq.  milt  -^ 
Pop.  (1880)  5,958,907 ;  (1890)  6,578,364. 

Galicla :  a  former  province  of  Spain,  originally  a  separa!  t 
kingdom,  comprising  the  northwestern  part  of  the  |wMm.- 
sula ;  bounded  S.  by  Portugal  and  N.  ana  W.  by  the  AiU::- 
tic.  In  1833  it  was  divided  into  four  provinces,  Coruui.... 
Lugo,  Orense,  and  Pontevedra.  The  siuface  is  mount  a 'n- 
ous,  traversed  by  several  ranges  of  the  Cantabrian  M^-ini 
tains,  which  reach  "the  Atlantic  in  lofty  and  rugged  pn  :  - 
ontories  (Capes  Ortegal  and  Finisterre),  between  whit-h  I'l- 
estuaries  of  the  rivers  form  excellent  harbors  (Ferrol  »i": 
Corunna).  The  soil  is  fertile,  the  climate  mild  and  mo;^:: 
the  ground  partly  covered  with  dense  forests, affording  ai-- 
flne  pasturage  and  arable  lands.  The  inhabitants  ar»>  % 
vigorous  but  not  very  intelligent  race,  which,  however.  I'-i 
account  of  its  industry  and  plain  practical  sense,  foni»<  <  >itf 
of  the  most  honorable  paris  of  the  Spanish  nation.  Thi>u- 
sands  of  them  each  year  go  for  employment  to  Portugal  «  r 
to  the  other  provinces  of  Spain.  They  are  known  as  GaK-.- 
gos.  In  language  they  are  more  closelv  allied  to  the  IVt- 
tuguese  than  to  the  Spanish.     Pop.  (1887)  1,893,895. 

GaPllee  [from  Lat.  Oalila^'a  =  Gr.  ra\iXa(a.  Heb.  iinU:, 
a  wheel,  therefore  applied  to  a  nulling  country,  which,  how- 
ever, had  level  ground  in  it]:  a  name  given  originally  t.< 
the  plain  upon  which  was  Kadesh-Naphtali  (Jo^.  xx.  7* 
later  we  read  of  the  *'  land  of  Galilee"  in  which  were  twfnT\ 
towns  given  by  Solomon  to  Hiram  in  return  for  servic.  ^ 
render^  in  building  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  (1  Kgs^  ix.  U 


654 


GALINGALE 


GALLATIN 


only  Cardinal  Barberini,  had  greatly  admired  Galileo,  and 
had  declared  himself  of  his  opinion,  being  now  pope,  ac- 
cepted the  dedication  of  the  Saggiatore,  and  exhorted 
Galileo  to  come  to  Rome,  where  he  was  extremely  well  re- 
ceived in  1624.  At  this  time  he  was  occupied  with'the  solar 
^ots,  as  also  with  the  tides,  and  he  even  returned  again  to 
discuss  the  subject  of  the  earth's  motion,  notwithstanding 
the  papal  prohibition,  at  the  same  time,  however,  praying 
the  grand  duke  "  to  consider  it  as  mere  poetry  or  as  a  dream ; 
nevertheless,  as  the  poets  sometimes  set  a  value  upon  their 
fancies,  so  I  likewise  have  a  certain  esteem  for  this  my 
novelty."  ^ 

In  1632  Galileo  published  at    Florence   his  celebrated 
Dialogo  aopra  i  due  mansimi  aiatemi  del  mondo,  tolemaico 
e  copemtcano  (republished  1874  at  Leghorn  by  Francesco 
Vigo).     Urban  VIII.  was  made  to  believe  that  the  ignorant 
Snnphcio  was  intended  for  him,  and  as  there  is  no  wound 
so  deep  as  that  of  injured  vanity,  the  pope  now  left  the 
Congregation  of  the  Index  to  do  as  they  liked,  on  the  ground 
that  Galileo  had  violated  the  orders  he  had  received.    He 
was  therefore  summoned  once  more  to  Rome,  and  once  more 
he  obeyed  the  summons.     Touching  this  trial  much  has 
been  written  to  accuse,  and  much  to  defend,  or  at  least  to 
excuse,  the  Roman  court.     It  has  been  asserted  that  Galileo 
did  not  retract  until  he  had  been  subjected  to  torture,  and 
that  m  uttering  his  retractation  he  added  in  a  low  tone  E 
pur  8%  muove  (Still,  it  does  move).    As  to  the  latter  tra- 
dition, it  is  of  little  consequence  whether  the  protest  was 
audible  or  suppressed  by  fear  of  the  stake,  but  the  question 
as  to  whether  this  great  man  was  actually  put  to  the  rack 
can  not  fail  to  be  of  the  greatest  interest.     It  is  quite  cer- 
tain that  at  the  time  many  persons  believed  Qiilileohad  been 
literally  tortured.    It  is  also  most  certain  that  the  Church 
of  Rome  has  done  her  utmost  to  keep  secret  the  proceed- 
ings in  the  trial  of  Galileo,  and  the  records  exhibit  certain 
lacuTKB  that  may  well  have  their  significance.    But  there 
are  besides  the  official  records  other  authorities  from  which 
It  can  be  proved  that  torture,  though  threatened,  was  not 
inflicted.     See  especially  the  testimony  of  the  Tuscan  am- 
bassador, Niccolini.    At  any  rate,  it  is  certain  that  he  was 
exposed  to  cruel  moral  torture,  while  no  menaces  were 

?S5o®7t^.,°^*^®  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  his  judges.    On  June  22, 
163,i,  Galileo,  at  the  age  of  seventy  years,  on  his  knees  and 
clad  only  in  a  shirt  of  sackcloth,  was  forced  to  pronounce 
in  the  presence  of  his  judges  and  a  large  assembly  of  prel- 
ates, a  most  humiliating  formula  of  abjuration.    (See  Par- 
ehappe,  chap.  vui.    On  the  subject  of  the  trial  of  Galileo,  see 
the  documents  pubUshed  by  Silvestro  Gherardi  in  the  Ri- 
viata  Europea,  1870,  with  the  arguments  which  accompany 
them  ;  also  Prof.  Govi's  interesting  pamphlet,  Turin,  1872.) 
Galileo  was  at  first  sentenced  to  imprisonment  at  the  good 
pleasure  of  the  papal  government,  but  he  was  afterward  al- 
lowed to  retire  under  surveillance  to  his  villa  of  Arcetri,  on 
the  Florentine  hiUs,  where  hu  continued  his  work  and  his 
observations  until  he  lost  his  sight.    In  this  villa  was  con- 
structed in  1873  the  new  astronomical  observatory     Tradi- 
tions of  the  blind  Galileo  are  still  preserved  in  that  vicinity. 
Galileo  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight,  on  Jan.  9, 1642— 
the  year  of  the  birth  of  Isaac  Newton— and  was  buried  in 
the  Church  of  Santa  Croce  at  Florence.    For  fuller  infor- 
mation concerning  Galileo,  see  Nelli,  Vita  de  Galileo ;  Cantd, 
mmtn  Italian ;  Parchappe,  Galilei ;  Monsignor  Marini, 
^ahleo  e  lln^utstzione  (Rome,  1850);  Philarete  Chasles, 
Gahleo  Gahlei ;  Libri,  ffistoire  de  la  vie  et  des  mivres  de 
Galilet ;Fa,y&ro,  Galileo  Galilei',  and  the  splendid  collec- 
tion in  4to  of  the  Opere  edite  ed  inediti  di  Galileo  Galilei, 
published  at  Florence  bv  Eugenio  Alberi  at  the  expense  of 
the  grand  duke.    In  1864,  on  the  occasion  of  a  centennial 
celebration  of  the  birth  of  Galileo  by  the  University  of  Pisa 
a  discourse  was  published  by  Prof.  Silvestro  CentoJanti,  and 
a  comparison  between  Galileo  and  Bacon,  as  founders  of  the 
expenmental  philosophy,  by  Prof.  Pasquale  Villari. 

Angelo  de  Gubebnatis.    Revised  by  J.  J.  Keane. 


Galingale  [of  same  etymology  as  Galangal,  a.  f.l :  any  one 
or  vanous  plants,  especially  certain  sedges  of  the  genus  Cy- 
perua,  and  more  particularly  Cypenis  longus.  a  bulbous  sedge 
or  i!.urope.  Its  bulbs  have  been  employed  in  medicine,  but 
are  more  used  by  perfumers,  wlio  extract  from  them  a 
substance  having  a  fragrance  like  that  of  violets.  Other 
species,  especially  those  found  in  tropical  lands,  yield  per- 

Ganion:  city;  Crawford  co.,  O.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  8-F) ;  on  the  N.  Y.,  L.  E.  and  W. 


Railroad,  and  the  Clev.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.  Railw«^    • 
miles  N.  by  E.  of  Columbus.     It  has  large  railway -^• 
foundry   machine-shops,  several  cigar-factoritfs,  hri(  k  . 
tile  works,  and  steel-range  works ;  10  churches,  several  r 
he  and  private  schools,  3  banks,  and  2  daily  and  3  r.I 
newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  5,635 ;  (1890)  6,326. 

Gallpe^a :  See  Angostura  Bark. 

Gal'Ipot  [Fr.  galipot,  perhaps  of  Germ,  origin  and  . 
nected  with  Germ.  jfZcim]  :  the  concrete  turwntine  wL 
collects  upon  pine-trees  in  the  south  of  Prance  •  call.-!    - 
tfarras ;  it  is  an  article  of  commerce,  and  after  it  is  in. 
and  strained  enters  into  some  pharmaceutical  comix.uii.:^ 
Hiuropean  practice.    See  Turpentine. 

Gall,  Franz  Joseph,  M.  D.  :  phrenologist ;  b.  in  Tit  ' 
bronn,  B^en,  Germany,  Mar.  6,  1758;  studied  at  Kt. . 
Bruchsal,  btrassburg,  and  Vienna,  where  in  1785  he  K.^k  l- 
medical  degree.    From  childhood  he  had  noticed  aii.l  - 
tensively  compared  the  differences  in  the  shai^  of  ij/f 
heads,  believing  that  these  differences  would  arfoni  iht  \ 
index  to  the  mental  and  moral  characters  of  rier-oi.. 
amined.    In  1796  he  began  to  lecture  at  Vienna  ui.l 
new  theory,  since  widely  known  as  the  •*  science  ol  i.\- 
nology     (see  Phrenology);  but  the  announcemont  ur. . 
?£?P  ^u  °^A™^^^  censure,  ridicule,  and  opposition,  jiii-i 
1805  the  Austnan  Government  interdicted  his  Wtnr,-    • 
dangerous  to  religion.    But  this  prohibition  simph  ^r. . 
to  rouse  the  curiosity  of  the  public,  and  in  Berlin  tla   . 
tur^  were  heard  with  great  interest.    In  1807  he  r^'i^i: 
to  Pans  with  his  apostle  Spurzheim ;  he  became  a  prn- 
tioner  of  medicine,  and  in  1819  a  citizen  of  France     I 
principal  works  are  Philoaophiseh-Medicini^he  Unttr-^ 
ungen  (1791) ;  Recherchea  aur  le  ayafhm  nervevj:  ^\^^^ 
Anatomte  etPhvstologie  du  ayateme  nerveux  (1810-19 :  tra  - 
lated  into  English  by  Winslow  Lewis,  Boston,  mi'ir.  l- 
Ji  Qoo  ^J^^^^^  qtiahtSa  moralea  el  de  facultSa  intellect',"    . 
(1822-25).    D.  near  Paris,  Aug.  22, 1828. 

Gallagher,  William  Davis:  journalist;  b.  in  Phii^.i 
phia,  Au^.  21,  1808;  the  son  of  an  Irish  patriot  an.l  ev.> 
removed  in  1816  to  Cincinnati ;  was  apprenticed  to  a  pn  -•  • 
1821 ;  was  for  many  years  a  journalist  of  Cincinnati :  .:  ^ 
edited  journals  in  Xenia,  0.,  and  Louisville.  Kv.;  ^a.^rT. 
ployed  in  clerkships  at  Washington,  D.  C,  185048.    Aui  I:  - 

/fi^iPj^h'  1835-37,  poems),  and  another  oridnnj  v. 
ume  (1846),  besides  a  compilation  of  poems  (1 841).  and  V;  • 
nooda,  A  Golden  WeddifUf,  and  Other  Pbevus  (18M)     I 
also  prepared  a  Social  and  Staiiatical  View  of  the  Vk  .« 
atpm  Valley,  and  accomplished  much  in  developinir  a  u-' 
for  literature  in  the  West.    In  1853  he  became  a  fai^iur  r.. . 
Louisville,  Ky.,  and  was  later  employed  in  the  TreaMirv  P> 
partment  at  Washington.    He  has  written  much  uponV-  - 
cultural  subjects,  ' 

Gallalt,  grikl'la',  Louis :  historical  painter ;  b  in  Tn:  r. 
nay,  Belgium,  Mar.  10,  1810.  Pupil  of  Ghent  and  ^-i' 
^®IP.o"^^x®°^^?^'  second-class  medals,  Paris  Salon,  l^-' 
and  1848 ;  Legion  of  Honor  1841 ;  Order  of  Leopold  IM 
member  of  Brussels,  Paris,  Antwerp,  Berlin,  and  Mu'*.  : 
Academies.  Works  in  the  museums  at  Ghent,  LieL'e  W: 
sallies,  and  Brussels.    D.  in  Brussels,  Nov.  20,  1887.    ' 

W.  A.  C. 

Garia  Ox :  a  breed  of  domestic  cattle  found  in  Alw 
sinia.  Like  most  of  the  cattle  of  India,  it  has  a  \v- ' 
upon  the  shoulders,  but  it  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  it^^  ii.  •• 
strous  horns,  which,  considering  the  small  dimensioL>.f 
the  animal  far  exceed  in  relative  size  the  horns  of  an 
other  breed.  This  breed  is  apparently  in  every  wav  in- 
ferior to  the  ordinary  cattle  of  Europe  and  the  U  *  S.    * 

GaPlas :  a  powerful  native  race  of  Eastern  \frica  vh 
for  years  gradually  encroached  upon  the  Abyssinians  pkr^r 
until  they  overcame  them  in  1889.  They  seem  to  h..^^ 
originated  far  to  the  S.  of  Abyssinia.  They  are  di^ii'  i 
into  many  tribes,  are  partly  Mohammedan,  while  tbo  nv 
jonty  are  pagans.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  bra^vn 
and  savage  character.  They  are  dark  brown,  and  \uu 
frizzled  hair. 

Gariatln  :  city  ;  capital  of  Daviess  co..  Mo.  (for  l(xati>« 
of  county  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  2~E);  on  Grand  rivrr. 
and  the  Chi.,  Rock  Is.  and  P.  and  the  Wabash  RailwHv. :  > 
miles  N.  E  of  Kansas  City  and  65  miles  E.  of  St.  Jo^i>li.  U 
is  in  agricultural  region,  and  has  seven  churches,  a  Y.  M.  l\  A. 
building,  a  fine  graded  public  school,  and  two  weeklv  nov- 
papers.  Pop.  (1880)  l,l41 :  (1890)  1,489;  (1898)  estijn;.t-i. 
'^'""^-  Editor  op  »*  DKMonuT." 


656 


GALL   BLADDEK 


GALLIA 


Bible  Stories  for  the  Young  (1888) ;  The  Child's  Book  of  the 
Soul ;  Youth'8  Book  of  ifatnral  Theology  (1852) ;  helped 
prepare  a  small  English  dictionary ;  wrote  valuable  articles 
tor  Annals  of  the  jDeaf  and  Dumb,  etc.  See  his  Life,  by 
H.  Hunaphrey  (1858),  and  that  by  his  son,  Edward  M.  Gaf- 
laudet  (1888);  H.  Barnard,  Tribute  to  Qallaudet;  Dr. 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit.  D.  in  Hartford, 
Conn.,  Sept.  9, 1851. 

Gall  Bladder  [gall  <  M.  Eng.  oalle  <  0.  Eng.  aeaJla :  O. 
H.  Germ.  gcUla  >  Mod.  Germ.  Oaile  <  Indo-Eur.  ghol-,  ghel- 
>  Gr.  xok4\,  gall,  bile :  Lat.  fel,  gall] :  a  pear-shaped  mem- 
branous sac,  the  reservoir  for  the  bile,  situated  in  a  fossa  on 
the  inferior  surface  of  the  right  lobe  of  the  liver.  It  is 
about  4  inches  long,  and  1  in  width  at  its  broadest  part, 
and  in  its  natural  undistended  condition  holds  about  an 
ounce.  The  prall  bladder  consists  of  three  coats — an  ex- 
ternal, derived  from  the  serous  membrane  which  lines  the 
abdominal  cavity ;  a  middle  coat,  composed  of  muscular  and 
fibrous  tissue ;  and  an  internal  mucous  coat.  A  thick  viscid 
mucus  is  secreted  by  the  last-mentioned  coat  which  some- 
times plugs  up  the  common  bile-duct,  thus  giving  rise  to 
jaundice.  The  gall  bladder  receives  the  bile  secreted  by 
the  liver  throu^  the  hepatic  and  cystic  ducts.  It  dis- 
charges its  contents  through  the  common  bile-duct  into  the 
upper  portion  of  the  small  intestine.  Besides  being  greatly 
distenaed  with  bile  in  consequence  of  obstructed  ductus 
communis,  the  cavity  of  the  gall  bladder  may  be  almost  en- 
tirely obliterated  in  consequence  of  obstruction  in  the  cystic 
ducts.  It  also  frequently  contains  biliary  calculi.  Many 
plant-eating  mammals  and  some  birds  are  without  a  gall 
bladder;  and  there  are  a  few  mammals  which  have  two. 
It  is  absent  in  the  deer,  camel,  elephant,  and  horse,  but  pres- 
ent in  the  ox,  sheep,  and  hog. 

Galle,  or  Polnte  de  Galle,  point'de-gaal' :  town  of  Cey- 
lon ;  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  island ;  is  fortified,  well 
built,  and  has  a  good  harbor  (see  map  of  Southern  India,  ref . 
8-F).  Its  trade,  however,  is  insignificant,  notwithstanding 
the  fertility  of  the  suiTounding  districts  and  the  commercial 
advantages  of  its  position.    Pop.  (1891)  33,505. 

Galle,  gaal'le,  Johann  Gottfried,  Ph.  D.  :  astronomer;, 
b.  in  Pabsthaus,  Germany,  June  9, 1812;  studied  at  Witten- 
berg and  Berlin,  and  became  astronomical  assistant  in  the 
Berlin  Observatory,  under  Encke ;  discovered  three  comets 
1839-40.  In  1846,  following  directions  sent  him  by  Lever- 
rier,  he  found  the  planet  Neptune,  the  discovery  occurring 
on  the  evening  of  tne  very  day  on  which  the  directions  were 
received.  In  1851  he  became  Professor  of  Astronomy  at 
Breslau ;  twice  received  the  Lalande  prize ;  author  of  nu- 
merous papers  and  some  treatises  on  climatology  and  as- 
tronomy. 

GaKleass  [from  Fr.  galiace,  galleasse,  from  Ital.  gale- 
azza,  large  galley,  augment,  of  ga'lea,  galley] :  a  sort  of 
three-masted  galley  formerly  built  in  Spain  and  Italy. 
There  were  enormous  towering  structures  at  either  end. 
As  many  as  300  galley-slaves  were  employed  in  rowing  one 
of  these  vessels.  They  were  much  larger  than  the  galleys, 
and  (unlike  them)  had  guns  in  broadside. 

Gallenga,  Antonio  Carlo  Napoleone  :  historian  and 
publicist ;  b.  at  Parma,  Italy,  Nov.  4,  1810 ;  educated  at  the 
university  in  that  city ;  became  involved  in  the  political 
agitation  of  1881,  and  was  obliged  to  leave  Italy.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  organization  of  Young  Italy,  he  is  said  to  have 
been  chosen  to  assassinate  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia,  but 
though  prompted  by  political  fanaticism  to  undertake  the 
mission  nis  courage  failed  when  the  time  for  action  came. 
The  years  from  \§il  to  1838  he  spent  chiefly  in  travel,  vis- 
iting France,  Corsica,  Malta,  Tanffiers,  Gibraltar,  and  the 
U.  S.  In  1839  he  took  up  his  residence  in  England,  where 
in  1845  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Italian  Literature 
in  University  College,  London.  He  returned  to  Italy  to 
t^ke  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  but  on  the  failure  of 
that  movement  resumed  his  work  at  London.  In  1854  he 
a^ain  tried  his  fortune  in  Italv,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Piedmontese  and  Italian  parliament  1854-64.  In  1874  he 
accompanied  Victor  Emmanuel  to  Berlin  and  to  Vienna. 
Later  ne  resided  at  Llandogo,  in  Wales.  Among  his  writ- 
ings are  Oltremonte  ed  Oltremare  (1844) ;  The  Blackgoum 
Papers  (1845) ;  Italy,  Past  and  Present  (1841-49) ;  Italy  in 
1848  (1849) ;  Fra  Dolcino  and  his  Times  (1853) ;  CasteUn- 
monte,  an  Autobiography  (1854);  all  of  which  were  pub- 
lished under  the  pseudonym  of  L.  Mariotti.  More  recent 
works  are  Two  Years  of  the  Eastern  Question  (1877) ;  The 


Pope  and  the  Kitig  (1879);  A  Summer  Tour  in  Bumn 
(1882) ;  Italy,  Present  atui  Future  (1887). 

GaPleon  [Fr.  galion.  Span,  galeon,  from  Ital.  galrouf. 
augment,  of  galea,  galley] :  a  name  given  to  a  oIaj«  of  larc 
ships  formerly  built  in  Spain.  Some  galleons  were  used  r< 
war,  and  had  sometimes  lour  gun-decks.  Others  were  eir.- 
ployed  as  treasure-ships  in  bringing  the  precious  nieta> 
from  America  to  Spam.  They  were  large,  clumsy  struc- 
tures, and  were  the  easy  prev  of  pirates  and  hostile  navi*^ 
Their  bulwarks  were  3  or  4  feet  thick. 

Gallery  [Fr.  galerie :  Ital.  galkria,  prob.  of  like  orijnr. 
with  Ital.  galea,  Fr.  gaUe,  etc.,  in  the  original  significatKi. 
of  wooden  structure  or  framework]:  originally  a  room  l-ui: 
in  proportion  to  its  width.     As  such  rooms,  which  were  in- 

?[uent  in  large  English  country-houses,  were  used  for  thr- 
amily  portraits,  often  numerous  and  importiint,  and  U>t 
other  works  of  art,  the  tenn  gallery  has  come  to  be  used  {»t 
rooms  of  whatever  shape  meant  for  the  eshibition  of  paint- 
ing^, sculptures,  etc.  The  term  is  also  used  for  long  and 
narrow  uninclosed  or  half-inclosed  parts  of  buildings,  ai^d 
especially  for  a  partial  upper  floor  in  a  church  or  a  tiieatiT. 
built  in  projection  like  a  balcony  from  the  inner  face  of  tbt- 
wall  of  tne  room,  and  supported  by  brackets  or  piUan^. 

Russell  Stiruik 

Galley  [M.  Eng.  gaJsye,  from  0.  Fr.  galee,  gnlie  >  Fr. 
gaJ6e,  from  Ital.  galea^  prob.  from  Gr.  (Spartan)  icaXov.  wr«>-l 
ship] :  a  long,  narrow  ship,  propelled  partly  by  sail>,  but 
chiefly  by  oars,  and  used  both  m  war  and  in*  eoninifriv. 
Such  ships  were  built  by  the  Phoenicians,  Carthaginians 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  were  of  considerable  size.  The> 
continued  to  be  used  by  the  peoples  living  on  the  shon^  of 
the  Mediterranean  until  late  in  the  seventeenth  centari. 
indeed,  small  boats  of  similar  model  are  still  to  be  found. 
The  oars  of  the  old-time  galleys  were  in  one  or  more  l»nk« 
or  tiers,  and  often  were  worked  by  convicts  or  by  slaves,  vh  ■ 
were  sometimes  chained  to  them.  The  swift  piratical  galleys 
of  Barbary  were  rowed  by  Christian  slaves.  Several  kind>  of 
open  boats  are  called  galleys. 

Galley,  in  printing,  is  the  |;ray  of  metal  or  wood  in  whi« ! 
the  compositor  deposits  the  types  from  the  eomposing-suck 
as  often  as  the  latter  is  filled. 

Gall-fly :  See  Entomology  and  Gall  Insects. 

Gall-gnat :  See  Gall  Insects. 

Gall!  (in  Gr.  ol  Td^Xoi) :  the  name  borne  at  Pes^inu^  ii. 
Phrygia  (Asia  Minor)  by  the  self -mutilated  priests  <»f  xl*- 
great  Asiatic  goddess  who  was  known  in  Phrygia  as  Cylh-it  - 
Agdistis,  though  she  was  worshiped  in  different  couiitne- 
under  different  names.  Her  religion  was  an  impure  woT>h  y 
of  the  procreative  powers  of  nature ;  her  priestess«»  dev(»tt^i 
themselves  to  wickedness  in  the  name  of  religion.  The  pn^ni- 
ature  death  of  Atys,  who  had  emasculated  himself  to  avi.:<. 
marrying  Agdistis,  was  celebrated  with  a  zeal  that  bordf ivii 
on  madness,  and  men  often  died  of  the  cruel  scourging^  aiio 
mutilations  inflicted  by  their  own  hands,  or  if  they  suprive«i 
them  it  was  to  swell  as  eunuchs  the  number  of  the  prit^^ 
of  the  goddess.  But  when  they  had  once  become  prie>t-^ 
their  lot  was  an  enviable  one,  for  they  ranked  as  royal  per- 
sonages, and  in  Comana  the  Golden  the  chief  priest  of  tbt 
Sreat  goddess  was  at  the  same  time  King  of  Cappaiiocia.  Sc^ 
laury,  Histoire  des  religions  de  te  ffr^ee  antique^  iii.,  pu 
79  ff. ;  Duncker,  Oeschichte  des  Alierthums,  L,  p.  33i<  ff,: 
Mayer,  Oeschichte  des  Alterthums,  i.,  p.  253  ff. ;  Guigpinn*. 
Religions  deVantiquiti,  vol.  ii. ;  Perrot  and  Chipiei,-&i>/'"'v 
of  Art  in  Phrygia,  p.  23  ff. ;  The  Nation,  Apr.  27,  18i«.  {\ 
316.  J.  R.  §.  Stebrett. 

Gania,  commonly  Anglicized  as  Ganl :  the  name  givfu 
by  the  Romans  to  the  regions  inhabited  by  Celts  in  Ital) 
and  what  is  now  France.  When  the  Greeks  first  becamv  ac- 
quainted with  Southwestern  Europe  they  called  it  Celtictr 
and  the  inhabitants  Celts.  Afterward  arose  the  desiirim- 
tions  Galatia-Galati  and  Gallia-Galli,  and  the  latter-^th*- 
shortest  one,  nearly  synonvmous  with  Celtice-<.>lt»— wfc* 
adopted  by  the  Romans.  (5eltic  Italy  was  called  Cisi»h>i!.< 
Gaul,  and  that  part  N.  of  the  Po  was  called  Transfw^lant 
Gaul;  while  what  is  now  France  was  Transalpine  <ii»iu 
Gallia  Ulterior;  also  Gallia  Comata,  or  *' long-haired  GmuI." 
from  the  length  of  the  hair  worn  by  the  inhabitants,  (lallu 
Braccata,  "breeched  Gaul"  (from  the  use  of  breecho  %^ 
clothing),  was  also  called  Gallia  Narboncnsis,  and  wa^  a 
strip  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  France. 

Cisalpine  Gaul,  in  a  general  wav,  may  be  defined  as  tha; 
part  of  Gaul  which  was  between  the  summits  of  the  Alp^ 


658 


GALLIENUS 


GALL  INSECTS 


Gallie'nns,  Publius  Licinius  Valkrianus  Eqnatius: 
son  and  successor  of  Valerian :  was  raised  to  the  purple  by 
his  father  in  253,  and  in  260  became  sole  emperor.  His 
reign  was  greatly  disturbed  by  the  invasions  of  Germans, 
Franks,  Goths,  Sarmatians,  Persians,  and  others;  a  dire 
pestilence  decimated  the  people,  and  the  so-called  thirty 
tyrants  created  anarchy  throughout  the  empire.  Gallienus 
seems  to  have  been  a  weak  and  sensual  though  personally 
brave  man.  He  was  killed  by  his  own  soldiers  at  the  siege 
of  Milan,  in  Mar.,  268  a.  d.,  in  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  age. 

Galliffet,  ^^'lee'fa',  Gaston  Alexandre  Augusts,  Mar- 
quis de:  soldier;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  Jan.  23,  1831.  He  en- 
tered the  army  in  1848 ;  was  commissioned  colonel  in  1867 ; 
served  in  the  Army  of  the  Rhine  through  the  Franco-Ger- 
man war;  promoted  to  be  general  of  brigade  Aug. 30,  1870; 
commandea  the  expedition  on  El-Goliah,  Africa,  and  sub- 
dued the  revolting  tribes  in  1872-73 ;  and  became  command- 
er of  the  Third  brigade  of  infantry  of  the  Eighth  Army-corps 
and  of  the  subdivision  of  the  Department  or  the  Cher  on  the 
reorganization  of  the  army.  In  1875  he  was  promoted  to  be 
general  of  division,  and  given  command  of  the  Fifth  divi- 
sion of  infantry,  and  in  1879  became  commander  of  the 
Ninth  Corps.  The  cavalry  regulations  of  1882  were  drawn 
up  by  Gen.  Galliffet,  who  ranks  high  as  a  cavalry  officer. 

Gallina'ceae,  Gallinaceous  Birds:  See  Gallin^e. 

Galli'niB  [from  Lat.  aaUus,  a  fowl] :  an  order  of  birds 
embracing  the  fowls  in  tne  widest  acceptation  of  the  terra, 
the  equivalent  of  the  old  term  liasores^  less  the  pigeons,  and 
synonymous  with  OallinacecB.  The  QallincB  are  birds  with 
stout  legs  and  feet,  short,  strong  claws,  small  heads,  curved 
bills,  and  short,  rounde<l  wings.  The  palate  is  schizogna- 
thous,  the  vomer  more  or  less  abortive,  the  nostrils  holo- 
rhinal,  the  mandible  has  a  recurved  process,  and  basiptery- 
goid  facets  are  present.  The  sternum  has  usuallv  four 
deep  notches,  and  the  furcula  is  long,  slender,  and  V-sliaped. 
The  gullet  is  dilated  into  a  crop,  the  gizzard  is  powerful, 
the  intestinal  cieca  are  well  developed  and  there  are  gener- 
ally two  carotids.  The  species  of  the  order  lay  numerous 
eggs,  the  young  are  clothed  with  down  and  run  about  as 
soon  as  hatched.  The  Oallinxe  include  the  mound- builders, 
curassows,  grouse,  pheasants,  turkevs,  and  all  related  forms 
comprised  in  the  iBkvaxM^^  MeaapodicLce^  CracidcByPhasianidce, 
and  TetraonidiB.  The  small  Old  World  quail  (TumicidcB) 
are  sometimes  placed  in  a  separate  order  (Ilemipodii),  but 
quite  as  often  regarded  as  a  sub-order  or  family  of  the 
present  group. 

The  sand-grouse  {Pterocles)  are  put  in  an  order  by  them- 
selves between  the  fowls  and  pigeons,  and  the  pheasant- 
plovers  {ThijiOcoridoB)  are  relegated  to  the  Orallce,  The 
OallincB  are  divided  into  two  great  groups,  the  Peris- 
teropodeSy  or  pigeon-footed  fowls,  whicli  have  the  hind  toe 
rather  long  and  on  a  level  with  the  others,  and  the  Alectero- 
podes  or  true  fowls,  having  the  hind  toe  short  and  more  or 
less  elevated.  The  Oallirup  are  a  widespread  group,  its  mem- 
bers being  found  throughout  the  globe  from  the  snows  of 
the  Arctic  circle  to  the  tropics.  See  Argus,  Black  Cock, 
Brush  Turkey,  Capercailzie,  Curassow,  Grouse,  Guinea- 
fowl,  Meoapodes,  Partrid(je,  Peacock,  Pheasant,  Phasi- 
ANiD.B,  Prairie  Hen,  Quail,  Saqe  Cock,  Tetraonid^,  Tra- 
ooPAN,  and  Turkey.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Gall  Insects :  insects  usually  described  as  those  which  de- 

gosit  their  e<^gs  in  the  tissues  of  plants,  and  as  being  con- 
ned to  two  of  the  seven  orders  of  true  insects.  Thejr  may 
bo  more  correctly  defined  as  insects  which  live  within  ab- 
normal growths  or  excrescences  produced  on  different  parts 
of  plants,  either  by  the  action  of  the  -indweller  or  by  that 
of  its  parent ;  the  animal  in  the  one  case  being  the  architect 
of  its  own  dwelling;  in  the  other,  born  within  its  Hlrea<ly 
constructed  abode.  These  swellings  exhaust  more  or  less 
the  parts  of  the  plant  on  which  they  occur,  and  are  some- 
times so  numerous  as  to  destroy  the  entire  plant.  Many 
different  families  of  insects  are  represented  by  gall-produc- 
ers, and  they  occur  in  all  the  orders  except  the  two  lowest — 
viz.,  the  straight-wing  insects  (Orfhoptera)  and  the  nerve- 
wing  insects  {Xeuroptera).  Yet  the  gall-nmking  habit  is 
by  no  means  common  even  to  all  the  species  of  the  genus 
to  which  gall-makers  belong.  (Jail  insects  are  preyed  upon 
by  a  number  of  parasitic  species  which  manage  to  reach 
them  in  their  hidden  recesses,  and  their  galls  are  appropri- 
ated by  a  number  of  guest-insects  or  Inquilines.  These 
do  not  pro|)erly  come  within  the  present  scope,  but  full  in- 
formation may  be  obtained  from  the  writings  of  Osten 
Sacken,  Walsh,  and  Bassett  in  the  Proceed ingn  of  the  Pliila- 


«r 


delphia  Entomological  Society,  while  for  recent  work  (n 
the  European  species,  and  especially  for  interesting  di><  iv- 
eries  as  to  development  and  alternation  of  generatiMii,  \>r. 
H.  Adler*s  work,  Ueber  den  GenerationsicerhSel  der  Etch*-n- 
Gallwespen  (1881),  should  be  consulted.  The  cleare>t  {.i.4 
of  the  different  call  insects,  their  characteristics  and  habiN. 
will  be  conveyea  by  briefly  considering  them  by  oniers.  ami 
by  mentioning  a  few  species  in  each. 

Order  Hymenopiera. — By  far  the  greater  number  of  tri.! 
insects  belong  to  the  order  Hymenopiera,  or  clear-win  jr  fli  -. 
and  the  family  CynipidcBy  or  gall-flies  projier.  is  t^^^ntiu... 
a  gall-inhabitmg  one.  It  comprises  two  divisions  or  mj:- 
families,  the  CynipidcB  psenidea,  or  true  gall-roak«^rs.  ar.i 
the  CynipidcB  mquilinoe,  or  guest  gall-flies,  which  last  .i' 
not  construct  galls  of  their  own,  but  make  use  of  the  l'i!.- 
substance  produced  by  others.  The  typical  eenns.  (^;^  , ". 
has  a  curved  ovipositor,  which  is  more  or  less  nidden  \^r:  : 
a  valve,  in  repose.  Most  of  the  oak-galls  are  producefi  l\ 
species  of  this  genus.  With  the  ovipositor  just  menti«.nr  i 
tne  female  pierces  the  plant-tissues,  and  therein  consi-jn- 
egRf  together  with  a  small  quantity  of  a  peculiar  |ii»i^.r. 
fluid.  Under  the  influence  of  this  fluid  tne  gall  rapidiy 
velops,  and  is 
generally  fully 
formed  before 
the  egg  hatches. 
The  egg  is  whit- 
ish in  color  and 
soft.  It  invari- 
ably swells  more 
or  less  by  endos- 
mosis  of  the  sur- 
round ing  juices, 
and    the    outer 

Sellicle      is    so 
elicate  that  no  ^J  belonging  to  the  genus  Cynips,  tY»  prir 'iya 

shell  is  left  in  ^T^^^U^T.SSIS^^:'^'^'^-  " 
hatching.     The 

larva  is  also  whitish,  very  soft,  and  has  an  incon<]>ii"»  t- 
head  and  no  legs.  The  body  is  more  or  less  eyliiulri;... 
tapering  to  both  ends,  but  more  especially  behind,  anti  i  •  - 
in  a  curved  position  within  the  cell.  As  the  larva  irrtw- 
the  gall-substance  around  its  cell  hardens  into  a  credm  <  r 
buff  colored  shell,  which  frequently  separates  entirely  fr-:' 
its  surroundings.  Most  insects,  once  out  of  the  e'tii:,  j- 
through  somewhat  sudden  changes  or  transformatioi:^  .■- 
pecially  from  the  larva  to  the  pupa,  and  from  the  pnj<i  i- 
the  imago  or  perfect  state.  But  the  chitinous  integuni' '/ 
of  these  gall-flies'  larva?  is  so  delicate  that  the  molts  art-  u  ' 
traceable  in  any  exuviae  left  within  the  cell ;  while  the  1 1.«!  ^-» 
from  the  lar\''a  to  the  pupa,  and  from  this  to  the  perfect  .<  f  , 
is  comparativelv  slow,  and  partakes  rather  of  tne  char.v  *.  r 
of  continued  ani  uninterrupted  development.  The  fly, «.?.  - 
perfected,  remains  for  a  considerable  time  within  itsew!.  b.* 
finally  eats  its  way  out  of  its  prison. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  biological  features  of  iht  -* 
gall-flies  is  the  fact  that  two  entirely  different  galls,  f--- 
duced  on  the  same  tree  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  ii  av 
be  made  by  insects  of  genetically  the  same  specie5\  but  K- 
longing  to  different  generations.  Thus  there  is  a  l.-i-j* 
woolly  gall,  the  deformation  of  a  bud,  which  grows  fi:  i  • 
black' oak  in  spring,  and  which  produces  in  summer  a  l.-.  - 
fly  (C  q.  operator)  which  is  bisexual.  The  female  «»vi|''  - /- 
between  the  acorn  and  cupule  of  the  previous  year's  Mini  :. 
and  the  result  is  a  pip-like  gall  {Q.  (weratola)  embiHliir^i  ■ 
that  position,  and  generally  about  half  exposed.  The>«  f  i. 
with  the  acorn  to  the  ground,  and  the  second  sprint:  -■  • 
ceeding  give  forth  flies  which  are  all  females,  an<i  \*  K  I 

Sroduce  the  woolly  galls  of  spring.  In  the  light  of  n  .- 
imorphism  and  this  alternation  of  generations,  tbt-  f.i-  * 
long  recognized,  that  certain  galls  produce  nothing  Imt  t  - 
males,  becomes  explicable,  and  there  can  lie  little  <1<  ,/ 
that  all  species  known  only  in  the  female  sex  exist  al>\  r. 
the  bisexual  form,  though  the  gall  producing  this  last  i' -i^ 
present  an  entirely  different  appearance  to  that  pro<ii;ii'.:; 
the  former. 

Not  only  do  the  galls  produced  by  successive  generati  •  - 
of  the  same  species  differ,  but  the  insect*  themselvi»s  st»  Irt.t 
resemble  each  other  that  they  have  been  describ*Ml  a>  N- 
longing  even  to  distinct  genera.  Thus  Adicr  has  shr'R'- 
that  from  the  eggs  laid  by  the  forms  in  the  left  ct^lunni  ' 
the  list  on  page  659,  which  represents  the  organic  gir.  ~ 
ation,  there  are  hatched  the  forms  in  the  second  c<»1uim  . 
belonging  to  the  sexual  generation. 


660 


GALL  INSECTS 


with  which  she  is  ennbleii  to  thruat,  her  eggs  into  the  soft 
piirtsof  plants,  such  aslhulimlorlheecideniiisof  the  tender 
leaf.    The  egg  is  very  small,  soft,  elongate,  and  usuaUy  deep 
orange  or  re<Ui9h.     It  is  also  accompanied  by  some  secre- 
tion which  acta  on  the  plant  and  causes  the  gall  to  form  be- 
fore the  larva  hatches.    These  larvie  are  legless,  but  are  easily 
distinguished  from  those  ot  the  true  gall-flies — 1,  by  being 
more  elongate  and  narrow;  2,  by  being  (with  a  few  eieep- 
tions,  in  which  they  are  white)  ot  an  orange  color,  varying  to 
blood  red;  3,  by  having  a  very  small,  pointe<l,  and  retrac- 
tile head;  4,  by  a  very  characteristic  horny,  usually  forked, 
process  called  the  "breast-bone."    This  process  lies  under 
the  skin  on  the  anterior  joints  of  the  body  near  the  heail, 
and   is  either  Y-sh^)ed,  elovc-shaptil,  or  oar-shaped.     In 
either  case,  the  tips  of  the  prongs— which  are  either  two  or 
three  in  number,  and  can  be  exserted  upon  the  retraction  of 
the  heiad  and  anterior  joint — are  always  armed  with  sharp 
points,  which  no  doubt  serve  to  lacerate  the  walls  of  the  gall, 
and  thus  assist  the  insect  in  obtaining  Its  food,  as  well  as  In 
making  a  passageway  for  the  future  exit  of  the  perfect  in- 
sect.    The  gall-gnat  larve  either  quit  their  galls  and  enter 
the  ground  to  transform,  or  remain  in  them  and  spin  a  very 
delicate  cocoon,  like  goldbeaters'  skin,  for  the  same  purpose. 
In  either  case,  the  pupa,  which  usually  is  furnished  with  a 
pair  of  little  horns  on  the  head,  works  its 
way  to  the  surface,  in  order  that  the  jier- 
feet  gnat  may   escape ;  whereas   In   the 
other  two  gall-making   families  just  de- 
scribe<l  the  flies  perfect  within  tneir  re- 
spective galls,  and  either  eat  their  own 
way  out  or  pa:^   through  a  passageway 
partly  prepared  by  the  larva,    Ceeidomyia 
'   aalieiK-Ktrobiloidea   forms   the    pine-cone 
willow-gall,  a  deformation  not  unlike  a 
pine  cone,  and  quite  common  on  the  tips 
of  the  twigs  of  the  heart-leaved  willow. 
C*.  frmwiruiifu  forms  the  cabluige-sprout 
willow-gall,  a  series  of  defonnations  not 
unlike  cabliagc-sprouts,  alon^  the  leaves  of 
the  long-leaved  willow  {Sahx  longifolia). 
The  grapevine  apple-gall  ( VHit  pomvm) 
pir.B.<.nn«  wUinw-  .^  ^  polythalainous  gall  found   on  the 
.  grapevine,  and  madu  by  a  yet  unknown 
.   gall-gnat.     In   external  appearance  this 
ri'ii8''of"  twiits'of   ^""  *"  resembles  a  hickory-nut  or  a  small 
tbe  heart-luiTed   apple   that  it  has  Iteen  looked  Upon  by 
wMlowiHatixenr-    those  not  Versed  in  entomology  and  vege- 
dnin).        Color,    table  physiology  as  a  vegetable  monstros- 
glauc™. green.       .^^  ^,^ii,^„l  b/|,yl,rid^«tion  with  those 
plants.     Yetaglance  at  its  inlenial  structure,  which  shows  a 
number  of  elongate  cells,  each  occupied  bv  an  orange-col- 
oreil  larva,  reveals  its  natnre.    The  grapevine  trumpet-gall 
( Vilit  fitimta)  is  a  pointed,  trumpet-shaiied  gall  of  a  b^u- 
tiful  crimson  color,  growing  numiTously  from  the  upper 


,t; 


Jy 


The  doFTWood  lube-irall,  % 


dwarfed  leaves  at  the  tips  of  the  golden-rod  (iSofiida^).  T!-' 
dogwood  tul)e-gBll  {Comi-tvba')  is  a  blunt-ended  unil  lu.'-- 
like  growth  quite  commonly  found  on  the  under  si<lt;  r.f  tii 
leaf  of  the  dogwood  (t'omua). 

The  second  family  of  Diptera  containing  gatl-niBki'r>  I- 
the  Tryvftidir.,  but  few  of  the  species,  however,  havini:  -i . 
habit.  These  flies  have  something  of  the  form  and  r-si,-  • ; 
the  common  house-fly,  but  are  much  more  brightly  E'nli.r'  i. 
the  wingabeing  transparent  and  marked  with  variouf-^lld)-<: 
cloudings.  The  larva  is  white  and  maggot-like,  and  •.i.t- 
tracts  when  full  grown  to  a  brownish  coarctate  puiia  vithii, 
the  gall.  The  fly  escapes  by  conlinueil  fretting  and  ni.>;s- 
teningof  a  small  space  in  its' prison-wall,  the  face  beinct-v - 
porarily  very  much  swollen  into  a  sponge-like  tna&s  fur  ''i  - 
purpose,  and  the  gall-substance  having  generally  in'">:-.- 
suflteiontly  soft  by  exposure  to  the  weather  tti  permit  i:.> 
kind  of  exit.  The  female  has  a  lioring  ovipositor,  by  i.:  .'< 
she  can  force  her  eggs  into  the  tips  of  herbafdiui'ila-'- 
Trypela  aolidaginis  forms  the  globular  pithy  swelliui.-'  ■.■ 
commonly  seen  on  the  stem  of  golden-rod  fSolit/agui 

Order  Jlemiplfra,  or  Bvga. — The  American  gall-matir.- 
insects  of  this  order,  so  far  as  known,  belong  solely  [<i '  i. 
IlomopterouB  divisioD,  or  whole-wing  bugs,  and  are  !■■  ■.- 
fined  to  two  families — viz,,  the  plant-lice  {Aphidtr)  anil  H  :- 
lice  {PayUida).  With  the  insects  of  the  onlers  iO  fur '-  ■  ■ 
sidered  (where  the  insects  undergo  complete  metam.-qi!, -,• 
— i.  e.  the  larva  differs  entirely  from  tlie  imago  in  a);-,  i-- 
ancc),  the  gall  is  produced  by  the  action  ot  an  irrii:i::' . 
poisonous  secretion  inserted  into  the  plant-tissue  liv  ; 

Earent,  With  those  now  under  consideration,  in  whii'h  '(.■ 
irva  is  born  much  more  nearly  in  the  image  of  the  |i>r-i.'. 
the  gall  is  also  formed  under  the  influence  of  a  |«isiiii<<.- 
Irritation,  but  this  irritation  is  convened  by  the  n."i' 
hatched  insect,  principally  by  the  insertion  of  its  pr'~'li'~  -. 
very  much  as  tne  common  bed-bug  cau$«s  irrilstiiri  y  : 
swelling  of  human  Resh  by  the  insertion  of  irslH-^k.  l.i 
the  plant-lice  the  original  architect  of  the  gnll  hn-i  ■!.-  ^.. : 
dies  within  it,  but  her  numerous  young  either  issui-  ;i-  -  :i 
as  bom  and  found  new  galls,  or  else  remain  with  tlittr  )..'■ 
ent  tilt  full  grown,  when  they  also  issue  from  (In  :r  j  ' 
and  scatter.  In  either  case  the  gall — which  in  ni^ -!  .„- 
stances  is  never  securely  closed — gapes  or  cmrks  •>]-!;  *< 
allow  their  exit.  Two  interesting  facts  have  beiii  i-- .- 
lished  in  the  life-historr  of  these  gull-making  Aiih-n-'. 
1,  that  the  seied  individuals  arc  wingless,  that  tlie  t-\:  - 
lays  a  single  impregnated  egg  on  the  trunk  or  hiIkt  i  - 
de<'iduous  parts  of  the  tree,  and  that  the  species  Ihus  hii-  •- 
nate ;  2,  that  with  some  s]>ecies  there  is  &  niigratiun  ir.  ■ 
hot  summer  months  from  the  galls  to  the  roots  i>f  [:'".>-— 
and  herbaceous  plants  and  a  return  immigratinti  \i.-:- 
from  in  the  fall  to  the  tnink  of  the  gall-liearing  lr.i>.  J'  ~- 
phigua  tiagabundus  forms  a  largo,  irregular  gri)wth.  I,'- 
the  coxcomb  flower  (Oefogia)  on  Cottonwood.  Wluii  /■■;i. 
in  c«,rly  summer  it  is  green  and  shiny,  and  cimliiiji^  :  ■ 
single  wingless  arehitect.  By  fall  it  liecomes  dn-  auii  ■i;.r'.. 
and  is  crowileil  with  winged  lice,  which  are  all  U-m::  " 
These  leave  the  gall,  and  in  all  probability  lay  cf;?>  Ir  . 
which  batch  bisexual  young,  the  females  of  which  funii  ;.<. 


662 


GALLINULB 


eats  s  pftss»ge-waj  at  the  upper  end,  and  stops  up  the  hole 
with  a  little  plug  of  liquid  silk,  so  fitted  that  the  moth  in 
issuing  can  easily  push  it  away  from  within,  though  it  can 
not  well  he  pushecl  inward  froin  without,  Aft«r  completing 
this  doorway  Iho  larva  retires  to  the  bottom  of  its  chamber, 
casts  its  skin,  and  becomes  a  brown  chrysalis,  from  which, 
in  due  time,  the  moth  bursts,  Wahhia  amorphtlla  forms  a 
somewhat  simitar,  but  more  solid  and  woody,  swelling  on 
the  stems  of  the  false  indigo  [Amorpha  frulieoaa).     Otltekia 


SoUdago  Bdl-moth  i 


Mlertlla  forms  a  similar  gall  on  the  asters.  Among  the 
Tortricida.  the  most  common  gall-raaking  species  is  FtMitca 
lalignearut.  which  causes  a  swelling  of  the  stem  of  the  gold- 
en-rod in  the  Northern  U,  S.,  the  swelling  being  smaller. 
more  irregular,  and  higher  up  on  the  stem  than  that  of 
echia.     Another  f— •-" 

.   iorms  a  swelling  i 

Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 

Aearina,  or  ffall-mitet.—Tiieao  minute  animals 
■trictly  speaking,  true  insects,  but  lielong  to  the  class  of 
Arachniua  (spiders,  etc)  which  are  distinguished  from  true 


Mltc-gall,  OQ  leaf  o(  wtU  cherrj. 

insects  by  having,  among  other  charnct^rs,  ei^t  instead  of 
six  true  legs.  The  more  perfect  ^lls  produced  by  mites 
are  pocket-shaped,  and  the  mites  which  produce  them  belong 
mostly  to  the  genus  Pkytoptua,  which  contains  species  of 
elongate  form  tmd  possessing  but  six  well-developed  legs, 
the  ^urth  pair  being  minute,    Seo  Qalls,      C.  V,  Kilev. 

GAllinnle:  a  name  for  various  birds  closely  related  to 
the  rails,  but  distinguished  by  having  the  beak  extended 
upward  so  as  to  form  a  broad,  bare  frontal  shield.  The 
same  thing  occurs  in  the  coots  (Fuiica),  but  tho^  birds  have 
lobed  feet,  while  the  toes  of  the  gallinules  are  long  and  slen- 
der. The  common  species  of  the  U.  S,  is  the  Florida  galli- 
nule  {Oatlinutagaltala),  or  mud-hen,  a  bird  about  a  foot  long, 
of  a  general  slaty-gray  hue,  lighter  below,  deepening  into 
brownish  olive  on  the  back.  It  is  widely  distributed  through- 
out the  U.  S,,  inhabiting  marshes  and  the  reedy  borders  of 


resident  of  Central  and  South  America  and  the  West  Ind- 
ies; found  also  in  the  Southern  U.  S.  and  straggling  north- 
ward to  New  England,  Closely  allied  but  much  larger  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  Fnrphyrio  dwell  in  Southern  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  Australia.  The  African  gallinule  is  saiil  to  be 
very  destructive  to  other  marsh-haunting  birds,  not  only 
plundering  their  nests  of  eggs  and  young,  but  even  lying  in 
wait  tor  and  killing  the  little  birds  themselves. 

F,  A.  Lucas, 

Gallto:  proconsul  of  Achaia(Actsiviii. 12);  elder  brother 
of  Seneca  the  philosopher;  adopted  asa  son  by  JuniusOallio, 
a  celebrated  rhetorician.  According  to  Euscbius,  he  com- 
mitted suicide  in  65  a.  P.  G,  L.  H, 

(Jalllp'olt :  a  small,  fortified  maritime  town  of  Italy; 
province  of  Leece;  59  miles  S.  of  Brindisi  (see  map  of  Italy, 
ref.  7-H).  It  is  on  a  high  mck,  formerly  a  promontory,  but 
now  entirely  surrounded  by  the  waters  of  the  Ionian  Sea. 
and  only  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  bridge  of  twelve 
arches.  The  port  (or  rather  Toad),  accessible  only  on  the 
east  side,  is  commanded  by  a  strong  castle.  The  town  is 
Buppliml  with  Kood  water,  brought  from  the  inland  hills  by 
an  aqueduct  which  terminates  in  a  superb  fountain.    This 


is  an  ante-Christian  work,  and  the  fountain  is  adorned  wiib 
fine  busts  and  bas-reliefs,  and  beats  many  Latin  in  script  iuii>. 
In  1420  the  Turkish  corsairs  surprised  the  town  and  carr..!! 
many  of  its  inhabitants  into  slavery.  In  tSOO  it  nat  »:- 
tacked  by  a  British  flotilla,  which  was  vigurously  rFbulK<L 
Qallipoli  is  a  thriving  commercial  town,  exports  uBvt  'lil 
(which  is  stored  in  greattankscut  in  the  solid  rock),  and  tur 
some  manufactories.  It, is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  V'V. 
(1890)  8,083. 

OBllipoll  (in  Gr.  KoXAfmAjr):  city  of  Enrope&n  Turk«: 
province  of  Houmili;  at  the  northeast  end  of  the  Ilapi>- 
nellea.  and  alraut  110  miles  W.  S.  W,  of  CunstantinDptf  i-v 
map  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-D).  It  is  miserably  built,  but  has  t»u 
good  harbors,  lai^  manufactures  of  earthenware  and  mo- 
rocco leather,  and  carries  on  a  very  extensive  tntde.  Gallip- 
oli  was  the  first  European  town  that  fell  into  the  hanili  if 
the  Turks  in  ISST,  nearly  a  century  before  the  fall  of  ('<>a- 
stautinople.  It  is  the  key  to  Constantinople  and  the  GU'-t 
Sea,  and  was  occupied  by  the  allied  armies  of  Great  Brii^'n 
and  France  in  1854.  It  has  a  Greek  bishop.  Pop.  i1K>'i 
15,500.  Revised  by  C.  H.  TauMEK. 

Galllpolis':  citv;  capital  of  Gallia  co..  0.  (for  ligation  t 
county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ret,  8-G) ;  on  the  Ohio  river,  ari'l 
the  Col.,  Hock.  V.  and  Tol.  Railway  and  the  Ohio  Central 
lines;  equidistant  from  Pittsburg  and  Cincinnati ;  96  aii1>- 
S.  E.  of  Chillicothe.  It  is  above  the  highest  water-mori; 
has  packet-line  connections  with  Pittsburg  and  Ciiieinnri; 
manufactures  lumber,  leather,  woolen  goods,  fumilim', 
brooms,  and  flour,  and  contains  Qallia  Academv.  puii^;' 
high  school,  several  churches,  court-house.  3  bknks.  and  1 
daily  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop,  (1880)  4,400;  il^."' 
4,498. 
Okllipoli,  Strait  of:  See  DARDANn.i.Es. 
OalllBDnnUre,  gtf&'l^'sd'ni-Or',  Aiiai:sTi!(  Fiux  Elisi- 
BBTH  BAKaiN,  Count  de  la:  soldier;  b.  in  Anjou.  Pranrc. 
1743;  served  under  his  uncle,  the  Marquis  de  la  Gallic  d- 
niSre,  in  the  marine  service  in  Canada;  entered  the  arrn. 
serving  against  Hanover;  was  made  marichai  dr  rarfi 
1788,  and  grand-seneschal  of  the  sword  for  Anjou  IT^.  l  > 
virtue  of  which  office  he  was  president  of  the  nobles  in  The 
states-general  in  that  year.  Be  was  chosen  to  preside  ritrr 
the  assembled  Three  Estates  at  the  begiiming  of  the  Id  v- 
lution,  and  was  premier  deputy  of  the  nobles  in  the  (..<!- 
stituent Assembly.  Sometime  after  he  became  an  rn-ir^' 
and  fought  against  the  revolutionists,  but  in  1801  rrturr.i.i. 
and  was  in  public  life  under  Napoleon.  When  thr  B"ii:- 
bons  returned  he  was  made  lieutenant-general,  but  retir.-i! 
from  public  life  in  1815.  He  wrote  much  upon  the  put-.i,- 
affairs  of  his  time.     D.  Mar.  2.  1828. 

GallisonnlSre,  Rola.vd  MtciiEL  BAaaiN.  MarquL'  do  i.i. 
sailor;  b.  in  Rochefort,  France,  Nov.  11.  16»3.  He  m.- 
tered  the  French  navy  1710;  while  having  the  rank  .d  » 
captain  was  (1745-49)  Governor-General  of  Canaila.  wL  ■v 
he  displayed  great  energy  in  naval  construction  and  in  <— 
tablisning  a  Tine  of  torts  between  Canada  and  L<'uiMiii.>. 
The  Indians  at  flr»t  despised  him  for  his  small  stalunr.  I' .: 
soon  learned  to  love  him  and  respect  his  abilities.  lii-< 
administration  was  marked  by  troubles  with  the  British  '.r. 
Nova  Scotia  and  the  Ohio  valley.  He  was  the  originator  ' ' 
the  scheme  for  connecting  Canada  with  Louisiana  by  nu  :i'.< 
of  a  chain  of  trading-stations  along  the  Ohio  and  Mi—  ~ 
sippi,  not  only  to  establish  a  ready  communication  WiV'-iz 
the  two  colonies,  but  also  to  circumscribe  the  Knglish  i.-'  ;i- 
nies  within  certain  limits.  Gallisonnicre  next  was  chii'f  <-! 
the  bureau  of  maps  and  charts,  with  the  rank  of  eh'f  -f-- 
cadre.  He  performed  much  excellent  scienliflc  wort  ;^i 
this  position.  In  1756  he  defeated  Byng  off  Minon-a  !■•' 
which  defeat  Byng  was  afterward  executed),  but  the  tHti.-..< 
and  excitement  of  this  action  were  loo  severe  for  Gall;-  :- 
niere's  health,  and  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  the  comniai^ . 
He  was  very  fond  of  botanical  science;  was  deformed  a:;- 
of  feeble  health,  but  of  very  active  mind,  D,  in  Nenit-ur-, 
Oct.  26, 1756. 

Oalllt'sln :  a  Russian  princely  house  whose  origin  i^ 
Lithuanian,  the  Prince  Gedemin,  the  ancestor  of  the  Jac> ' 
Ion  princes,  being  also  ancestor  of  the  Gallltxins.  T'^ 
name  comes  from  Oolitia  (leather  gauntlet),  a  suraai:  -' 
of  Mikhail  Ivanovitch  Bulgak,  one  of  the  ancestors  of  ;•■ 
family,  distinguished  an  the  wearer  of  gloves  of  this  ki'- : 
Ivan  the  Terrible  in  the  sixteenth  century  made  one  of  '.  ■ 
family  a  boyar,  and  since  that  time  there  have  been  mam 
diplomatists,  generals,  and  politicians  among  the  prin.>f 


664  GALLOP 

Gallop:  See  Qurs. 

GsllDUn'iiic  Acid  (C,tH,.Oi  -t-SHiO) :  the  variet)'  of  tan: 
nic  acid  or  tannin  which  is  found  in  the  gall-nuts  of  Qvereua 
infeetoria  and  other  species  of  the  oak,  in  sumac,  and  in 
Chinese  gall-nuta.  It  differs  from  caffe-tannic,  catechu-tan- 
nic,  inorin-tannic,  querci-tannic,  and  quiiio-tannio  acids  in 
certain  important  properties,  although  it  resembles  them  in 
possessinK  a  slight  acid  reaction,  a  rough  astringent  taste, 
coloring  ferric  salts  blue-black  or  green,  precipitating  albu- 
men and  gelatin,  and  converting  animal  membranes  into 
leather.  Revised  hy  Iba  Rebskk. 

OKlloWa; :  a  district  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  comprising 
the  county  of  Wigtown  and  the  stewartry  of  Kirkcudbright, 
and  forming  the  peninsula  that  projects  toward  Ireland  and 
terminates  in  the  Rhynns  of  Oalloway,  the  southernmost 
point  in  Scotland.  It  is  famous  for  its  small  breed  of  horses 
and  its  hornless  hiack  cattle,  the  raisingof  which  ts  one  of 
the  main  pursuits  of  the  inhabitants.  The  province,  vrhich 
formerly  included  the  shire  of  Dumfries,  in  addition  to  the 
districts  above  named,  was  inhabited  by  the  Picts,  who  fell 
successively  under  the  power  of  Romans,  Auglians,  and 
Danes,  but  were  Anally  united  to  the  kinsdom  of  Scotland 
in  the  twelfth  century.  The  lords  of  Galloway  were  oft«n 
in  revolt  against  the  Scottish  throne  until  after  ttie  turbu- 
lent rule  of  the  Douglas  family  in  lilast  Oalluway,  when  the 
lordship  of  the  province  was  attached  to  the  crown.  For  a 
further  account  of  the  region,  see  Wiqton  or  Wiotowk  and 

KiBKCUDB  BIGHT. 

Gsllowar,  Cbables  BBTts,  A.B.,  D.D.:  bishop:  b.  in 
Kosciusko,  Miss.,  Sept.  1,  18^.  He  was  educated  in  the 
University  of  Mississippi;  chosen  professor  in  Madison  Col- 
lege, Mississippi,  in  18SD ;  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Meth- 
odist EpiscoiMl  Church  South ;  stationed  in  Black  Hawk 
1870,  Fort  Oibson  1871,  Yazoo  City  ISTS-Td,  Jackson  1874- 
77,  Vicksburg  1878^!,  and  Jackson  1882;  editor  of  the 
New  Orleans  Chritlian  AdeocaU  in  1883-86;  and  was 
elected  bishop  in  the  latter  year.  He  was  a  fraternal  mes- 
senger to  the  Methodist  Church  of  Canada  in  1888.  and  to 
the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  of  England  in  1893,  and 
delegate  to  the  Centennial  conference  in  Baltimore  in  1884. 
an<l  to  the  Ecumenical  conference  in  Washington,  D.  C,  in 
1891.  His  publications  include  Me-tkodiam.  a  Child  of 
Promdence  (1877) ;  Handbook o( Prohibition (1886) ;  Aaron's 
Rod  in  Public  Morals ;  and  i>iseuMi[>n  with  Hon.  Jefferaon 
Davis  on  Prohibition  (1888). 

OalloWB,  gSl'liis  or  gWloz  [M.  Eng.  galoms  <  0.  Eng. 
galga,  gallows,  cross :  Goth,  aalga,  cross :  Slod.  Germ.  (/alge. 
gallows;  cf.  Lith.  iaiga.  pole] :  the  structure  bv  means  of 
which  capital  punishment  by  banging  is  inflictcJ.  The  cul- 
prit stands  upon  a  platform,  or  drop,  beneath  a  cross-bar  ele- 
vated upon  two  upright  supports.  A  rope  or  halter  hangs 
from  the  cross-bar,  and  a  noose  at  its  end  is  placed  around 
the  criminal's  neck.  He  is  hanged  by  the  fHlling  of  the 
drop,  or  in  some  casi^s  is  drawn  uii  friiin  the  platform  by  a 
heavy  weight  at  the  other  end  of  the  rope. 

QbIU  [plur.  of  0alt.  from  0.  Pr.  galle :  lUl.  gtilla  <  I^t. 
gal/a.  gall-nut]:  in  the  language  of  naturalists,  abnormal 
growths   " 


by  fJM"'f^  ?•  "J 


duced  on  growing  or  living 

sei-ls  or  closely  allied  mites, 
which  develop  and  are  nour- 
ished therein.    These  defor- 
mations are  found  on  all 
part.s  of  plants,  and  prc^nt 
a  great  variety  of  form,  col- 
or, and   tcsture— from   the 
sininle   pouch-like  bulging 
.  of  the  leaf  to  the  most  pcr- 
I   feet  and  complicated  stnic- 
I   ture.     Many  of  them  resem- 
;   ble  familiar  fruit",  flowers, 
few. 

brown  outamB!"""" "  *="""''''   man.     Take,  in  illustration, 
„,      .     ,  those  occurring  on  the  i-aks. 

ine  bud  may  premature  I V  develop  into  a  bunch  of  lanceo- 
late leaves  or  become  aborted  into  an  acorn-like  chamber. 
The  tender  leaf  of  spring,  and  even  the  blossoms,  are  beset 
with  several  green,  and  mostly  globular,  gall -growths.  The 
more  mature  leaves  furnish  an  infinite  variety,  from  two- 
hnndredths  of  an  inch  to  over  3  inches  in  diameter,  either 


GALLS 

globular,  pedunculated,  conical,  cup-shaped,  or  clavate.  uiJ 
with  a  surface  either  smooth,  reticulate,  wrinkled,  downc. 
woolly,  or  prickly.  The  fruit  is  deformed  by  Urge  ghJ.iiliir 
excrescences  growing  from  the  cupule ;  by  hard  cells  wiihin 
the  cupule,  and  set  in  cavities  with  fimbriated  moulhs.;  I^v 
pip-like  bodies  between  the  acorn  and  cnpule ;  or,  flnailj,  bv 
stonychambersorindurations  '   ' 

in  the  meat  itself,  without  ex- 
ternal indication.  The  inter- 
nal structure  of  galls  is  as 
varied  as  the  external,  but 
there  is  invariably  acell,  with- 
in which  the  it^sect  is  nursed 
and  nourished.  This  cell,  in 
most  succulent  galls,  is  n 


isforn 


^  "pol7tlialiuiioi]a"K>Il^  Bf 
■  tbe  wool  sower  gkU  Kurc 
by  Cynipt  q  •nunatori 
tbowkig  a  lectlaii ;  b.  Dn> 
the  plalike   kernels,  ihoi 

WOofir      WlDK      BDd      Uh-     I 

tbrouKh  whlcb  the  fl;  eKsi 
Colon.  Ught  boS  uid  r»> . 


the  general  tissue;  but  it 
more  often  takes  on  the  char- 
acter of  an  oval  chamber  more 
woody  than  the  surrounding 
substance,  and  which,  though 
lying  generally  secure  in  said 
substance,  is  not  unfrequently 
suspended  to  the  general  en- 
velope by  radiating  fibers,  in 
the  same  way  that  the  hub  is 
connected  by  spokes  to  the 
felly  of  a  wHeel ;  while  more 
rarely  it  is  entirely  separated 
from  its  envelope  and  rolls  around  loosely  therein.  C, 
are  technically  separated  into  two  groups — viz„  the  "  mi 
thalamous,"  or  one-celled  galls,  each  nourishing  a  m 
individual ;  and  the  "  poly  thalamous,"  or  raany-wlled,  n 
ishing  many  individuals  under  a  common  envelojie.  a 
are  produced  either  by  the  action  of  a  peculiar  poi^.ii 
fluid  injected  with  the  eg^  by  the  mother  gall  muxi 
that  the  young  larva  finds  its  habitation  alrimdy  prejji: 
or  by  the  mechanical  irritation  (aided,  most  likelv,  br  *■ 


egg  is  generally  inserted  by  the  parent  in  the  plL_._  ... 
in  the  latter,  it  is  generally  attached  to  the  surface. 
secretory  organs  of  the  plant  are  influenced  by  thi*  ji 
very  much  in  the  same  v/t^y  that  the  human  secretiin 
tern  is  influenced  in  producing  the  smallpox  pustule 
vaccine  matter  is  inserted  into  a  child's  arm.  Gall>. 
general  sense,  pariake  not  (miy  of  the  chemical  chamci 
the  plant-juices,  but  of  the  consistency  of  the  part 
whicn  they  are  found.    Few  families  of   p)uenern<.ii 

Slants  arc  free  from  these  growths,  but  none  have  iht 
sen  found  on  fungi  or  on  mosses.  The  term  "ptll 
sometimes  applied  to  those  animal  swellings  prodiu-'' 
dipterous  larvae,  mostly  belonging  to  the  genus  (t'l-ln 
by  mites  dwelling  in  or  under  tile  skin  of  birds  and  i 
mals.  It  is  also  applied  to  some  of  the  swellings  on 
and  shrubs  produced  by  the  CTOwth  of  cryptogamic  iwr 
plants.  It  should  not  be  applied,  as  it  sometimes  is.  lu 
plant-swellings  and  nodosities  which  are  caused  bv  the  \ 
tures  of  insects  which  always  dwell  exposed  tfieremi 
difference  lietween  a  gall  and  a  mere  swelling  being  ihr 
architect  of  the  former  is  hidden  from  view,  and  ul  ttii 
ter  always  exposed.    See  Gall  In'SEctb. 

GiLL-NUTs  are  hard,  woody,  spherical  swellings  ■' 
olive-gray  or  bluish  and  more  or  less  wrinkled  exlerii>i 
yellowish-brown  interior,  (ormeii  by  Cynipa  gallir-liiit 
on  the  twigs  of  a  species  of  oak  {(^KTCtm  in/fctonat 
mon  throughout  Syria  and  Asia  Mmor.  They  are  ei[- 
from  Smyrna,  Aleppo,  and  other  parts  of  the  Levant,  a.' 
as  from  tne  East  Indies,  to  all  portions  of  the  civiliiiil  « 
and  used  for  tanninr  and  dyeing  purposes,  but  nmn- 
cially  in  the  raanufacture 
of  writing-inks.  They  have 
no  odor,  but  taste  somewhat 
bitter,  and  are  powerfully 
MslringenL  They  give  the 
following  analyses:  Tannic 
acid.  65;  gallic  acid,  2;  el- 
lagic  and  luteo-gallic  acids, 
3 ;  brown  extractive  sub- 
stance, 3'5;  giim,a'5;starch, 

2;   sugar.   !'3  ;  chlorophyll        ^ 

and  volatile  oil.  0-7 ;  woody 

filrer,  10-5:  water.  1116— total,  100.      Thev  prwiuce 

dyes  when  mixed  with  solutions  uf  sulphate  nl  iron. 


' ;  b.  hole  tr 


666 


GALVAKI 


GALVANOMETER 


Galranl,  goal-vaa'nee,  Altisio,  or  Luioi :  the  discoverer 
of  dynamic  electricity;  b.  in  Bologna,  Sept.  9,  IT<tT.  He 
was  in  youtb  strongly  inclined  to  enter  tlie  priesthood,  but 
nas  deteiTed  by  his  friends,  and  in  1762  graduated  M.  D.  at 
Bologna:  became  a  lecturer  upon  anatomy  tliere,  and  gave 
special  attention  t«  comparative  anatomy;  made  important 
observations  upon  oBt«ology  and  the  kidticys  and  ears  of 
birds,  and  in  17)56  was  led  to  the  discovery  of  electric  cur- 
rents by  the  accidental  contact  of  the  dissected  legs  of  a 
frog  with  a  scalpel,  which  provoked  muscular  contractions. 
D.  in  Bologna,  Dec.  4. 1788. 

Gftlvanlc   Batterf:   See   Battery,  Voltaic  ob  Gal- 

GftlTanlgm  fderiv.  of  &B2tvini,  because  of  hia  researches 
in  this  field] :  the  science  of  electrical  currents  produced  by 
oberoieal  action.  The  word  is  now  little  used  except  in 
medicine.  See  Battebv,  Voltaic  ob  Galvanic,  and  Elec- 
tric itt, 

dlal'Tanized  Iron  [galvaniie,  liter.,  to  render  galvanic 
or  subject  U>  the  action  of  galvanic  electricity,  as  though 
galvanized  iron  were  prepared  by  this  process]:  sheet  or 
other  iron  coated  with  zinc  by  dipping  it  into  a  bath  of 
melted  amalgam  of  zinc  and  mercury,  containing  a  little 
sodium.  The  iron  is  fint  cleansed  with  sulphuric  acid, 
and  is  then  washed  and  scoured.  Before  galvanizing  it  is 
usually  dusted  with  sal-a)nmoni(ic  powder.  The  process  was 
invented  by  C.  P.  Mallet  in  France,  and  improved  by  H.  W. 
Crawfurd,  of  England,  in  1887.  It  isa  very  useful  treatment 
for  iron  roofs,  telegraph  wire,  ships'  bolts,  etc.,  the  zinc  act- 
ing as  a  paint  Sometimes,  before  tin-plating,  sheet-iron  is 
covered  with  a  film  of  zinc,  which  makes  the  lin-plating  more 
permanent. 

Galvanom'etor  [galvano,  compounding  form  of  galvanic 
-t-  Gr.  lUrpBv,  measure] :  an  instrument  for  the  measurement 
of  the  electric  current  by  means  of  the  deflecting  action  of 
the  latter  upon  a  suspended  magnet.  The  essential  parts 
of  every  galvanometeraro  the  deflecting  coils  and  the  needle. 
The  galvanometer  needle  now  in  use  differs  greatly  from 
the  magnetized  sewing-needles  used  in  the  instruments  of 
NobiH  and  of  Melloni.  It  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  a 
steel  disk  magnetized  transversely,  the  face  of  which  is  pol- 
ished and  serves  as  a  mirror,  or  of  a  steel  ring  likewise  mag- 
netized transversely,  or  of  a  tubular  bell  magnet.  Some- 
times several  parallel  strips  of  steel  are  attached  to  the  back 
of  a  light  mirror  of  silvered  glass  or  to  a  support  of  al- 
uminium, glass,  or  mica.  In  some  ballistic  galvanometers 
the  needle  constats  of  a  cylindrical  bar  magnet,  a  centi- 
meter or  more  in  diameter  and  several  centimeters  long. 
In  instruments  of  the  very  highest  sensitiveness,  on  the 
other  hand,  bits  of  steel  wire  i  mm.  in  diameter  and  2  mm. 
long  are  used.  In  one  form  of  galvanometer  (the  elec- 
tro-dynamometer of  Weber)  and  in  some  instruments  of 
the  d'Arsonval  type  the  "needle"  contains  no  iron,  a 
suspended  coil-carrying  current  constituting  the  deflected 

Standard  galvanometert  are  of  such  construction  that 
the  current  can  be  calculated  in  absolute  measure  from  the 
dimensions  of  the  instrument,  the  deflection  of  the  needle, 
and  the  stren^h  of  the  field  in  which  (he  latter  swinss. 
The  law  of  action  of  galvanometers  of  this  class  may  be  tle- 

riveil  as  follows;  If  a  circular  coil  of      "     ""  ' 

be  placed  in  a  vertical  position,  its  ani 


Uo..^ 


perpendicular  to  the 
lines  of  force  of  the 
earth's  field,  each 
element  of  the  coil 
will  exert  a  force 
upon  a  magntt 
pole  situate  1  anj 
"therein  the  neigh 
borh  lod  tending 
to  mo\e  the  poie 
along  the  line*  of 
forte  due  to  the 
current   This  force 


the  = 


(f 


pngth  of  the 


the  distance  from  the   pole  to  the   wii 
a  short  needle,  of  lengtD  X,  suspended 


strength  of  the 
magnet  pole  d  is 
e  In  the  case  (t 
in  the  axis  of  the 


u  of  such  forces  due  to  the  e) 


F,  =  - 


(*•  +  r^» 


where  r  is  the  radius  of  the  coil  (Fig.  1),  n  is  the  number  !•'. 
turns  of  the  wire,  and  !i  is  the  angle  which  the  deflvctr-i 
needle  makes  with  the  plane  of  the  coil.  An  equal  and  <i[- 
posite  force  upon  the  other  pole  of  the  magnet  fumihht^ 
with  the  above  a  couple,  the  moment  of  which  is  kFi. 
When  the  needle  is  driven  from  its  position  of  rest  in  ihe 
magnetic  meridian  by  this  couple,  it  comes  to  eqnilibrium  in 
a  new  plane.  The  couple  due  to  the  earth  is  then  balanivt 
by  that  due  to  the  current.  The  former  is  xJ',  =xmi7siiid. 
where  F,  is  the  effective  force  exerted  bj  the  e&rth'^  msf- 
netism  upon  either  pole  of  the  needle,  and  H  is  the  hori- 
zontal intensity  of  the  magnetic  field.  Hince  the  needle  is 
in  equilibrium. 


(d'  +  r*f 


This  equation  gives  the  current  in  terms  of  the  dimennnit 
of  the  coil,  its  distance  from  the  needle,  the  deflection  arni 
the  strength  of  the  field  in  which  the  needle  is  Euspendtii : 
and  when  the  strength  of  the  field  is  known  in  terms  of  it,' 
c.  g.  8.  system  of  units,  the  current  is  obtained  also  in  alwv 
lute  measure.  It  will  be  seen  that  neither  the  mapifiic 
of  the  needle  nor  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  $u> 


{^  -i 


r-t 


pendedpartsenters  into  the  equation.   Thequantitv 

=  O  K  sometimes  called  "the  constant  of  the  coil,"ibr 
equation  for  the  tangent  galvanometer  being  writteil  in  the 
form  I  =  6/?  Una. 

In  the  »ine  gcUvanomrter  sometimes  used  the  needle  i' 
mounted  in  the  plane  of  the  coil,  and  the  latter  is  free  to 
revolve  upon  a  vertical  axis. 

In  making  measurements  with  such  an  instrument  tbe 
coil  is  caused  to  follow  up  the  needle  in  its  defleiti'in. 
Under  these  conditions  the  moment  due  to  the  current  hK> 

always  its  maximum  value,  Am. -,  and  the  equation  for 

current  takes  the  form  t  =  -^—,  H  sin  A. 

Standard  galvanometers  are  frequently  mode  with  more 
than  one  coiL  Sometimes,  as  in  the  HelmhoItE-Gaugain 
pattern,  with  the  needle  midway  between  them.     In  thii 


Fio.  S— Large  tangent  galTanometar  of  Oamdl  Tfeftt  Jff. 

form  the  coils  are  of  equal  size,  and  the  distance  belwi^i 
them  is  equal  (o  their  radius.  A  notable  example  of  llx 
development  of  this  type  is  the  large  tangent  galvanometer 


6gg  GALVANOPLASTY 

the  best  commercial  galfaDometers  (ammeters  and  voltme- 
ters). 

Electro-dynfttnoraeters  are  galvanometers  in  which  the 
needle  consists  of  a  bobbin  of  wire,  carrying  current.  Such 
a  coil  when  suspended  with  Ireedom  of  motion  about  a 
vertical  axis  tends  to  come  to  rest  with  its  axis  in  the  iDig- 
netic  meridian,  a  position  from  which  it  will  be  deflected 
by  the  action  ot  currents  in  neighboring  coils.  The  current 
is  sometimes  supplied  from  a  separate  battery,  more  fre- 
quently the  same  current  traverses  the  fixed  and  the  mov- 


Fid,  0. — Cross-ar^cttoo  of  coilB  of  a  Henaltive  Bstatic  fjUvaoomet^r 

able  coils.  The  electro-dynamometer  can  not  be  given  so 
wide  or  sohighadegreeof  sensitivenessas  the  galvanometer, 
nor  has  it  so  wide  a  range  of  usefulness.  It  possesses  one 
great  advantage,  however,  in  being  applicable  to  the  meas- 
urement of  alternating  currents.  See  Electkicitt.  Cub- 
bent.  AHPtsB.  Maonetish.  See  also  Wiedemann's  Elek- 
tricUdt ;  Gray's  Absoltttf  Mea«ureraenla  in  Electricity  (vol. 
ii.,  ii.),  or  any  of  the  larger  text-books  oa  electricity. 

E.  L.  Nichols. 
tl«lTail'opU8ty[jo'i«ino-,compoundingforrnofffo/™m'c 
4-  -plaily  <  from  deriv.  of  Gr.  w^iam*,  shape] :  the  art  of 


and  nickel.    The  process  is  resorteti  lo  (f)  for  reprodi 

seals,  coins,  medallions,  wood-cuts,  engravings  in  metal 
busts,  bas-reliefs,  etc. ;  (3)  for  coating  base  metals  with  silver. 
gold,  nickel,  or  platinum ;  (3)  tor  etching  copper-plates  tor 
the  engraver.     See   Electroltsis.   Eleltrotipe,  Nickel- 

PLiTINa,  PhOTOOBAPHV,  SlLVER-PLATlSO.  OtC. 

Gal'veston :  cit^  (settled  1836).  port  of  entry,  and  rail- 
way and  commercial  center;  capital  ot  Galveston  co.,  Tex. 
(tor  location,  see  map  of  Texas,  ret.  8-J) ;  on  Galveston  isl- 
and between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Galveston  Bav,  and  on 
the  Galveston  and  Western,  the  Gulf,  ('olorado  and  S.  ¥&,  the 
International  and  Gt.  Northern,  and  the  N.  Gatv.,  Houston 
and  Kan.  C.  Railroads;  314  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Austin.  It  ' 
connected  with  the  entire  railway  systems  of  the  U.  S.  a[ 
of  Mexico,  and  has  eleven  direct  lines  ot  steamship  coi.. 
munication  with  New  York,  Morgan  City,  Indianola,  and 
the  coast  ports  of  the  State,  and  with  Liverpool,  Bremen, 
and  other  foreign  ports.  Its  forcifni  and  domestic  tra<le  is 
larfro.  During  the  calendar  year  1892  the  foreign  imports 
ageregated  *863.eia.  and  foreign  exports  135,888,740: 
from  Sept.  1,  1892,  till  May  1.  1893.  the  total  imports 


i,  1B93.  Galveston  shipped  to  domestic  and  foreign  ports 
1,130.433  iiales  of  cotton.  The  domestic  exports  are  cof 
wool,  hides,  oil-cake,  and  oil-meal ;  the  domestic  imports 
drugs,  boots  and  shoes,  hats,  dry  goods,  chemicals,  and  like 
commodities;  the  foreign  exports  are  cotton,  oil-cake  ami 
meal,  wheat,  grain,  flour,  and  copper  and  iron  ores ;  and  the 
foringn  imports  include  flre-brick,  tiles,  etc.  Diiring  the 
eight  months  ending  May  1,  I8U3.  the  entrances  at  the  V.  S. 
custom-house  were  301  steam  and  87  sailing  vessels  of  565, 
681  combined  tonnage,  and  the  cU'arances  wore  109  steam 
and  83  sailing  vessels  of  5''>4.349  combined  tonnage. 

The  census  returns  of  18JKI  show  that  18?  manufacturing 
establishments  (representing  55  industries)  reported.  These 
had  14331,345  capital,  emplovcd  1.916  workmen,  paid  out 
11,334,040  annually  in  wages,  used  materials  to  the  value 
of  $3,338,057.  and  produced  merchandise  to  the  value  of 
16,665,147.  There  wore  4  cot  ton -compresses  with  »1.180,000 
capita] ;  1  cotton-mill  with  (."WO.OOO  capital  and  :i0.000  spin- 
dles; 1  cotton-seed  oil-mill  with  |5OI).UO0  capital:  6  foun- 
dries and  iron-works ;  Sbreweriea;  and  other  establishments. 
The  assessed  valuations  in   1802  were  real  property,  f  IT,- 


OAMA 

843,455;  personal,  |S,36»,541— toUl,  |33.1t2,0D6;  and  in 
rate  tl5  per  $i,000.  In  1893  the  gross  city  vslustions  w..i 
$35,000,000;  the  debt  was  $1,750,000;  the  city  hwl  aiitl.  r 
ity  to  issue  additional  bonds  to  the  amount  of  tl.500.0lMj  f. 
permanent  improvements,  and  it  owned  property  I"  !(.■ 
value  of  $1,055,530. 

In  1803  there  were  30  churches  ot  various  denominHti<  i. 
tor  whil«  citizens  and  13  for  colored,  with  28  astoriafi'  ■ 
to  promote  church  enterprises;  the  Ball  High  S<  In .  ! 
erected  by  George  Ball  at  a  cost  of  more  than  $100.00<>.  aii.. 
presenUKl  t»the  city,  and  4  district  schools  torwbile  i>u|.i'- 
one  ot  which  was  erected  by  Henry  Rosenberg  at  a  ci.i>i  . : 
$100,000;  a  central  and  3  district  schools  for  colored  V^y  ■-■ 
and  26  select  and  private  schools;  a  public  library  and  lii' 
library  ot  Galveston  Ccmnty,  and  the  Texas  Supreme  (."nuri . 
3  national  and  6  other  banks,  with  combined  capital  "1 
$13,600,000;  and  1  semi-monthly,  1  monthly,  2  daily,  an'!  t; 
weekly  periodicals.  Among  new  buildings  are  the  U.  .■>. 
custom-house,  the  John  Sealy  Hospital,  and  the  schoi'l  ■'. 
medicine  of  the  State  University.  The  U.  S.  Govenini.  i  -, 
is  spending  $6,300,000  in  the  construction  of  a  svMem  .'[ 
jetties  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  lo  secure  «  deep-Bui-.r 
outlet  on  the  Gulf  coast. 

The  city  has  gas  and  electric- light  plants ;  a  water-w.  r-;s 
system  valued  at  $450,000.  and  suppti^  from  srtK-j.is 
wells;  numerous  hotels,  including  one  ot  the  lai^st  in  :■.•.' 
South,  on  the  Gulf  beach :  an  unequaled  beach  on  the  (iiiK 
side  of  the  island,  extending  30  miles;  and  a  healthful  ih- 
maU.     Pop.  (1880)  32,348;  (1880)  29,084. 

Editos  ■■  News." 

Oalyez  v  dallardo,  gaal'veth-ee-gaal-yaardo.  Bebmri-^: 
soldier  ana  administrator ;  b.  in  Macbaraviaga,  Spain. -li.,' 
'*23,  1746.  He  entered  service  as  a  cadet,  and  in  I7T8<(.:.'| 
to  Louisiana,  where  he  lieciime  Governor  in  1770.  War  liav. 
ing  broken  out  with  Great  Britain,  he  was  placed  inciimni.-i:'. 
of  the  Spanish  forces  in  the  West  Indies;  captureil  B^i'< :. 
Rouge  1770,  and  Mobile  Mar.  14,  1780.  and  aflcr  a  s>.r.- 
struggle  took  Pcnsacola  May  8,  1781 ;  subsequently  he  •*  <  u* 
pied  Jamaica.  For  his  sei'vices  he  was  named  captain-;:-  fl- 
oral ot  Louisiana  and  Florida  and  captain -general  r)f  i  u)  ;i. 
and  in  1783  was  created  Count  of  Galvez.  In  June.  1>"j.  r- 
became  Viceroy  of  Mexico,  succeeding  his  father.  Maliii--  i- 
Galvez.    D.  in  Tacubaya,  near  Mexico.  Noi 


Hei 


rH.t 


Oal'iraj:  county  ot  Ireland,  in  the  province  ot  'ot:- 
naught.  Its  western  part  along  the  Atlantic  is  wilrl  a^i 
mountainous;  the  eastern  part  is  flat.  Good  bn-id-^  ".' 
cattle  and  sheep  are  reared  here.  The  fisheries  are  vni,- 
siderable,  but  agriculture  is  neglected.  Area,  2,417  -i. 
miles.     Pop.  (1891)  314,350. 

Oaliray :  town  of  Ireland ;  capital  of  the  county  of  liul- 
way  (see  map  of  Ireland,  ret.  O-D).  It  is  on  Galwa'v  Itn> . :.: 
tliB  mouth  of  the  Corrib,  50  miles  N.  N.  W.  ot  Liiiii-rii  i. 
and  137  miles  W.  of  Dublin  by  rail,  and  has  a  considrrii!.. 
retail  trade,  thriving  fisheries,  and  some  manufacture- :iii.i 
commerce.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Midland  Great  W..'- 
em  liailway;  has  one  of  the  f|ueen's  colleges  tor  Ir.!  i!,! 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  bishopric.  The  town,  with  il>  ^i:- 
urbs,  is  virtually  a  county  within  itself.     Pop.  (180i|  l;f.;4ii. 

Qalway  Bay :  an  inlet  ot  the  Atlantic ;  20  miles  l-m^  f.ii  i 
from  18  to  8  miles  broad;  on  the  western  coast  of  Irvi.Ki-!. 
protected  from  the  swell  of  the  ocean  by  the  Arrau  I-.'  -, 
and  affording  many  advantages  for  the'  eonstructinu  ■■;  4 
harbor  ot  refuge. 

Gft'ina  (or  Oram*)  Grass  [trom  Oama,  a  cluster  ut  •)  • 
Maldive  islands,  grans]  r  the  Triptaeiun  daclyloidrt.  h  v.  ri 
large  grass  of  North  and  tropical  America,  cultivalni  |..  a 
considerable  extent  as  a  forage-plant  in  the  warm  ri'u-i'r!-"; 
both  continents.  The  name  is  given  in  the  extrciuo  vi-i- 
ern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  to  various  species  of  buffali>-::i  i- 
(chiefly  Sovtfltiiia),  which  furnish  good  pasturage  tor  ^-i"  i- 

Oania,  Vasco,  da:  Count  of  Vidiguciis;  navigator:  )'.  si 
Sines,  in  Portugal,  about  146B;  became  a  skilleil  niarir.'; 
and  a  gentleman  of  king's  household,  and  in  1497wa-<l>' 

Eatched  in  command  of  the  royal  squadron  to  tbe  i\.<< 
ndies  by  way  ot  the  Cape  of  Good  Hoik-,  lately  di*<»v.  r>'i 
by  Diaz.  Tne  Indian  Ocean  was  then  unexplored,  (i.iiij 
coasted  the  eastern  shores  ot  Africa,  and  visiteil  India,  r- 
turning  to  Lisbon  in  1499.  Cabral's  expeililion  and  '.\;- 
discovery  of  Brazil  followed,  Gama  made  his  sec-md  i>v 
age,  with  twenty  ships,  in  1503-^,  and  became  involved  tr. 
hostilities  with  the  towns  of  the  Malabar  coast,  whicli  l:e 


670 


GAMELION 


GANGES 


all  persons  desiring  to  hunt  game,  either  upon  their  own 
land  or  that  of  another,  to  take  out  a  yearly  certificate  by 
which  permission  is  conceded.  If  the  land  belongs  to  some 
third  person,  his  consent  that  a  certificate  may  issue  must 
be  obtained.  Poaching  is  punished  with  great  severity. 
No  person  is  authorized  to  sell  game  without  procuring  a 
license  conferring  the  power.  Minute  and  stringent  regu- 
lations are  establishea  determining  the  times  of  the  year 
when  game  may  be  taken  by  those  possessing  the  privilege. 
The  policy  of  British  legislation  is  to  confine  the  rignt 
to  kill  game  to  the  aristocratic  and  land-holding  classes ; 
and  the  laws  prohibiting  interference  with  their  privileges 
are  consequently  made  very  rigid  and  strictly  enforced.  In 
the  U.  S.  the  right  to  kill  game  is  enjoyed  equally  by  all 
citizens,  and  the  only  common-law  restriction  against  its  ex- 
ercise arises  from  the  necessity  of  avoiding  the  commission 
of  a  trespass  upon  the  lands  of  other  persons.    But  statutory 

§  revisions  have  been  adopted  in  a  large  number  of  the 
tates  prohibiting  the  act  of  taking  certain  valuable  kinds 
of  game  except  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 

T.  W.  DWIOHT. 

Oame'lion  (in  Gr.  TofiiiKi^ifj  from  yofuty,  marry):  the 
seventh  month  of  the  Attic  year,  so  called  because  it  was 
the  month  in  which  marriages  took  place.  It  corresponded 
with  the  last  half  of  January  and  the  first  half  of  February. 
See  Unger's  Zeitrechnung  der  OHechen  und  Romer  (Munich, 
1892).  For  succinct  statements,  see  Reinach's  Traite  d'Spi- 
graphie  precque^  pp.  473-503 ;  Freund's  Triennium  philolo- 
fficum,  lii.,  pp.  37-47;  and  Gow's  Companion  to  School 
Classics,  pp.  78-84  J.  R.  S.  S. 

Gamingr  and  Gamingr-honses  [M.  Eng.  gamenen  <  0. 
Eng.  gamenian,  deriv.  of  gamen,  gomen,  game,  sport  >  Eng. 
game  and  gamfnon] :  in  law,  the  playing  of  games  of  hazard 
for  money  or  some  article  of  pecuniary  value  and  the  houses 
devoted  to  such  purposes.  At  common  law  gaming  was  not 
recognized  as  a  criminal  offense,  and  was  only  made  punish- 
able when  it  had  been  employed  as  a  means  for  the  commis- 
sion of  fraud.  Thus  cheating  by  the  use  of  false  dice  or  de- 
ceptive cards  subjected  the  defrauder  to  indictment,  and  he 
was  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  Public  gaming- 
houses, or  houses  kept  for  the  purpose  of  affording  a  place 
for  people  to  gamble  for  money  or  other  valuables,  also  were 
deemed  common  nuisances,  and  might  be  suppressed ;  but 
in  order  to  sustain  an  indictment  it  was  necessary  that  the 
house  be  used  commonly  for  gambling  purposes,  although 
not  necessarily  by  more  than  a  particular  class  of  persons. 
But  in  all  cases  where  the  persons  engaging  in  gaming  were 
the  victims  of  no  imposition,  acted  of  their  own  free  consent, 
and  the  play  was  fairly  conducted,  not  only  was  the  act  not 
deemed  sufficiently  reprehensible  to  deserve  legal  punish- 
ment, but  the  courts  would  lend  their  aid  to  enable  tne  win- 
ner of  money  to  recover  it  from  the  loser.  But  the  per- 
nicious influence  of  gaming  upon  social  morals,  and  the 
passion  for  indulging  in  it  which  is  apt  to  be  created  in  its 
votaries,  as  well  as  the  great  opportunities  which  are  afford- 
ed for  deluding  and  defrauding  the  inexperienced  and  the 
young,  have  led  to  the  enactment  of  statutes  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  in  the  U.  S.  making  the  practice  unlawful  and 
imposing  penalties  upon  those  engaging  in  it  or  providing 
means  for  its  repression.  The  provisions  of  these  statutes 
vary  in  detail,  but  in  general  they  provide  for  the  summary 
conviction  and  punishment  of  the  proprietors  of  gaming- 
houses, and  for  the  confiscation  of  tne  gaming  implements, 
and  declare  that  contracts  by  way  of  gaming  or  wagering 
shall  be  void,  and  that  no  suit  shall  be  brought  to  enforce 
the  payment  of  the  money  won.  Under  such  statutes  bills 
and  notes  given  for  money  won  at  play  are  void  on  account 
of  the  illegal  consideration.  They  also  frequently  provide 
that  if  any  money  or  property  be  deposited  with*  a  stake- 
holder to  await  the  result  of  a  game  or  wager,  the  depositor, 
whether  he  lose  or  not,  may  bring  suit  against  the  stake- 
holder or  winner  (if  he  receive  it)  to  rc<!0ver  it.  and  some- 
times impose  a  forfeit  or  penalty  on  those  who  practice 
gaming.  Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Gam'inarns  [Lat.  gam'marus,  cdnimarus,  from  Gr.  icdfi- 
ftapoSf  ndfifiopoSf  a  kind  of  lobster]  :  a  genus  of  amphipod 
crustaceans  occurring  in  both  fresh  and  salt  water,  but 
without  common  name  except  that  of  beach-flea  or  sand- 
hopper,  which  they  share  with  most  amphipods.  They  are 
an  important  element  in  the  food  of  various  fishes. 

J.  S.  K. 

Oam'at  [formerly  gammut,  from  Fr.  gamme^  name  of 
the  Gr.  letter  y  (gamma)  +  Fr.  ut,  do  (in  music)] :  in  music. 


the  name  formerly  given  to  the  series  of  notes  forminff  X}^> 
diatonic  scale.  The  first  attempt  to  adjust  in  asci(^ntifi« 
manner  the  elements  of  the  diatonic  scale  is  usually  as- 
cribed to  Guido  d'Arezzo,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Ihu  tenth 
century.  He  had  diligently  studied  music,  such  as  it  thn^ 
was,  and  by  practice  in  his  monastery  became  so  sensible  of 
the  needless  difficulties  imposed  upon  learners  for  want  of  a 
clear  and  scientific  arranp;ement  of  the  various  tone^i'  thdi 
he  undertook  the  remodeling  of  the  whole  musical  syMeii-. 
He  commenced  by  adding  one  note  below  the  lowest  t).*u 
in  use.  To  this  new  or  supplementary  note  he  guvf  i!-.- 
name  of  gamma,  from  the  third  letter  of  the  Greek  alpha! t^i. 
He  had  also  been  much  impressed  with  the  recarrenc*^  of 
certain  syllables  in  the  following  verse  of  a  hymn  to  Si. 
John,  then  in  frequent  use : 

Ut  queant  laxls  l?«8onare  fibrte, 
Iftra  gestorum  /Vimuli  tuorum. 
Solve  pollute  Labii  reatum, 
Sancte  Joannes. 

To  the  six  notes  of  the  hexachord  he  therefore  appropriat'-i! 
these  syllables — viz.,  Ut,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  and  the  sm.^ 
thus  formed  {Si,  for  the  seventh  grade,  being  added  af»'r- 
ward)  acquired  the  name  of  the  gamm-ut,  or  gamut.  Tte 
scale  as  thus  regulated  by  Guido  appears  to  have  emlimr^^i 
two  octaves  and  a  sixth  in  its  range — i.  e,  the  oricn  ••1 
gamut,  its  repetition  in  the  octave,  and  six  notas  of  a  fur- 
ther series.  Revised  bv  Dudley  Bitk. 

Gananoqne,  g&n-ftn-ok' :  flourishing  village  of  Letd^  o., 
Ontario,  Canada;  near  the  Grand  Trunk  iSiilway,  and  en 
the  St.  Lawrence,  opposite  the  Thousand  islands' (see  ii.aj. 
of  Ontario,  ref.  3-G).  It  has  extensive  manufactur<>N  :i 
great  water-power,  and  is  a  place  of  summer  resort.  Pl.{  . 
of  sub-district,  3,000. 

Gandn:  a  kingdom  of  Upper  Sudan,  Western  Afriia, 
situated  on  both  sides  of  the  xJiger.  from  11'  to  14*  X.,  hdk 
inhabited  by  people  of  the  Fulah  race.    Capital,  Gandu. 

Ganga :  See  Sand-grouse. 

Gan'ges  [via  Lat.  from  Gr.  Tdyyris,  from  Sanskr.  (raJi>;d, 
Gangesjf:  the  principal  river  of  Hindustan.  Its  soun.t*>  an^ 
in  the  Himalayas,  it^  mouth  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  hbf*- 
tire  length  is  about  1,500  miles.  It  begins  its  upper  c«n.r-. 
under  the  name  of  Bhagirathi,  in  lat.  30'  54'  N.  and  lou.  7i<* 
7'  E.,  at  an  elevation  of  10,300  feet,  in  the  Himalaya  M.  un- 
tains,  where,  according  to  the  celebrated  old  Sanskrit  fit".. 
Ramdyana — which  in  many  places  is  simply  an  alleir«ir:ta.: 
description  of  the  Ganges  and  its  influence  on  human  lift-— 
it  became  entangled  in  the  hair  of  Siva  on  its  descent  f  r-  n. 
heaven  to  earth.  It  issues  from  under  an  immense  UmI  i-J 
snow,  piled  up  between  three  peaks  from  the  height  of  \'.\- 
800  feet  to  22,000  feet ;  rushes  out  from  the  Himalaya  i*, 
wild  torrents;  joins  the  Alaknanda;  receives  the  namr  of 
Ganges;  and,  having  descended  more  than  9,000 feet  du 
a  course  of  160  miles,  it  enters  at  Hardwar.  at  an  elevati. 
of  1,024  feet,  the  plain  of  Hindustan,  and  begins  its  ih:.li 
course.  From  Hardwar  to  Soti,  where  the  Tower  CiHirn-  ■ 
the  Ganges  (the  Delta)  begins,  the  distance  is  nearly  l.U»» 
miles.  At  Hardwar  the  Ganges  becomes  navigable-^aU  vt- 
Cawnpore  only  for  river-craft  and  passenger  steamers,  \h:\ 
below  Allahabad  for  large  vessels.  In  spit4i  of  the  fntju*;/ 
shoals  which  it  forms  at  one  season  ana  removes  the  xww 
thus  altering  its  banks  from  year  to  year,  the  middle  ch:i:ii;r  1 
of  its  bed  is  everywhere  practicable  for  large  ve<s*'ls  ui:-  r 
its  confluence  with  the  Jumna.  Below  Allahabad  it  rt'^M  w? 
from  the  left  the  waters  of  the  Gumti,  Gogra,  Gandak. ..'  i 
Kusi,  and  from  the  right  th#Son,  and  passing  by  the  Kf,- 
cities  of  Benares,  Patna,  Behar,  and  Murshadabad'  on  it-^  ^;s> 
to  Calcutta,  it  forms  a  most  splendid  highway  of  commuri.- 
cation  and  traffic  through  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  n.  -■ 
thickly  peopled  regions  on  the  earth.  The  Delta  of  :.-. 
Ganges  begins  at  a  distance  of  200  miles  from  the  £<*&.  aL<. 
forms  a  perfect  wilderness  of  creeks  and  rivers,  sonif  « f 
which  are  salt,  and  all  of  which  are  subject  to  tidal  intV.- 
ences.  The  northern  arms  unite  with  the  waters  of  iliv 
Brahmaputra;  the  southernmost,  the  Hugli,  opens  the  wri- 
est and  deepest  passage  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Ac\H»n.i'.:u' 
to  the  poet,  this  delta  was  formed  by  Siva  squeeziajr  tl.f 
water  from  his  hairs  and  letting  it  run  out  between  liis  fin- 
gers, but  according  to  the  naturalist,  it  was  forme*!,  a^  a.l 
other  deltas  were  formed,  by  the  mud  which  the  n\er  cur- 
ries along  with  it,  and  which,  in  the  ease  of  the  Ganp^N  > 
of  an  amount  so  immense  that  its  annual  average  ha*^  l-.-.^ 
computed  at  534,600,000  tons.  This  largo  tract  of  low,  fi.*i. 
alluvial  land  is  yearly  inundated  by  the  Ganges  from  iho 


T\\\Z 


I  . 


672 


GANGRENE 


GANYMEDE 


tury — the  exact  date  is  uncertain — and  canons  passed  against 
Bishop  Eustathius  and  his  followers,  who  constituted  a  sect 
which  advocated  these  ascetic  practices,  viz. :  The  prohibition 
of  marriage ;  that  women  should  abandon  their  husbands  and 
children,  dress  as  men,  and  cut  off  their  hair ;  that  slaves 
should  run  away  from  their  masters  on  the  plea  that  the 
masters  were  not  pious  enough ;  that  prayers  should  not  be 
made  in  the  houses  of  married  people,  nor  the  Eucharist  be 
received  from  a  married  priest  (an  important  incidental 
proof  of  the  commonness  of  marrif^  of  priests  in  the  fourth 
century) ;  the  prohibition  of  all  enjovment  of  the  flesh ;  that 
there  should  be  fasts  on  Sunday,  Sut  not  on  the  regular 
ecclesiastical  fast  days,  and  private  religious  meetings ;  that 
the  commemoratory  services  to  martyrs  should  not  be  ob- 
served. Samuel  Macau  LET  Jackson. 

Gangrene,  g&ng'gr^n,  or  Mortification  [from  0.  Fr. 
gangrene  >  Fr.  gangrene  <  Lat.  gangraena  •=  Gr.  ydyypcui^ 

tangrene,  eating  sore,  deriv.  of  ypoivtiv^  gnaw,  eat] :  the 
eath  of  portions  of  the  body  in  the  midst  of  living  parts. 
The  portions  most  frequently  affected  are  the  hands  and 
feet,  Decause  in  these  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  most 
apt  to  be  seriously  interfered  with,  but  the  internal  organs, 
as  not  infrequently  the  lungs,  may  likewise  be  involved. 
Numerous  causes  of  depression  of  general  vitality  predispose 
to  gangrene,  the  active  cause,  however,  always  being  micro- 
organismal  infection.  Of  the  causes  which  lead  to  depraved 
nutrition  the  majority  are  operative  by  interfering  with  the 
circulation.  Thus  in  old  age  the  blood-vessels  are  diseased 
and  circulation  is  sluggish,  in  cases  of  tumor  or  other  forms 
of  pressure  the  ingress  or  egress  of  blood  may  be  prevented 
by  constriction  of  the  artery  or  vein  of  a  part ;  in  chronic 
ergot-poisoning  (see  Ergotism)  the  blood-vessels  are  kept  in 
a  state  of  continuous  constriction,  as  may  also  be  the  case 
in  various  nervous  affections.  Besides  these  circulatory  dis- 
turbances, injuries,  chemical  irritants,  and  certain  diseases 
like  diabetes  may  determine  the  occurrence  of  gangrene. 

Two  varieties  are  usually  described :  the  moist  and  the  dry. 
The  former  occurs  when  the  part  is  full  of  blood,  as  m 
pressure  on  a  vein ;  the  latter  when  the  area  is  anaemic  from 
obstruction  of  the  inflow  of  blood,  as  in  old  age  or  ergotism. 
The. disease  begins  with  development  of  a  small  black  sjwt, 
which  mav  be  the  seat  of  intense  pain  ;  gradually  the  proc- 
ess extends,  pain  ceases,  and  sensation  m  the  part  is  lost. 
If  the  gangrene  is  dry,  the  affected  part  becomes  dry  or  mum- 
mified very  slowly,  has  a  leathery  appearance,  is  cold  and 
dead.  In  moist  gangrene  the  part  is  ooggy  from  presence  of 
fluid,  crackles  on  pressure  from  the  decomposition  gases  con- 
tained, is  bluish  green  in  color,  of  foul  odor,  and  is  covered 
with  blebs  which  loosen  the  skin  and  make  it  apt  to  be 
rubbed  off.  These  processes  continue,  and  if  the  patient  be 
not  overwhelmed  by  the  blood-poisoning  the  deatl  part  may 
be  removed  at  a  line  of  demarkation  which  forms  above  the 
area  of  disease.  A  form  of  rapidly  fatal  gangrene,  called 
hospital  gangrene,  takes  origi^j  in  wounds,' and  is  particularly 
common  and  destructive  in  military'  hospitals  in  times  of 
war. 

The  treatment  of  gangrene  varies  widely  with  the  cause, 
and  the  experienced  surgeon  alone  may  judge  when  ampu- 
tation is  advisable  or  when  nature  should  be  allowed  to  take 
her  course.  The  latter  plan  is  usually  pursued  in  the  dry 
gangrene  of  old  people.  Stimulants  for  general  support 
and  local  warmth  to  the  part  are  always  called  for. 

William  Pepper. 

Gangae,  gfing  [Fr.] :  in  mineralogy  and  mining,  the  min- 
eral substance  which  surrounds  an  ore  or  a  mineral  lying 
within  the  same  vein. 

Ganjam,  gaan-jaam' :  district  of  the  province  of  Madras, 
British  India ;  lying  along  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  between  lat. 
18^  18'  and  19°  40'  N.  Its  area  is  8,311  sq.  miles ;  pop.  1,800,- 
000,  chiefly  Hindus.  It  produces  rice,  maize,  sugar,  oil,  and 
different  dyestuffs.    The  principal  town  is  Berhanipur. 

Gannet  [O.  Eng.  ganet,  a  seafowl,  deriv.  of  gan-,  the  root 
found  in  gos,  goose  <  Teuton,  gans]  :  any  one  of  various  sea- 
fowls  of  the  genus  Sula;  belonging  to  the  order  Stegano- 
podes,  and  related  to  the  pelicans.  They  have  all  four  toes 
united  by  a  web,  sharp,  strong  beaks,  and  a  small  pouch  be- 
neath the  throat.  External  nostrils  are  absent,  as  in  the 
cormorants.  The  skeleton  is  remarkably  light  and  pneu- 
matic and  numerous  air-sacs  are  present  just  below  the  skin, 
especially  about  the  breast.  Gaiinet,s,  although  heavy,  arc 
good  swimmers,  and  are  binls  of  powerful  fliglit,  capturing 
the  fish  upon  which  they  feed  by  plunging  headlong  down- 
ward from  heights  of  100  to  200  feet,  and  transfixing  them 


with  their  pointed  beaks.  Some  species  breed  upon  rocky 
cliffs,  while  others  build  rude  nests  upon  the  stunted  busb*^ 
of  low,  sandy  islet-s.  They  lay  a  single  chalky-looking  ei:j:, 
the  young  are  naked  and  helpless,  grow  slowly,  and  rvquir*- 
at  least  two  months  to  attain  their  full  size.  The  !»-»• 
known,  as  well  as  largest,  species  is  the  common  gannt-t 
(Sula  baasana),  known  in  Scotland  as  the  solan-goo^:',  u 
bird  3  feet  in  length  and  6  in  spread  of  wing.  The  pri- 
maries are  black,  the  rest  of  the  plumage  snowy  whir^ 
except  the  top  of  the  head,  which  is  washed  with  yellov^. 
Young  birds  are  dark  brown,  with  white  spots  aboveJ  IhI.u 
grayish  whit^,  feathers  ed^d  with  dark  brown,  quill  an.: 
tail  feathers  blackish.  This  species  breeds  at  a  few  IfM-ali- 
ties  in  the  British  islands,  notaoly  Bass  Rock,  and  at  tiKo  ^r 
three  places  in  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence.  In  winter  i^ 
ranges  south  to  the  Madeiras  and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  i  n  h^  .- 
species  of  gannets  are  found  in  Australia,  the  Inaii^i. 
Ocean,  on  the  west  coast  of  America,  and  in  the  Gulf  ..f 
Mexico.  In  the  latter  locality  occurs  the  down-^nnt-t  '*t 
booby  {Sula  leucoaastes),  so  named  from  its  stolid  a<'ti.>ru* 
and  apparent  indifference  to  danger.  P.  A.  LrrAb. 

Gan'nett,  Ezra  Stilks,  D.  D. :  grandson  of  President 
Stiles  of  Yale ;  b.  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  May  4, 1801.  He  u  a> 
a  student  at  Phillips  Academv,  Andover,  a  graduate  of  Har- 
vard College  in  tne  class  of  1820,  and  of  the  Cambh'i;:^ 
Divinity  School  three  years  later,  and  passed  at  once  iii^.» 
the  ministry  as  colleague  pastor  with  Dr.  W.  £.  ChanniT>  j. 
being  ordained  in  Federal  Street  church,  Boston,  Jiin^  .?o. 
1824.  In  that  charge  he  remained  till  his  death.  His  )>uU 
lished  discourses  were  numerous.  He  founded  Tlit  Srrf[r- 
ture  Interpreter y  edited  for  some  years  T?ie  Monthly  J//*  -.- 
l(iniir,  and  was  joint  editor  with  Dr.  Alvan  Lamson  1W4— li^ 
of  The  Christian  Eoaxminer,    D.  near  Boston,  Aug.  2W,  1?*T1. 

Gannett,  Henry:  geographer;  b.  in  Bath,  Me^  Anc.  i4. 
1846.  He  was  educated  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  S.h«H  :. 
Hooper  Mining  School,  and  Harvard  College :  was  a-*-  -*- 
ant  in  the  Harvard  College  observatory  1870-71 ;  t<>fi»  l't^- 
pher  of  the  Haytlen  national  survey  1872-78:  geograpnrr 
of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  censuses;  and  has  bet-n  cKj.-: 
topographer  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  since  18K*2.  H  • 
has  been  a  voluminous  writer,  contributing  extensively  *  ■ 
the  publications  of  the  Hayden  and  U.  S.  Geological  .*^iir- 
veys,  the  census  publications,  the  Encydowrdia  BrittinT'tr.i, 
and  numerous  euucational  and  statistical  works.  His  7>('-- 
tionary  of  Altitudes  (in  the  U.  S.)  (2d  ed.  1891)  is  i>f  L'rt-^t 
value.  Hi  has  also  published  a  Manual  of  Topograph  ic  ^u  >•- 
ifeying  as  a  monograph  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survev. 

M.  \C  H. 

Gannett,  William  Channino,  A.  B.  :  clergyman  :   l>. 
Boston,  Mass.,  Mar.  13,  1840.     He  graduated  from  Har\a 
College  in   1860;   entered  the  ministry  of  the  Unitan, 
Church ;  and  held  pastorates  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  l^'xr; 
ton,  Mass.,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  and  Rochester,  X.  Y.    He  v 
one  of  the  first  to  engtige  in  educational  work  amtmg  t 
colored  people  in  the  South,  and  for  many  vears  ha>  bi 
one  of  the  editors  of  Unity,  an  organ  of  the  Western  V\u 
rians.    His  publications  include  Ezra  Stilts  Gannett,  a  V»i. 
raphy  of  his  father,  containing  a  history  of  the  Uiiitarj 
movement  (1875);  A  Year  of  Miracles;  and  The  Tfum 
of  Ood,  poems  in  collaboration  with  Rev.  Frederick 
Hosmer. 

Ganoids:  See  Fishes. 

Gansevoort.  Peter:  soldier;  b.  at  Albanv,  N.  Y,.  J*  h 
17, 1749 ;  appointed  major  Second  New  York  ftegiment  177.'.. 
and  accompanied  the  army  of  Montgomery  in  its  inva>  : 
of  Canada;  lieutenant-colonel  1776,  and  commando<]  F*  r. 
George;  the  following  year,  while  in  command  of  F  r: 
Stanwix,  he  successfully  withstood  a  siege  of  nearly  thi^- 
weeks  by  both  the  British  arid  Indian  forces  under  St.  I^  ,- 
er,  and  thereby  prevented  the  latter  from  co-operating  wi  .. 
Burgoyne.  For  this  service  the  thanks  of  Congress  ».- 
tendered  him.  In  1781  the  State  of  New  York  apix-iut  : 
him  brigadier-general,  and  in  1809  he  was  appointea  in  t..- 
U.  S.  army  with  the  same  rank.    D.  July  2,  1812. 

Gan'ymede  [Lat  Oanyme'des,  Gr.  raw^Siifl:  son  »' 
Tros,  the  first  King  of  Troy:  because  he  was  the  **  m  -' 
beautiful  of  mortal  men  "  he  was  stolen  by  the  god>  it»  :•  - 
come  cup-bearer  to  Zeus.  In  vase-paintings  Zeus  him-  ' 
carries  Ganymede  off,  but  in  plastic  art  the  eagle  of  Vau^  > 
the  kidnapper.  Originally  the  eagle  was  merely  tht-  n  •  - 
senger  of  /ieus  (cf.  the  marble  group  in  the  Vatican K  but 
later  pederastic  times  Zeus  himself,  in  the  form  of  an  o.^i.'( 


1:. 

'1 

1!1 


674 


GARDEN 


GARDNER 


principal  stations  on  the  caravan  route  from  the  Mediterra- 
nean to  the  interior  of  Africa.    Pop.  (1891)  38,967. 

Garden,  Alexander,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  :  scientist ;  b.  in 
Scotland  in  1728;  c^raduated  at  Aberdeen  in  1748:  was  a 
student  under  Dr.  »iohn  Gregory  ;  settled  in  1752  at  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  where  he  acquired  much  wealth.  He  was  an  able 
botanist  and  zo51ogist,  and  in  1773  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  RoyaJ  Society.  In  1783  he  went  to  England,  being  a 
loyalist,  and  his  property  was  confiscated,  out  afterward 
given  to  his  son.  He  became  vice-president  of  the  Royal 
Society.  LinnsBus  named  the  beautiful  genus  Gctrdenia  in 
his  honor.    D.  in  London,  Apr.  15, 1791. 

Garden  and  Gardening :  See  Horticulture. 

Garden  City :  city ;  capital  of  Finney  co.,  Kan.  (for  lo- 
cation of  county,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref .  7-B) ;  on  the  north 
bank  of  Arkansas  river  and  on  the  Atch.,  T.  and  S.  F.  Rail- 
road ;  418  miles  W.  of  Kansas  City,  Mo.  It  has  6  churches, 
2  fine  brick  school-buildings,  a  large  flouring-mill,  a  broom- 
factory,  a  combined  opera-house  and  hotel  costing  $100,000, 
and  a  system  of  water-works  costing  $60,000.  The  town 
was  laid  out  in  1879,  a  U.  S.  land-office  was  established  in 
1883,  and  the  place  was  made  a  city  in  1886.  Pop.  (1890) 
1,490 :  (1893)  estimated,  3,000.        Editor  op  "  Sentinel." 

Garden  City :  town  in  Queens  co.,  N.  T.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  8-K) ;  on  the  Long  Island 
Railroad ;  19  miles  E.  of  Brooklyn ;  originally  laid  out  by 
Alexander  T.  Stewart  for  a  town  of  modem  dwellings ;  sub- 
sequently made  the  seat  of  the  bishopric  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  diocese  of  Long  Island.  It  comprises  about  10,000 
acres  of  level  meadow,  formerly  known  as  the  Hempstead 
Plains;  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Stewart  a  few  years  before 
his  death  (1876),  and  is  held  by  the  heirs  of  his  widow.  It 
is  tastefully  laid  out,  has  an  abundant  water-supply,  inde- 
pendent illuminating  gas-plant,  and  a  steam-heatmg  system 
lor  the  various  buildings.  The  Cathedral  of  the  Incarna- 
tion, erected  by  Mrs.  Stewart  as  a  memorial  of  her  husband 
and  opened  Apr.  9,  1885,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  pieces 
of  Gothic  architecture  in  the  U.  S.  It  has  five  organs, 
which  can  be  played  from  one  keyboard  by  means  of  elec- 
trical connections.  In  the  crypt  lie  the  remains  of  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Stewart.  The  memorial  school  of  St.  Paul  (opened 
1884)  for  boys  is  one  of  the  largest  institutions  of  its  kind  in 
the  U.  S.,  and  that  of  St.  Mary  (erected  1892)  for  girls  is  a 
model  in  arrangement  and  equipment.  The  residence  of 
the  bishop  forms  the  third  of  the  ecclesiastical  building, 
standing  within  parks  of  their  own,  adjoining  the  main 
park  of  30  acres,  m  which  there  is  a  hotel.  Pop.  (1893)  es- 
timated, 600.        One  of  the  editors  of  the  **  Chevron." 

Garde'nia  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  in  honor  of  Dr.  Alexander 
Garden,  of  Edinburgh  and  Charleston,  S.  C.  (1728-91)] :  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  order  RuhiaceoB^  including  some  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  fragrant  shrubs  and  trees  known. 
Among  them  the  Gardenia  grandiflora  and  other  species  of 
China  yield  a  valuable  yellow  dye ;  and  the  Gardenia  cam- 
panulafa  of  Chittagong  is  used  in  medicine.  Many  species 
are  cultivated  in  greenhouses.  Some  of  these  are  called 
Cape  jasmine,  and  came  originally  from  Eastern  Asia  and 
South  Africa.  Excellent  timber  and  resins  are  produced  by 
various  species. 

Gar'diner:  city:  Kennebec  co.,  Me.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Maine,  ref.  9-C) ;  on  railway  and  on  the 
Kennebec  river ;  37  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  6  miles  S.  of 
Augusta.  It  is  divided  by  the  Cobbosse^  river,  which  here 
empties  into  the  Kennebec,  forming  in  its  passage  through 
the  city  a  very  valuable  water-power.  The  Cobbossee  is 
spanned  by  eight  dams  within  a  mile  from  its  mouth,  with 
a  total  fall  of  133  feet  above  low  tide.  The  city  contains 
many  sawmills  driven  by  water  and  2  by  steam,  4  large 
paper-mills,  manufactories  of  furniture,  sash,  blinds,  and 
doors,  a  shoe-factory,  woolen-factory,  iron-foundries,  ma- 
chine-shops, etc.  Gardiner  has  a  public  library,  water- 
works, and  paved  business  streets  lighted  by  electricity.  It 
is  the  headquarters  of  the  ice-business  on  the  Kennebec,  one 
of  the  largest  industries  of  the  citv.  Pop.  (1880)  4,4139; 
(1890)  5,491.  Editor  of  "  Home  Journal." 

Gardiner,  Colonel  James  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Carriden,  Scot- 
land, Jan.  11,  1688;  served  in  the  Dutch  and  then  in  the 
English  army,  and  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Ramillies. 
Throughout  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  he  fought  in 
the  army  of  Marlborough  with  conspicuous  bravery,  and  in 
1715  he  served  in  Scotland,  where  he  gave  a  signal  proof  of 
his  daring  in  firing  the  barricades  of  the  Highlanders  at 


Preston ;  but  from  an  early  period  his  character  wa8  jitaijie«f 
by  the  recklessness  and  profiigacy  of  bis  private  life.    I: 
1719,  however,  he  was  profoundly  impre^sea  by  the  truth  ••' 
Christianity,  owing,  it  is  said,  to  a  vision  of  Christ  upon  th- 
cross,  and  from  this  time  his  life  was  characterized  by  ai. 
eaniest  faith  and  blameless  moral  conduct.     In  1730  he^^- 
raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  in  1743  beram^ 
colonel  of  the  Enniskillens.    At  the  battle  of  Pre«ton[«r  - 
he  was  deserted  by  his  dragoons,  but  placing  himself  at  t  ^. 
head  of  a  small  body  of  inui.utry  he  fought  till  surrouniir-.. 
by  superior  forces  and  struck  down  by  a  blow  from  an  ai 
Died  a  few  hours  later.  Sept  21, 1745.    His  lAfe  was  writtr-i 
by  Dr.  Philip  Doddridge  (1847). 

Gardiner,  John  :  lawyer ;  son  of  Dr.  Sylvester  Gartiir.rr 
(1707-«6) ;  b.  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1731 ;  studied  law  in  the  Ini.rr 
Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  England,  and  finu 
ticed  in  London  and  in  Wales ;  was  one  of  the  coun-st- 1  f-  r 
Wilkes  in  1764;  became  in  1766  attorney-general  of  n 
Kitt*s,  West  Indies ;  removed  irfter  the  Revolution  to  B— 
ton,  Mass.,  and  in  1786  to  Pownalboro.  Me.  (then  Ma«i-.* 
chusetts);  was  in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  178SM<r 

Srocured  the  abolition  of  the  laws  of  primogeniture  it 
[assachusetts,  the  prohibition  of  special  pleading,  and  th? 
repeal  of  the  anti-theatrical  laws.    Drowned  Oct.  15,  l?ji^L 

Gardiner,  Samuel  Kawson:  historian;  b.  at  Ropl''^. 
Hampshire,  England,  Mar.  4, 1829 ;  studied  at  Christ  Chun  i. 
Oxford;  was  appointed  Professor  of  Modem  Ilistxnr  n 
King's  College,  London,  and  published  The  HtBtory  of  Enr- 
land  from  (he  Accession  of  James  L  to  the  Dtsgracf  •<'' 
Chief  Justice  Coke  (1863) ;  Prince  Charles  and  the  Spam^'- 
Marriage  (1869) ;  England  under  the  Duke  of  Buekingfui^. 
and  Charles  I,  (1875) ;  TfM  Personal  Government  of  C nor"" 
L  (1877) ;  The  Fall  of  the  Monarchy  of  Charles  L  (2  ^<  i^. 
1881);  History  of  the  Great  Civil  War  (3  vols.,  18S6-s:  : 
History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  James  I.  to  '- 
Outbreak  of  the  Civil  War — a  uniform  edition  of  bii^  tari:  r 
works  (10  vols.,  1887).  In  1882  a  civil  list  pension  of  £i:ii'  ^ 
year  was  granted  him. 

Gardiner,  Stephen,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  diDlomatist  and  - 
desiastic ;  b.  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  England,  about  Us> 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became  master  of  Tnn  * « 
Hall  (1525) ;  became  Wolsey's  secretary,  and  in  1528  wa:^  •«  c 
by  Henry  VIII.  to  Rome  to  further  his  application  for  •! 
vorce  ;  became  Secretary  of  State  1529 ;  Bishop  of  Wiucl-  ^ 
ter  1531 ;  ambassador  to  France  1533;  chancellor  of  i'-x 
bridge  University  1540;  opposed,  as  far  as  he  dared,  *n. 
Reformation ;  came  into  great  power  on  Cromweirs  fa. 
married  the  king  to  Catharine  Parr  1543  ;  envoy  to  Flan*)'  *^ 
1545;  was  imprisoned  during  Edward  VI.'s  reign,  and  <]* 
prived  successively  of  his  chancellorship  and  his  bishoiiri> 
restored  to  his  bishopric  by  Queen  Mary  and  made  L*" 
Chancellor  1553,  in  wnich  capacity  he  crowned  her.    !►.  • 
London,  Nov.  12,  1555.    He  was  a  severe  opposer  of  Pt'  ' 
estantism,  an  able  and  ambitious  public  officer,  and  a  n  v 
of  extraordinary  learning.     Garmner's  principal  wriiii  'Z-^ 
are  De  vera  obedientia  (London,  4to,  1534-35:  tran?!.^*.-. 
very  badly,  by  Michael  Wood,  1553 ;  reprinted  under  ca|'t<  ■ 
Jlie  Royal  Suprema/fy  in  Masters  Ecclesiastical  m  p  • 
Reformation  Times^  London,  1870);  Sacrament  of  thr  A- 
ter  (1551) ;  and  various  tracts  on  religious  and  literary  >:.'- 
jects.    Ascham  defends  Gardiner,  who  was  his  benefactor 

Gardiner's  (or  Gardner's)  Island :  an  island  Inn?  Y 
of  Long  Island  ;  belongs  to  East  Hampton  township.  >  > 
folk  CO.,  N.  Y.  Area,  3,300  acres.  It  is  chiefly  devottii  '• 
pasturage.  It  was  colonized  by  the  English  in  1639.  il^-^ 
(in  1699)  Capt.  Kidd  buried  his  treasures,  which  wen*  afr^' 
ward  dug  up.  Its  northern  point,  in  lat  41  *"  8'  18'  X..  I  • 
72"  8'  13"  W.,  has  a  lighthouse. 

Gardner :  town ;  Worcester  co.,  Mass.  (for  location    ' 
county,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  8-P) ;  about  26  n.:  ^ 
from  Worcester.    It  is  the  center  of  the  chair-manufart . 
ing  interest  in  the  county.    It  contains  numerous  onne  a' 
wood  seat  chair-manufacturing  establishments,  which  p- 
employment  to  2,000  persons.    Over  200  different  varietit-^  '■ 
chairs  are  made  and  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  worhL  m 
the  value  of  the  annual  product  is  over  $3,000,000.    71' 
township  is  traversed  by  the  Worcester  Division  ami  Vi 
main  line  of  the  Fitchburg  Railroad,  which  interseti  a 
Gai-dner  sUtion.     Pop.  of  township  (1880)  4.98S:  (l»»s-' 
8.424.  Publishers  or  *•  Xkw?/' 

Gardner,  Augustus  Kixsley,  A.  M.,  M.  D. :  phy*!**-  ^ 
and  author ;  b.  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  July  31, 1821.     lie  >}  u«]. 


676 


GARGOYLE 


GARIGLIANO 


share  in  the  poisonous  properties  of  the  plant.  The  root, 
when  given  to  cattle,  is  cut  up  into  plugs,  which  are  thrust 
into  potatoes  or  turnips,  and  thus  eaten.  The  root  is  poi- 
sonous to  horses.  Several  other  species  of  Phytolacca^  grow- 
ing in  China,  India,  Cayenne,  Chili,  etc.,  share  the  properties 
of  this  plant,  and  are  used  as  potherbs  to  some  extent. 

Gargoyle  [from  0.  Fr.  gargoille  >  Fr.  gargouiUe :  Span. 
adrgola  <  Lat.  gurgulio^  throat] :  in  architecture,  the  carved 
lower  end  or  outlet  of  the  water-spout  from  the  roof  of  a 
building.  In  mediaeval  times  those  were  often  curiously 
shaped  in  imitation  of  men,  beasts,  birds,  and  fanciful 
creatures, 

Garhwal,  gtlr-waal' :  a  feudatory  st^te  and  a  district  of 
the  Kumaon  division,  Northwestern  Provinces,  British  Ind- 
ia^ in  the  Himalaya  Mountains;  between  the  meridians  of 
77**  and  81",  and  bordering  on  Thibet  on  the  N.  The  king- 
dom of  Garhwal  or  Tehn  is  the  western  and  smaller,  but 
more  populous,  containing  an  area  of  4,180  sq.  miles  and  a 
population  of  750,000.  The  district  contains  5,500  sq.  miles 
and  850,000  inhabitants.  This  region  is  the  basin  of  the 
Alaknanda  and  Bhagirathi,  the  sources  of  the  Ganges,  and 
is  considered  sacred  by  the  Hindus.  It  is  rugged,  full  of 
ravines,  and  infertile.  There  are  no  cities  and  very  little 
agriculture.    The  inhabitants  are  nearly  all  Hindus. 

M.  W.  H. 

GaribaVdi  (Ital.  pron.  gaa-re'e-baal'dd^),  Giuseppe  :  Ital- 
ian soldier  and  patriot;  b.  in  Nice,  July  4, 1807.  In  his 
youth  he  made  many  voyages  as  a  sailor,  but  having  taken 
part,  in  1833  and  1834,  in  the  movement  of  the  Young 
Italians,  which  ended  in  the  unhappy  expedition  of  Savoy, 
he  was  driven  into  exile.  In  1836  he  went  to  South 
America,  having  served  in  the  meantime  in  the  French 
navy.  He  at  once  offered  his  services  to  the  republic  of 
Rio  Grande,  and  showed  such  zeal  in  her  defense  that  after 
having  fought  many  a  hard  battle,  and  won  especial  glory 
in  that  of  San  Antonio,  Feb.  6, 1846,  he  received  the  well- 
merited  title  of  **  the  hero  of  Montevideo."  Roused  by  the 
events  of  1848,  in  April  of  that  year,  he,  with  his  wife  Anita, 
a  Spanish  American,  and  a  few  brave  comrades,  left  Monte- 
video and  returned  to  Italy.  At  the  moment  of  his  arrival 
the  army  of  Charles  Albert,  at  first  successful  in  Lombardy, 
had  begun  to  give  way.  Garibaldi  offered  him  his  services ; 
they  were  refused.  Finally,  however,  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment of  Lombardy,  when  the  affairs  of  those  provinces 
were  already  drawing  near  their  sad  conclusion,  mtnisted 
Garibaldi  with  the  command  of  a  body  of  volunteers.  With 
these  the  brave  Nizzard  obtained  some  successes,  though  of 
small  military  importance.  Lombardy  having  fallen  once 
more  wholly  into  the  hands  of  the  Austrians,  Garibaldi  of- 
fered his  sword  to  the  republic  of  Rome,  and  the  supreme 
command  was  given  to  him  and  to  Gen.  Roselli.  The  glory 
of  the  defense  of  Rome  against  French  intervention  in  1849 
chiefly  belongs  to  Garibaldi.  Escaping  after  the  fall  of  the 
city,  with  3,0^  of  his  followers,  in  the  hope  of  being  still 
able  to  effect  something  against  Austria,  he  took  refuge  in 
San  Marino,  but  being  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  Aus- 
trian forces,  he  found  himself  obliged  to  disband  his  troops. 
His  plan  then  was  to  make  his  wav.  with  a  few  faithful 
companions,  to  Venice,  which  still  held  out.  But  the  news 
soon  arrived  that  Venice  too  had  fallen.  Nothing  then  re- 
mained but  to  seek  a  place  of  safety  for  his  wife  and  him- 
self ;  but  Anita,  exhausted  by  fatigue  and  privation,  died 
in  childbirth  near  Ravenna.  Garibaldi  then  repaired  to 
Chiavari  in  Liguria,  and  there  the  government  of  the  King 
of  Sardinia  offered  him  the  choice  between  prison  and  exile. 
He  sailed  for  Tunis,  but  through  the  intrigues  of  the  French 
consul  that  town  refused  to  receive  him.  Thereupon  he 
went  back  to  the  island  of  Maddalena,  near  which  lies  the 
little  islet  of  Caprera.  Here  he  provided  for  himself  for 
some  time  by  hunting  and  fishing,  but  finally  went  to  the 
tJ.  S.,  and  for  a  time  lived  in  New  York.  There  he  was 
prosperous  in  business,  and  was  able  on  his  return  in  1854 
to  purchase  the  northern  part  of  Caprera.  Here  he  re- 
mained until  1859,  in  which  year  he  organized  and  com- 
manded the  band  of  the  "  cacciatori  delle  Alpi,"  or  Alpine 
chasseurs — a  body  of  volunteers  that  made  the  whole  Lom- 
bard campaign,  having  crossed  the  Ticino  eleven  days  be- 
fore the  French  troops.  After  the  peace  of  Villafranca,  so 
unfortunate  for  Italy,  Garibaldi  formed  in  Central  Italy  the 
corps  of  the  "cacciatori  degli  Apennini,"  or  chasseurs  of 
the  Apennines,  and  trained  them  with  the  view  of  throwing 
himself  upon  the  papal  provinces  and  once  more  liberating 
Rome.    The  policy  of  Piedmont  prevented  him  from  carry- 


ing out  this  plan ;  but,  on  the  other  hand.  Count  Cavour 
assisted  him  in  the  expedition  against  Sicily  with  all  th*- 
means  he  could  dispose  of  without  compromising  his  gov- 
ernment. The  island  being  in  a  state  of  insurrection,  on 
May  5, 1860,  Garibaldi  sailed  mysteriously  from  ijuarto  in 
Liguria  with  1,000  armed  comrades,  and  with  astonishing; 
boldness  landed  on  May  11  at  Marsala,  gave  battle  nt*Hr 
Calatafini  on  the  15th  to  the  Bourbon  army,  which  he  d^*- 
feated  with  his  single  thousand,  and  on  May  27,  after  vari- 
ous partial  but  successful  engagements  and  some  most  skillful 
manoBuvering,  entered  Palermo,  assuming  the  dictatorshi[* 
of  the  island.  On  July  20  he  gained  a  new  and  decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  Bourbon  troops ;  on  the  28th  the  fortress  of 
Messina  fell  into  his  hands.  On  An^.  25  he  gave  battle  m 
Reggio  in  Calabria,  conquered,  ana  then  marched  upon 
Naples.  King  Francis  fled  to  Gaeta,  and  Garibaldi  ak>D^ 
entered  triumphant  into  Naples  to  be  proclaimed  dictate »r 
of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Garibaldi,  with  a  body  of  Piedmontese 
sent  by  Count  Cavour,  gained  the  victory  of  Voltumo,  aftt-r 
which  took  place  a  plebiacito  or  univera&l  vote  for  the  an- 
nexation of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  that  pan  nf 
Italy  which  was  then  governed  by  King  Victor  EmmonueL 
The  annexation  bein^  voted  on  Nov.  9, 1860,  Garibaldi  n»- 
tired  to  his  island  solitude  of  Caprera.  But  he  did  not  ceas«- 
to  occupy  himself  with  his  beloved  Italy.  The  cession  nf 
Nice  and  Savoy  to  France  having  taken  place,  he  enten'<i 
the  Italian  Parliament  and  prot^ted  energetically  against 
surrendering  to  a  foreign  power  a  portion  of  the  Italian 
soil.  In  May,  1862,  he  undertook  for  Venice  the  expedition 
of  Samioo,  which,  through  the  intervention  of  the  Italian 
Government,  was  broken  up  in  its  very  beginning;  then 
that  of  Rome,  which  ended  in  the  fatal  battle  of  Aspn^ 
monte,  where  not  the  enemies  of  Italy,  but  Italian  riflomeri. 
assailed  him,  wounded  him  with  a  bail  in  the  foot,  and  UhA 
him  prisoner  on  Aug.  29,  1862 — a  day  of  mourning  f.-r 
Italy.  On  Dec.  19, 1862,  Garibaldi,  amnestied  and  with  hi- 
wounds  healed,  returned  to  Caprera.  In  1864  Gen.  Gan- 
baldi  visited  Great  Britain,  where  he  was  received  with 
most  enthusiastic  demonstrations  by  all  classes.  On  tb*- 
breaking  out  of  the  war  of  1866  for  the  liberation  of  Venice. 
Garibaldi  assumed  the  command  of  a  body  of  Tolnnteer>, 
with  whom  he  advanced  into  the  Trentino,  and  the  t>nh 
Italian  victories  of  the  inglorious  campaign  of  that  vear 
were  those  obtained  by  the  Garibaldians.  The  followirc 
year  Garibaldi  once  more  attempted  with  his  volunteers  u* 
liberate  Rome;  he  entered  the  Campagna,  defeated  th* 
papal  troops  at  Monterotondo  on  Oct.  25, 1867,  and  inan>h<xj 
upon  Rome;  but  near  Mentana,  meeting  the  French  an. 
papal  army  under  the  command  of  Gen.  Failly — who  bv 
oraer  of  Napoleon  III.  was  to  make  upon  Italians  the  fir'*: 
trial  of  the  **  miraculouis "  powers  of  the  newly  inventr-<} 
ehassepot — he  was  defeated  in  spite  of  the  most  hen  at 
efforts.  Garibaldi  was  for  some  time  held  a  prisoner  in  th^ 
fortress  of  Varignano,  near  Spezzia;  f^terward  he  was  \>kt- 
mitted  to  return  to  Caprera.  In  1870  the  misfortunes  r.f 
France  and  a  warm  appeal  from  Gambetta  touched  hin>. 
and  decided  him  to  hasten  with  his  sword,  his  courage,  h>^ 
fortune,  and  his  sons  to  the  aid  of  the  French  repul^l- 
against  the  Germans.  In  France  he  received  the  commaTu: 
of  a  corps  calls  the  "volunteers  of  the  Vosges";  his  si»n 
Ricciotti  on  Oct.  19  obtained  a  small  victory  over  the  (Jrr- 
mans;  and  that  these  latter  advanced  no  farther  in  th-it 
direction  was  wholly  due  to  the  corps  commanded  bv  Gan 
baldi.  Returning  to  Caprera,  he  puolished  three  roinant-f^ 
of  little  importance;  ana  in  1875  became  a  member  of  the 
Italian  Parliament.  His  career  as  a  l^slator,  however,  w&f^ 
not  conspicuous  for  its  wisdom  or  good  judgment  lie  wu 
an  ardent  republican,  and  magnanimously  declined  several 
of  the  most  tempting  honors  and  titles.    D.  June  K  1882, 

Revisedby  C.  K.  Adaxs. 

Garlgliano,  g&-r^l-vaa'no  [ItaL,  from  Arab.  ^n7. 
marsh] :  a  river  of  Soutnem  Italy ;  the  largest  and  m«ic>t 
important  stream  of  the  Neapolitan  provinces;  receives  th^ 
waters  of  Lago  di  Fucina:  flows  sluggishly  through  a  wide- 
ly extended,  almost  stagnant,  swamp,  and  enters  the  Mc^ii* 
terranean  9  miles  E.  of  Gaeta.  It  is  the  Liris  of  the  ar.- 
cients,  separating  Latium  from  Campania,  and  is  repuu^i 
for  its  muddy  waters  and  its  fat  eels.  In  the  surrounding- 
swamps — the  marshes  of  Mintumip — Marius  sought  ivfi:c* 
after  the  victory  of  Sulla.  Its  present  name  came  into  p  n- 
eral  use  in  the  eleventh  century,  during  the  ctmtest  witb 
the  Saracens.  On  its  banks  the  French  were  oomplet^ij 
routed  by  the  Spaniards  in  1503. 


678 


GARNETT 


GARNISHJOINT 


in  1850.  In  1861  he  left  Washington  and  returned  to  Vir- 
ginia; went  to  Richmond,  where  he  was  appointed  on  the 
examining  board  of  surgeons,  then  surgeon-in-chief  to  the 
military  hospitals ;  and  being  the  family  physician  of  Mr. 
Jefferson  Davis,  accompanied  him  on  the  evacuation  of  that 
«ity  in  1865.  After  the  downfall  of  the  Southern  Confeder- 
acy Dr.  Gamett  returned  to  Washington  city,  where  he  was 
re-elected  professor  in  the  National  Medical  College,  which 
position  he  resigned  in  1872 ;  was  made  emeritus  professor. 
D.  at  Rehoboth  Beach,  Del.,  July  11, 1888. 

Garnett.  James  Mercer,  M.  A.,  hU.  D. :  professor  of  Eng- 
lish ;  b.  at  Aldie,  Va.,  Apr.  24, 1840 ;  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sities of  Virginia,  Berlin,  and  Leipzig ;  served  in  the  Con- 
federate army  during  the  civil  war ;  neld  various  positions 
in  schools  and  colleges ;  became  Professor  of  English  Lan- 

fuage  and  Literature'in  the  University  of  Virginia  in  18Q2. 
[e  has  published  Tratislation  of  Beawulf  ana  the  Fight  at 
Finnsburg ;  Anglo-Saxon  Foems  (3d  ed.  1892) ;  IVanslafian 
of  Flene,  Jtidith,  Athelatan^  and  Byrhtnoth:  Anglo-Saxon 
Poema  (1889) ;  Selections  in  English  Froae  from  Elizabeth 
to  Victoria  (1891) ;  and  numerous  essays  and  reviews. 

C.  H.  T. 

Garnett,  Richard,  LL.  D.  :  philolo^st ;  b.  at  Litchfield, 
England,  Feb.  27,  1835.     He  was  appointed  assistant  in  the 

Erinted  book  department  of  the  Bntish  Museum  in  1851 ; 
ecame  also  superintendent  of  the  reading-room  in  1875; 
and  resigned  both  offices  to  give  his  whole  time  to  the  print- 
ing of  the  museum  Catalogue  (of  which  he  had  charge  from 
its  beginning)  in  1884.  lie  has  published  lo  in  Egypt  afid 
Other  Poems  (1859);  Poems  from  the  German  {\m2)\  Relics 
of  Shelley  (1862) :  Idylls  and  Epigrams  (1869) ;  De  Chiinceys 
English  ?>p»/m-«a^er  (1885) ;  The  Twilight  of  the  Oods  and 
Other  Tales  (1889);  Iphigenia  in  Delphi  (1890);  and  the 
biographies  of  Carlyle,  Emerson,  and  Milton.         C.  H.  T. 

Garnett,  Robert  Selden  :  soldier ;  b.  in  Virginia,  Dec. 
16,  1819.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  July,  1841,  and  en- 
tered the  army  as  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  artiller}'; 
served  on  the  northern  frontier  and  as  assistant  instructor 
of  infantry  tactics  at  West  Point  till  1844 ;  was  aide-de-camp 
to  Gen.  Wool  in  1845.  In  the  Mexican  war  he  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battles  of  Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma, 
Monterey,  and  Buena  Vista;  was  promoted  to  l)e  first  lieu- 
tenant Aug.,  1846,  and  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Gen.  Taylor 
from  June,  1846,  till  Jan.,  1849 ;  was  breveted  captain  and 
major  for  gallant  conduct  at  Monterey  and  Buena  Vista ; 
transferred  to  the  infantry  in  1848,  and  served  against  the 
Seminole  Indians  in  Flonda  and  on  frontier  duty  in  Texas 
1850;  captain  Seventh  Infantry  Mar.,  1851 ;  was  commandant 
of  cadets  at  Military  Academy  1852-54;  appointed  captain 
First  Cavalry  Mar.  3, 1855,  and  major  Ninth  Infantry  Mar. 
27, 1855 ;  he  commanded  the  Yakima  expedition  in  1856, 
and  the  operations  against  Puget  Sound  Inaians  in  1858.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  1861  he  resigned  from  the 
U.  S.  army  and  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Confederates,  be- 
ing appointed  a  brigailier-gcneral  and  placed  in  command 
of  the  department  of  Western  Virginia.  He  was  killed  at 
Carrick's  Ford,  July  13, 1861. 

Garnier,  gaar'ni-a',  Marie  Joseph  Francois,  known  un- 
der the  name  of  Francis  :  explorer ;  b.  in  St.-fitienne, 
France,  July  25,  1839.  He  entered  the  French  navy  early  in 
life ;  served  through  the  war  with  China  in  186rf-62 ;  was 
appointed  to  a  civil  office  in  French  Cochin-China:  and  in 
18o6  was  chosen  as  the  coadjutor  of  Capt.  Doudart  de  Lagr^o 
in  organizing  and  commanding  the  exploring  expedition 
which  started  from  the  coast  of  Cambodia  and  traveled 
to  Shanghai  by  way  of  Yunnan,  the  object  being  to  open  to 
trade  a  road  between  India,  Indo-China,  and  Yunnan.  He 
explored  the  Meikong  river,  and  taking  command  of  the 
expedition  on  the  death  of  his  chief  brought  his  fellow- 
travelers  in  safety  to  Shanghai.  The  impi^rtance  of  this 
exploration  is  attested  by  the  numerous  honors  bestowed  on 
Lieut.  Garnier  by  the  geographical  societies  of  France  and 
England.  He  tciok  part  in  tne  defense  of  Paris  in  1870-71 ; 
resumed  exploration  in  China;  and  was  killed  at  Hanoi,  in 
the  Tonkin  war,  Dec.  2,  1873.  He  publishe<l  Voyage  d  Ex- 
ploration en  Indo-Chine  (2  vols.,  1873). 

Garnier,  Jean  Louis  Charles  :  French  architect ;  b.  in 
Paris,  Nov.  6,  1825.  He  entered  the  6cole  des  Beaux-Arts 
1842,  and  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1848;  subsequently 
traveled  in  Greece  and  Italy,  where  he  continued  his  studies. 
In  1861  he  competed  with  the  leading  architects  of  Paris, 
and  his  plans  were  unanimously  adopted  for  the  new  Paris 


opera-house,  which  was  completed  under  his  direction  Id 
1875.  He  has  built  a  number  of  other  noted  structures,  and 
had  charge  of  the  constructions  illustrating  human  habita- 
tions in  the  Paris  Exposition  1889.  He  is  officer  of  ih'* 
Legion  of  Honor,  member  of  the  Ac^emy  of  Fine  Arts,  an  i 
correspondent  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architt^t-. 

W.  R.  Hl-TT^t^N, 

Garnier,  Jules  Ars^ne :  genre-painter:  b.  in  Parts,  Jan. 
22, 1847.  He  was  a  pupil  of  G6r6me,  and  received  the  thinl- 
class  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition  1889.  He  is  a  skillful 
technician  who  paints  scenes  of  life  in  the  Middle  A<:  - 
principally,  and  has  also  produced  two  or  three  l&r^e  «-"n  - 
positions  of  modem  historical  subjects.  W.  A .  ( '. 

Gamier-Pages,  gf&r'ni-a' palish',  Louis  Antoixe  :  stut^-^- 
man;  b.  in  Marseilles,  France,  July  18,  1803.  He  niaile  h;- 
dibtU  under  the  patronage  of  his  brother,  who  was  one  •<' 
the  leaders  of  the  republican  party  under  the  Rest4>rati<u . 
During  the  reign  of  Louis  Phnippe  he  was  a  member  of  t  /f 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  In  1848  he  secured  the  offi^-e  «'^ 
Minister  of  Finances  in  the  provisional  government  <»f  th* 
republic,  and  became  unpopular  on  account  of  the  famou- 
over-taxation  called  the  **  quarante-cinq  centimes."  Wh»  n 
the  empire  was  established  he  returned  to  private  life  untii 
1864,  when  he  was  elected  deputy  to  the  Corps  Legislatif. 
In  1869  he  was  elected  again,  out,  though  he  sat  on  the  <>\>- 
position  benches,  he  did  not  exercise  any  influence  upon  t  h^- 
events  which  followed  the  revolution  of  Sept.  4,  1870.  Hr 
wrote  an  Episode  of  the  Revolution  of  18^8  \  History  of  thr 
Executive  Commission  \  History  of  the  Rei*olution  of  2S^^. 
D.  in  Paris,  Nov.  1, 1878. 

Garnishment  [deriv.  of  garnish,  from  O.  Ft.  gamir  ^ 
older  gunmir,  from  some  form  of  Teuton.  ♦iromiVin.  tak»' 
care  of,  warn  >  Eng.  warn] :  a  process  of  attachment  h} 
which  a  creditor  obtains  the  security  of  property  belonginl: 
to  his  debtor  which  is  in  the  possession  of  third  persons.  It 
consists  in  a  warning  or  notification  given  to  the  per^nr 
holding  the  property,  who  is  called  a  garnishee,  commaii'i- 
ing  him  not  to  make  payment  or  delivery  to  the  debtor,  but 
to  be  in  readiness  to  answer  the  plaintin  s  claim  by  retrain- 
ing the  property  in  his  own  hands.  Whenever  a  debtor 
against  whom  an  action  is  instituted  has  himself  a  clai::i 
against  a  debtor  of  his  own,  the  latter  may  be  made  a  ^rur- 
nishee.  The  system  of  garnishment  in  Great  Britain  gn'V 
out  of  the  custom  of  foreign  attachment,  which  has  exist ^^l 
from  time  immemorial  in  London,  Bristol,  and  a  few  of  tb-' 
larger  cities,  and  which  permits  the  enforcement  of  a  plaii.- 
tifts  demand  against  debts  due  the  defendant  from  thipi 
persons.  (See  Foreign  Attachment.)  But  garnishment.  &> 
established  in  1854  and  at  present  in  use,  has  a  considerabiv 
less  extensive  scope  of  application  than  foreign  attachmeri*. 
since  it  only  permits  the  seizure  of  a  debtors  property  or 
chosies  in  action  after  the  recovery  of  judgment  against  him. 
instead  of  at  the  time  when  suit  is  brought.  In  the  U.  Sl  * 
different  rule  is  generally  maintained,  and  the  proee:!^  vf 
garnishment  is  therefore  made  more  Completely  reme^ii&l. 
and  can  be  adopted  with  much  ^eater  ad  rantage  by  a  cre<lit  <ir. 

The  effect  of  garnishment  is  to  place  the  garnishee  in  .^ 
position  resembling  that  of  a  trustee,  leaving  him  all  thf 
defenses  against  the  gamisher  which  he  had  against  his  owzi 
creditor.  On  this  account  it  is  known  in  some  of  the  Stait-^, 
especially  in  New  England,  as  the  **  trustee  process."  Thr 
service  of  a  notice  of  attachment  upon  the  gami^ee  is  $ufK- 
cient  to  effect  a  st^y  of  proceedings  in  a  suit  suU^equentN 
brou|2^ht  against  the  garnishee  by  his  creditor,  and  if  the 
garnisher  recovers  judgment  and  levies  execution  again^* 
the  money  or  effects  in  the  hands  of  the  garnishee,  the  latter 
is  relieved  from  all  obligation  toward  nis  creditor.  As  :i 
general  rule,  any  person  is  capable  of  being  made  gami>h*v. 
not  excepting  corporations  and  persons  acting  in  a  repre- 
sentative capacity  as  exe<iutors  and  administrators.  A  luu- 
resident  person  can  not  be  made  garnishee  unless  he  h^.^ 
property  of  the  defendant  in  the  State  or  is  bound  to  j««} 
tiim  money  within  the  State.  But  an  officer  of  the  law,  &^  ii 
clerk  or  receiver,  or  a  trustee  holding  funds  as  agent  t>f  a 
court,  a  financial  agent  of  the  Government,  a  sheriff  hoMiii:: 
funds  in  an  official  capacity,  or  an  assignee  in  bankruptov. 
can  not  be  a  made  garnishee.  The  same  is  true  of  an  agn.i 
unless  he  has  an  independent  control  of  the  goods,  since  hi- 
piiSvsession  is  the  |)ossession  of  his  principal.  The  process  > ' 
garnishment  is  virtually  a  secondary  suit  against  some  thm^ 
person  by  a  suing  creditor,  who  claims  the  rights  of  the  th  - 
lendant  against  whom  his  primary  action  is  brought,  .^^t 
Attachment.  Revised  bv  F.  SxraoKS  Allen 


680 


GARRISON 


cago,  he  became  associated  with  B.  W.  Johnson  in  the  edi- 
torship of  Hie  Chriatian-Evwngeliat,  an  office  he  still  holds 
(1893).  He  was  pastx)r  of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  Southport, 
England,  in  1881-82,  and  of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  in  1885-86,  and  has  published  Heavenward  Way 
(1880);  Alm^  with  God  (1891):  and  several  other  smaller 

works.  B.  J.  PiNKEETON. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd:  pioneer  and  leader  of  the 
modern  anti-slavery  movement  in  the  U.  S. ;  b.  in  Newbury- 
port,  Mass.,  Dec.  12, 1804.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to 
the  printing  business  in  the  office  of  The  Herald  in  his  native 
place,  and  while  doing  so  wrote  extensively  for  that  and 
other  journals,  mainly  upon  political  topics,  carefully  pre- 
serving his  incognito.  His  anti-slavery  utterances  attracted 
the  attention  of  Benjamin  Lundy,  a  Quaker,  who  was  en- 
gaged in  the  publication  of  The  Genius  of  Universal  Eman- 
cipation in  Baltimore,  and  he  induced  Mr.  Garrison  to  join 
him  in  the  editorship  of  that  paper.  In  the  very  first  num- 
ber of  The  Genius  of  Universca  Emancipation  which  ap- 
peared under  his  ana  Mr.  Lundy's  joint  editorship  was  de- 
veloped a  radical  difference  in  their  opinions,  Mr.  Lundy 
advocating  gradual  and  Mr.  Garrison  immediate  emancipa- 
tion as  the  inalienable  right  of  the  slave  and  the  duty  of  the 
master.  Subsequently  another  difference  appeared,  Mr. 
Lundy  favoring  and  Mr.  Garrison  opposing  the  scheme  for 
colonizing  the  slaves  as  a  condition  of  emancipation.  They 
were  one,  however,  in  a  common  hatred  of  slavery,  and  as 
each  appended  his  own  initials  to  whatever  he  wrote  in  the 
paper,  the  partnership  was  agreeable  to  both  parties.  In 
May,  1830,  Mr.  Garrison  was  convicted,  by  a  court  and  jury 
of  slaveholders,  of  a  libel  upon  Capt.  Francis  Todd,  in  de- 
nouncing Capt.  Todd  as  guilty  of  "  aomestic  piracy  "  in  con- 
veying a  cargo  of  slaves  from  Baltimore  to  New  Orleans. 
For  this  he  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  $50  and*  costs  of 
court.  Being  unable  to  pay  this  money,  he  was  committed 
to  jail.  His  writing  while  in  prison,  especially  several  son- 
nets which  he  inscribed  with  a  pencil  on  the  wall  of  his  cell, 
were  widelv  copied  and  admired  as  expressions  of  the  true 
spirit  of  liberty.  At  the  end  of  seven  weeks  he  was  set  at 
liberty,  his  fine  being  paid  by  Mr.  Arthur  Tappan,  a  mer- 
chant of  New  York.  He  then  turned  his  steps  toward  the 
Northern  States,  delivering  lectures  in  Philadelphia^  New 
York,  New  Haven.  Hartfoni,  and  Boston,  in  which  he  de- 
picted the  sinfulness  and  the  cruelties  of  slavery,  and  sought 
to  enlist  the  people  in  the  work  of  promoting  emancipation. 
Others  had  denounced  slavery  as  an  evil,  but  Mr.  Garrison 
was  the  first  to  declare  it  a  sin,  and  demand  its  immediate 
abolition  in  the  name  of  God  and  of  humanity.  He  thus  be- 
came the  leader  of  an  anti-slaverv  movement  founded  upon 
the  principle  of  immediate  in  distinction  from  gradual  eman- 
cipation. On  Jan.  1,  1831,  he  commenced,  in  partnership 
with  Isaac  Knapp,  the  publication,  in  Boston,  of  The  Lib- 
erator,  a  weekly  journal,  the  motto  of  which  was  "  My  coun- 
try is  the  world — my  countrymen  are  all  mankind.  The 
voice  of  this  paper  was  soon  "  heard  round  the  world  " ;  the 
North  was  deeply  moved,  while  the  South  was  filled  with  ex- 
citement and  alarm.  The  dead  calm  that  had  followed  the 
enactment  of  the  "  Missouri  Compromise  "  of  1820  was  com- 
pletely broken  up,  and  the  discussion  of  slavery  in  all  its  re- 
lations to  civil  and  religious  institutions  went  on  with  con- 
stantly augmenting  force,  in  spite  of  every  effort  to  arrest  it, 
from  that  time  until  the  war  of  1861-65.  In  Dec,  1831,  the 
Legislature  of  Georgia  offered  a  reward  of  $5,000  to  any  per- 
son who  should  arrest,  bring  to  trial,  and  prosecute  to  con- 
viction, under  the  laws  of  that  State,  the  editor  or  the  pub- 
lisher. On  Jan.  1,  1832,  under  Mr.  Garrison's  direct  inspi- 
ration, was  organized  the  New  England  Anti-Slavery  Society, 
the  first  association  ever  formed  in  the  U.  S.  on  the  principle 
of  immediate  emancipation.  He  soon  afterward  published 
his  work.  Thoughts  on  African  Colonizationy  in  which  he 
contended  that  the  colonization  scheme  was  an  ally  of  slav- 
ery, and  went  to  England  as  an  agent  of  the  society,  and  was 
warmly  received  by  Wilberforce,  Clarkson,  Brougham,  and 
the  great  body  of  English  abolitionists.  In  Oct.,  1835,  a  pro- 
slavery  mob  of  "  gentlemen  of  proi)erty  and  standing  "  broke 
into  the  anti-slavery  officio  in  Boston,  dispersing  a  meeting  of 
women,  seized  Mr.  Garrison  and  dragged  him  through  the 
streetii  with  a  rope  around  his  body.  His  life  was  saved  with 
great  difficulty,  and  only  by  the  city  authorities  taking  him 
to  jail  for  protection.  '  He  was  released  the  next  day,  but 
was  compelled  to  go  into  the  country  for  safety.  In  1846 
he  went  to  England  upon  an  anti-slavery  mission  for  the 
third  time.    In  1848  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Ameri- 


GARTER,  ORDER  OF  THE 

can  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and  held  the  office  until  the  vV*-^ 
of  Xhe  civil  war  m  1865,  when,  slavery  having  been  aU>Ii>[u-<i 
and  its  rehabilitation  made  impossible  by  an  alteration  • ' 
the  U.  S.  Constitution,  he  resigned,  announcing  that  his  ra 
reer  as  an  abolitionist  was  ended,  and  that  in  his  judgnnw  - 
the  society  ought  to  be  dissolved.  He  continued  the  ruil-..- 
catiou  of  The  Liberator ,  however,  until  the  close  of  tluj 
year,  and  in  the  last  issue  had  the  satisfaction  of  putting  •>. 
record  the  official  proclamation  of  the  adoption  of  ti. 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  forever  prohibiting  slav»  rt 
in  the  U.  S.  His  paper  thus  covered  the  whole  periixl  f  r<  > 
the  beginning  of  the  agitation  for  the  abolition  of  sUv>  n 
in  1831  until  the  final  and  complete  triumph  of  the  cau^  ii 
1865.  In  1843  appeared  a  volume  of  his  Sonnets  and  uth^r 
PbemSy  and  in  1852  a  volume  of  selections  from  his  writ  in  jv 
and  speeches.  D.  in  New  York  city.  May  24,  18T?*.  n- 
William  Lloyd  Garrison:  the  Story  of  his  Life  told  //v  ^" 
Children  (1885).  Oliver  Johxn>.n. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adam*. 

Qar'rod,  Sir  Alfred  Baring,  M.  D.:  physician  acl 
author;  b.  in  Ipswich,  England,  May  13,  1819.  '  He  imulu- 
ated  at  the  University  of  London  in  1842 ;  became  as.-.i<tiir<t 
physician  to  the  University  College  Hospital  in  1847 ;  ph>  ^i- 
cian  and  Professor  of  Therapeutics  and  Cbinical  Me^li^  i!:* 
there  in  1851;  phvsician  to  King's  College  Hospital  au'i 
professor  in  the  college  in  1863 ;  and  consulting  physician  ir: 
the  hospital  in  1874.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  K(»&; 
College  of  Physicians  of  London  in  1851;  ^llow  in  1K)»>. 
senior  censor  in  1887 ;  and  vice-president  in  18^  In  1^47 
he  discovered  the  presence  of  unc  acid  in  the  blood  of  ejoutr 
subjects.  Dr.  Garrod  has  published  many  works  in  mnliiji! 
science,  including  On  the  Conversion  of  Benzoic  into  Hipi'U- 
ric  Acid  in  the  Animal  Economy  (1843) ;  Research^ m  f\ 
the  Pathological  Condition  of  the  Blood  in  Cholera  {\x4^y, 
The  Essentials  of  Materia  Jaedica  and  JTieraveuties  d^V*  : 
On  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Gout  and  Rneumatic  (rout 
(1860) ;  and  the  results  of  his  inauiries  of  the  value  of  snicill 
but  long-continued  doses  of  sulpnur  in  the  treatment  of  'ii- 
eaees  of  the  skin,  liver,  and  joints,  in  The  Lancet  (1^(80). 

Gar'rod,  Alfred  Henry,  M.  A.,  F.  R,  S. :  anatomist :  K 
in  London,  England,  May  18,  1846.  He  studied  at  KinL'- 
College,  London,  taking  the  first,  second,  and  third  Te.ir>' 
scholarship  for  medical  students*  and  graduated  at  St.  .Toln'^ 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1871  he  was  appointed  proisect or  to 
the  Zoological  Society  of  London;  in  1874  P^ofp^so^  «^f 
Comparative  Anatoniy  at  King*s  College;  and  in  1878  Yui- 
lerian  Professor  of  Physiology  of  the  Royal  Institution. 
Although  he  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  papers  on  vari- 
ous anatomical  and  physiological  subjects,  tnose  on  xtf 
anatomy  and  classification  of  birds  are  by  far  the  mttst  itd- 
portant,  and  will  ever  remain  of  vast  service  to  omit  hoi.  ^ 
gists.  He  was  the  first  to  draw  attention  to  the  value,  f<T 
purposes  of  classification,  of  the  ambiens,  semitendin<>sii\ 
and  other  muscles  of  the  thigh,  and  to  distinguish  bet  we.  n 
and  make  use  of  the  holorhinal  and  schizorhinal  types  of  i  h» 
narial  opening  of  birds.  He  also  demonstrated  the  impur- 
tance  of  the  single  or  double  condition  of  the  carotid  arter- 
ies, and  made  valuable  contributions  to  our  knowIe<lgr  of 
the  deep  plantar  tendons  and  structure  of  the  trachea  it 
birds.    D.  Oct.  17, 1879.  P.  A.  Livas. 

Garrot :  a  European  name  for  the  golden-eye  duck  (^77.2*4- 
cionetta  clangula)^  used  to  some  extent  in  the  U.  S.,  pnn.  1- 
paUy  as  a  "  book  name."    See  Golden-etb.  F.  A.  L. 

Garrote,  gftr-rot ,  or  gftr-rot'  [from  Span,  garrote,  stict, 
hence  compression  or  strangling  produced  by  twist inc  * 
stick  inserted  in  a  bandage,  this  wing  the  most  primiti^*- 
form  of  the  garrote ;  the  word  is  of  Celtic  origin}:  a  fort-. 
of  capital  punishment  employed  in  Spain  and  Span  1^:1 
America.  A  metallic  collar  is  put  around  the  neck  of  tb' 
victim,  and  a  screw  at  the  bacK  of  the  collar  is  turneti  m 
such  a  way  that  its  point  touches  the  spinid  conl,  cau«ii  c 
instant  death.  Originally  a  stout  cord  was  tied  abimt  th-* 
neck,  and  the  culprit  was  strangled  by  twisting  the  coni 
with  a  stick  {garrote).  Robbery,  accompanied  by  ch«iki:5j 
of  the  person  robbed,  is  often  called  garroting. 

Garter,  Order  of  the :  the  most  illustrious  British  onV  r 
of  knighthood,  founded,  according  to  Selden,  who  follow^ 
Proissart,  on  Apr.  23, 1344,  by  Kins:  Edwarf  III.  The  ox 
act  date  is  much  disputed,  some  making  it  Jan.  18, 1SU4.  ai.  i 
some  tracing  it  back  even  to  1192,  when  on  St.  George's  l»a» 
Richard  I.  made  twenty-six  of  his  best  knights  wi-ar  • 
thong  of  blue  leather  on  the  leg  in  a  fight  with  the  in  fide  1> 


682 


GAS 


pressure ;  and  a  boiler  is  said  to  carry  25  lb.  of  steam,  for 
example,  when  the  pressure  of  the  steam  on  the  interior 
surface  exceeds  that  of  the  air  on  the  outer  surface  by  25 
lb.  per  square  inch.  A  metallic  barometer  is  made  on  the 
same  principle ;  and  in  another  form  of  metallic  barometer, 
called  an  aneroid,  a  tight  metallic  box,  having  a  corrugated 
top,  which  rises  and  falls  with  the  varying  pressure,  takes 
the  place  of  the  spiral  tube. 

Gases  differ  from  liquids  in  their  compressibility  even 
more  markedly  than  in  their  elasticity.  Liquids  are  fre- 
quently called  incompreaaible  fluids ;  for  even  when  exposed 
to  the  greatest  attamable  pressure,  their  volume  alters  so 
slightly  that  the  shrinkage  can  be  detected  only  by  delicate 
experiments.  Gases,  on  the  other  hand,  are  verv  compressi- 
bU fluids;  and  the  simple  law  which  obtains  between  the 
volume  and  tension  of  a  mass  of  gas  is  the  most  character- 
istic feature  of  the  aSriform  state.  When  a  mass  of  gas  is 
exposed  to  pressure  the  volume  diminishes  until  the  in- 
creased tension  balances  the  pressure ;  and,  if  the  tempera- 
ture does  not  change,  it  is  found,  in  general,  that  the  tension 
is  inversely  propomonal  to  the  volume — the  less  the  volume 
the  greater  the  tension ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  gas 
is  allowed  to  expand,  the  larger  the  volume  the  less  the  ten- 
sion. V  and  r  represent  two  different  volumes  of  the 
same  mass  of  gas,  A  and  If  the  corresponding  tensions, 
measured  by  columns  of  mercury,  H  :  IT  =  V:V'.  Hence 
SV=  HV  ;  that  is,  for  every  mass  of  gas  at  an  invariable 
temperature  the  product  of  the  tension  and  the  volume  is  a 
constant  quantitv.  This  law  was  discovered  by  the  chemist 
Boyle  in  England  in  1662,  and  verified  by  the  Abbe  Mari- 
otte  somewhat  later ;  and  it  is  by  some  called  the  law  of 
Mariotte,  and  by  others  the  law  of  Boyle.  This  law,  how- 
ever, is  to  be  regarded  as  a  typical  condition  of  aeriform 
bodies,  rather  than  a  state  which  is  ordinarily  realized. 
There  is  no  gas  known  which  at  the  ordinary  temperature 
absolutely  obeys  Mariotte*s  law.  Except  in  the  case  of  hy- 
drogen, the  tension  increases  as  the  volume  diminishes  less 
rapidly  than  the  law  requires,  while  that  of  hydrogen  in- 
creases more  rapidly.  It  is  true  that  with  oxygen,  hydro- 
£in,  nitrogen,  and  a  few  other  gases  the  deviations  from  the 
w  are  so  small  that  in  almost  all  cases  the  differences  may 
be  nee:lected  without  appreciable  error ;  but  with  most  gases 
the  differences  are  very  marked,  and  rapidly  augment  as  the 
oressure  increases.  As  the  temperature  increases  these  dif- 
ferences lessen  ;  and  there  is  probably  for  every  gas  a  tem- 
perature at  which  it  exactly  obeys  the  law.  When  this 
point  is  passed  differences  again  appear,  but  in  the  opposite 
direction ;  and  the  ordinary  temperature  is  beyond  the  typi- 
cal point  for  hydrogen. 

All  gases,  by  the  combined  action  of  pressure  and  cold, 
may  be  condensed  to  liquids  (see  Liquifaction  op  Gases), 
ana  the  deviations  from  Mariotte's  law  just  noticed  are 
closely  connected  with  the  transition  from  the  lighter  to 
the  more  dense  state  of  aggregation.  When  by  pressing  a  pis- 
ton into  a  cylinder  the  volume  of  a  mass  of  sulphurous  oxide 
gas,  for  example,  is  reduced,  the  tension  increases,  but  in  an 
ever-lessening  ratio,  up  to  a  certain  value.  As  soon,  how- 
ever, as  this  value  is  reached,  a  further  reduction  of  volume 
causes  no  increase  of  tension,  but  a  portion  of  the  gas  be- 
comes a  liquid,  and  afterward  the  piston  descends  under  a 
constant  pressure  until  the  whole  mass  is  liquefied.  It  then 
occupies  only  a  small  portion  of  its  original  volume,  and 
yields  scarcely  perceptibly  to  any  further  attempts  to  com- 
press it.  This  ^eatest  value  which  the  tension  reaches  is 
called  the  rmtxtmum  tension  of  the  gas;  and  although  it 
varies  with  the  temperature,  yet  for  a  given  temperature  it 
has  a  definite  value  for  each  gas  that  can  be  liquefied  by 
pressure  alone.  Those  gases,  however,  which  closely  con- 
form to  Mariotte's  law  can  not  be  condensed  by  pressure 
alone ;  and  there  appears  to  be  for  each  gas  a  temperature 
which  has  been  called  the  critical  temperature^  below  which 
the  gas  presents  phenomena  similar  to  those  obtained  with 
sulphurous  oxide,  as  just  described,  and  above  which  it  is  in 
a  condition  in  which  its  tension  increases  indefinitely,  how- 
ever great  the  pressure  to  which  it  is  exposed.  If  a  perfect 
gas  be  defined  as  one  which  conforms  to  Mariotte  s  law, 
such  a  gas,  of  course,  could  not  be  condensed  to  a  liquid  by 
pressure  alone;  and,  as  has  been  said,  it  is  probable  that 
every  agriform  body  can  be  brought  into  this  condition  by 
heat-—at  least  when  not  chemically  changed  in  the  process. 
The  critical  temperature^  therefore,  must  be  passed  before 
the  body  reaches  the  condition  of  a  perfect  gas;  and  this 
temperature  seems  to  mark  the  transition  from  the  state  of 
vapor  to  the  state  of  gas,  and  points  out  a  more  philosoph- 


'I' 


-,'11 


ical  distinction  between  these  two  phases  of  aSriform  iTa 
than  the  popular  definitions  imply. 

Another  characteristic  feature  of  gases  appears  xl 
fact  that  the  same  change  of  temperature  causes  in  i 
them  the  same  change  of  tension  or  volume.    When  u  j 
confined,  the  effect  of  heat  is  to  increase  its  tension :  v 
free  to  expand  under  a  constant  pressure,  the  efft'ct  i<'  ( 
crease  its  volume ;  and,  as  Mariotte's  law  requires  th*-^'.( 
effects  would  be  strictly  proportional  in  every  perf«  t 
Since,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  eases  with  y^: 
one  has  to  deal  are  not  perfect,  this  result,  ^thouL:'.  ^ 
closely  approached,  is  not  absolutely  realized,  and  in  . 
eral  the  effects  of  heat  on  masses  of  different  gases«  hr> 
strictly  identical,  the  slight  differences  observed  bein;:  • ' 
same  order  of  magnitude  as  the  deviations  from  Mun- 
law  above  referred  to,  and  resulting  doubtless  fri  n. 
same  cause.    Disregarding  these  sli^t  differenct^.  t.v 
feet  of  heat  on  all  aeriform  matter  is  correctly  ^c•r^^^:•^ 
in  the  following  illustration :  Conceive  of  a  vessel  of 
riable  size  containing  air  which  at  the  temperature  <'f 
ing  ice  has  a  tension  of  278  mm.,  as  shown  by  a  baro::. 
If,  now,  this  vessel  is  heated  to  the  temperature  of  \ 
when  boiling  under  the  normal  atmospheric  pn?>Mirt 
tension  of  tne  confined  air  will  become  373  mm.— tri. 
between  these  two  standard  temperatures  the  ten-.-j 
creases  100  mm.    Evidently  such  an  apparatus  would 
as  a  measure  of  temperature.    The  &73d  division  t-L 
millimeter  scale  of  the  barcmeter  would  indicate  the  fr 
ing-point,  the  373d  division  the  boiling-point  of  watt-r.  i 
the  intermediate  divisions  would  divide  the  diffenr.-i 
tween  these  two  fixed  points  into  100  degrees.    Such  ar 
strument  would  serve  as  an  air-thermometer,  and  th- 
grees  of  temperature  thus  marked  would  closely  corrt^f^- 
to  those  of  the  ordinary  mercury  thermometer^  graci.. 
on  the  centigrade  system.    The  degrees  of  such  a  them 
eter,  however,  are  merely  arbitrary  points  in  the  sa.- 
temperature  until  the  relation  between  the  chan^  "f  t-  •  I 
sion  and  the  amount  of  heat  which  enters  or  leaves  th<  >      I 
fined  air  is  determined.    But  if  it  can  be  shown  that  ty     ' 
accessions  of  heat  produce  equal  increments  of  tensiwi).  *'.-    ' 
it  would  follow  tnat  the  air-thermometer  is  an  h<\'.".. 
measure  of  thermal  values.    Unfortunately,  exijeriru*'. 
evidence  on  this  point  is  not  as  direct  as  could  w  w;^* 
The  only  safe  standard  to  which  measures  of  bent  ca\  ' 
referred  is  what  may  be  called  the  fuel  standard— tlu*?  ;• 
the  weight  of  some  combustible,  like  hydrogen,  br  wt*-- 
burning  the  heat  is  generated;  and  could  it  be  shnwn  •' 
perimentally,  for  example,  that  the  heat  from  a  fjAu 
of  hydrogen  increased  the  tension  of  the  oonfin^  air  vij< 
ly  100  times  as  much  as  that  from  a  centigramme  of  r. 
same  fuel,  and  this,  too,  from  whatever  point  on  the  Rai' 
temperature  one  might  start,  then  there  could  be  no  qi.^ 
tion  that  the  increments  of  tension  were  the  lepi'in.i' 
measures  of  the  heat  which  entered  the  air,  and  therefun   ' 
the  differences  of  temperature  thus  produced.    Such  ilir»>' 
observations,  however,  are  impracticable ;  and  it  would  i  • ' 
be  possible  with  a  few  words  to  make  clear  to  the  rvj.* ' 
how  far  the  conclusion  just  stated  is  justified  by  such  :ii  ^ 
rect  experimental  evidence  as  it  has  been  possible  to  ol't-tu 
It  must  be  sufficient  to  say,  first,  that  within  moderate  1:" 
its  of  tomperature  the  experiments  prove  the  incrva^**   ' 
tension  to  be  very  nearly,  if  not  exactly,  proportional  to  i!- 
amount  of  heat  which  enters  such  a  confinea  mass  of  air  &^ 
is  described  above ;  and,  secondly,  that  the  accepted  th»H  n 
of  heat  leads  to  the  belief  not  only  that  the  increase  of  ^'  •  - 
sion  is  proportional  to  the  accession  of  heat  within  the  1&' 
tude  and  limits  of  error  of  the  experiments,  but  also  that  i; 
a  perfect  gas  this  law  would  hold  without  variation  thr(>u^'* 
out  the  whole  range  of  temperature. 

Accepting,  then,  the  law  provisionally,  it  is  found  that  .'> 
leads  to  a  most  remarkable  conclusion.    Starting  with  ib 
apparatus  assumed  above  at  the  temperature  of  melting'  i"  • 
and  the  barometer  indicating  a  tension  of  273  mm..  im\^^^^ 
to  the  air  successive  increments  of  heat,  and  raise  the  ttr. 
perature  degree  by  degree,  and  the  tension  milliraettr  t} 
millimeter,  until  the  barometer  marks  546  mm.    Knowi:.. 
the  weight  of  the  air,  it  can  easily  be  determined  how  ima  t 
heat,  estimated  on  the  fuel  standard,  is  required  to  pnxii:^' 
this  result ;  and  it  will  be  found  that  it  is  repre<«»nte(l  by :« 
very  small  weight  of  hydrogen  gas.    If  the  theory  iidvan<^^' 
is  correct,  u+^a  of  this  amount  would  correspond  exactly  '• 
1  mm.  of  tension,  the  same  for  the  last  degree  as  for  th 
first.    Returning  now  to  the  freezing-point,  what  must  i* 
the  result  if  the  heat  be  withdrawn  m  similar  surce^^'^i^' 


684 


GAS 


sarronnding  temperature  is  different  from  that  of  the  gas, 
there  will  to  a  transfer  of  moving  power  through  the  walls 
of  the  vessel  until  a  condition  is  reached  where  the  transfer 
of  moving  power  through  the  walls  in  one  direction  exactly 
balances  the  corresponding  transfer  simultaneously  taking 
place  in  the  opposite  direction ;  and  any  two  bodies  arc  at 
the  same  temperature  when  thus  related.  Moreover,  as  ma- 
terial walls  must  consist  of  molecules,  power  can  readily  pass 
through  such  barriers,  as  it  passes  along  a  line  of  ivory  balls 
in  a  familiar  experiment  of  mechanics.  If  a  portion  of  the 
containing  widls  vessel  is  movable,  the  impact  may  impart 
motion  to  the  mass,  as  to  the  piston  of  a  steam-engine  or  to 
a  cannon-ball ;  if,  however,  the  walls  are  fixed,  the  only  ef- 
fect is  the  production  of  pressure. 

The  pressure  exerted  by  a  gas  being  the  effect  of  molec- 
ular impacts,  the  law  of  M!ariotte  is  a  necessary  consequence 
of  this  mechanical  condition.  For  if  the  temperature  is  con- 
stant, the  molecules  of  the  gas  have  a  definite  mean  velocity 
and  a  definite  mean  momentum ;  and  since,  if  we  consider 
an  interval  sufficiently  long,  each  molecule  must  on  an 
average  strike  the  sides  of  the  vessel  the  same  number  of 
times  and  with  the  same  average  impulse,  it  follows  that 
each  molecule  must  contribute  an  equal  share  to  the  whole 
pressure.  This  pressure,  therefore,  other  things  being  equal, 
must  be  proportional  to  the  number  of  molecules  in  the  ves- 
sel, or,  wnat  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  to  the  quantity  (or 
weight)  of  the  given  gas  which  the  vessel  contains ;  and  this 
is  a  form  of  statement  of  Mariotte's  law.  According  to  this 
law  the  pressure  of  a  gas  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
volume,  or,  what  comes  to  the  same  thing,  directlv  propor- 
tional to  its  density ;  and  our  theory  not  only  explains  this 
general  principle,  but  further  shows  that  if  different  por- 
tions of  gas  are  forced  into  the  same  vessel,  each  must  ex- 
ert its  own  pressure  independently  of  the  rest ;  and  this,  too, 
whether  these  portions  be  of  the  same  gas  or  not.  Assume 
next  that  while  the  number  of  molecules  (that  is,  the  quan- 
tity of  gas)  in  the  vessel  remains  the  same,  their  mean  veloc- 
ity increases ;  it  is  evident  that  each  molecule  will  now  strike 
the  sides  of  the  vessel  a  greater  number  of  times  in  a  sec- 
ond, and  also  that  the  momentum  of  each  impact  will  in- 
crease in  the  same  proportion.  Hence  the  part  of  the  pres- 
sure due  to  each  molecule  will  increase  not  simply  as  the 
velocity,  but  as  the  square  of  the  velocity ;  and  if  we  repre- 
sent by  m  the  common  weight  of  the  molecules  of  a  given  mass 
of  gas' confined  to  a  constant  volume,  and  by  F  their  mean 
velocity,  then  the  pressure  exerted  bv  the  gas  on  the  unit- 
area,  or  the  height  of  the  mercury  column  which  measures 
thatpressure,  will  be  proportional  to  the  product  m  V*,  or  to 
Im  V*,  which  represents  the  moving  power  of  the  molecules. 
But  the  height  of  a  mercury  column  so  related  (in  the  form 
of  the  air-thermometer  described  above)  is  the  actual  meas- 
ure of  what  has  been  called  the  absolute  temperature ;  and 
thus  is  reached  not  only  a  perfect  dynamical  explanation  of 
that  feature  of  gases  on  wHich  the  air-thermometer  is  based, 
but  also  a  remarkable  confirmation  of  the  generalization 
drawn  from  these  phenomena.  Moreover,  as  the  same  general 
result  must  follow,  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  gas  {m  in 
the  formula  representing  the  molecule  of  an^  gas),  there  is 
also  found,  in  the  theory  a  simple  explanation  of  the  fact 
discovered  by  Charles,  that  all  gases  undergo  equal  changes 
of  volume  or  tension  when  heated  or  cooled  through  the 
same  number  of  degrees.  Again,  Prof.  Maxwell  has  proved 
that  if  "  molecules  of  different  masses  (that  is,  of  different 
gases)  knock  about  together,"  the  exchange  of  velocities 
which  result  from  the  collision  will  tend  to  bring  the  whole 
mass  to  a  condition  in  which  on  an  average  every  molecule, 
great  or  small,  has  the  same  moving  power,  the  lighter  mo- 
lecules acquiring  a  sufficiently  greater  velocity  to  compen- 
sate for  their  smaller  mass.  This  principle  must  be  equally 
true  when  the  molecules  of  the  different  gases  are  separated 
by  any  partition  through  which  velocity  may  be  transferred ; 
and  hence  when  masses  of  two  different  gases  are  at  the 
same  temperature  ^mV*=:^mV'*.  Prom  this  theorem  of 
molecular  mechanics  several  important  consequences  follow. 
In  the  first  place,  equal  volumes  of  different  gases  at  the 
same  temperature  and  pressure  must  contain  an  equal  num- 
ber of  molecules.  For  consider  two  similar  vessels  filled 
with  different  gases  under  these  conditions.  As  has  been 
seen,  the  part  of  the  pressure  due  to  a  single  molecule  in 
either  vessel  is  proportional  to  its  moving  power ;  and  if  the 
average  value  of  the  moving  power  of  the  molecules  in  the 
two  vessels  is  the  same,  it  is  evident  that  the  total  pressure 
must  depend  in  each  case  on  the  number  of  molecules,  and, 
these  pressures  being  equal,  the  number  of  molecules  must 


be  the  same.  This  important  truth  which  is  thus  shown  to 
be  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  dynamical  theory,  is 
known  as  the  law  of  Avogadro  or  Ampere.  It  was  first 
stated  by  Am edeo  Avogadro,  an  Italian  physicist,  in  1811. 
and  was  reproduced  bv  Ampere,  a  French  phvsicist,in  1814. 
In  the  second  place,  the  molecular  weights  of  different  sub- 
stances must  be  proportional  to  their  densities  in  the  statt? 
of  gas.  For  if  the  unit-volumes  of  two  gases  contain,  under 
like  conditions,  the  same  numl)er  of  molecules,  it  is  evident 
that  the  weights  of  these  equal  volumes  must  be  as  the 
weights  of  the  molecules.  Hence  molecules  may  be  weiii^hed 
against  each  other  simply  by  determining  gas  or  vapor  den- 
sities; and  since  the  results  thus  obtainea  closely  correspond 
with  the  combining  proportions  of  chemistry,  the  facts  of 
this  science  furnish  still  further  confinnations  of  the  molec- 
ular theory.    In  th^  thirdplace,  if  ^m  F*  =  Jm'  V'»,  then 

F  :  V  =  \/m' :  \/m  =  \/V  :  ^B;  and  it  follows  that  under 
like  conditions  the  velocities  of  different  molecules  are  in- 
versely as  the  square  roots  of  the  densities  of  the  aeriform 
masses  of  which  they  are  parts :  and  here  is  seen  the  simplo 
mechanical  principle  underlying  the  laws  of  effusion  and 
diffusion  discovered  by  Graham.  Moreover,  the  molecular 
theory  explains  the  peculiar  relations  of  these  two  class*.»8  of 
phenomena.  When  the  molecules  of  any  gas  rush  into  a 
vacuum,  they  hurry  through  the  aperture  with  a  rapidity 
which  is  commensurate  with  their  great  velocity ;  but  when 
they  rush  into  the  equally  empty  space  between  the  mole- 
cules of  another  gas.  they  are  so  jostled  about  by  the  col- 
lisions which  ensue  that  they  make  but  very  slow  progress. 
StiU,  as  the  molecules  of  all  gases  are  retanled  in  the  same 
proportion,  their  relative  rate  of  progress  is  not  alteml. 

Tne  dynamical  theory  makes  it  possibletocalculate  not  only 
the  relative  but  also  the  absolute  velocity  of  the  molecule:^ 
of  different  gases.  A  cubic  centimeter  of  hydrogen  gas,  at 
the  normal  temperature  and  pressure,  weighs  loAtfbop  o'  a 
gramme,  and  exerts  a  pressure  of  1,038  grammes  on  each 
face  of  the  cube ;  and  it  is  easy  to  calculate  the  Telo<*itT 
with  which  the  parts  of  this  small  mass  must  move  in  order 
that  the  component  in  the  direction  of  either  face  of  the 
cube  should  produce  such  a  pressure.  The  result  is  1,H43 
meters  in  a  second ;  and  although  the  velocity  of  the  mole- 
cules of  other  gases  must  be  less  in  proportion  as  their  mass 
is  greater,  according  to  the  law  already  stated,  the  velr>city 
is  in  all  cases  very  large  as  compared  with  that  of  a  rifle- 
ball.  The  velocity  of  the  molecules  of  gases  and  their  rela- 
tive masses  are  values  accurately  known,  because  they  are 
direct  deductions  from  observations  which  can  be  mado 
with  great  precision ;  and  even  if  the  theory  is  false  and 
there  are  no  such  things  as  molecules,  these  values  are  quan- 
titative relations  which  any  new  theory  must  equally'  ex- 
plain. The  scope  of  the  dynamical  theory,  however,  is  far 
wider  than  could  possibly  be  exhibited  in  a  brief  popular 
article.  It  embraces  molecular  magnitudes  of  which  knowl- 
edge is  far  less  accurate  and  certain  than  in  regard  to  those 
described,  Vwth  because  the  relations  involved  are  more 
doubtful  and  because  the  values  depend  on  measaremont^ 
which  are  not  susceptible  of  the  same  accuracy.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  length  of  mean  path,  the 
number  of  collisions  in  a  second,  and  finally  the  number  of 
molecules  in  a  cubic  centimeter  of  any  gas  under  normal 
conditions,  and  the  absolute  diameter  and  mass  of  mol»^ 
cules  of  different  kinds.  The  following  table  is  taken  from 
an  article*  on  molecules  by  Prof.  Clerk  Maxwell : 

MOLECULAR  MAGNITUDES.  ^ 


RANK. 


Rank  I 
Mass  of  molecules  when  that  of 

hvdrogen  Is  1 

Velocity  (of  mean  square)  meters 
per  second  at  0'  C 

Lenf?th  of  mean  path  in  ten  bill- 
ionths  (10-")  of  a  meter 

Collisions  in  a  second,  number 

of  millions 

Rank  III, 

Diameter  in  hundred  bVllionths 
(l(r")  of  a  meter 

Mass  in  ten  million  million  mill- 
ion milliontbs  (10-»»)  of  a 
gramme 


HjWVKCB. 

OxygBB. 

ozida. 

1 

16 

14 

1,860 

465 

407 

g66 

660 

482 

17,760 

7.646 

«,48» 

t86 

76 

86 

46 

796 

644 

87» 

0,7«> 

93 
l«Olt 


•  Nature.  Sept.  28,  1878.  ^      , 

t  Two  million  hydrogen  molecules  in  a  row  would  oecopy  a  Ititle 
over  a  millimeter. 


686 


GAS-ENGINE 


piston,  the  pressure  during  this  period,  as  shown  by  the 
indicator  card,  is  negative,  and  uniformity  of  movement  can 
only  be  maintained  by  means  of  a  heavy  flv-wheel.  The 
inequality  of  pressure  at  different  periods  of  the  effective 
stroke  is  also  very  great,  the  maximum  being  between  five 
and  six  atmospheres,  and  the  mean  not  more  than  half  an 
atmosphere.  The  engine  of  Lenoir  found  its  way  somewhat 
extensively  into  use,  having  been  employed  not  only  in  Paris 
and  most  of  the  provinces  in  France,  but  also  in  other  Eu- 
ropean countries,  including  Russia,  and  in  Cuba,  Peru,  and 
Chili.  It  was  not  called  an  economical  source  of  power, 
since  from  the  test  experiment's  made  on  it  by  Prof.  Tresca, 
assistant  director  of  the  Conservatoire,  its  consumption  of 

fas  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  amounted  to 
iV  cubic  meters  (about  100  cubic  feet)  of  gas  ^er  horse- 
power per  hour.  Six  pounds  of  coal  employed  m  raising 
steam  would  perform  the  same  work,  and  at  f  6  a  ton  would 
cost  but  2  cents,  while  100  cubic  feet  of  illuminating  gas 
would  then  cost  in  Paris  about  a  franc,  and  in  the  cities  of 
the  U.  S.  from  25  to  35  cents. 

Another  engine  belonging  to  this  class,  and  in  many  re- 
spects resembling  the  one  just  described,  was  that  of  Mr. 
Hugon,  also  of  Paris.  Hugon's  en^ne  employs  two  little 
constantly  burning  gas-jets  placed  just  outside  the  valve- 
box,  instead  of  the  electric  spark,  to  fire  the  successive 
charges  in  the  cylinder.  Two  httle  movable  jets  in  recesses 
constructed  in  a  slider  operated  by  the  engine  are  alter- 
nately lighted  at  the  external  burners,  and  then  drawn  in- 
ward by  the  slider,  so  as  to  inflame  the  charges  at  the  prop- 
er moment.  The  movable  jets  are  of  course  extinguished 
by  the  explosion,  but  on  the  reversal  of  the  movement  of 
the  slider  they  are  relighted  again  at  the  external  burners. 
Another  peculiarity  of  this  engine  is  that,  along  with  the 
explosive  charge,  there  is  introduced  a  small  amount  of 
water,  which,  being  converted  into  steam  by  the  heat  gen- 
erated in  the  explosion,  moderates  the  violence  of  the  ac- 
tion, and  sustains  better  the  pressure  during  the  stroke. 
At  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1862  in  London  a  gas- 
en^ne  was  exhibited  by  the  well-known  engineers  W.  and 
C.  F.  Siemens  in  which  this  peculiarity — viz.,  the  introduc- 
tion of  water  into  the  cylinaer — was  carried  much  further 
than  is  done  by  Mr.  Hugon,  the  object  being  to  generate 
as  much  steam  as  the  heat  furnished  by  the  combustion  of 
the  ^as  would  allow.  A  regenerator  was  also  employed  to 
receive  the  heat  of  the  exhaust  gases,  and  to  transfer  it  to 
the  entering  charge.  Though  no  exact  statements  of  the 
economy  of  working  this  engine  appear  to  have  been  pub- 
lished, it  would  seem  in  theory  to  be  preferable  to  either  of 
those  described  above,  both  as  regards  steadiness  of  action 
and  cost  of  maintenance.  It  appears,  nevertheless,  to  have 
been  abandoned.  The  consumption  of  gas  in  the  Hugon 
engine,  including  that  employed  in  maintaining  the  perma- 
nent lights,  amounted  to  2*6  cubic  meters  per  horse-power 
per  ht)ur.  There  is  also  in  this  engine  the  same  inequality 
of  pressure  at  different  periods  during  the  stroke  that  has 
been  remarked  in  the  Lenoir  engine. 

In  all  engines  of  this  class  it  is  necessary  that  a  current  of 
cold  water  should  be  kept  constantly  circulating  around  the 
cylinder,  to  prevent  its  becoming  overheated ;  and  in  order 
to  facilitate  this  object  the  cySnder  is  surrounded  by  a 
jacket,  leaving  a  free  interval  for  such  circulation. 

A  gas-engine  quite  different  in  principle  from  either  of 
the  foregoing  was  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867 
by  its  inventors,  Messrs.  Otto  and  Langen,  of  Cologne  in 
Rhenish  Prussia.  Externally,  this  engine  presented  tne  ap- 
pearance of  a  Doric  column,  somewhat  more  than  a  meter 
m  height,  upon  the  enlarged  capital  of  which  is  fixed  a 
horizontal  plate  which  supports  tne  arbor  of  the  fiy-wheel 
and  other  parts  of  the  machinery.  This  column  is  the 
working  cyhnder.  The  mixed  gases — common  coal-gas  and 
air — are  introduced  at  its  base,  and  fired  by  an  ingenious 
mode  of  communication  with  a  gas-jet  which  is  constantly 
burning.  The  base  is  surrounded  by  a  jacket  between 
which  and  the  cylinder  itself  there  is  maintained  a  refriger- 
ating current.  By  the  explosion  of  the  gas,  the  piston, 
which  is  rather  heavily  weighted,  is  driven  to  the  top  of  the 
cylinder.  The  collapse  which  immediately  follows  produces 
a  partial  vacuum  beneath  the  piston ;  and  this  now  descends, 
urged  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  with  its  own  weight 
superadded.  In  order  to  transfer  this  force  to  the  working 
arbor  of  the  machine,  the  piston-rod  is  on  one  side  provided 
with  a  rack  which  acts  on  a  spur-wheel  on  tlie  arbor.  This 
wheel  is  loose  on  the  arbor,  but  is  free  to  turn  in  one  direc- 
tion only — that  is,  the  direction  which  corresponds  to  the 


rising  of  the  piston.  Two  tall  uprights  serve  as  guide:*  to 
the  piston  and  give  stability  to  the  machine.  When  the 
piston  descends,  its  energy  is  transferred  through  the  spur- 
wheel  above  mentioned  to  the  arbor.  A  fly-wheel  main- 
tains the  movement  during  the  intervals  in  which  the  pis- 
ton is  ineffective.  From  experiments  made  upon  this  en- 
gine with  a  Prony  dynamometer  before  a  jury  of  the  expc»- 
sition,  it  appeared  that  its  consumption  of  gas  amounte<l. 
on  an  averi^e,  to  a  very  little  over  a  cubic  meter  (say  'iH 
cubic  feet)  per  horse-power  per  hour.  It-exhibit^t,  therefore, 
a  large  economy  over  the  enf:ines  of  Lenoir  and  Hugon ;  but 
it  is  very  noisy  in  its  operation,  and  the  violence  of  its  ac- 
tion, during  the  first  part  of  each  pulsation,  is  such  as  t4> 
limit  its  employment  to  comparatively  low  powers. 

It  has  been  already  stat^  that  tne  vapor  of  the  more 
volatile  hydrocarbons  may  be  substituted  in  all  of  these  mo- 
tors for  the  permanent  inflammable  gases,  without  prejudice^ 
to  their  mecnanical  efficiency ;  but  in  point  of  economy  it  i^ 
probable  that  coal-gas  will  generally  be  found  to  l>e  tht* 
cheaper  fuel  of  the  two.  (See  Fuel.)  Some  inventions  of 
this  class  have  nevertheless  been  devised  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  use  of  such  vapors.  One  of  these,  bv  Mr.  Julius 
Hock,  of  Vienna,  presented  at  the  International  Exposition 
in  that  city  in  1873,  and  put  forward  with  a  good  deal  of 

Eretension  as  "differing  completely  from  anything  which 
ad  ever  been  done  before,"  was  nevertheless  in  every  essen- 
tial respect  a  Lenoir  engine  burning  vapor  instead  of  gas, 
and  is  tnerefore  entitled  to  no  further  mention  here. 

The  next  type  of  engine  to  be  developed  was  the  expansive 
type  known  as  the  Brayton  engine,  patented  by  George  B. 
Bray  ton,  Apr.  2, 1872.  This  en|^ne,  while  using  a  mixture 
of  gas  or  vapor  with  atmosphenc  air,  compresses  it  into  a 
reservoir,  from  which  it  flows  through  a  gauze  or  grating 
into  the  working  cylinder.  It  is  there  inflamed  and  expands, 
doing  work  against  the  piston,  while  the  wire  gauze  prevents 
the  rush  of  itame  backward  into  the  reservoir.  Some  acci- 
dents have  been  known, due,  however,  to  defect  in  the  se|va- 
rating  material. 

The  efficiency  of  this  engine  is  due  to  the  expansion  of 
the  air  introduced,  and  of  the  products  of  combustion  (car- 
bonic acid  and  steam)  by  the  neat  generated  in  the  same 
combustion.  The  pressure  in  the  cylinder  is  no  greater  than 
that  in  the  reservoir.  The  opposing  pressure  is  at  first  only 
that  of  the  atmosphere,  but  rises  toward  the  end  of  the 
stroke  to  be  equal  also  to  that  in  the  reservoir.  The  action 
of  the  engine  therefore  in  every  respect  resembles  that  of  a 
hot-air  engine ;  and  it  is  to  this  class,  rather  than  to  the 
class  of  gas-engines,  that  it  properly  belongs.  Though  hot- 
air  engines  are  in  theory  tne  most  economical  of  engines 
driven  by  heat,  the  economy  of  theory  has  never  been  realiztil 
from  tjiem  in  practice,  in  consequence  of  the  extreme  diffi- 
culty of  imparting  heat  to  air.  Radiant  heat  in  this  cast* 
produces  but  little  effect;  and  to  heat  air  thoroughly  by 
contact  rejjuires  a  complicated  construction  which  seriously 
impedes  circulation  and  increases  the  resistance  of  friction. 
The  Brayton  motor  has  practically  solved  this  difficulty  by 
mingling  the  fuel  with  tne  air  itself,  so  that  the  whole  neat 
of  combustion  is  imparted  to  the  air  directly.  It  is  t  hen»- 
fore  a  hot-air  engine  without  a  furnace,  or  one  in  which  the 
furnace  is  the  cylinder. 

When  the  economical  performance  of  this  engine  was 
tested  it  was  found  that  the  consumption  of  gas  amountiMJ 
to  32V(fc  cubic  feet  per  horse-power  per  hour,  being  less 
than  that  of  the  Otto  and  Langen  engine  by  about  18  pier 
cent.  But  the  steadiness  of  action  of  this  engine  adapts  it 
to  high  as  well  as  to  low  powers;  and  it  works  silentlv, 
while  the  one  just  mentionea  creates  an  intolerable  din.  It 
is  obvious  that  the  Brayton  engine  might  be  made  double- 
acting  by  employing  separate  pumps  for  the  reservoir. 

The  modem  gas-engine  in  its  successful  and  more  eco 
nomical  form  dates  from  the  introduction  in  1876  of  the 
form  of  Otto  enpne  to  which  the  trade  name  of  *•  Silent " 
was  given,  by  virtue  of  its  practical  abandonment  of  tin" 
explosive  idea.  The  success  of  this  form  of  motor  has  given 
rise  to  a  great  development  and  to  a  more  detailed  study, 
whereby  the  motors  of  this  class  have  been  divided  into  two 
great  groups. 

The  first  group  includes  those  types  of  motor  in  which 
the  explosive  mixture  enters  the  cylinder  at  atmosphenc 
pressure  or  without  compression.  The  second  great  gn^up 
includes  those  in  which  the  mixture  of  air  and  gas  is  com- 
pressed l)efore  it  enters  the  cylinder  for  ignition.  The  fin^t 
group  presents  two  types,  the  first  being  that  in  which  the 
explosive  force  is  directly  used  to  do  work  up<m  the  motor 


688 


GAS-LIGHTING 


obtained  permission  to  light  a  few  street  lamps  with  gas  in 
Pall  Mall  which  he  did  in  1809.  On  Dec.  31,  1813,  West- 
minster bridge  was  lighted,  and  soon  after  the  oil-lights  in 
the  streets  of  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster,  were  replaced 
by  gas-lights,  and  about  a  year  later  <1815)  Guildhall  also 
was  lighted. 

The  manufacture  of  gas  was  first  attempted  in  the  U.  S. 
at  Baltimore,  without  success  till  1821.  It  was  introduced 
in  Boston  in  1822,  and  in  1823  the  New  York  Gas-light 
Company  was  started,  though  it  was  not  in  successful  opera- 
tion till  1827. 

Materials  used  for  Making  Oas, — All  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal substances  when  exposed  in  close  vessels  to  a  red  heat 
undergo  destructive  distillation,  yielding  gas,  water,  and 
tar,  and  leaving  a  residue  of  charcoal  or  coke.  A  few  only 
are  adapted  for  the  economical  production  of  illuminutinR 
gas.  Bituminous  coal  is  the  material  generally  selected, 
though  under  certain  circumstances  several  other  sub- 
stances have  been,  and  are  even  now,  employed.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  petroleum  or  some  of  its  less  valuable 
products  (as  naphtha  or  residuum),  rosin,  wood,  peat,  cheap 
oils,  and  fats. 

Coal-gas  is  made  from  bituminous  coal.  (See  Coal.)  Of 
true  coals,  the  oannels  yield  the  richest  gas,  and  in  the 
United  Kingdom  they  are  sometimes  used  exclusivelv.  The 
caking  coal  is,  however,  the  chief  material  employea.  The 
advantage  of  this  variety  of  coal  is  due  to  its  abundance  and 
-consequent  cheapness,  and  to  the  fact  th^t  when  heated  it 
undergoes  a  kind  of  fusion,  and  furnishes  a  compact  porous 
coke  of  great  value  as  fuel.  The  gas  from  caking  coal  is  in- 
ferior in  illuminating  power,  but  this  deficiency  is  supplied 
by  the  use  of  a  certain  proportion  of  richer  canneLs  and 
other  enriching  materials.  The  accompanying  table  illus- 
trates the  character  of  a  few  of  the  more  important  gas-coals 
and  enrichers. 

The  manufacture  of  coal-gets  includes  three  distinct  op- 
erations :  (1)  the  distillation  of  the  coal ;  (2)  the  separation 
of  the  water,  tar,  and  other  condensable  matters — eondensa- 


gas.  As  each  successive  portion  of  vapor  has  to  pass  over  a 
larger  surface  of  red-hot  coke,  it  is  more  and  more  com- 
pletely decomposed,  and  its  percenti^re  of  carbon,  and  cona»- 
quently  its  illuminating  power,  reduced^  For  this  reastm 
tne  quality  of  the  gas  deteriorates  as  the  process  of  distiU»- 
tion  continues,  till  finally  little  besides  hydrogen  is  evolve<L 
At  the  last  stages  of  the  process  the  sufphur  contained  in 
the  coke  is  said  to  form  bisulphide  of  carbon,  which  is  a  most 
objectionable  impurity.  It  is  considered  better,  therefore, 
to  interrupt  the  process  at  the  end  of  four  hours  than  hr 
continuing  it  to  impair  the  quality  of  the  whole  product 
by  the  poor  gases  of  the  later  stages  of  the  distillation.  To 
prevent  the  reduction  of  the  illuminating  power  of  the  gas  bj 
too  high  a  temperature,  it  is  also  necessary  to  remove  the  gp» 
from  the  retort  as  soon  as  possible,  and  not  to  permit  iti( 
pressure  to  be  increased  by  obstacles  to  its  ready  eseajie. 
For  the  accomplishment  oi  this  object  an  exhauster,  or 
gazump,  is  employed. 

Tne  Standpipe, — From  the  retorts  the  gas  and  vapors 
pass  up  to  the  hydraulic  main  through  tne  ascension  or 
siandptpe,  which  at  its  lower  end  is  attached  to  the  mouth- 
piece of  the  retort. 

The  Hydraulic  Main, — This  is  a  large  horizontal  tube 
half  filled  with  tar  which  condenses  from  the  gas,  the  con- 
stant level  of  which  is  maintained  by  an  overflow  to  the  tar- 
well.  To  prevent  the  escape  of  gas  ffrom  the  hydraulic  main 
when  the  retorts  are  opened,  the  standpipe  makes  a  double 
turn  and  enters  the  hydraulic  main  from  above,  its  end 
dipping  3  or  4  inches  into  the  tar,  which  makes  an  effect  iTr 
seal.  The  hydraulic  main  is  really  the  first  element  of  th» 
condensing  apparatus,  for  here  the  condensable  vapors  begin 
to  separate,  as  tar  and  ammonia-water. 

The  Exhauster. — From  this  main  the  gas  passes  to  the 
exhauster,  or  gas-pump,  which  pushes  it  forward  to  the  eon- 
denser,  or  refrigerator.  The  exhauster  is  provided  with  a 
special  device  to  prevent  the  drawing  in  of  air. 

The  condenser  consists  of  a  series  of  iron  tubes  placed  in 
the  open  air,  or  more  commonly  in  cisterns  of  cold  water. 


GAS-ooALs,  arc. 


I.  Caking  Coals. 

Newcastle,  England 

Glace  Bay,  Cape  Breton. . . , 

Lingan,  Cape  Breton 

Block  House,  Cape  Breton , 

Pittsburg,  Pa , 

Westmoreland,  Pa 

'  Sterling,  O 

Despard,  W.  Va , 

II.  Cannbl  Coaub. 

Kirkless  HaU.  England 

Darlington,  O 

Petonia,  W.  Va 

m.  Enriching  Matkrials. 
Boghead  mineral,  Scotland, 

Orahamite,  W.  Va 

Albertite,  Nova  Scotia. . . . . , 
WoUongongite.  Australia. . , 


VnlatUt 

rUad 

oiaUer. 

carboo. 

82-70 

66-66 

86-a6 

•  •  «  •  • 

60-80 

40-80 

67-70 

86-76 

61 -gs 

86-00 

68-00 

87-50 

60-90 

40-00 

68-80 

40-80 

66-40 

48  00 

4000 

46-00 

41-00 

61-60 

16-70 

53-60 

44*50 

67-70 

41-00 

82-60 

6-fiO 

1-76 

•  •  •  •  * 

4  00 
1-50 
7-07 
6-00 
6-60 
6-70 

8-80 
17-00 
1800 

88-70 
S-00 
0-40 

11-00 


GUtppT  ton 
of  *,M0  lb. 
in  cnns  nti* 


lO.OffT 
9,660 
9,620 

10,217 

•  ••••• 

10,642 
10,628 
10,785 

10,012 

9,800 

18,200 

13,619 
16.000 
14,784 
18,716 


C«Bdl«- 

pOWOT 

of  gai. 


Coka. 
pOTlan  of  t,MO  Ik 


10-11 
12-60 
12-92 
17-82 

16-62 
18-81 
20-41 

21-47 
84  96 
42-79 

26-46 

28-70 

49-66 

18100 


Fkmiids.     \     Boihith. 

1 

1,686 

49 

1,484 

88 

1,460 

42 

1,460 

40 

Cm 
bjl 


liBa»ia 


1,544 
1,480 
1,640 

1,410 
1,820 
1,880 

1,878 

1,066 

806 

484 


40 
86 
86 

86 
82 
82 

86 
44 

16-8 


8.50O 
l.SUJi 
2.30»J 
2,3M 

6.'42D 
8.998 
2,494 

8.000 
2,806 
4,510 

8,400 


6.6HR 


tion\  (8)  the  removal  of  sulphur  compounds  and  carbonic 
sc\di—-purijication. 

Retorts, — The  distillation  is  effected  in  long  horizontal, 
semi-cylindrical,  D-shaped  retorts  of  cast  iron,  or  more  gen- 
erally of  clay,  which  consist  of  two  parts — the  body  and  the 
mouthpiece.  They  are  closed  when  in  use  by  a  lid!  properly 
luted  and  held  in  place  by  a  screw.  The  retorts  are  set  in 
groups  or  benches  of  three,  five,  six,  or  seven,  heated  by  one 
nre  of  coke.  The  coal  is  charged  in  at  the  front  of  the  re- 
tort through  the  mouthpiece,  generally  in  an  iron  scoop,  which 
is  inverted  before  it  is  withdrawn,  leaving  the  coal  evenly 
distributed  on  the  bottom  of  the  retort.  When  the  distilla- 
tion is  completed,  the  lid  is  removed  and  the  red-hot  coke  is 
drawn  out  mto  an  iron  wheelbarrow,  spread  out  in  the  yard, 
and  quenched  with  water.  About  one-third  of  the  coke  ob- 
tained is  required  for  heating  the  retorts ;  the  rest  is  sold. 
When  the  cnarge  of  160  or  200  lb.  of  coal  is  first  intro- 
duced into  the  hot  retort,  the  outer  layers  only  of  the  coal 
undergo  distillation,  yielding  condensable  vapors  very  rich 
in  carbon;  these,  passing  through  the  red-not  retort  on 
their  way  out,  are  decomposed  ink)  fixed  gases  of  high  illu- 
minating power.  As  the  heat  continues  these  outer  layers 
of  coal  become  converted  into  coke,  which  is  soon  raised  to 
a  red  heat.  In  the  meantime  the  heat  reaches  the  interior 
of  the  charge,  and  the  vapors  protiuced,  passing  through 
the  red-hot  layers  of  coke,  are  in  turn  converted  into  fixed 


By  a  simple  contrivance  the  tar  and  ammonia-water  which 
separate  from  the  gas  as  it  traverses  the  condenser  readilj 
flow  off  into  their  respective  wells.  From  50  to  100  sq.  fetH 
of  tube-surface  is  allowed  for  every  1,000  feet  of  gas  to  W 
cooled  per  hour.  The  action  of  this  condenser  is  more  thnn 
its  name  implies.  While  the  warm  gas  contains  steam  and 
various  condensable  vapors,  which  are  liquefied  and  separatni 
here,  it  also  bears  along  a  considerable  quantity  of  tar,  in  th« 
form  of  globules,  spraj,  or  fog,  too  minute  to  be  deposited 
by  gravitv.  This  tar  is  already  condensed  to  liquid,  and  it 
requires  for  its  separation  actual  contact  with  a  bath  of  tar. 
as  in  the  hydraulic  main,  or  with  surfaces  wet  with  tar.  as 
in  the  tubes  of  the  condenser. 

The  Washer, — The  gas  next  enters  the  w<uher,  and  tlw^n 
at  many  works  a  scrubber,  both  designed  to  render  vaotv 
complet'C  the  separation  of  the  tar  and  ammonia,  and  ais.> 
to  separate  some  of  the  sulphur  compounds.  The  washer 
consists  of  a  series  of  compartments,  through  which  the  pa? 
passes,  and  where  it  is  exp<)sed  to  jets  of  water. 

The  scrubber  is  a  large  chamber  partiallv  filled  with  coke, 
fragments  of  fire-brick  or  paving-stones,  wnich  are  kept  con- 
stantly wet  by  a  spray  of  water.  It  serves  to  remove  the 
last  portions  of  tar,  etc. 

Products  of  the  Distillation  of  Coal, — ^These  may  lie  di- 
vided, first,  into  gas,  ammonia-water,  tar,  and  coke.  Tht 
proportion  of  these  products  attained  varies  aocording  to 


fiflO 


GAS-LIGHTING 


the  next  lenvth.  The  joint  is  tuaOe  tight  with  hempen  rope 
and  lead.  A  certain  percentaga  of  leakage  is  iinavoidable, 
but  this  can  be  reduced  k>  &  minimum  bj  the  eiercise  of  a 
little  care.  ImmeniinK  the  pipes  in  hot  coal-tar  is  a  tstj 
effective  preTentive  of  leakHge.  Leakage  is  said  to  often 
amount  to  16  per  cent,  of  idl  the  gaa  produced,  or  even 
more;  by  the  above-mentioned  precaution  it  may  be  re- 
duced to  2  per  cent. 

Service-pipa  at  wrought  iron  convey  the  gas  from  the 
mains  to  the  building  of  the  consumers.    They  should  be 

firotected  when  crossing  sunken  areas,  as  otherwise  they  are 
iable  in  cold  weather  to  be  entirely  closed  by  the  hoar-frost 
formed  in  them  by  the  freezing  of  the  aqueous  vapor  always 
present  in  gas. 

The  houae-mtltr  receives  the  gas  when  it  enters  the  prem- 
iaee  of  the  consumer,  measures  the  quantity  which  parses 
through  it,  and  records  it  in  cubic  feet  on  a  series  of  dials. 


chamber*  k  U.  the  ceoler  through  the  tube  a,  and  pirmrii  out 
through  the  illti  e  on  the  periphery  of  ths  drum,  eacapliui  at  the 

Samuel  Clegg  in  1815  constructed  the  first  meter,  consist- 
ing of  two  gas-holders  working  alternately,  which  was  a 
failure.  In  1816  he  invented  a  rotating  meter,  applying  the 
principle  on  which  alt   wet  meters  are   now  constructed. 


Fio.  S.— fl«tlon  0 
<.    The  Kos  t 

through  the  > 
■pace  B  of  tl 

wsier-line  W. 

to  the  irutc-< 


mters   by  the 
^ncB  throuKh  Tl 


S roved  by  Crosley,  Wright,  and  others,  and  is  now  in  aw. 
latam  also  invented  a  dry  met«r  in  1820,  consisting  of  sii 
bellows   radiating   from   a  shaft.      In   1833   Bnganlus,  an 
American  (Bojardiii,  a  Frenchman,  some  sav),  invented  4 
dry  meter,  which  consisted  of  a  vessel  divided  by  a  fleitlilf 
diaphragm,  which   was   the   parent  of  all  subsequent  dry 
meters.     Defries  invented  the  three-chamber  dry  meter  mm 
in  use,  and  Croll  and  Richards  Invented  the  two-chamber 
or  double-bellows  meter  now  very  generally  used.      T*n 
kinds  of  meters  are   now  em- 
ployed r    (1)   the   "  wet    meter," 
which   must   be    parliallj  filled 
with   water  to  be  effective;   (2) 
the  "dt7  meter,"  which  requires 
no  liquid.     Tht  wtl  mtlfr  con- 
sists of  a  hollow  metal  case  con- 
taining the  measuring  drum,  and 
a  box  front  containing  the  regu- 
lating  valves    aud   the   geanng 
which    connects   the    measuring 
drum  with  the  index  dials.    The 
measuring  drum  is  divided  into 
four  compartments  or  chambers 
byobliqiie  partitions.   Thisdrum 
revolves  upon  a  horizontal  axis. 
It  is  immeised  about  three-fifths 
in  water,  receives  the  gas  through 
inlet  slits  on  one  side  and  <lis- 
charges  it  through  outlet  slits  on 
the  opposite  side.    The  compart- 
ments are  occupied  successively 
by  gas  and  wal«r.     The  positicm 
of  the  slits  of  each  compartment 
is  such  that  one  or  the  other  is 

alwaysbelowthe water-line;  thus    ^lo.  a.-8ectloD  of  the  mod- 
Ih.  |j«,  c„  »„.,  .met  the  e;h™-        f","  ."SS-ASnSS 
ber  and  escape  from   it  at   the        under  Fig.  s. 
same  time.    The  surface  of  the 
water  forms  the  bottom  of  the  measuring  chamber,  and  the 


above  the  water-line,  when  gas  enters. 


toothed  nhrel  a.  Iheaxbinf  i 
of  »■      -    -      ■ 


e  index-dial*  staowD 


t  ihrouidi  the  tii 


petus  to  the  drum,  which  continues  to  revolve,  the  s|iacc  ir, 
the  chamber  above  the  water-line  receiring  gie  till  tli>> 
chamber  is  full.  Although  there  arc  four  chambers  in  the 
drum,  the  obliquity  of  the  dividing  partitions  makes  nearK 
a  half  revolution  nK'essary  to  bring  the  outlet  slit  above  the 
water-line;  this  occurs  an  instant  after  the  inlet  slit  on  tiip- 
opposite  side  has  ]>ass«t  below  the  water-line.  As  ih- 
cfiamber  now  passes  Itelow  the  water-level,  the  gas  escajv^. 
and  the  chamber  is  linally  filled  with  water,  the  drum  o|vr- 
ating  on  the  principle  of  a  liimsiih'.    It  is  the  pret»iiri>  ■  ' 


GAS-LIUUTINU 


liable  to  any  of  theu  objections,  but,  being  more  oompU- 
cated  and  more  delicate,  it  is  in<u«  liable  to  wear  and  to 
get  out  of  order. 

Tht  index  of  the  meter  is  very  simple,    it  consLits  ol  a 
number  of  dials  like  that  of  a  watch,  except  that  while  the 


—The  Index  ol 


.drymeU 


hour  and  minute  hanils  of  a  watch  traverse  the  same  dial, 
the  dilTerent  hands  of  the  meter  have  eai^h  a  separate  dial. 
Fig.  T  is  a  dry-meter  dial.  The  dial  at  the  tup,  whieh  in- 
dicates units  of  feet,  is  oa\j  used  in  testing  the  meter.  The 
other  dials  show  81),a00  feet  to  have  passed  through  the 
meter:  if  it  month  betice  the  hands  indicate  93.400.  then 
4.100  feet  will  have  passed  the  meter  during  the  month. 

Tbt  aeeuracy  of  ike  melera  is  very  often  questioned  by 
consumers.  The  cock-lilie  appearance  of  the  dials  leads 
them  to  inter  that  the  meters  may  nin  fast  or  slow.     But 

.1. : J.  parallel;  the  meter  is  an  engine  in  which 

the  gas  is  tiic  motive-power,  and  unless 
the  gas  passes  through  the  meter,  it 
can  not  move.     On  ifi  dials  are  faith- 
fully recorded  the  number  of  its  revo- 
lutions in  cubic  feet.     All  waste  and 
leakage  are  recorded  as  well  as  the  use- 
ful consumption.     Some  think  that  the 
increased    pressure    makes   the   meter 
spin  round  faster  and  record  against 
the  consumer;   but  if  he  regulate  the 
burners  so  as  to  prevent  "  blowing,"  he 
"  'up!  "Fii'ni   "t  once  neutralizes  the  effect  of  the  in- 
» aab^auila'a   creased  pressure.    Prom  the  nature  of 
"P-  things,  Ihe  injury  which  the  meter  suf- 

fers in  use  must  generally  be  against 
the  componr.  If  a  valve  teaks  or  a  rust  hole  occurs  in  the 
mofteuring  drum,  or  a  crack  in  the  leather,  gas  gels  through 
without  being  recorded.  Sometimes  the  valves  of  a  dry 
nieler  become  fiied  in  such  a  position  as  to  let  the  gas 
through  without  moving.  The  meters  are  all  tested  bv 
inspectors  by  [lassing  a  certain  number  of  cubic  feet  through 
each,  and  noting  whether  it  is  properly  recorded  on  the 

Oa»-bumtra  now  in  use  are  of  three  kinds;  (I)  the  6a(- 
wif;y,abumer  with  aslit  (t'igs.  »,  10,  18);  (2)  the  ^-(oi7, 


Fu).  v. 


ti[«.    f)b.  is,  T.foot  bat'W 


with  two  oblique  holes  in  the  end  facing  each  oihpr  (Figs. 
fl.  11.  14.  17.  18);  (.1)  the  arganit.n  ciniilar  burner  with  a 
ring  of  thirty-live  lo  lifty  small  holes,  a  gliL-^s  cliimney  and 


'^er  p;v-;sS^  ' 


•^^er, 


r'HOV^:- 


3  FEET    PER    HOUR. 


2  FEET 
PER  HOUR. 


I  FOOT 
PER  HOUR. 


an  interior  supply  of  air  (Figs.  15, 16>.  Burners  are  made  i>f 
iron,  brass,  or  soapstone  ("lava");  the  last  is  prefersblr. 
as  the  holes  are  not  liable  to 
be  stopped  by  rust.  The 
amount  of  light  produced  by 
a  given  gas  varies  enormous- 
ly with  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  burned.  The  max- 
imum amount  of  light  is  ob- 
tained by  burning  it  on  the 
verge  of  smoking,  white  in 
the  Bunsen  burner,  used  tor 
heating  purposes  in  chemical 
laboratories,  the  flame  is  blue 
and  non-luminous.  The  la'is 
of  light  is  due  to  a  too  rapid 
mixing  or  contact  of  the  gas 
■ith  the  air.     This  i 


height  of  the  chimney,  and 
the  distribution  of  the  air  (in 
the  argand).  and  in  all  cases 
by  the  pressure.  The  holes 
and  slits  for  rich  gas  should 
be  small,  as  Bueh  gu»  requires 


if  braw,  wRh  valT* 


694 


GAS-LIGHTING 


GASPfi 


these  forms  to  7  or  8  grains  per  100  cubic  feet.  Iron  puri- 
fication is  not  so  effective,  as  it  leaves  from  12  to  40  grains 
of  sulphur  per  100  cubic  feet.  The  total  sulphur  is  deter- 
mined by  burning  a  certain  quantity  of  the  gas  through  a 
Leslie  burner,  and  collecting  the  sulphurous  and  sulphuric 
4U!ids  produced  by  ammonia,  oxidizing  all  to  sulphunc  acid 
by  bromine,  and  weighing  as  sulphate  of  baryta.  (See  Am, 
Chemist,  ii.,  247.)  Special  tests  by  chlorine,  etc.,  are  fully 
described  in  the  works  on  gas  mentioned  at  the  close  of  this 
article. 

The  waste  products  of  the  manufacture  of  coal-gas  consist 
of  (1)  coke,  (2)  ammoniacal  liq^uor,  (3)  tar,  (4)  the  spent  lime 
or  oxide  of  iron  used  in  purification.  (See  lecture  by  Dr. 
Letheby  on  the  waste  products  of  coal-gas,  Chem,  News,  xvL, 
81,  44,  55,  68,  91,  95, 106.)  Coke,  the  fixed  residuum  which 
remains  in  the  retorts,  and  which  amounts  in  Quantity  to 
about  66*66  per  cent,  of  the  coal,  is  a  very  valuable  fuel  and 
finds  a  ready  sale.  (See  Coke.)  The  ammoniacal  liquor  is 
the  source  of  nearly  all  the  ammonia  salts  of  commerce.  By 
far  the  larger  part  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  coal,  which  varies 
from  less  tnan  1  per  cent,  to  nearly  2  per  cent.,  is  not  con- 
verted into  ammonia;  it  forms  cyanides,  sulphocyanides, 
bases,  etc.  The  ammoniacal  liquor  contains  tne  ammonia 
in  the  form  of  hydrosulphide,  acid  carbonate,  cyanide,  sul- 
phocyanide,  chloride,  and  benzoate.  By  mixing  it  with  lime 
and  blowing  steam  through  it  the  ammonia  is  expelled,  and 
conducted  to  vats  containing  sulphuric  acid,  where  it  is  ab- 
sorbed and  combined  as  sulphate,  which  is  obtained  in  crys- 
tals on  evaporation.  This  salt  is  used  as  a  fertilizer,  in  the 
manufacture  of  alum,  and  for  the  preparation  of  other  am- 
moniacal compounds.  The  tar  is  a  very  complex  body.  It 
was  formerly  thrown  away,  but  is  now  the  source  of  a  great 
variety  of  useful  products.    See  Coal-tar. 

Gas  from  Coal-tar. — Ever  since  the  manufacture  of  coal- 
gas  became  an  established  industry  the  importance  of  con- 
verting the  tar  into  gas,  or  of  so  conducting  the  destructive 
distillation  as  to  prevent  its  formation,  has  been  fully  rec- 
ognized, and  the  greatest  varietv  of  processes  has  been  pat- 
ented, all  of  which  claim  to  make  more  gas  aiid  better  gas 
from  a  ton  of  coal.  The  actual  possibilities  are  estimated 
by  comparing  the  weight  of  tar  with  the  weight  of  gas  from 
the  same  coal.  Twenty-two  hundred  and  forty  lb.  of  aver- 
age caking  coal  yield  from  9,000  to  10,000  cubic  feet  of  gas 
of  a  specific  gravity  of,  say,  0*430,  eouivalent  to  296*86  or 
329*84  lb.  of  gas.  'fhe  same  coal  yields,  say,  12  U.  S.  gal.  of 
tar,  the  speciSc  gravity  of  which  is  from  1*12  to  1*15,  or  9*33 
to  9*58  Id.  per  gallon,  equal  to  112  to  115  lb.  If  this  tar 
could  be  entirely  converted  into  gas  of  '430  specific  gravity, 
it  would  add  3,394  to  3,488  cubic  feet  to  the  yield  of  gas. 
The  proportion  of  carbon  in  coal-tar  is  so  great,  however, 
that  under  no  system  can  it  be  converted  into  gas  without 
the  formation  of  a  considerable  proportion  of  fixed  coke, 
probably  from  25  to  40  per  cent,  of  its  entire  weight.  This 
fact  reduces  very  considerably  the  possible  gain  of  ^as  from 
the  tar ;  in  the  case  of  caking  coal,  the  usual  material,  from 
the  3,394  to  3,488  cubic  feet  of  gas  to  not  much  above  2,000 
feet.  To  secure  this  gain  the  tar,  which  has  a  market- value 
of  from  33  to  50  cents  per  ton  of  coal,  must  be  sacrificed, 
and  more  complicated  apparatus  and  a  larger  consumption 
of  fuel  and  labor  must  be  resorted  to.  It  is  for  these  reasons 
that  none  of  the  methods  suggested  for  producing  gas  from 
the  tar  have  as  yet  been  successful.  In  1827  Bernard  Chaus- 
senot  patented  in  France  the  use  of  one  vessel  or  retort  heat- 
ed to  a  low  temperature  for  distilling  "  resin  and  all  hydro- 
genous matters  liquid  and  solid  "  into  rich  vapors,  and  a 
second  retort  heated  to  a  high  temperature  for  converting 
these  vapors  into  permanent  gas.  This  principle  has  been 
the  basis  of  numerous  patents,  and  while  it  has  not  been  suc- 
cessful if  applied  to  coal  alone,  it  is  probably  essential  to 
the  production  of  gas  from  petroleum  or  any  of  its  products, 
and  is  in  successful  operation  in  several  works  where  petro- 
leum naphtha  is  used  as  an  enricher  for  coal-gas. 

Oil-gas. — As  a  matter  of  fact,  whenever  oil  is  burned  in 
lamps  it  is  first  converted  into  gas  at  the  wick.  This  is 
by  far  the  most  economical  method  of  making  oil-gas. 
Nevertheless,  when  gas-lights  were  first  introduced  coal  was 
quickly  replaced  by  oil.  Cheap  refuse  oils  and  fats  were 
employed,  kitchen  grease,  and  whale  oil.  The  gas  was  ob- 
tained by  allowing  a  stream  of  the  oil  or  melted  fat  to 
trickle  into  a  red-hot  tube  or  a  retort  filled  with  coke  or 
similar  porous  solid.  The  oil  was  at  once  converted  into  a 
permanent  gas,  which,  owing  to  the  freedom  of  the  oil  from 
nitrogen  and  sulphur,  contained  no  ammonia  or  sulphur 
compounds,  and    consequently  required    no    purification, 


merely  washing  with  water  to  condense  the  lianid product.^. 
A  considerable  residue  of  charcoal  is  always  left  in  the  re- 
tort. Oil-gas  possesses  a  very  high  illuminating  power, 
several  times  that  of  ordinary  coal-gas,  and  must  be  bumeii 
through  very  small  burners  to  prevent  smoking.  The  vieM 
of  oil-gas  depends  upon  the  temperature  at  which  the  oil 
and  its  vapors  are  decomposed ;  a  low  temperature  gives  a 
smaller  quantity  of  very  rich  gas,  with  tlie  minimum  de- 
posit of  carbon.  A  high  temperature  yields  more  hydrogen 
and  marsh-gas,  and  a  larger  deposit  of  carbon.  A  gallon 
(U.  S.)  of  oil  weighs  about  8  lb. ;  1,000  cubic  feet  -900  ga> 
weighs  69  lb.  Were  there  no  waste,  and  were  it  poesable  to 
obtain  8  lb.  -900  gas  from  1  gal.  of  oil,  8*68  gal.  of  oil  would 
make  1,000  cubic  feet  of  gas.  Oil-gas  has  come  into  ex- 
tensive use  on  railways  and  for  the  illumination  of  buoys 
and  lighthouses.  Its  use  began  in  1871  in  Germany,  and  it 
was  later  adopted  by  the  Metropolitan  Railway  in  London 
(1876).  It  is  said  that  the  cost  of  oil-gas  is  not  much  more 
than  half  that  of  coal-gas.  It  is  usually  compressed  to  10 
atmospheres  in  lare^e  vessels,  from  which  small  reservoirs 
attached  to  railroad  care,  buoys,  ete.,  are  filled  under  a  pres- 
sure of  from  6  to  8  atmospheres. 

Petroleum  and  Naphthas-gas.  See  PETROLEm.  Air-gas. 
See  Petroleum.  Water-gas.  See  Water-gas.  Oxy-hydro- 
gen  Gas-lighting.    See  Oxygen. 

For  further  details  with  regard  to  gas-lighting,  the  follow- 
ing works  maybe  consulted:  Muspratt's  Chemistry:  Mu>- 
pratt*s  Handbuch  der  Technischen  Chemie  (3d.  ed.  IrtTo) : 
Wurtz's  Dictiontiaire  de  Chimie;  Neues  Handu^&rierburh 
der  Chemie  \  Le  Gaz;  Wagner's  Jahresberieht  der  Cht^mt- 
schen  Technologic;  Matthews's  Ilistorg  of  Gas-lighting  {'M 
ed.  1832);  Blochmann's  Beitrdge  zur  Geschiehte  der  Ga>*- 
heleuchtmhg  (1871) ;  Abridgments  of  Specifications  of  Pat- 
ents Relating  to  the  Production  and  Applications  of  (rn-^ 
(1860);  Accum's  Practical  Treatise  on  Gaslight  (4th  ed. 
1818) ;  Accum's  Description  of  the  Process  of  Manufactur- 
inp  Coal-gas  (1819);  Bowditch,  The  Analysis,  Teehniml 
Valuation,  Purification,  and  Use  of  Coal-gas  \  The  (iti*- 
manager's  Handbook,  Thomas  Newbigging;  Bower.  ^r<ix- 
engineer's  Book  of  Reference-,  Clegg,  On  the  Manufarluir 
of  Coal-gets  \  Colburn,  The  Gasworks  of  London  i  Gan- 
consumer's  Guide;  Hughes,  Gasworks  and  ManufacturiJtg 
Coal-^as;  Mason,  The  Gasfitter's  Guide;  d'Hureourt,  Df 
Veclatra^e  du  gaz ;  Richard,  Gcui-consumer^s  (hiide ;  Su^rg. 
Gas  Jdanipulation,  with  a  Description  of  the  various  In- 
struments and  Apparatus  Employed  in  ths  Analysis  of  Coal 
and  CocU-gas;  Wilkins,  ffoic  to  Manage  Gas;  Schilling. 
Handbuch  fUr  Steinkohlengasbeleuchtung  (2  Bde.,  St-e  Auf.. 
1879);  E.  J.  Mills,  Destructim  Distillation  (3d  ed.  1S86k 
W.  Richards,  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacturt  of 
Coal-gas  (1890);  Dictiothary  of  Applied  Chemistry,  artitle 
Coal-gas,  by  Lewis  Wright  (1891);  G.  Thenius,  Fabrikn- 
tionder  Leuchtaase  (1891);  Knapp*s  Lehrbuch  der  Cht^m. 
Technologie  (3te*Auf.,  1865)  ;  Bolley's  Handbu<;h  der  Chrm. 
rec/ino/oflrie  (1862);  and  the  authorities  previously  cited  in 
this  article.    See  Natural  Gas.  C.  P.  Chandler. 

Revised  by  Ira  Rexsen. 

Gasparln,  gacis'paa'r&n',  Aq£nor  £tienk£.  Count  de :  au- 
thor ;  b.  in  Orange,  Prance,  July  10,  1810 ;  the  son  of  Count 
Adrien  fitienne  Pierre  de  Gasparin  (1783-1862),  an  Orleain^t 
statesman  of  liberal  views.  Tne  son  was  much  in  public  life 
until  1846 ;  disapproved  of  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  after 
Napoleon  III.  came  into  power  retired  to  Switzerland,  whrrv 
he  engaged  in  literary  pursuits.  De  Gasparin  was  a  Prr>te=^ 
tant,  a  friend  of  safe  reform  measures,  a  pronounceil  enein\ 
of  slavery,  and  was  the  author  of  several  volumes,  chirrtjt 
upon  religious  and  social  Questions,  two  of  which,  Vn  grand 
peuple  qui  se  reUve  (The  Uprising  of  a  Great  People,'  X'i^U 
ana  L  AmSrique  devant  V Europe  ^America  before  Eiirojn. 
1862),  maintaining  the  justice  of  tne  Federal  cause  in  th»> 
U.  S.  during  the  civil  war,  were  translated  into  English  and 
widely  read  in  the  U.  S.  D.  near  Geneva,  May  14,  IJ^TI. 
See  his  Life  by  Th.  Borel  (English  trans..  New  l?ork,  1871)i 
— Mme.  Valerie  Bossier  de  Gasparin,  his  wife  (K  in  (t«^- 
neva,  Sept.  13,  1813),  has  also  written  much  upon  topics  kin- 
dred to  those  discussed  by  her  husband,  and  made  nunien)us 
translations  from  the  English.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Ga8'p§  (Indian,  Gasepion) :  a  district,  cApe,  and  town  in 
Quebec  province,  Canada;  on  the  end  of  the  peninsuiH 
which  extends  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  between  iIm- 
St.  Lawrence  river  and  Chaleur  Bay.  The  name  is  ofttn 
applied  to  the  peninsula  itself  (see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  l-I  ■. 
The  cape  is  a  towering  rampart  of  sandstone  690  feet  \\v^\i. 


696 


GASTEROPODA 


GASTRULA 


symmetrical,  but  in  the  young  the  shell  is  asymmetrical  just 
as  in  the  common  snail. 

The  class  of  Gasteropods  is  divided  into  the  following 
orders:  Order  I.  Pbosobranchiata,  which  derive  their 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  gill  or  gills  are  in  front  of  the 
heart,  and  correspondingly  have  the  auricles  in  front  of  the 
ventricle  of  the  central  circulatory  org^an.  The  pleurovis- 
ceral  nerves  (see  article  Mollusca)  are  involved  in  the  tor- 
sion of  the  body,  and  as  a  result  are  crossed,  bringing  the 
right  visceral  ganglion  uoon  the  left  side,  and  vice  versa. 
The  sexes  are  separate  ana  the  foot  usually  bears  an  oper- 
culum for  closing  the  shell  when  the  animal  is  retracted. 
A  shell  is  lacking  in  the  single  genus  Titiscania.  Most  of 
the  species  are  marine.  The  order  Prosobranchiata  is  sub- 
divided into  two  divisions  or  sub-orders — IHotocardia  and 
Monotocardia, 

Sub-order  I.  Diotocabdia,  characterized  by  the  usual 
presence  of  two  auricles  and  two  kidneys  (neptridia).  Ac- 
cording to  the  character  of  the  gills  trie  Diotocardia  are 
arran^d  as  follows :  (a)  Zygobranchia,  marine  forms  with 
two  gills  and  with  the  intestine  passing  through  the  ventri- 
cle of  the  heart.  Here  belong  the  Abalones  or  ear-shells 
{HcUiotid<B\  in  which  the  iridescent  shell  (largely  used  in 
inlaid  work)  is  perforated  by  a  series  of  holes  through  which 
the  gills  project  freely  into  the  surrounding  water ;  the  key- 
hole limpets  {Fissurellidce),  with  flatten^  conical  shells, 
perforated  at  the  apex ;  the  Pleurotoniaridce^  with  spiral 
shells,  deeply  slit  at  the  edge  of  the  aperture,  etc.  (/3)  AzY- 
OOBBANCHIA,  with  Only  the  left  gill  persisting,  and  with  the 
intestine  passing  through  the  heart  as  in  the  Zygobranchs. 
To  this  division  belong  the  Top-shells  {q.  v.)  or  Turbinidm, 
the  closely  allied  TrochtdcB,  the  Nebitid^.  (q.  v.),  and  the 
HelicinidcB,  These  latter  are  terrestrial,  ana  like  the  Pul- 
monata  (infra)  have  developed  a  "  lung  "*  for  breathing  air, 
but  in  their  structure  they  are  in  all  otner  respects  allied  to 
the  Nerites  and  Top-shells.  (7)  Docoglossa,  with  but  a  sin- 
gle auricle,  no  operculum,  ana  with  the  intestine  distinct 
from  the  heart.  The  Docoglossa  contains  the  tnie  limpets 
(Patellidcs),  In  the  common  European  limpet  (Patella)  the 
true  gills  (ctenidia,  see  Mollusca)  nave  been  lost  and  a  sec- 
ondary gill  developed,  but  in  the  common  limpets  (Acmcea) 
of  the  if.  S.  Atlantic  coast  the  true  left  gill  occurs  in  con- 
junction with  numerous  other  secondary  gi^s. 

Sub-order  II.  Monotocabdla  (a.  v.),  with  a  single  auricle, 
a  single  true  gill  (ctenidium)  ana  a  single  kidney  (nephrid- 
ium).  This  sub-order,  formerly  call^  PlRctinibranchia, 
contains  the  great  majority  of  the  sea-snails.  Among  these 
the  Hetebopoda  (q.  t;.),  formerly  regarded  as  a  distinct  order 
of  Gasteropods,  are  now  known  to  belong  here  and  to  be  spe- 
cially modified  (by  compression  of  the  foot  to  a  keel-like 
structure,  etc.,  for  a  free  swimming  or  pelagic  life). 

Order  II.  Pulmonata  (q,  v.). — These  have  the  pleurovis- 
ceral  nerves  uncrossed,  and  derive  their  name  from  the  fact 
that  the  gills  have  disappeared,  while  the  respiratory  func- 
tion is  taken  by  the  walls  of  the  mantle  cavity,  which  have 
developed  into  an  air-breathing  organ  or  lung.  Most  of 
the  Pulmonates  live  in  fresh  water  or  on  the  land,  and 
among  the  terrestrial  forms  there  is  a  marked  tendency 
towara  loss  of  the  shell,  as  seen  in  the  common  garden 
slu^.  Most  of  the  species  are  vegetarians,  both  slugs  and 
snails  eating  fresh  plants  as  well  as  decaying  vegetation. 
The  aquatic  forms  feed  largely  upon  the  lower  plants  occur- 
ring in  the  water,  while  they  respire  by  occasionally  coming 
to  the  surface,  expelling  a  bubble  of  used  air  and  mling  the 
lung  with  a  fresh  supply. 

Order  III.  Opisthobbanchiata. — These  are  marine  snails, 
which  like  the  Pulmonates  have  the  nerves  uncrossed  and 
lack  the  operculum.  They  have  a  single  auricle  placed  be- 
hind the  ventricle,  and  gills  (either  ctenidia  or  adaptive 
gills)  may  be  present  or  absent.  When  present  they  are 
usually  behind  the  heart,  whence  the  name  of  the  order.  A 
shell  may  be  either  present  or  absent,  and  the  visceral  hump 
is  more  or  less  reduced.  All  are  marine,  and  some  present 
beautiful  instances  of  protective  resemblance,  being  so  modi- 
fied and  colored  as  to  resemble  the  plants  or  hydroids  upon 
which  they  commonly  occur. 

Sub-order  I.  Tectibbanchiata. — In  these  the  mantle  cav- 
ity is  well  developed  upon  the  right  side  of  the  body,  and 
contains  a  single  (primitively  left)  true  gill  (ctenidium), 
which  is  more  or  less  completely  covered  by  the  mantle.  A 
shell  may  be  well  developed  or  it  may  be  more  or  less  rudi- 
mentary, and  not  infrequently  it  is  internal.  Two  divisions 
of  the  sub-order  may  be  recognized — (a)  Reptantia,  em- 
bracing the  creeping  forms,  ana  (fi)  Ptebopoda  (q,  v.),  Tec- 


art,  to  show  the  position  of  th«  ^iils 
behind  the  heart.  A,  auricle ;  a.  Tviit . 
cM^^ aorta  ;  c,  tentacle ;  y,  gill ;  i\  Ten* 
tricle. 


tibranchs  which  have  been  modified  for  a  free-swimming 
life  on  the  hi^h  seas.  The  Pteropoda  were  formerly  re- 
garded as  a  distinct  class 
of  the  Mollusca^  but 
more  detailed  studies  of 
their  structure  and  es-  O- 
pecially  of  their  devel- 
opment have  shown  that 
they  belong  here. 

Sub-order  II.  Nudi- 
bbanchiata.  — Opistho- 
branchiate  molluscs  in 
which  there  are  no  true  ^^_ 
gills,  no  shell,  and  no 
mantle  fold  in  the  adult. 
On  the  other  hand, 
adaptive  gills  are  fre- 
quently present,  and  ''^— 
may  form  either  lobes    ^„_ 

variouslyarrangedalong    x 

the  back  or  arrange  in    qi_ 
a  circle  around  the  vent    2^ 
(see   figure    of   Doris),    ^"' 
Owing  to  the  failure  to  V*"— 
develop  a  mantle  fold,    q-— 
the  gills  when  present 
project  freely  into  the 
water,  whence  the  name 
of    the    group,    which    SJ-— 
means  naEed  gills. 

J.  S.  KiNOSLET.  J- 

Gas'ton,  Willlui, 
LL.  D. :  jurist ;  b.  at 
New  Berne,  N.  C,  Sept.  Respiratory  and  drcolatory  ornns  of 
19,  1778;  studied  at  an  Opi8thobranch(i>(>rM)  after  Leock 
Georgetown  College, 
Md. ;  graduated  in  1706 
at  Princeton  with  first 
honors ;  admitted  to  the 

bar  in  1708 ;  was  in  Congress  from  North  Carolina  181S-17, 
where  he  opposed  the  "  loan  '*  bill  and  was  one  of  the  ablest 
of  the  Federalists ;  judge  of  the  State  Supreme  Court  ls;i^ 
44,  although  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  as  such  incapable  of 
holding  office  by  the  constitution  of  North  Carohna :  o{>- 
posed  m  1835  the  disfranchisement  of  free  colored  voters 
which  was  provided  for  by  the  constitution  of  that  year : 
declined  the  U.  S.  Senatorship  1840.  D.  at  Raleigh/  Jan. 
23,1844. 

Gaston  de  Foix,  g&s'ton'de-fwiQi' :  a  nephew  of  Loub 
XII.  of  France ;  b.  1460 ;  became  Duke  of  Nemours  ir»()5 ; 
led  the  army  of  Louis  XII.  in  Italy ;  vanquished  the  besieg- 
ers of  Bologna ;  defeated  the  army  of  Venice  near  Br«?stKi, 
and  took  the  city  by  storm ;  won  the  great  battle  of  Ra- 
venna (Apr.  11, 1512),  and  by  rash  exposure  after  the  vic- 
tory was  Killed  on  the  same  day. 

GastraFgla :  See  Cardialgia. 

Gastric  Juloe  [gastric  is  from  Gr.  toot^p,  stomach] :  See 
Digestion. 

Gastritis :  See  Stomach. 

Gastrotricha  [Mod.  Lat.  from  Gr.  ymrrhp^  stomach  -t^ 
0p^,  rpix^f,  hair] :  a  group  of  simple  fresh-water  worms  of 
microscopic  size  and  uncertain  affinities.  They  are  elon- 
gate, unsegmented  animals  with  ciliated  ventral  surface, 
whence  the  name.    Chcstonotus  is  the  principal  genus. 

J.  S.  K. 

Gastmla  [Mod.  Lat.  dimin.  of  Gr.  Tawrtp,  stomach]  :  an 
embryonic  stage  in  the  history  of  all  many-celled  animak 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  two  body  layers :  an  outtr 
ectoderm  or  external  skin,  an  inner  entoderm  or  stomarn 
lining,  and  a  single  opening  connecting  the  stomach  or 
archenteron  with  the  external  world.  The  gastmla  mar 
arise  in  two  ways :  (1)  invagination ;  (2)  delamination.  \i\ 
the  first  the  eg^  produces  a  hollow  globe  of  cells,  one  si' it 
of  which  becomes  inpushed,  much  as  one  would  push  in  c»nr 
side  of  a  rubber  ball,  thus  producing  the  two  body  laytrN. 
while  the  hole  through  which  the  inpusliing  takes  pi  act*  i^ 
the  opening  mentioned  above.  In  delamination  the  san)t' 
globe  of  cells  occurs,  but  the  inner  ends  of  all  the  ct»lls  an* 
cut  off  from  the  outer  ends,  and  the  two  body  layers  art- 
produced  in  this  way,  while  the  mouth  or  opening  break- 
through both  layers  at  a  later  date.  For  modifications  o' 
the  above-described  typical  conditions,  see  Bmbbyologi. 


pAS,  gleepine  in  miseruble  huts  or  in  the  opeD  air,  and  sub- 
sisting on  tbe  meat  of  cattle  which  they  lull.  Thej  always 
go  mounted,  and,  betn^  Mjcustoined  to  horses  from  their 
mlancf,  are  splendid  riders.  In  the  numerous  civil  wars 
of  their  countries  the  Guuchos  hare  taken  a  prominent  part. 
They  care  litllo  [or  political  questions,  but  are  ready  to  fol- 
low any  leader  who  eivcs  them  a  roving  life  and  plunder; 
and  as  they  carry  alt  their  possessions  on  their  horses  and 
know  all  the  roads,  they  readily  avoid  regular  soldiers. 
Bvsn  in  periods  of  comparative  pea<se  they  form  bands  of 
cattle-thieves  and  highwaymen,  and  these  lawless  companies 
ma^  at  any  time  develop  into  insurgent  armies.  One  of 
their  favorite  weapons  is  the  boltu  or  weighted  lasso,  which 
they  also  use  in  catching  cattle.  Hebbekt  H.  Smith. 

Ganden,  John  :  English  bishop ;  the  reputed  author  of 

EjKON  H*smKE  (j,  I'.). 

Oandentlns  [Lat..  liter.,  joyful,  rejoicing,  deriv.  of  gatt- 
(fens,  pres.  partic.  of  gaude're,  rejoice] :  the  name  of  nearly 
thirty  ancient  Christian  bishops,  two  of  whom  were  espe- 
cially noted.  Oaudbstius,  Bishop  of  Brescia,  in  Northern 
Italy,  a  friend  of  Ambrose  and  Cnrjsostom,  was  born  about 
360  A,  D^  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  he  lived  till  about  427 
A.  D.  or  died  shortly  after  410  a.  d.  Before  becoming  a 
bishop  (about  387  a.  d.)  he  had  traveled  in  the  East,  whence 
he  brought  back  the  relics  of  nearly  forty  saints.  Twenty- 
one  of  His  sermons  are  extant,  the  Wt  edition  of  which  is 
b7l3aleardu3(1738)j  reprinted  in  Migne's  Pat.  Lai. .yo\.ix. 
0AUDENTIUS,  Donatist  Bishop  of  Thamuga<la,  in  Northern 
Africa,  of  whose  personal  history  very  little  is  known,  first 
came  into  notice  at  the  famous  conference  in  Carthage  in 
411.  It  was  against  him  that  Augustine  wrote  his  last 
works  in  the  Donatistio  controversy,  about  the  year  420  *.  n. 

GaD9anie'la(in  Or.  ri  rairf6)tri\a) :  a  village  in  the  province 
of  Aturia  in  Assyria,  at  which  Alexander  the  Great  routed 
the  army  of  Danus.  By  some  it  is  placed  nearly  midway 
between  the  mouth  of  the  upper  Zab  and  Bski-Kelek,  the 
ferry  of  the  modem  caravan  road  Iwtween  Mosul  and  Erbil. 
By  others  it  is  placed  at  Kermelis,  nearly  midway  between 
Mosul  and  Eski-Kelek.  For  a  discussion  of  the  question, 
see  Droysen.  Oeachiehle  dee  Hellenitmtu, 
footnotes. 

Gauge  of  Railways:  the  distance  between  the  inner 
sides  of  the  rails  of  a  track,  which  is  usually  4  ft.  Bi  in. 
The  illustration  shows  one  form  of  the  implement,  also 
called  a  gauge,  by  which  the  rails  are  set  to  the  proper  dis- 


I,  i.,  pp.  330-330 
X  R.  S.  S. 


tance  apart  On  curves  the  gauge  of  the  track  is  often 
made  slightlv  wider  than  on  the  straight  purlions,  and 
hence  the  ends  of  the  implement  ore  adjustable,  and  they 
are  sometimes  made  with  segments  of  a  circle  corresjiondlng 
in  curvature  to  that  requir^  for  the  rails.  See  Railways 
concerning  the  narrow  gauge,  standard  gauge,  and  broad 
gauge.  Mansfield  Merbihan. 

Uaal :  See  Gallia. 

Ganl,  Alfred  Robert  :  composer ;  b.  at  Norwich,  Eng- 
land, in  1837;  studied  under  local  teachers,  gained  the  de- 
gree Mus.  Bac.  from  Cambridge,  and  has  made  a  tavoral)le 
reputation  as  a  composer  of  cantatas  and  songs.  His  Rulk, 
Hnly  City  (Birmingham,  1883).  Passion  Service.  Joan  of 
Are,  The  Ten  Virgins.  Israel  in  tbe  Wilderness,  Song  of 
Life,  and  Una  arc  written  for  ordinary  choral  societies  and 

Sod  church  choirs,  and  have  been  highly  successful.     He 
s  for  many  years  resided  at  Birmingham,  England. 

D.  E.  H. 
Gaal, Gilbert  Williah:  genre-painter;  b.  in.Tersey  City, 
N.  J.,  Mar.  31,  1855.    Pupil  of  J.  G.  Brown,  New  York ; 
National  Academician  1883 ;  member  of  Society  of  Ameri- 
can Artists  1863 ;  third-class  medal,  Paris  ExposiUon.  188fl. 


GAUSS 

His  pictures  of  episodes  in  the  civil  war  are  spirited  ai.  I 
cleverly  painted  ;  well  known  as  an  illustrator,  in  whu  i. 
field  he  IS  especially  notable  as  a  delineator  of  chanu'i--r. 
Studio  in  New  York.  W.  A.  ('. 

Ganley  (gaw  lee)  Monntalns :  a  mountain-range  in  W(-.< 
Virginia,  forming  a  part  of  the  ridge  known  farther  .-;.  tt", 
as  the  Cumberland  Mountains.  The  name  is  soinetin..- 
given  to  the  Little  Uauley  Mountains  iu  Nicholas  Cuunlv. 
and  is  sometimes  extended  indefinitely  to  the  sanit>  rsrii^ 
further  to  the  N.  E.  The  mountains  contain  much  wilJ 
and  sublime  scenery. 

Gaale;  River :  a  river  of  West  Virginia ;  rises  in  Poca- 
hontas County,  drains  a  valley  having  the  Gauley  and  Bir.'h 
Mountains  on  the  N.  W.  and  the  Greenbrier  HountaiD»  ..:i 
the  S.  and  &  E.     It  falls  into  the  Great  Kanawha. 

GanlB :  See  Celts. 

Ganlt, gawit  [from  provinc. Bug. jrau". clay, brick-earlli; 
cf,  Norweg.  gala,  hard  earth] :  originally  a  provincial  nurit- 
for  a  stratum  of  stiff  blue  calcareous  clay  or  marl  o«-urrirE 
in  several  localities  in  the  south  and  eastof  England,  but  ii- 1 
accepted  as  a  geological  term  to  clesignate  a  straligra|'li>  .i 
horizon  in  the  Cretaceous  formation  of  Europe.  \\'\i-  [. 
represented  in  the  series  (and  it  is  often  wantinpl,  il.i- 
stratum  of  clay,  varying  in  thickness  from  80  to  2flO  fi-et.  i- 
rejtarded  as  the  commencement  of  the  Upper  Cretace.  lu-. 
It  intervenes  between  the  Lower  and  the  Upper  Gre«nsatx<i!. 
and  lithologioall);  is  very  distinct  from  either;  palifwini.- 
logically,  its  fossils,  abundant  and  often  beautifully  prt- 
served,  represent  a  fauna  marked  by  a  strong  prepondirutn-r 
of  forms  identical  with  or  closely  related  to  tDose  of  iL' 
Upper  Greenaand  or  of  the  chloritic  marl  above. 

Ganltberia,  gawl-thee'ri-a  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  in  homr 
of  Dr.  Gaultier,  of  (Quebec,  a  physician  of  the  eighitvtit: 
century] :  a  genus  of  shrut>s  mostly  verv  small,  found  i: 
North  and  South  America,  Asia,  Australia,  etc.  Manv  ^>f 
them  produce  edible  fruits.  The  typical  species  is'tbf 
GattWflen'o  procumbent,  the  winter^Teen  or  checkerberrv  .■■■ 
the  U.  S.  and  Canada.  Its  fruit  and  young  leaves  ajv<^l:- 
ble.  and  abound  in  the  oil  of  wintergreen.  a  fragrant  vi>:a- 
tile  oil  used  in  pharmacy  and  confectionery.  Oil  of  paul- 
theria  is  used  as  a  sonrce  of  salicvlic  acid,  as  it  contains  i'C>-r 
GO  per  cent,  of  salicylate  of  uietnyL  For  this  reason  it  n 
often  used  in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism.  The  ft:i>.!- 
Iheria  (now  Chiogenes)  tiispidula,  the  sweet  birch  (Btt"'.. 
Itnta).  and  several  other  plants  yield  the  same  oil.  T'  ■ 
Oauitheria  shaJton  of  the  Pacific  coast  (the  SiUal  of  il.- 
Indians)  is  sometimes  3  feet  high,  and  produces  very  |>lt^a<- 
ant  edible  berries,  which,  when  ripe,  ore  picked.  prtMt-i 
into  cakes,  and  largely  used  for  food. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Haee. 

Gaunt,  John  op  :  See  John  op  Gaunt. 

Gaar :  See  Got^a. 

Ganr,  gawr,  or  gowr  [the  native  name  <  Sanskr.  jmini-. 
gaur,  suuitantive  use  of  adjec.  gaum-,  white] ;  a  wild  i:i 
{Bibos  gaurus)  found  in  Assam,  llie  Madras  Presidencv,  ar." 
other  parts  of  India,  It  is  a  powerful  animal,  a  fiill-griii. 
bull  standing  5  ft.  6  in.  high  at  the  shoulders.  The  l^r^ 
head  is  wide  and  concave,  the  horns  strong,  much  curv--'j 
and  from  3  feet  to  2  ft  6  in.  long.  The  dewlap  is  snik  1 
The  color  is  deep  brown  or  blackish,  legs  white  lielow  ;■.< 
knees.  The  gaur  is  found  in  small  herds,  and  is  partial  i 
forest  uplands.  It  is  believed  by  many  naturalists  to  hi>  iLr 
wild  stock  of  the  gayal,  an  ox  domesticated  in  the  eH.-J>rr< 
portions  of  India.  The  gayal  is  somewhat  smaller  in  r-m 
than  the  gaur,  with  smaller  horns,  shorter  tail,  and  ni<  re 
white  on  the  legs.  F.  A.  Lu<  as, 

Ganss.  gows,  Karl  Priedbich  :  mathematician  :  b.  ■x. 
Brunswick,  Germany,  Apr.  30.  1777;  was  educated  at  i:-' 
expense  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who  had  heaid  of  ti:> 
precocious  mathematical  talents ;  solved  when  eighlo^i 
years  old  the  problem  of  the  division  of  the  circle  into  *rr- 
enteen  equal  parts,  and  afterward  became  famous  for  ^k: 
in  the  indeterminate  anidysis  and  in  curious  numeriid- 
questions;  demonstrated  Perm at's theorem  ;  became  in  IM'T 
Professor  of  Astronomy  at  (Wttingen  and  director  of  tli 
observatory ;  received  in  1810  the  Lalande  medal  for  i-a.- 
culating  by  a  new  method  the  orbits  of  C'Cres  and  Pallaf 
was  made  in  1816  a  court  councilor,  and  in  1845  a  prii' 
councilor  of  Hanover ;  made  after  1821  important  improit- 
ments  in  geodetic  methods  and  instruments ;  after  1831  dt 
voted  much  attention  to  terrestrial  magnetism.    Gau.'s  t> 


700 


GAVELKIND 


in  the  natioQtkl  enthusiasm,  appointed  him  chaplain-eeueral 
tuid  almoDer  of  the  Koman  legion  (16,000  strong),  raised  to 
take  part  in  the  struggle.  These  troops,  which  had  marched 
to  Vlcenza,  were  soon  recalled.  But  uavazzi,  instead  of  re- 
tuminK  with  them,  broke  with  the  pope,  anil  became  an- 
other Fot«r  the  Hermit,  preaching  a  new  crusade.  The 
netr  republic  made  him  cbaplain-general  of  the  armf.  The 
French  occupation  of  Rome  (in  Julv,  1849)  clrove  him  into 
exile.  He  visited  England.  Scotland,  Che  U.  S.,  and  Canada, 
lecturing  against  the  Papal  Church.  In  1851,  while  in  Lon- 
don, he  published  flrst  his  Mtmoin,  and  a  few  months  later 
his  OTidioiis.  In  1860  he  was  with  GariliaUli  in  Sicily.  In 
1870  he  was  again  in  England,  and  in  1873  went  once  more  to 
the  U.S.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Free  Christian  Church 
of  Italy  (1870),  and  of  its  theological  seminary  in  Home  in 
18TS,  and  in  it  was  Professor  of  Dogmatics,  Apologetics, 
and  PoleraicB.  D.  in  Rome,  Jan.  9,  l^B.  See  his  Recollec- 
tion* of  the  Liut  Four  Popeg  (London,  1859) ;  No  Union 
vHth  Rome  (1871) ;  The  Priett  in  Ab»oluiion  (1877). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksos. 
GSTelkind  (adapted  in  form  to  gavd,  tribute  <  O.  Eng. 
gafol  +  kind,  but  originally  a  Celtic  word,  Ir.  gabkaiteine, 

STelkind,  liter.,  family-tenure ;  gabhail,  taking,  tenure  i 
miah  gavtl  +  cine,  race,  family] :  a  system  of  customary 
land-tenure  prevailing  in  England  in  the  county  of  Kent, 
and  found  also  in  other  parts,  by  which  at  the  death  of  a 
land-owner  his  land  is  equally  divided  among  all  his  sons ; 
if  he  have  no  sonn,  among  all  his  daughters ;  or,  if  he  have 
no  issue,  among  all  his  brothers.  This  custom  no  doubt  ex- 
ist^ nniversally  throughout  the  kingdom  before  the  intro- 
duction of  primogeniture  about  the  time  of  the  Norman  con- 
quest, and  was  retained  by  the  inhabitants  of  Kent  as  a  part 
of  their  ancient  liberties.'  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  this  tenure 
that  the  estate  has  never  been  subieet  to  forfeiture  in  case  of 
attainder  for  felony,  and,  when  feoffment  was  in  use  ae  a  mode 
of  conTeyfcnce,  the  heir  was  capable  of  selling  the  Und  and 
giving  livery  of  seizin  at  the  early  age  of  fifteen.  The  special 
mode  of  inheritance  appertaining  to  lands  hold  in  gavelkind 
is  distinct  alike  from  the  usual  English  system  otprimoceni- 
lure  and  the  law  of  descent  prevailing  in  the  U.  S.,  by  which 
all  the  children  of  an  intestate,  females  as  well  as  males,  take 
equal  shares  in  the  land.    Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

UaTMton,  PiGKs :  See  Edwabd  II. 

Ost'Ib  [from  Lat.  ga'via.  a  sea-mew] :  an  order  or  sub- 
order of  birds  containing  the  gulls,  the  equivalent  of  the 
superfamily  LaroideiB  of  Stejnegor,  or  the   order  Longi- 


9*tic<    , 

narrow  jaws,  inhabiting  some 
of  the  rivers  of  India,  espe- 
cially the  npper  Ganges  and 
ita  tributaries.    The  male  has 
a  Urge  eartila^nous  lump 
upon  the  snout,  in  which  the 
nostrils    open.      The    teeth, 
,      though  numerous  and  sharp, 
are  slender,  and  although  the 
'■      gavial   sometimes   attains  a 
length  of  20  feet  it  is  doubt- 
ful  if  it  over  attacks  man. 
The   food   of   (he  animal   is 
GavlaL  principally  fishes.    An  allie<l 

crocodile  (Tomi^oma  sckU- 
gtli),  distinguished  by  a  wider,  shorter  muKzle.  and  less  num- 
erous, stouter  teeth,  inhabits  Borneo.    See  Crocodile. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 
GaTilan  (giQi-vc'^-laan')  Monntalns :  a  in'oup  of  moun- 
tains in  Monterev  co..  Cal.,  near  the  Pacific  coast.    The 
highest  point  is  Sit,  Pachcco,  2,B45  feet  high. 

GttTOf  [from  Pr.  garotte,  liter.,  femin.  of  Oaivt.  an  in- 
habitant of  Oap,  the  Alpine  district  where  the  dance  orig- 
inated ;  cf.  SchottiBcht  and  Polonaiu\ :  in  music,  a  gay  and 
Kirited  dance-tune,  written  in  common  time.  It  ha.s  two 
■ains,  each  of  which  is  repeated,  the  latter  being  usually 
the  longer.  The  gavot  was  familiar  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury and  later,  and  often  appi^ars  in  connection  with  the 
minuet — as,  e.  g.,  in  the  forty-eight  sonatas  of  Corclli. 


GAYAL 

6«j. gfi.  Claude:  naturalist;  b.  at  Draguigoao,  FratiM. 
Mar.  18, 1800;  studied  zoology  at  Paris;  traveled  in  (im^i^ 
and  Asia  Minor,  and  in  1828  went  to  Chili,  where  hr  vj- 
employed  by  the  Government  to  make  an  eitendnl  surin 
of  the  country.  In  pursuance  of  this  corumisaion  he  visual 
every  province  and  the  islands,  making  careful  majis  m  .; 
collecting  animals,  plants,  and  minerals;  he  also  briiu,.'l<< 
together  a  large  mass  of  historical  materiaL  Relumint.-  \- 
France  in  1843  he  began  the  publication  for  the  Chilian 
Government  of  his  great  work,  Hialoria  fitita  y  piJi/ira  d* 
Chile  (24  vols,  and  atlas,  1843-Sl).  lie  also  publi^lwl  a 
large  map  of  Chili,  and  many  important  papen  on  <>,c 
country.  He  made  a  journey  to  Russia  and  Tart*Ty  1."^"h>- 
58,  and  subsequently  studied  mines  in  the  U.  S.'  Ii.  :r. 
Paris,  Apr.  6,  1893.  Hebbert  D.  Sanu. 

Gay,  John  .-  poet ;  b.  in  Devonshire,  England.  1645 ;  wb* 
apprenticed  in  London  to  a  silk-mercer;  uublisfaed  Jtur.i! 
Sporit,  a  poem  (1711),  which  won  hira  Pope  s  lifelong  fav..r; 
became  in  1712  secretary  to  the  Duchess  of  Marlburuu:;b. 
and  in  1714  secretary  to  Clarendon,  who  was  then  aiiil*.'- 
sador  to  Hanover;  acquired  wealth,  but  lost  it  in  the  S.i.th 
SeaBubble,BndafterlT27  wasa  dependent  upon  theliouT-i 
of  the  Duke  of  (Jueensberry.  He  was  the  author  of  sei-r. 
very  successful  dramas,  some  Sne  ballads,  such  as  hht''-.- 
egeil  SuMin,  and  other  poems,  like  lite  iSlieplierd'js  llV'i 
(1714)  and  Trima  (1715),  remarkable  for  wit.     The  en-^.- 


G*y<  MiKiG  FRAHgoiSB  SopEiiE,  Madume :  author;  b.  m 
Paris,  July  1,  1776;  married  M.  Lioltier,  a  broker,  but  nt- 
divorced  from  him  and  marrieil  M.  Gay,  who  waa  aflerniir: 
appointed  the  receiver-general  of  the  department  ot  ih^ 
Roer.  Madame  Gay  became  the  leader  of  a  brilliant  (.--'ti-r... 
of  literary  and  artistic  people,  and  her  salon  whs  frH^uriii' .: 
by  some  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  timi-.  llt-T 
first  writing  was  a  letter  published  in  1802  in  the  f/imr-iii' 

de  ^ris,  in  defense  of  Msdaincde  Stall's  novel  of  Delj.t 

and  this  was  followed  by  her  first  novel,  Laurt  dLil'H  \r. 
the  same  year.  She  wrote  several  successful  playsand  ''' 
words  of  a  number  of  operas,  D.  in  Paris.  Mar.  5.  I-"'-. 
Probably  the  best  known  of  her  writings  is  jlnofo/e  (!■•;■. 
the  story  of  the  love  affairs  of  a  deaf  mute.  Amon;;  !.■: 
other  works  may  be  named  Lionie  de  JUontbreuft  il'-l*  . 
Les  Salont  eH&ires  (2  vols.,  1837);  and  EtHnore  (4  \<  - 
1846).  Her  daughter  Dclphine  (1805-55).  also  an  auid  :. 
married  Emilb  ob  Girakoix.    See  Gibabuin. 

Gay,  Walter:  genre-painter;  b.  at  Hingham.  Ms". 
1836.  Pupil  of  Bonnat,  Paris;  third-class  medal.  Pur,. 
Salon.  1888;  second-cJaas,  Paris  Exposition,  1889;  mei^Ur 
Society  of  American  Artists  1880  His  picture  i>  ISt;~ 
dicili  is  in  the  Luxembourg  Gallery,  Paris,  and  then>  Hr- 
works  by  him  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York.  k-.A 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston.  W.  A.  C. 

Gav,  WiNCKWOBTH  Allan:  landscape-painter:  b.  ::, 
Ilingham,  Mass.,  Aug.  10,  1821 :  studied  with  Prvf.  R..I-  -. 
Weir,  of  West  Point,  afterward  with  Constant  Tmvi.ii  ir 
Paris;  passed  several  years  in  Europe,  but  is  best  knuwi 
his  own  country  in  Boston,  by  his -"'  — --'----^- 
ehiefly  ot  New  England  scenery. 

Gaya,  gl'yai :  a  district  and  city  of  the  Patna  divisi.-tv  -i 
Bengal,  British  India;  S.  of  Patna  and  E.  of  the  river  S. ., 
The  district  lies  between  the  parallels  24^  17*  and  25  l!i  N 
lat.,  and  meridians  84'  4'  and  86°  5'  E.  Ion.  An'a,  4.::' 
sq.  miles.  The  country  is  a  nearly  level  plain,  with  a  p  -.i '., 
slope  toward  the  Ganges;  the  eastern  and  northern  )>i^< 
are  fertile  and  highly  cultivated,  while  the  southern  i*  -~ 
fertile  and  covered  with  jungle.  Pop.  2,000,000  (ntarii  i. 
Hindus).  The  chief  town  and  administrative  headiiunh'^ 
is  the  city  Gaya.  on  the  river  Phalga,  laL  34"  47  N..  I  ■, 
85°3'E.  Pop. (1801) 78,920.  (SeemapotN.India.n-f.T-H 
It  is  a  sacrM  cil^  for  the  BUddhiets.  The  ruineii  <-itv  .  • 
Bfltldh  Gaya,  6  miles  H.  of  the  modern  city,  marks  th--  n-.- 
dence  of  Sakyamuni,  the  founder  of  the  Bfiddhist  rrli;;..ri. 
and  near  it  is  the  sacred  fig-tree  under  which  he  Ik:-.,-  ■- 
Bflddha.  There  are  forty-five  sacred  spots  around  Gh--. 
which  are  visited  by  from  100,000  to  200,000  pilgrim?  st  - 
niially.    Gaya  is  connected  by  rail  with  Patna.    H.  W.  II. 

J  the  native  name  for  the  domesticatiil  >.-;,'  - 
aps  from  deny,  meaning  doraeslicsi«l    ' 
Sanskr.  gaya,  household] :  a  variety,  perhaps  a  sj 
yaiwuB),  of  the  domestic  ox ;  founa  in  parts    ' 


of  Bengal 


702 


GAZETTE 


GEFLE 


ety  of  the  same  species.  The  gazelles  are  celebrated  for 
their  elegant  forms  and  the  beauty  of  their  eyes.  They  are 
easily  tamed,  and  become  great  favorites  from  the  gentleness 
of  tneir  disposition.  Qazella  soBmmeringii  and  iaabtUa 
(both  African) 'are  among  the  other  closely  kindred  species. 
See  Antelope. 

Gazette  [Fr.  gazette,  from  Ital.  gazzetta,  gazette,  orig.  a 
Venetian  news  bulletin  sup|)Osed  to  have  sold  for  a  go- 
zetta,  a  copper  coin  worth  a  farthing ;  prob.  dimin.  of  Lat. 
gaza,  treasure,  from  Gr.  yd(a,  treasure,  from  the  Pers.] :  a 
periodical ;  a  printed  journal ;  applied  especially  to  the 
official  newspapers  printed  semi-weekly  in  London,  Edin- 
burgh, and  Duolin,  and  containing  appointments,  official 
acts,  proclamations  of  the  Government,  bankrupt  notices, 
and  the  like. 

Gazetteer  [from  Ital.  aazzettiere,  writer  of  news,  deriv. 
of  gazetta,  gazette.  See  Gazette]  :  a  geographical  diction- 
ary r  a  work  containing  some  account  of  civil  and  natural 
divisions  in  geography,  of  mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  seas,  etc., 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  Gazetteers  often  are  local 
or  national,  but  there  are  many,  more  or  less  complete, 
which  describe  places  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  See  Dic- 
tionary. 

G  Clef:  in  music,  the  sign  or  mark  indicating  the  treble 
staff.  Its  place  is  on  the  second  line,  or,  rather,  that  line  is 
the  axis  around  which  it  entwines.  This  clef  was  originally 
compounded  of  the  letters  g  and  9 — the  former  giving  its  lo- 
cation the  name  of  G  (as  two  octaves  above  gamut  G),  and 
the  latter  representing  «o/,  or  the  fifth  (in  the  scale  of  C)  of 
the  series  of  syllables  used  in  solmization.  The  name  G  be- 
ing thus  given  to  notes  on  the  second  line,  all  others,  above 
and  below,  on  the  same  staff  derive  their  names  from  it.  In 
organ  and  pianoforte  music  the  treble  clef  is  prefixed  to  the 
part  playea  by  the  right  hand,  and  the  bass,  or  F  clef,  to 
that  for  the  left. 

Gearing :  See  Wheelwork. 

Geary,  ga're^,  John  White  :  soldier ;  b.  in  Mt.  Pleasant, 
Westmoreland  co.,  Pa.,  Dec.  80,  1819;  studied  at  Jefferson 
College,  Cannonsburg,  Pa. ;  became  a  civil  engineer.  In  the 
war  with  Mexico  (1846-48)  he  served  with  distinction  as 
lieutenant-colonel  Second  Pennsylvania  Volunteers;  was 
promoted  to  the  colonelcy  of  his  regiment,  and  on  the  cap- 
ture of  the  city  of  Mexico  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
citadel.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  by  President  Polk  post- 
master of  San  Francisco,  (Jal.,  with  authority  to  organize 
the  postal  service  throughout  the  Pacific  coast  territory. 
Soon  afterward  he  was  elected  alcalde  of  the  city,  and  was 
appointed  by  the  military  governor  judge  of  the  first  in- 
stance for  San  Francisco.  He  remained  in  San  Francisco 
till  1853,  performing  at  different  times  the  ex-offlcio  duties 
of  sheriff,  recorder,  probate  judge,  etc.,  and  exercising  a  large 
infiuence  in  organizing  the  government  of  that  city,  whose 
first  mayor  he  was  (1850).  Returning  to  Pennsylvania  in 
1852,  he  remained  in  private  life  till  1856,  when  he  was  sent 
by  President  Pierce  to  Kansas  as  Governor.  His  territorial 
administration  was  not  successful,  and  becoming  involved  in 
trouble  with  Judge  Lecorapte,  Geary  was  forced  to  retire, 
returning  to  Pennsylvania  and  remaining  in  private  life  till 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  (1861),  when  he  raised  and 
equipped  the  Twenty-eighth  Pennsylvania  Volunteers,  which 
regiment  he  commanded  in  several  engagements  in  the 
Shenandoah  valley.  In  Apr.,  1862,  he  was  ai)pointed  briga- 
dier-general, and  the  next  year  promoted  to  be  major-gen- 
eral and  placed  in  command  of  a  division,  remaining  in 
active  service  till  the  close  of  the  war.  In  1866  he  was 
elected  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  by  the  Republican  party, 
and  re-elected  in  1869.  D.  suddenly  at  liarrisburg,  Pa., 
Feb.  8, 1878. 

Geas'ters  [from  Gr.  7^,  earth  +  A^rr^p,  star] :  the  earth- 
stars  ;  a  genus  of  Puff-balls  {q.  v.), 

Gebweiler,  gap'vMer:  town  of  Upper  Alsace,  Germany 
(formerly  Ouebioiller,  Haut-Rhin,  France) ;  in  a  valley  near 
Mt.  Gebweiler,  the  highest  point  of  the  Vosges ;  14  miles 
S.  S.  W.  of  Colmar,  on  the  river  Lauch  (see  map  of  German 
Empire,  ref.  7-C).  It  has  several  spinning,  weaving,  bleach- 
ing, and  dyeing  establishments,  and  manufactures  woolen 
?;cSds,  silk  ribbons,  and  machinery.  It  is  an  old  city,  dating 
rom  the  eighth  centurv,  but  the  only  building  of  interest  is 
the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral.     Pop.  (1890)  12.367. 

Gecko,  gek'5  [:  Fr.  and  Germ,  gecko,  named  in  imitation 
of  its  cry]  :  a  name  given  to  numerous  thick- tongued  noc- 
turnal lizards  of  the  family  Oeckotidce,    There  are  about 


IM  species,  among  which  the  Ptuodaetylus  gecko  of  Africa 
(whose  footsteps  were  thought  to  be  the  cause  of  the  leproeT, 
and  which  was  considered  able  to  eat  steel)  and  the  Geritj 
vertM  of  Asia  are  among  the  best  known.  Other  S{jecie>  are 
found  in  South  America,  Australia,  etc.  They  generallj 
have  the  power  of  climbing  walls,  walking  upi>n  c^eilin^r^ 
with  the  back  downward,  etc.,  after  the  manner  of  flie>. 

Geddes,  Alexander,  LL.  D.  :  Roman  Catholic  bibli<  td 
scholar;  b.  in  the  parish  of  Ruthven,  Banffshire,  So<>tlan<i. 
Sept.  14. 1737;  educated  in  Paris;  officiated  as  priest  axnoriL^ 
the  Roman  Catholics  of  Scotland  1764-80,  but,  in  eon^- 
(|uence  of  his  exti*eme  liberality  and  imprudence,  gettir.;: 
into  difficulty  with  his  bishop,  he  settled  in  Liond<»u.  an'i 
devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits.  D.  there  Feb.  26, 
1802.  He  is  remembered  bv  his  translation  of  the  Bible  ••' 
vols.,  1792-97)  with  notes  of  a  rationalistic  character,  wliich 
was  not  finished  further  than  through  the  historical  Iv-  k^ 
(a  partial  translation  of  the  Psalms  was  published  IN);,; 
and  as  one  of  the  scholars  who  have  developed  the  prv^Mu 
Pentateuchal  criticism.  He  adopted  in  the  main  the  dt- u- 
mentary  theory  of  Eichhom.  See  his  biographv  by  J  oh  a 
Mason  Good  (London,  1803).  Samuel  Macaulet  Sxck^os. 

Geddes,  William  Duguid,  LL.D. :  educator;  b.  in  (ria^^. 
Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  Nov.  21,  1828.  He  was  educate) 
at  the  academy  and  university  in  Elgin  and  Kinfs  CV>1- 
lege,  Aberdeen;  was  appointed  rector  of  the  Al*rd»Hn 
Grammar  School  in  1853 ;  elected  Professor  of  Greek  in  t  he 
University  of  Aberdeen  in  1855;  was  Professor  of  Gre<'k  m 
the  United  University,  Aberdeen,  from  the  union  of  Kiri^> 
and  Marischal  Colleges  in  1800  till  December,  18(<5;  Aui 
then  became  principal  and  vice-chancellor.  ELis  publica- 
tions include  A  Greek  Orammar  (1855);  edition  of  •]:•» 
PhoBdo  of  Plato  (1863 ;  2d  od.  1885) ;  Problem  of  the  Ih>- 
meric  Poems  (1878) ;  Flosculi  Oroeci  Boreales  (1882) ;  aii<i. 
with  Peter  Duguid,  a  work  on  the  heraldic  ceiling  of  the 
Cathedral  of  St.  Machar,  in  Aberdeen  (1888).  He  is  vi*  t- 
president  of  the  Society  for  Hellenic  Studies. 

Gedro'sla  (in  Gr.  rcdpoMia.  K§9pttcia) :  the  name  given  h\ 
the  Romans  and  Greeks  to  what  is  now  the  liekrdn,  (t 
coast-region  of  Baluchistan.    See  Gadbosia. 

Geelong,  gee-long' :  town  of  Victoria,  Australia ;  40  mil^T- 
S.  W.  of  Melbourne,  on  Corio  Bay ;  has  7  banks,  3  new- 
papers,  fine  public  buildings,  and  is  connected  by  rail  with 
Ballarat  and  Melbourne  (see  map  of  Australia,  rel  S-U ).  It 
is  a  center  of  the  Australian  wool-trade.  It  has  an  excellt- 1.- 
harbor.    Pop.  20,682. 

Geer,  George  Jarvis,  D.  D.  :  clergyman ;  b.  in  Waterbur^ . 
Conn.,  Feb.  24,  1821 ;  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, in  1842,  and  at  tne  General  Theological  Seminary  i; 
1845 ;  ordained  deacon  in  Christ  church  (Protestant  Kpi!^  1  ^ 
pal),  Hartford,  Conn.,  by  Bishop  Brownell,  June,  1845 :  W- 
came  rector  of  Christ  church,  Ballston  Spa,  K.  Y.,  S<-|.r^ 
1845;  ordained  presbyter  in  Ballston  Spa  by  Bishop  U 
Lancey  June  1 1, 1846 ;  became  associate  rector  of  thv  (  hur.  \\ 
of  the  Holy  Apostles.  New  York,  Nov.,  1852;  became  n^  t.«- 
of  St.  Timothv's  church.  New  York,  Oct.  22,  1857;  rvtviA.-i! 
the  degree  of  S.  T.  D.  from  Columbia  College,  New  V«.rk, 
June,  1862,  and  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Union  C\»ll«i>, 
N.  Y.,  in  Aug.,  1862.    In  1858,  as  joint  editor  with   11- y 
Dr.  Muhlenberg  and  Bishop  Bedell,  by  appointment  of  :  '1 
bishops,  he  puWished  the  Tune-hook  0/  the  ProteMani  K/"- 
copal  Church ;  in  1871  published  a  book  on  7%^  Conr^r.". 
of  St.  Paul;  was  the   first  president  of  the  Free  C'fi-r    . 
Guild  of  New  York ;  was  a  member  of  the  General  ( %»n\t .: 
tion  of  1874  from  the  diocese  of  New  York.    D.  in  New  \'  '  . 
city.  Mar.  16,  1885. 

Geergeh :  See  Giroeh. 

Geez :  See  Ethiopic  Language  and  Ethiopic  Literatiili. 

Geffi*ard,  Fabre:  a  president  of  Haiti;  b.  at  L'Aum^  i 
Veau,  Haiti,  Sept.  19, 1806;  was  the  son  of  Gen.  NicoU- 
Geffrard,  who  had  co-operated  with  Dessalines  and  IVli.r.. 
Young  Geffrard  was  early  distinguished  for  ability.  a?-l 
thougn  himself  a  ^ri/fc  (three-fourths  African  blotnl),  \x^\ 
the  part  of  the  mulattoes  against  the  blacks.  In  1JS45  \  • 
became  a  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1849  was  roa<Ie  a  diik 
by  Soulouque.  In  1858  he  led  in  the  revolution  Hi:.*n  - 
Soulouque,  and  banished  him  in  1860.  Geffrard  wii>  nn-  - 
dent  of  Haiti  1860-67,  when  he  was  himself  banishcHl.  at  \ 
retirtnl  to  Jamaica.     D.  Dec.  31,  1878. 

Gefle,  yev'ld :  town  of  Sweden  ;  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia : 
100  miles  N.  of  Stockholm  (see  map  of  Norway  and  Swe^l*-:. 


704 


GELA 


QEL^E 


The  inner  surface  of  the  glass,  however,  which  daring  the  ex- 
istence of  the  Geissler  discharge  had  shown  a  tendency  to 
phosphorescence,  continues  to  glow.  Now  follow  a  very 
wonderful  series  of  phenomena  known  as  the  "Crookes 
effects,"  which  have  been  studied  at  great  length  by  Mr, 
William  Crookes,  F.  R.  S.  In  these  the  walls  of  the  tubes 
play  an  important  part,  and  substances  placed  within  the 
tubie,  especially  vanous  crystals  and  certain  chemical  salts, 
become  brilliantly  luminescent.  See  Mr.  Crookes*s  paper 
entitled  A  Fourth  State  of  Matter,  British  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science,  1879. 

The  Geissler  effect  has  been  extensively  studied  both 
from  the  electrical  and  the  spectroscopic  point  of  view. 
The  light  has  been  found  to  possess  a  spectrum  of  bright 
lines,  cnaracteristic  of  the  glowing  vapor  contained  within 
the  tube.  The  radiant  efficiency  of  the  discharge  consid- 
ered as  a  source  of  light  has  been  investigated  by  Staub,  of 
Zurich,  and  by  Knut  Angstrom,  of  Upsala,  and  has  been 
found  to  range  between  30  and  90  per  cent.  Angstrom  has 
also  compared  the  total  electrical  energry  expended  in  pro- 
ducing tne  discharge  with  the  energy  of  the  light-giving 
radiation,  and  has  found  that  about  10  per  cent,  of  tne  en- 
ergy of  the  discharge  is  converted  into  light.  Angstrom, 
Wiedemann's  Anncuen,  vol.  xlviii.,  p.  493,  1893. 

For  spectroscopic  purposes  the  Geissler  tube  is  simply  a 
straight  tube  of  glass  of  capillary  bore  throughout  nearly 
its  entire  length.  Tubes  for  illustration  are  frequently 
given  intricate  forms,  and  are  made  of  various  sorts  of  glass. 
Uranium  glass  is  much  used  on  account  of  the  green  phos- 
phorescence which  it  exhibits  under  the  action  of  the  elec- 
trical discharge.  The  cut  shows  a  typical  Geissler  tube  of 
this  class.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Gela  (in  Gr.  ^  r^Xa) :  a  city  of  Southern  Sicily ;  situated  on 
the  river  Gelas  {T4Kaa\  from  which  it  took  its  name  (Thac, 
6,  4 ;  Diod,  SicuL  8,  28,  13, 108).  It  was  founded  by  the 
Dorians  Antiphemus  of  Rhodes  and  Entimus  of  Crete  in 
690  B.  c.  The  Geloan  meadows  were  celebrated  and  ^schy- 
lus  (who  died  and  was  buried  here)  sang  of  its  fertility 
(Anth.  Palat,,  ii.,  748,  3).  The  colony  flourished  so  greatly 
that  in  less  than  a  hundred  years  from  the  time  of  its  own 
foundation  it  could  found  the  city  of  Agrigentum,  which 
soon  became  a  place  of  far  greater  irapor&nce  than  the 
mother  city.  Gela  was  governed  mostly  by  tyrants,  and 
Gelo,  Hiero,  and  Thrasybulus,  tyrants  of  Syracuse,  were 
men  of  Gela.  By  the  time  of  Christ  Gela  (lad  ceased  to 
be  inhabited.  The  ruins  of  the  city  are  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Terranuova.  See  A.  Holm,  Geschichte  Siciliena  im 
Alterthum  (Leipzig,  1870-74) ;  J.  Beloch,  LHmpero  aictliano 
di  Dionisio  (Rome,  1881) ;  H.  Nissen,  ItaliAche  Landeskunde 
(Berlin,  1883) ;  E.  A.  Freeman,  Sicily ;  W.  W.  Lloyd,  His- 
tory of  Sicily  to  the  Athenian  War  (London,  1872). 

J.  R.  S.  Sterrbtt. 

Gela'nor  (in  Gr.  Ttkdtfwp) :  the  last  King  of  Argos  of  the 
line  founded  by  Inachus,  the  river-god  and  abori^nal  king. 
He  lost  his  throne  on  the  occasion  of  a  prehistoric  invasion 
of  Argos  by  the  Egy^ptians,  traces  of  whose  influence  may  still 
be  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  Argos  (Curtius,  PeloponnesoSy  ii., 
865).  Mythology  usually  refers  prehistoric  movements  of 
peoples  to  a  single  individual,  and  in  the  present  case  the 
8toi7  is  this :  Danaus  and  his  fifty  daughters,  in  order  to 
escape  from  the  persistent  wooing  of  the  fifty  sons  of 
-^Sgyptus,  fled  across  the  sea  from  Egypt  to  Argos,  where 
Danaus  was  elected  king  by  the  Argives  in  the  stead  of  Ge- 
lanor.  While  the  matter  of  the  throne  was  still  under  discus- 
sion a  wolf  killed  a  bull,  the  leader  of  a  herd  of  cattle  that 
was  grazing  outside  the  city  walls.  This  was  taken  by  the 
people  as  an  omen  in  favor  of  the  foreign  princeling,  who 
was  at  once  made  king.  In  memory  of  the  event  which 
led  to  his  elevation  Danaus  erected  a  temple  in  honor  of 
Apollo  Lycius  (Gr,  *Aw6Kk»v  A^ctios),  an  epithet  capable  of  two 
interpretations,  though  here  it  means  "  Apollo,  the  Wolf," 
and  is  a  reminiscence  of  original  tribal  totemistic  worship. 
See  A.  Lang,  Custom  and  Myth  (London,  1885);  Mytn, 
Bituai,  and  Religion  (London,  1887) ;  J.  G.  Frazer,  Totem- 
ism  (London,  1888).  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Gela'slus  I.,  Saint  :  pope ;  succeeded  Felix  III.  Mar.  1, 
492,  and,  acconiing  to  rrotestants,  was  the  first  pope  who 
claimed  complete  independence  of  the  synods  and  the 
civil  authority.  He  wrote  against  the  Nestorian  and  Eu- 
tychian  heresies,  but  several  works  ascribed  to  him  are  prob- 
ably spurious.  D.  Nov.  19,  496,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Anastasius  II. — Gelasius  11.,  Pope  (Giovanni  di  Gaeta), 
succeeded  Pascal  II.  in  1118,  but  was  imprisoned  in  the 


t- 


". 


same  year;  escaped  and  fled  to  Gaeta.  The  Emp^^nr 
Henry  V.  caused  the  antipope  Gregory  VIII.  to  be  chos^ri 
in  his  stead.    D.  at  Cluny,  Jan.  29, 1119. 

Gelatin,  or  Gelatine,  jel'a-tin  [Pr.  gelatine,  fr»>m  M<kJ. 
Lat.  gelati'na,  deriv.  of  Lat.  gela'tus^  perf.  partic  of  gela  r*, 
freeze] :  a  semi-solid  substance  of  a  soft,  tremulous  (1^Il>^l-t- 
ence,  produced  from  certain  animal  membranes  l^kl^. 
flbrous  tissue,  etc.)  by  the  action  of  hot  water.  Lsintria^^ 
calfs-foot  jelly,  glue,  etc.,  are  chiefly  composed  of  gola:ir 
In  its  ordinary  form  it  contains  much  water,  which  nmv  U 
dried  out,  leaving  a  glassy,  brittle  mass,  which  swelK,*t.,.t 
does  not  dissolve,  in  cold  water.  The  gelatin  from  cartiU.:. 
is  called  chondrine,  and  is  somewhat  different*  from  in,* 
gelatin.  According  to  Scherer,  dry  gelatin  consists  of  5iHi") 
narts  carbon,  6*9  hydrogen,  14*7  nitrogen,  and  27*65  oxvi:'  i~ 
Others  believe  that  it  contains  a  little  sulphur.  For  a  l«»r .: 
time  it  was  held  to  be  innutritions,  but  at  present  a  cor.>A- 
erable  (but  not  high)  nutritive  value  is  conceded  to  it,  (hi- 
atin  is  thrown  down  from  the  wat«ry  solution  bralnKil. 
bv  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  by  tannic  acid,  an«i  m 
chlorine  gas.  The  organic  portion  of'  bones  contains  ;retd- 
tin,  which  may  be  extracted  in  two  ways:  by  dige^til.^•  a 
bone  in  dilute  hvdrochloric  acid  at  a  summer  heat,  wh^-^ 
the  gelatin  is  left  in  a  semi-transparent  and  flexible  ^tuu. 
and  when  boiled  with  water  yields  a  solution  which  ist^ts  -r. 
cooling,  or  by  heating  the  bones  covered  with  water  in  a  .1 
gester  to  a  temperature  of  270^  to  280*  F.  As  a  rt^iili 
this  method  the  ^eater  part  of  the  gelatin  dissolves  nu:. 
The  gelatin  obtained  from  bones  is,  however,  inferiur  ji 
quality.  Gelatin  is  extensively  used  in  the  arts — ^as  Jinihr'^ 
for  beer,  as  a  dressing  for  silk  and  other  fabrics,  it>  » 
coating  for  dragees  and  pills,  as  a  material  for  the  ea|>siik^ 
which  hold  unpleasant  medicines,  for  preparing  traoii.i:' 
paper,  as  a  material  for  delicate  casts,  as  tne  basis  of  nu- 
merous jellies;  and  dried  gelatin  plates  are  employed  ir. 
photo-lithography  and  the  kindred  arts.  See  GluiC  Imn- 
OLASS,  etc. 

GePderland,  gel'der-land :  province  of  the  NetherUn.U 
bounded  by  the  Zuyder  Zee,  Prussia,  and  the  provint-*--  •  f 
Overyssel,  Utrecht,  and  Brabant.  Area,  1,972  sg.  ni;].- 
Along  the  rivers  Rhine,  Waal,  and  Yssel  the  soil  is  a  n.  \. 
loam,  carefully  cultivated,  and  large  crops  of  wheat,  n  . 
buckwheat,  and  tobacco  are  gathered.  Farther  back  t:>> 
ground  becomes  hilly  and  sandy,  covered  with  lanre  ft^nv- 
of  pine  and  oak.  Excellent  cattle  are  reared;  the  hMr-^-* 
are  highlv  esteemed,  both  in  France  and  Germany.  C*.  t  - 
siderable  brewing  and  distilling  is  carried  on,  besides  mnr  .- 
factures  of  linen,  paper,  and  leather.  Pop.  (1891)  512.-*^tC. 
Principal  towns,  Amheim,  Nymwegen,  and  Zutphen. 

Gel^e,  ^he-la',  or  Gell^e,  Claude,  commonly  but  err«»- 
neously  known  as  Claude  Lorrain  (in  French  le  Ltorrrti-ty. 

Sainter;  b.  at  Chamagne  on  the  Moselle,  now  in  the  Fret-  -, 
epartment  of  the  Vosges,  in  1600.    He  was  of  poor  faini... 
In  his  youth  he  was  taken  to  Rome  as  a  servant  or  •  in- 
ployee,  but  the  stories  of  his  going  thither  differ  wiilt  r. 
About  1619,  however,  he  was  certainly  at  Rome  in  the  em 
ploy  of  a  painter  named  Tassi,  and  learning  somethini:   '• 
the  mechanical  side  of  the  painter's  art.    He  had  the  *.. 
vantage,  too,  of  a  short  residence  in  Naples.    In  1625  •. 
left  Rome  for  the  north,  and  up  to  this  time  seems  to  Ht 
attracted  no  attention  as  a  painter.     He  visited  Loreto  ai 
Venice,  and  then  went  over  th«  Alps  and  to  his  birth |Kn.r 
from  which  he  seems  to  have  been  called  to  Nancy.  tlu«n  :*  • 
capital  of  Lorraine.    Here  he  painted  under  the  din^  r,  • 
of  the  court-painter  of  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  but  wa-  :• 
Rome  again  m  1627.    His  life  as  an  artist  maj  be  <^id  • 
begin  at  this  time.    Two  pictures  for  the  Cardinal  of  }»* » - 
tivoglio  are  said  to  have  been  the  beginning  of  his  Mut  ^  -- 
but  he  was  nearly  forty  years  old  before  his  general  \*^*\  •. 
larity  was  established.    He  never  married,  and  livoil  «.i   i 
for  His  art,  and  during  the  fifty  years  of  his  active  pnn  -i  • 
he  painted  a  very  great  number  of  pictures  which  have  c  ■ 
erally  withstood  time  and  have  been  well  preser>'od.     '\ 
galleries  of  Europe  are  very  generally  provided  with  tiw  ;• 
Claude's  art  is  singularly'narrow  in  range,  expre^si?ijr  ^'  ." 
few  of  the  aspects  of  nature,  and  being  made  up  of  pn  t-i-  - 
very  similar  m  distribution  of  masses,  character  of  mmj-  ^ 
tion,  and  tone  of  color.    The  special  charms  of  his  w<»rk  .i- 
clear,  soft  skies,  with  beautiful   gradation  of  color,  a  . 
abundance  of  light  over  the  whole  landscape.    Even  M- 
Ruskin,  his  least  favorable  critic,  saj's  that  he  "first  pii?  t 
sun  into  the  heavens."    But  these  pictures  of  tranquil  l.*\i.  : 
i^cape,  still- water  classical  architecture,  and  warm  still  >u 


706 


GEM 


GEMINI 


hand  work  which  followed.  The  diamond  point,  or  a  simi- 
lar cutting  edge  of  ruby  or  other  form  of  corundum,  must 
have  been  used  on  the  harder  stones  to  work  the  design  into 
shape,  but  these  implements  were  hard  to  manage  for  the 
early  workman ;  thev  are  not  perfectly  mastered.  Still  the 
general  excellence  of  the  polisn  in  the  intaglio  even  in  the 
earliest  gems  is  not  easy  to  explain. 

The  engraved  cylinders  and  cones  and  spheres  cut  away 
to  a  plane  on  one  side  of  the  ancient  Persian  kingdom  have 
their  special  charm.  Persia  has  always  been  a  land  of  deco- 
rative art,  ever  since  the  Achsemenian  dynasty  began,  in  the 
eighth  century  B.C.,  and  these,  the  earliest  of  aU  the  surviving 
works  of  Persian  art,  are  not  the  least  worthy  of  study.  The 
style  of  the  figure-subjects  grows  continually  freer  and  more 
artistic  up  to  the  time  of  the  conquest  by  Alexander  the 
Great.  Phoenician  gems  are  numerous,  and  of  many  cen- 
turies, but  they  are  without  national  character,  borrowing 
their  designs  from  Eg3rpt  or  Assyria,  and  often  without  anv 
comprehension  of  the  meaning  of  the  signs  employed. 
Etruscan  gems  have  the  same  skilled  workmanship  and  the 
same  feeble  power  of  design  and  absence  of  origmality  as 
other  works  of  Etruscan  art.  They  come  from  a  people  just 
the  reverse  of  the  Greeks,  loving  splendor  and  shunning 
simplicity  in  dress  and  appointments,  great  in  jewels  and 
ornaments,  but  feeble  in  art. 

The  earliest  Greek  work  is  not  seen  in  the  earliest  gems 
found  in  Greece ;  they  are  evidently  Oriental.     How  early 
the  first  Greek  g6ms  may  be  there  is  as  yet  no  means  of  de- 
ciding ;  they  are  commonly  of  the  shape  of  a  lentil,  or  of  a 
shape  approaching  that,  with  the  circular  edge  flattened 
on  four  sides,  so  as  to  suggest  a  lozenge  with  rounded  angles, 
and  the  engraving  is  done  upon  the  unaltered  convex  sur- 
face.   A  beast,  or  fish,  or  bird,  or  a  group  of  two,  is  a  com- 
mon device ;  probably  they  really  are  devices  in  the  techni- 
cal sense,  that  is,  the  badges  or  cognizances  of  individuals. 
That  which  we  call  style  in  art  is  characteristic  of  all  these. 
Indeed  the  test  is  applied  the  other  way ;  the  gem  which  has 
true  style — that  is,  vigorous  artistic  character — is  at  once  set 
down  by  the  expert  as  Greek,  wherever  it  may  have  been 
found.    Even  in  pieces  of  the  most  feeble  workmanship, 
where  the  drill-holes  remain  imdisguised  and  the  polish  is 
by  no  means  uniform,  where  the  early  workman  has  only 
half-mastered  his  tools,  the  evidences  exist  of  that  artistic 
power  which  was  afterward  to  bring  into  being  the  most 
perfect  sculpture  which  men  have  yet  produced.    After  the 
earliest  centuries  the  form  of  the  stone  changes,  and  also 
the  subject  of  the  engraving.    Very  many  Greek  gems  of 
the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries  b.  c.  are  scarabs  in  form,  or, 
rather,  are  what  are  called  acarabceida — that  is,  they  have  a 
form  suggested  by  the  beetle,  but  not  resembling  it  in  detail. 
The  subjects  engraved  on  the  plane  surface  are  now  histori- 
cal, or  legendary,  or  mythological — personages  or  groups 
apparently  taken  from  the  same  legends  as  those  embodied 
in  the  Homeric  poems.    The  gems  of  the  finest  period  of 
sculpture,  the  time  of  Phidias,  or  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  b.  c,  often  have  subjects  like  those  of  the  wonder- 
ful tomb-reliefs  (see  Sculpture)  of  the  same  and  a  later 
time,  simple  subjects,  as  a  draped  woman  carrying  a  jar,  a 
nude  young  man  with  a  staff  and  a  dog,  and  the  like.    The 
dignity  and  largeness  of  treatment  of  these  diminutive  fig- 
ures sunk  in  hard  semi-transparent  stones  can  only  be  seen 
by  means  of  an  impression  on  pipe-clay.    It  would  be  unique 
and  alone  in  art  but  for  the  wonderful  coins  of  the  same 
epoch  and  of  the  years  immediately  succeeding  it.  (See  Nu- 
mismatics.)  These  coins  are  as  fine,  and  much  more  numer- 
ous, for  there  are  very  few  gems  known  to  us  of  the  best 
Greek  time.    It  was  with  the  times  of  Alexander  the  Great 
that  gem-engraving  became  more  universal,  and  from  that 
time  on  the  most  common  subject,  though  one  which  had 
been  very  rare  indeed  before,  was  the  single  portrait-head. 
This  continued  throughout  the  whole  Roman  epoch.  Actual 
likenesses  and  ideal  portraits,  as  of  men  long  dead  and  gone, 
heads  of  living  emperors  and  of  philosophers  600  years  dead, 
heroes  of  Grecian  fable  and  statesmen  of  carlv  Roman  history, 
private  persons  of  whom  their  friends  wished  to  have  memen- 
tos, and  gods,  from  Jove,  the  father  of  primitive  Latin  belief, 
to  the  latest  importation  from  the  Last,  Mithra  or  Isis,  all 
were  common  subjects.    Every  person  of  consequence  or  of 
affairs  had  his  signet,  for  the  constant  use  of  which  see  Seal, 
but  also  the  new  custom  of  "collecting"  gems,  and  having 
them  in  cabinets,  or  worn  on  the  fingers  many  at  a  time, 
created  a  large  and  constant  market,  and  set  Greek  gem- 
engravers  to  work  in  all  the  Mediterranean  lands.    A  high 
standard  of  design  and  execution  was  kept  up  for  centuries. 


and  it  is  not  until  the  decay  of  all  the  other  plastic  aixl 
graphic  arts  in  the  fourth  century  a.  d.  that  a  notablt 
change  for  the  worse  is  to  be  seen  in  the  gem-engraving. 

Byzantine  art,  splendid  in  so  many  ways,  did  little  for 
gems,  but  Constantinople  and  the  other  cities  of  the  Eastf-ni 
empire  were  places  of  safety  for  those  that  exist eil  &lri-a«i\. 
and  from  these  cities  many  gems  must  have  passeci  inf 
Northern  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  few  elaU.- 
rate  pieces  of  goldsmiths*  work  which  remain  to  us  fr>') 
that  time,  covers  of  manuscripts,  processional  crosses,  ali^ir* 
vessels,  and  the  like,  offer  many  instances  of  antique  >;«-:i  < 
set  in  the  metal  as  part  of  a  general  decorative  design.  ar.>: 
some  instances  are  known  of  a  medieval  king  having  an  u^i- 
doubted  antique  for  his  private  seal.  So  was  the  t-astt-  k» :  • 
alive;  but  the  new  growth  of  art  in  the  fourteenth  fent.r. 
in  Italy  was  so  strongly  led  by  Roman  taste  and  tra^iiim:, 
that  nothing  more  would  have  been  needed  to  create  a  iwx 
school  of  glyptics  in  the  succeeding  century.  As  early  .1- 
the  time  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  who  was  chief  <»f  v,  • 
Medici  from  1469,  engraving  on  hard  stones  was  beaatifuls 
done.  Often  antique  works  were  closely  copied,  but  .t> 
often  new  designs  were  made  in  what  was  thought  to  U 
the  antique  taste ;  and  the  most  striking  distinctic»n  U- 
tween  the  ancient  and  the  Renaissance  work  was  in  tli>. 
that  the  modern  engraving,  not  being  meant  for  usf  a.*-  » 
seal,  was  cut  in  a  stone  much  larger  than  needed,  so  t  h  i* 
a  margin  was  left  all  around  the  subject,  which  would  Iihm 
been  useless  make- weight  for  the  signet  carried  always  aU.u' 
the  person. 

Gem-engraving  has  never  been  wholly  ^xen  up  sin^  tl> 
Renaissance,  and  many  portraits  of  European  statesmen  ! 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  and  other  qui*- 
modern  subjects  exist.  There  was  even  an  English  s<-!j.«  1 
of  great  ability  and  success  flourishing  between  1775  ut. 
182o.  Since  that  time,  though  cameo-cutting  and  die-<iT.k- 
ing  have  been  cultivated  with  zeal,  there  seems  to  have  N  •  n 
little  engraving  in  hard  stones,  except  as  forgeric?;*.  t*'  U 
sold  for  antiques,  and  such  slight  work  as  cyphers  and  a-- 
morial  bearings. 

Besides  gems  proper,  an  enormous  number  of  glas{>  {f-<j-'f 
intaglios  exist,  both  ancient  and  modern,  some  of  tluii  - ' 
great  beauty. 

Throughout  the  Levant  and  in  India  a  beantiful  det'»m- 
tive  jewel  is  produced  by  engraving  lightly  in  an  opai;.- 
stone  of  fire  color,  such  as  a  turquoise  or  a  blood-stont- , ..:. 
gilding  the  engraved  pattern. 

BiBLiooRAPHT. — ^Thcrc  are  very  many  large  and  c*-:.* 
works  on  intaglios  and  cameos,  01  which  generally  the  n»  - 
recent  are  the  best,  both  for  text  and  plate:;^    'Tht-  larj- 
works,  giving  many  engraved  plates  of  gems,  are  nr»t  »:» *  - 
erally  namea  here,  because  the  representations  are  >fl.i'  r 
accurate.     Brunn,  Oeschichte  der  GrierJnsehen  Kiknaflfr.  x 
admirable  work  on  the  whole  subject  of  Greek  art,  uom  '.- 
much  space  to  the  authenticity  of  signc^i  Greek  g^iu**.     *^ 
also  MilUer-Wieseler,  Denknidler  der  Alien  Knnst  Riot!  r  - 
gen,  1869),  unfortunately  a  rare  book;  Kfihler,  Ge»tt>}tf    • 
Schriften  (St.  Petersburg);  Chabouillet,  Catalogue  .  .  .  •  » 
Camees  et  Pierres  Gravees  de  la  Bibliothe^te  Imytr*- 
(Paris);  A.  H.  Smith,  Catalogue  of  the  Gems  in  the  Hn    • 
Museum  \   Ernest  Babelon,  Le  Cabinet  de^t  Antigua ^  /i 
Bihliotheque  Nationale  (Paris) ;  De  Vogue,  M&angefi  ifA  r  • .  - 
ologie  Onenfale  (P&ris) ;  Men&nU  Recherehes  sur  la  /r'.  - 
fique  Orientale  (Paris) ;  C.  W.  King's  works,  as  follow* :  a 
tique  Gems,  Handbook  of  Engraved  Genis^  Jpyeeious  .s'A  .  •  - 
and  Metals,  The  Gnostics  and  their  Remains^  and  on- 
which  the  whole  as  regards  gems  is  summed  up  in  ttio  . . ; 
umes,  not  well-arranged,  but  full  of  matter,  Antiqxi*-  *f 
aiid  Rings  (published  1872) ;  J.  H.  Middleton,  The  Ku'j.  >f    _ 
Gems  of  Clascal  Times.  Russkll  Stur*.  i>. 

Gemara :  See  Talmud. 

Gemblonx,  or  Oemblonrs,  ^hiian'bloo' :  town  of  {- 
gium;  province  of  Namur  (see  map  of  Holland  and  V- 
gium,  ref.  11-F);  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  gn-at  \ 
tory  of  Don  John  of  Austria  over  the  United  Netherlai;.  .- 
in  1578.  The  Benedictine  abbey  founded  here  in  1*22.  n 
now  the  seat  of  an  agricultural  academj,  was,  in  the  tw«. ' : 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  famous  for  its  riches  and  ft*:  :. 
learning  of  its  monks.    Pop.  4,198. 

Gem'ini  [Lat.,  twins] :  a  sign  of  the  zodiac,  into  w:  • 
the  sun  enters  about  May  21,  and  from  which  it  pass<>s  J 
21.    Also  a  constellation  of  the  zodiac,  now  corresfi«»i.. 
to  the  sign  Cancer.    Castor  and  Pollux  are  the  two  •  -  • 
cipal  stars — the  former  a  fine  double  one.    The  con  sic . 


708 


GENEALOGY 


GENERAL  ASSEMBLY 


ferent.  The  division  of  landed  estates  among  the  children 
or  other  representatives  of  the  last  proprietor  obviates  the 
necessity  of  the  production  of  a  single  heir.  The  history  of 
land- titles  is  provided  for  by  a  system  of  public  records, 
and  the  functions  of  the  genealogist  are  limited  merely  to 
the  history  of  families.  The  immense  field  of  investigation 
that  is  opened  in  tracing  the  ancestors  and  descendants  of 
a  single  person  is  astonishing.  In  the  ascending  line  the 
ancestoi*s  double  in  every  generation.  In  other  words,  in 
the  first  degree  there  are  two  ancestors ;  in  the  second,  four ; 
and  in  the  fourth,  sixteen ;  and  by  going  back  for  twenty 
generations  it  will  be  found  that  every  man  has  more  than 
a  million  of  ancestors.  In  the  descending  line  the  numbers 
are  still  larger.  Every  child  of  the  common  ancestor  may 
become  the  founder  of  a  family,  and  the  relations  of  these 
several  families  to  the  main  stock  or  oldest  line  of  descent 
give  rise  to  collaterals,  all  of  whom  should  be  included  in  a 
complete  pedigree.  In  the  U.  S.  the  labors  of  genealogists 
have  been  turned  in  this  direction.  Undeterred  by  the 
greatness  of  the  task,  students  have  undertaken  to  record, 
for  instance,  all  the  ramifications  of  large  families,  usually 
beginning  with  some  emigrant  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  conscientiously  tracing,  in  the  male  or  female  line,  or 
sometimes  in  both,*  the  histoiy  of  his  descendants. 

The  results  of  genealogical  investigations  are  usually  em- 
bodied either  in  pedigrees  or  family  histories.  The  former 
are  some  times  arranged  as  a  tree,  in  which  the  common 
ancestor  represents  the  root  or  stock,  and  the  descendants 
are  arranged  in  order  in  the  branches.  More  commonlj, 
however,  pedigrees  are  constructed  in  the  form  of  tables,  m 
which  the  ancestor  and  the  descendants,  with  a  brief  state- 
ment of  the  time  of  the  birth,  marriage  and  death  of  each, 
appear  in  successive  rows  of  squares  or  circles,  prop>erly  con- 
nected by  lines  which  indicate  the  direct  descent  of  every 
person.  Prom  these  methods  of  arranging  pedigrees  are 
derived  the  common  expressions  a  family  tree,  a  sto(*k, 
branches,  and  lines  of  descent.  The  advantage  of  a  pedi- 
gree is  that  it  gives  at  a  single  view  all  the  descendants  of 
a  common  ancestor.  The  disadvantiiges  are  that  while  it 
necessarily  involves  an  extreme  brevity,  and  sometimes 
even  meagerness  of  statement,  it  nevertheless  requires  much 
space,  and  may  readily  become  unmanageable  from  its  size. 
Hence  genealogists  more  commonly  adopt  a  narrative  form, 
called  a  family  history,  by  which  means  they  are  able  to 
condense  their  records  into  a  volume  of  moderate  size,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  make  their  statements  at  greater  length. 
The  objections  to  this  plan  are  that  unless  conducted  with 
care  and  system,  it  is  sure  to  involve  the  reader  in  confu- 
sion in  the  course  of  a  very  few  pages,  and  that  under  any 
circumstances  the  labor  of  consulting  such  a  compilation  is 
very  great.  To  obviate  the  first  of  these  objections  in  a 
measure,  genealogists  have  adopted  several  methods  of  ar- 
ranging the  branches,  and  of  desiernating  the  various  lines 
of  descent.  The  simplest  method  appears  to  be  that  of 
giving  to  every  name  its  own  number,  which  is  placed  be- 
fore it  in  Arabic  characters,  and  in  designating  the  relations 
of  every  person  to  his  parents  and  his  brothers  and  sisters 
by  Roman  numerals.  Some  genealogists,  however,  prefer 
designating  the  successive  generations,  and  not  the  indi- 
viiluuls,  by  numbers.  There  is  also  a  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  order  in  which  the  successive  lines  of  •descent 
should  follow  one  another,  some  thinking  it  better  to  take 
up  the  sons  of  the  common  ancestor  in  order,  finishing  the 
record  of  the  descendants  of  the  first  before  approaching 
the  second,  and  so  on  through  the  whole ;  others  recording 
every  successive  generation  in  its  order.  A  question  has 
also  been  raised  whether  in  such  a  history  the  descendants 
of  daughters  are  entitled  to  stand  side  by  side  with  those  of 
sons,  in  Great  Britain  it  is  usual  to  exclude  them,  but  there 
are  special  reasons  for  this  in  the  connection  of  genealogy 
with  the  tenure  of  land.  In  male  fiefs  there  can  be  no 
possibility  of  females  or  their  descendants  being  called  to 
the  succession ;  and  in  those  cases  in  which  lands  devolve 
upon  an  heiress,  they  descend  afterward  either  in  the  line 
of  her  husband,  or,  in  the  event  of  her  dying  without  issue, 
to  the  collaterals  of  her  father's  family.  In  the  U.  S.,  how- 
ever, where  the  aim  of  the  genealogist  is  strictlv  historical, 
this  reasoning  does  not  apply;  and  there  probably  is  no 
good  reason,  l)eyond  the  inevitable  increase  of  the  labor  of 
the  genealogist  and  of  the  bulk  of  his  volume,  why  the 
posterity  of  daughters  should  not  be  admitted  into  it.  In 
answer  to  the  second  objection,  it  may  be  said  that  as  a 
book  of  geography  is  rendered  intelligible  by  means  of 
maps,  so  it  is  easy  for  the  reader  of  a  family  history  to  con- 


struct from  it  brief  and  compact  pedigrees  which  will  lie 
apprehended  at  a  glance. 

Genealogy,  as  a  science,  insists  upon  evidence.  Jso  gene- 
alogist will  accept  a  mere  family  tradition  or  an  unauthvu- 
ticated  statement,  but  he  always  requires  sufficient  pn-if. 
There  is  so  much  uncertainty  in  familv  traditions  that  it  i* 
found  that  statements  accepted  by  families  and  g^vpu  m 
good  faith  are  often  not  merely  unfounded,  but  contrary  i" 
existing  evidence.  The  principal  sources  of.  evidence  an- 
family  .records  contemporaneous  with  the  events  which  lt.»v 
commemorate,  as,  for  instance,  an  account  written  by  hi  r 
person  of  his  own  children;  public  reconls,  such  a<  will-, 
deeds,  and  mortgages;  church  records,  letters,  and  t<ni:v 
stones.  A  pedigree  or  a  historv  of  descents  not  authtr.ii- 
cated  by  these  or  eq^uivalent  evidence  is  not  to  be  t^l^t.•'l, 
and  will  surely  be  rejected  by  every  well-trained  genealr»tn-t. 
Among  the  most  eminent  genealogists  of  the  L^  S,  tdrs  \^ 
mentioned  Joseph  L.  Chester,  who  was  honoretl  with  a  me- 
morial in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  Henrv  F.  Waters,  In^tli  nf 
whom  spent  many  years  making  successful  researches  aiimn^ 
the  records  and  archives  of  Great  Britain. 

Beverly  R.  Bktt<. 
Revised  by  James  Gbant  Wil.-?(>n. 

General:  in  certain  Roman  Catholic  religious  ortU'^^,  th*^ 
highest  officer  of  the  order.  The  general  of  the  Jesuits  ls 
chosen  for  life,  and  holds  one  of  the  most  influent iul  |«'^i- 
tions  in  the  Church.  He  lives  in  Rome.  Most  otlier  «,vn- 
erals  hold  office  for  three  years,  and  they  usually  re>i<K'  'it 
Rome.  The  general  of  the  Augustinians  must  Ije  of  cut*  «f 
the  Calceate  congregations.  The  Franciscans  have  tlir— 
generals — one  each  for  the  Observant ines,  the  Capiuiiin-, 
and  the Tertiaries — besides  procurators-general  for  tb»-  In- 
formed and  Alcantarine  congregations,  and  a  ministvr-j:.  n- 
eral  for  the  Conventuals.  The  general  of  the  Domini«;iii-  .< 
chosen  for  life.  Since  the  time  of  Simon  Stock  the  Curni-  !- 
ites  have  had  an  unbroken  line  of  generals.  Other  orl.  rs 
have  superior  officers  with  special  titles.  Thus  the  olui-f  •  f 
the  Minims  is  called  "general  corrector,*' the  supen<r^  ••( 
their  houses  being  called  "  correctors."    See  General  Uf?i- 

CER. 

General  Assembly:  in  the  Presbyterian  Chnnh  tS 
highest  of  four  courts,  the  other  three  being,  in  their  cpI -r. 
session,  presbytery,  synod  (see  Presbyterian  Ciivrch).  It. 
the  U.  S.  there  are  four  general  assemblies — (1)  that  «^f  th' 
Presbyterian  Church  North;  (2)  that  of  the  Preshu*  ri m 
Church  South;  (3)  that  of  the  Cumberland  I*resbyt»rijn 
Church  ;  (4)  that  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church.  7> 
highest  court  of  the  smaller  Presbyterian  bodies  is  the  svinni. 
A  description  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbytt  r  .i:- 
Church  North  will  serve  substantially  for  all  others  in  1 1, •• 
U.  S.  This  court  is  constituted  of  an  equal  number  <»f  tiir.- 
istcrs  and  laymen.  Its  meetings  are  held  annually  in  tiiJT-  r- 
ent  parts  of  the  country,  as  may  be  agreed  upon.  Its  nu'sr.- 
bers  are  styled  commissioners^  and  are  appointed  !»}  Uh- 
presbyteries  in  the  following  proportion:  "Each  pre>l'\ttiv 
consisting  of  not  more  than  twenty-four  ministers  shall  m  i  •! 
one  minister  and  one  elder;  and  each  presbytery  consist ::._' 
of  more  than  twenty-four  ministei's  shall  send  one  njiiii^'«'r 
and  one  elder  for  each  additional  twenty-four  miDi>i«r>,  -t 
for  each  additional  fractional  number  of  ministers  net  !ian 
than  twelve."  Its  officers  are  a  moderator,  chosen  anmia'.iv : 
a  stated  clerk,  who  is  also  treasurer;  and  a  permanent  clt  '^ 
The  term  of  the  last  two  officers  is  indefinite.  Teini^'ri') 
clerks  are  chosen  each  year  to  assist  the  permanent  elf  rk  .t 
making  a  fair  record  of  the  proceedings,  etc.  The  diit\  f 
the  stated  clerk  is  to  keep  the  records  and  to  publish  th» '  i. 
together  with  such  statistical  tables  as  the  assembly  roav  «.i- 
rect.  Each  assembly  is  "constituted"  by  praver,  and  -«i'^ 
solved  "  at  its  close  by  formal  proclamation  of  the  ihchI*  ra- 
tor.  In  every  case  the  constituting  act  is  preceded  bv a  >»:• 
mon,  which  is  generally  preached  by  the  retiring  modtTai-  - 
The  business  of  each  meeting  is  directed  in  accordanco  w  , 
a  simple  manual  of  gener^  niles.  The  province  <>f  t);  - 
court  is  thus  defined  by  the  constitution  of  the  Chun  • 
"The  General  Assembly  shall  receive  and  issue  all  apj^.-tN. 
complaints,  and  references  that  affect  the  doctrine  or  coii>t;- 
tution  of  the  Church,  which  may  be  regularly  brought  U  f.  n- 
them  from  the  inferior  judicatories;  provided,  that  in  th- 
trial  of  judicial  cases  the  General  Assembly  shall  have  jhj^i.t 
to  act  bv  commission,  in  accordance  with  the  provisitm*.  ^k. 
the  subject  of  judicial  commissions  in  the  Book  of  T*\>*  - 
pline.  They  shall  review  the  .records  of  every  symKi.  mi-) 
approve  or  censure  them;  they  shall  give  their  aiivice  ai:i 


710 


GENERAL  ISSUE 


The  Church  in  the  North  never  recognized  officially  the 
secession  of  the  Southern  churches.  At  the  General  Con- 
vention of  1863  the  assistant  secretary  of  the  House  of 
Deputies,  in  calling  the  roll  of  dioceses,  regularly  included 
all  the  dioceses  on  the  list  of  those  admitted  to  union  with 
the  convention,  and  in  1865  the  same  course  was  pursued  so 
that  the  representatives  from  the  South  were  able  to  resume 
their  places  as  though  no  interruption  of  their  attendance 
and  connection  had  taken  place. 

Revised  by  William  Stevens  Perry. 

General  Issue :  See  Issue. 

Generalization  [deriv.  of  generalize^  from  Fr.  gSniror 
User,  deriv.  of  gSneral,  general  <  Lat.  genera' lis,  general, 
liter.,  pertaining  to  a  kind  or  genus,  deriv.  of  genus,  kind, 
genus] :  a  term  defined  by  Whately  in  his  Logic  as  "  the  act 
of  comprehending  under  a  common  name  several  objects 
agreeing  in  some  point  which  we  abstract  from  each  of  them, 
and  which  that  common  name  serves  to  indicate."  He  illus- 
trates the  definition  as  follows:  "When  we  are  contemplate 
ing  several  individuals  which  resemble  each  other  in  some 
part  of  their  nature,  we  can — by  attending  to  that  part  alone, 
and  not  to  those  parts  wherein  they  differ — assigfn  them  one 
common  name,  which  will  express'or  stand  for  them  merelv 
as  far  as  they  all  agree ;  and  which,  of  course,  will  be  appli- 
cable to  all  or  any  of  them ;  which  process  is  called  general- 
ization, and  each  of  these  names  is  called  a  common  term, 
from  its  belonging  to  them  all  alike ;  or  a  predicable,  be- 
cause it  may  be  predicated  affirmatively  of  them  or  any  of 
them."  Sir  William  Hamilton  groups  this  act  and  its  Kin- 
dred processes  under  the  name  of "  elaborative  faculty," 
which  is  the  faculty  of  perceiving  relations,  the  discursive 
faculty,  the  faculty  of  comparison,  **the  judgment — SuUoio, 
as  opposed  to  the  yovs"  He  makes  gener^ization  to  be 
"  nothing  but  comparison."  "  Under  comparison  may  be 
comprised  all  the  acts  of  synthesis  and  analysis,  generaliza- 
tion and  abstraction,  judgment  and  reasoning.  The  several 
phases  of  this  process  he  arranges  in  the  following  order:  1, 
Composition  or  synthesis ;  2,  abstraction,  decomposition,  or 
analysis ;  3,  generalization ;  4,  judgment ;  5,  reasoning  or  in- 
ference. "  Generalization  is  dependent  on  abstraction,  but 
abstraction  is  not  dependent  on  generalization."  Kant  holds 
that  every  act  of  judging  is  an  act  of  synthetical  unity  per- 
formed by  means  of  the  "  transcendental  unity  of  appercep- 
tion " ;  i.  e.  it  is  rendered  possible  by  the  "  I  think  or  Ego, 
or  subject  in  consciousness,  which  furnishes  the  unity  for  the 
multiplicity  of  sensation,  and  in  so  doing  generalizes.  Gen- 
eralization is  the  essential  phase  of  the  act  of  reflection  which 
accompanies  all  acts  of  rational  intelligence.  Even  the  ac- 
tivity of  sense-perception  is  accompanied,  in  a  conscious  be- 
ing, by  the  dim  perception  of  self  or  Ego,  as  pure  subject 
of  the  act  of  perceiving.  The  Ego  or  subject  is  always  ge- 
neric and  abstract ;  indeed,  the  highest  genus,  or  ultimatum 
of  abstraction,  free  from  all  empirical  determinations  or 
characteristics,  and  as  a  factor  of  aU  concrete  knowing,  fur- 
nishes to  the  thinking  being  the  means  of  rising  above  the 
multiplicity  of  empirical  details  through  attention  to  this 
abstract  factor  of  perception ;  which  act  of  attention  is  called 
"  second  intention,"  being  attention  to  the  mental  process, 
while  "first  intention  "  is  directed  to  the  object  of  the  senses 
— a  distinction  noted  by  Avicenna,  the  great  commentator 
on  Aristotle.  "  When  one  thing  without  difference  abides," 
says  Aristotle  (Post  Analyt.,  ii.,  19),  "the  universal  arises  in 
the  soul.  Primary  things  [generic  entities]  become  known 
to  us  through  induction  ' ;  induction  being  the  ascent  from 
particulars  of  sense  to  the  generic  entity  of  the  pure  Ego. 
Self-consciousness  is  the  basis  of  all  generalization,  oeing  the 
act  of  reflection  or  of  turning  back  upon  itself — the  thread 
upon  which  all  the  faculties  of  the  soul  are  strung — memory, 
imagination,  conception,  inference,  speculative  insight. 
Thus  "  second  intention  "  has  several  degrees,  which  might 
be  named  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  intentions  also,  each  higher 
faculty  being  the  result  of  a  new  act  of  attention  upon  the 
activity  of  the  next  lower  faculty.  See  Fichte  ;  also  articles 
on  Idealism,  Nominalism,  Notion,  Philosophy  (its  method). 
Realism,  and  Schoolmen,  for  the  ultimate  bearing  of  this 
theory.  William  T.  Harris. 

General  Lien :  See  Lien. 

General  Officer :  an  officer  who  has  superior  charge  or 
right  of  command,  whether  civil,  military,  or  ecclesiastical. 
Thus  the  superior  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  is  styleil  "the 
General."  According  to  Bardin  '{Diet,  de  VArmee,  etc.),  the 
word  captain  (i.  e.  head,  chief)  became  so  common  in  the 
Middle  Ages  that  the  title  "  captain-general "  was  appropri- 


i  ..Ii. 


I  I 


'U.i 


GENERAL  OFFICER 

ated  to  one  who  commanded  all  the  rest  (i.  e.  when  num- 
ous  independent  bodies,  each  with  its  chief,  a  captain.  «< 
combined).     By  ellipsis,  the  adjective  has  become  ^wW 
tive,  and  a  general,  without  qualification,  is,  profierly  >;  •-o 
ing,  one  over  all — a  "  commander  "  in  the  high«»st  J*-:!- 
the  term.   And  the  grade  of  "  general,"  when  it  exi>.t<.  -■ 
indicate  an  officer  clothed  with  right  of  supreme  c«»ni!!  ^: 
But  the  designation  "  general  officer  "  is  applied  in  a  >. . 
ficative  sense  to  any  officer  of  higher  rank  than  co](.n> ,'. :, 
in  this  use  it  properly  distinguishes  those  officers  i»li't  :  ■' 
component  parts  of  the  essential  units  of  army  (.rj:.-, 
tion  (regiments  and  companies)  from  those  whose  spf  •.  • 
command  is  not  thus  limited ;  w^hile  various  distinct i v.- ri- 
are  employed  to  give  luster  to  the  office  of  genrral,  vi  . 
"captain-general,"  "field-marshal,"  or  (in  FramtM  "i  ■■ 
chal  de  France."    In  Great  Britain  the  sovereign  ifr  chj  1 1 
general.    The  commander-in-chief  (under  the  sovereign:  . 
field-marshal,  a  rank  held  also  by  three  or  four  other5>.  1 !  • 
are  also  numerous  "  generals,"  as  well  as  lieutenant-p^  r.  -■ 
major-generals,  etc.:  Brigadier-general  implies,  in  Br. 
military  terminology,  the  command  of  a  brigade  (i.  e.  t« 
more  regiments  teniporarily  or  permanently  united):  ma; 
general,  in  the  U.  S.  service  and  in  some  others,  th.-  ci 
mand  of  a  division  (i.  e.  two  or  more  brigades  tenjf-'T 
or  permanently  united) ;  while  lieutenant-general,  in.f . . 
deputed  power,  has  had  the  sense  in  F^rance  of  "  lieul 
du  roi,"  or  viceroy,  or  a  general  commanding  in  plaiv 
sovereign ;  and  also,  and  more  commonly,  the  general 
division.    But  the  actual  standing  of  these  two  l&^t-i: 
grades  depends  upon  arbitrary  legislation   or  rt'^ 
The  function  of  "  major-general "  under  NapohH»iJ  c.  - 
sponded  to  that  of  a  "chief  of  staff  "^-one  who  is  th»»   r: 
of  communication  between  the  "  general "  and  hi>  mi'  ' 
nates.    ("The  military  language  of  France,"  says  lii.r' 
" offers  freciuent  examples  of  such  disparities.")    'Mi.-- 
de  division"  is  in  France  the  style  and  rank  of  a(.i^.- 
commander,  while  Napoleon  gave  to  the  commanders  ■  f  '  • 
corps  d'armee,  when  nrst  organized,  the  grade  of  "  Ij*  i»  ' 
ant-general,"  which  before  the  creation  of  **iirmy-i-«<n- 
was  sometimes  the  special  designation  of  a  divi.-i-  u  • 
mander  when  the  rfiri«i<wi  was  the  largest  unit  intowi. 
an  army  was  divided.    Afterward,  during  the  empire,  m 
roanders    of   corps  d'armie  were   usuaUy    marichnw 
France, 

As  to  the  history  and  service  of  the  U.  S.  it  does  n<'*    - 
pear  that  the  Continental  Congress  re^^Iated  the  grs.-.o 
general  officers,  but  accepted  them  (major  and  brigatii'-r  .*■ 
erals)  as  it  found  them  in  the  several  States  \pT\.^\ 
rather).    Washington  was  chosen  as  "  com  mand  er-iii- 
without  other  designation.     Under  the  existing  Con<tri  t 
successive  legislative  acts  have  regulated  the  nurob*»r« ! '  •  - 
adier  and  major  generals.    That  of  Mar.  3,  1T99.  im  «•  ^ 
that  "a  commander  of  the  army  of  the  U.  S.  shall  U  «•:- 
pointed  and  commissioned  by  tHe  style  of  *  genemi  •>'  • 
armies  of  the  U.  S.' " ;  while  it  abolished  the  office  an«i  ' ' ' 
of  lieutenant-general,  created  ten  months  pre^iou-^ly  >' 
28,  1798,  when  war  with  France  was  apprehended)  ai^l  - 
ferred  upon  Washington.   The  act  of  Mar.  16, 1802.  pn-v.-i 
for  but  a  single  general  officer  of  the  gracle  uf  bny-!-' 
The  war  of  1812-15  of  course  caused  the  creation  of  Mi:  ; 
ous  major  and  brigadier  generals ;  the  act  of  Mar.  2, 1>".' 
provided  for  one  major  and  two  brigwlier  genera!^ 
1846  (Mexican  war)  the  President  was  authorized  to  a-y.  ' 
major-general  (Zachary  Taylor,  Gen.  Winfeld  Sf'tt  U- 
then  the  single  major-general)  and  two  brigadier-g^nvni^ ' 
the  militarjr  establishment.   Subsequently  (Feb.  15,  lv^-V»    - 
grade  of  lieutenant-general,  by  brevet,  was  revivetl  n- 
knowledge  "  the  eminent  services  of  a  major-general  "f  ' 
army  in  the  late  war  with  Mexico "  (Scott).    It  wi nl. 
impracticable  to  recapitulate  the  legislation  during  th«' « 
war  by  which  the  number  of  major  and  brigadier  c« ' ' ' 
on  the  army  list  was  greatly  augmented.   The  gra<ie  tf  I; 
tenant-geneVal,  never  l)efore  conferred  by  the  Fetifntl  i"  • 
ernment  upon  any  one  except  Washington  (and  h\  bn^ 
on  Scott),  was  renewed  and  conferred  (Mar.  2. 18^'  »•• 
Gen.  Grant.    In  1866  the  grade  of  general  was  creatMi  .: 
conferred  on  the  same  officer;  that  of  lieutenant-Lvr« " 
thus  vacated,  on  W.  T.  Sherman,  who  became  geiifral  "n 
accession  of  Gen.  Grant  to  the  presidency.     Liout.-^' 
Sheridan  was  appointed  general  June  1, 1888.    On  h>  '1-  * 
the  grades  of  general  and  lieutenant-general  became  >*  ' 
There  are  three  major  and  six  brigadier  gt^nerals.  U^'  ■" 
the  adjutant-general,  the  inspector-general,  pay !»»>»*''■--'■' 
eral,  the  chiefs  of  engineers  and  of  ordnance,  the  qiwr'.' 


7J2 


GENEKIC  IMAGE 


infusions,  only  such  sjr  as  hod  beeu  passed  through  conoen- 
tratiitd  sulphuric  acid,  aod  Schwann  only  such  as  had  been 
conducted  through  red-hot  tubes.  No  aniraalcules  made 
their  appearance;  and  these  results,  reached  in  1836  and 
1837,  were  regarded  by  the  great  body  of  naturalists  a;:;  finally 
settling  the  question. 

The  controversy,  however,  after  resting  for  twenty  years, 
was  revived  and  prosecuted  with  even  more  animation  than 
before,  by  Pouchet,  in  the  first  instance,  on  the  sii^e  of  spon- 
taneous generation,  and  Pasteur  on  that  of  biogenesis.  Pas- 
teur showed  that  in  multitudes  of  instances  infusions  her- 
meticallr  sealed  while  boiling  remained  for  indefinite  periods 
of  time  free  from  all  traces  of  organic  life,  while  portions  of 


found  that  oven  an  unsealed  flask,  of  which  the  neck  had 
been  stopped  during  the  boiling  only  with  a  plug  of  cotton 
closely  pressed  together,  continued  to  be  equally  free  from 
these  organisms  so  long  as  the  stopper  remained  in  its  place. 
This  last  experiment  presented  a  rather  curious  resemblance 
to  that  of  Redi  with  his  gBuze-covered  jar;  for  the  cotton 
forming  the  plug  was  found,  on  a  microscopic  examination, 
to  contain  the  germs  which  its  presence  had  prevented  from 
entering  the  nask.  W^man.  Bastian,  Cantoni,  and  others 
reported  results  at  variance  with  Pasteur's,  showing  that 
bacteria  will  make  their  appearance  in  infusions  which 
have  not  only  been  boiled  before  being  sealed  up,  but 


which,  after  being  sealed,  have  been  kept  at  a  boiling  heat 
for  many  hours;  but  the  methods  ot  bacteriological  re- 
search which  have  been  elaborated  since  1S76  have  shown 


that  the  methods  employed  by  these  experimenters  would 
not-  insure  the  killing  of  all  spores,  ana  especially  of  the 
spores  ot  the  hay  bacillus,  and  it  may  now  be  considered  as 
definitirly  settled  that  there  is  no  evidence  that  spontane- 
ous generation  can  occur  on  the  earth  under  existing  cir- 


non-living  matter  under  the  influence  of  physical  forces  only 
is  a  question  which  at  present  can  not  be  answered. 

Revised  by  J.  S.  Bilusos. 

Generic  Image :  See  Iuage. 

tienesee'  River:  a  river  which  rises  in  Potter  to..  Pa., 
and  flows  in  a  general  northward  direction  through  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  after  a  course  ot  some  130  miles 
falls  into  Lake  Ontario  7  miles  N.  of  Itochcstcr.  It  is  navi- 
jrablo  for  5  miles  by  lake  vessels.  There  are  grand  falls  at 
Portageville,  at  Rochester,  and  other  points  on  this  river. 
It  affords  abundant  water-power  at  raanv  places.  The  Gen- 
esee valley  is  a  very  fertile  and  beautiful  region. 

Genese'o:  city  (founded  in  1836);  Henry  co..  111.  (for  lo- 
cation of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  3-C) ;  on  railwav ; 
159  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Chicago  and  23  miles  E.  of  Itock 
Island.  It  is  the  center  ot  a  large  and  productive  agricul- 
tural district,  and  is  a  very  important  shlpping-iioint  for 
S'ain  and  stock.  It  has  a  flourishing  high  school,  the 
orthwestern  Normal  School,  a  collegiate  institute,  flour- 
in<^mill3,  an  iron-foundry,  and  manufactures  of  agricultur- 
al implements,  tubs,  pails,  furniture,  wagons,  carriages,  etc. 
It  is  a  thrifty  and  enterprising  city.  Pop.  (1880)  a.5l8; 
(IStlQ)  3,182;  (1803)  estimated.  B,500. 

Editob  or  "  Republic." 

GeneHOO:  village  (founded  in  1700);  capital  of  Living- 
ston CO.,  K.  V.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  ot  New  York, 
ret.  5-I>};  on  railway,  and  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Genesee 
river;  20  miles  S.  of  Rochester.  It  has  churehes  ot  five 
denominations,  a  State  normal  school,  a  union  school,  a 
public  library  ot  over  6,000  volumes,  a  flouHng-mill,  plan- 
ing-mi  11,  glove  and  mitten  factory,  canning-tuctory,  machine- 
shop,  water-works,  gas,  and  a  complete  svslem  of  sewerage. 
Chief  industry,  agriculture.    Pop.  \im>)  'l,»25 ;  (1890)  3,286. 

EdITOB  of  •'  LlVlBQSTON  Rbpublicas." 


Genesis  [vifi  Lat.  from  Gr.  ■y4naa,  becoming,  beginning, 
transl.  of  Ileb.  breshifh.  in  the  begiiming.  the  first  word  of 
Gen.i.l]:  the  first  book  ot  the  Pentateuch,  oneoflhemost 
venerable  and  ancient  of  existing  books,  containing  an  ac- 
count ot  the  creation,  of  man's  original  happy  state,  his  sin 
and  tall,  of  tho  Deluge,  and  the  rcstoraliiin  and  di5[icrsion 
of  mankind,  ending  with  the  storv  of  Abraham  and  his 
early  descendants.  Its  authorship  is  ordinarily  es<TilH>cl  to 
Moses,  but  some  have  questioned  its  unity,  reganling  it  as 
a  compilation  from  various  older  records;  and  still  others 
have  questioned  its  historical  character.  For  a  <llseu!«:on 
o(  these  points,  see  Pesiiteuuh. 


GENETIC  PSYCHOLOGY 

Genest,  zhe-nS,  or  GenSt.  Edmonu  Charles  ;  diploma- 
tist; a  brother  of  Mme.  Caidpan;  b.  at  Versailles,  Pranoe, 
Jan.  8,  1765,  and  brought  up  in  the  French  ci)urt ;  produivd 
when  twelve  years  old  a  history  of  Eric  XIV..  for  which 
QustavuB  III.  Bent  him  a  gold  medal ;  declared  him^lf  a  re- 
publican; waa  charge  d'affaire*  at  St.  Petersburg  IWO-M. 
and  French  minister  to  the  U.  S.  ]793-ft4,  Washinmon, 
however,  finally  demanded  his  recall,  Genest  having  taken 
unwarrantable  measures  with  the  design  of  forcing  the  U.  S. 
into  a  war  with  Great  Ilritain.  He  settled  at  ScboOack. 
Rensselaer  co.,  N.  V.,  was  naturalized,  and  married  first 
(1784)  a  daughter  of  Gov.  George  Clinton,  and  then  (after 
ISIO)  a  Miss  Osgood.  Was  translator  ot  Idman's  treatise  nn 
tho  Finns  and  their  language  (1778).  D.  atSchodack,N.  Y 
July  14,  1834 

Gen'et  [from  O.  Fr.  genelle,  from  Arab,  jameit,  genet  1 : 
a  name  given  to  various  camivotous  mammals  ot  the  fuuiilv 
Viverrida  and  genus  Gf'nelta.     There  are  several  speoiei, 


mostlv  African.  The  common  genet  (Oenttia  rvlgnnr; 
found  wild  from  France  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hoj*.  i*  t  hi- 
best  known.  At  Constantinople  and  other  places  it  i&  di>- 
mesticated,  and  used  to  destroy  rats  and  mice.  It  is  geiitlf. 
and  prii-.ed  for  its  soft  and  beautiful  fur.  It  has  a  fniiii 
smell  ot  musk,  is  reddish  gray,  mottled  and  stre^nl  witii 
block,  brown,  and  while;  the'  pupil  of  the  eye  is  narrtiw 
and  vertical,  and  the  claws  are  retractile. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lccas. 


faculties,  but  as  a  growing,  developing  ocTivi 
or  function.  Instead  ot  trying  to  find  in  the  infaiil  all  I 
faculties  of  the  man.  genetic  psvchology  tries  to  reiiuii'  i 
mind  of  the  man  as  far  as  possible  to  the  simplicity  i>r  ih 
ot  the  child,  and  then  to  trace,  by  actual  oI)serralii'n  ai 
experiment  with  children,  the  order  of  riseot  the  morciiM 
plex  mental  processes  and  their  relative  bearing  on  i>ni'  a 


theoretical  treatment  ot  the  "mental  philosopliy "  ot  tUi- 
earlier  schools. 

1.  The  events  of  the  infant's  consciousness  are  sinipli' 
rather  than  reflective.  What  we  find  in  a  child's  mind  ttrv 
simplv  his  presentations,  memories,  thoughts;  not  nhHi  he 
himself  thinks  of  them,  or  what  he  ob^rves  and  rejion^ 
them  to  be.  In  adult  consciousness,  on  the  conirsri.  thi- 
tlisturbing  effects  of  reflection  have  been  coiisiiIer«<l.  ev,T 
since  Kant  pointed  them  out,  a  matterot  notorious  iDotiivnt. 
It  is  impossible  for  me  to  report  exactly  what  I  feel,  for  ex- 
ample, for  by  observing  it,  attending  to  it.  1  have  inyi.-lt 
altered  it.  But  the  child's  feeling  is  simple:  his  eni(iti>>n 
is  OS  spontaneous  as  a  spring.  He  has  not  yet  leamd  1 1n- 
social  and  personal  prejudices,  vanities,  and  cunTeniit'ns 
which  aflect  every  adult;  he  does  not  look  at  hiinst-lf  lliri>u^^li 
the  countless  lenses  ot  time,  place,  end  cireunislanre.  S>>  in 
his  mental  processes  the  jisychologist  finds  his  data  in  ihi'ir 
purest  and  simplest  form. 

3.  It  is  bv  the  study  ot  children  that  we  are  able  to  Ic-t 
the  truth  oi  the  analyses  which  we  make  in  general  pfvclml- 


714 


GENEVA 


GENQA 


It  has  five  churches,  large  school-buildings,  a  fine  court- 
house erected  in  1892  at  a  cost  of  $250,000,  a  large  cream- 
ery, a  foundry,  and  excellent  water-power,  operating  six 
manufactories,  including  very  extensive  glucose-works. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,239;  (1890)  1,692;  (1893)  estimated,  1,850. 

Editor  of  "  Republican." 

Geneya :  city ;  capital  of  Fillmore  co.,  Neb.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Nebraska,  ref.  7-J) ;  on  Turkey  creek, 
and  the  Bur.  ana  Mo.  River  and  Fremont,  Elk.  and  Mo. 
Valley  Railroads ;  60  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Lincoln.  It  is  in 
an  agricultural  and  stock-raising  region  and  has  three  week- 
ly newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  376 ;  (1890)  1,580. 

Editor  op  "  Democrat." 

Geneya :  village ;  Ontario  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  coun- 
ty, see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  5-E) ;  on  Seneca  Lake,  the 
Seneca  ana  Cayuga  Canal  and  the  Fall  Brook,  the  Lehigh 
Valley,  and  the  N.  Y.  C.  and  H.  R.  Railroads.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Hobart  College,  the  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Delancey  Divinity  School,  and  the  Delancey  School  for 
Girls.  It  has  a  graded  union  school,  branch  schools,  two 
fine  parks,  a  water-cure  sanitarium,  water- works,  and  manu- 
factures of  steam  and  hot-water  heaters,  stoves,  ranges,  op- 
tical goods,  patent  cereals,  canned  goods,  etc.  It  is  widely 
known  for  its  nurseries,  which  occupy  about  10,000  acres  of 
land  in  and  near  Geneva,  giving  employment  to  over  1,000 
laborers  and  hundreds  of  agents  in  all  parts  of  the  U.  S. 
and  Canada;  over  f  1,000,000  worth  of  nursery  stock  is 
shipped  annually.  There  are  6  weeklv  and  3  monthly 
periodicals.  Pop.  (1880)  5,878;  (1890)  7,557;  (1893)  esti- 
mated, 10,000.  Edftor  of  "  Courier. 

Geneya :  village ;  Ashtabula  co.,  0.  (for  location  of  coun- 
ty, see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  1-J) ;  on  the  Lake  Shore  and  Mich. 
S.  Railway,  and  the  N.  Y.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.  Railroad ;  3  miles 
S.  of  Lake  Erie,  45  miles  N.  E.  of  Cleveland.  It  is  in  a  rich 
grape-growing  region ;  has  attained  popularity  as  a  summer 
resort ;  manufactures  agricultural  implements,  electrical 
goods,  novelties,  printers'  cases,  springs,  mattresses,  fur 
goods,  and  fiour,  and  has  a  normal  school,  2  banks,  and  2 
weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  1,903 ;  (1890)  2,194. 

Editor  of  "  Times." 

Geneya,  Wis. :  See  Lake  Geneva,  Wis. 

Geneya  Arbitration,  The :  the  settlement  of  the  claims 
of  the  U.  S.  against  Great  Britain  by  a  tribunal  of  arbitra- 
tion which  met  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  Dec,  1871,  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Washington  signed  Feb., 
1871.    See  Alabama  Claims. 

Geneva,  Gonventlon  of:  an  engagement  entered  into  at 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  Aug.  22, 1864,  by  ten  states — France, 
Switzerland,  Belgium,  Portugal,  Holland,  Italy,  Spain,  Den- 
mark, Baden,  and  Prussia — for  the  neutralization  and  ex- 
emption, so  far  as  possible,  from  the  casualties  of  war  of 
all  persons,  vehicles,  and  buildings  devoted  to  the  care  of 
the  sick  and  wounded.  Since  1864  the  accession  of  twenty 
additional  states,  including  all  the  milit-ary  powers  of  Eu- 
rope and  of  the  American  continents,  except  Brazil,  has 
made  the  application  of  its  rules  almost  universal.  The 
improvement  in  and  increased  destructiveness  of  military 
weapons,  which  began  about  1860,  and  which  for  a  time  was 
unaccompanied  by  any  change  toward  looser  battle  forma- 
tion, led  to  heavier  casualties  than  the  medical  staff  of 
one  army,  the  one  left  in  possession  of  the  field,  could  at- 
tend to.  The  fact  of  so  much  unalleviated  suffering  natu- 
rally brought  about  the  offer  of  assistance  in  oaring  for  the 
wounded  from  humane  societies  and  individuals  of  neutral 
states,  to  supplement  the  medical  corps.  The  labors  of  two 
Swiss  gentlemen,  Heinrich  Dumont  and  Gustave  Moynier, 
should  be  held  in  honor.  For,  influenced  by  them  and  the 
facts  which  they  made  known,  there  have  sprung  up  in  many 
countries  organized  bodies,  whose  resources  and  efforts  are 
devoted  to  the  mitigation  of  bodily  suffering  of  every  form 
in  time  of  peace,  and  especially  in  time  of  war,  under  the 
name  of  Rea  Cross  societies,  and  have  done  much  to  bring 
about  a  more  humane  system  of  warfare.  This  is  a  neces- 
sary introduction  to  a  description  of  the  rules  of  the  Geneva 
convention.    These  are  briefly  as  follows: 

No  distinction  of  nationality  is  to  be  made  in  caring  for 
the  sick  and  wounded.  Natives  of  an  invaded  country  who 
bring  aid  to  them  shall  be  respected  and  free.  If  they  re- 
ceive the  wounded  into  their  houses  they  shall  be  exempt 
from  Quartering  of  troops  or  military  contributions.  These 
facts  snail  be  brought  to  their  knowfedge  by  the  notification 
of  general  officers. 


Ambulances  and  hospitals  (unless  defended  by  a  military 
force^,  and  their  personnel,  which  includes  nursea,  surgeoiLs 
physicians,  those  in  charge  of  transportation,  and  admin- 
istration, shall  be  recognized  as  neutral,  and  be  marked  hy  & 
distinctive  flag  or  arm  badge.  These  shall  both  bear  a  mi 
cross  on  a  white  ground.  The  fla^  must  be  accompanit  «1 
by  a  national  flag.  The  material  in  military  hospittt]>  re- 
mains subject  to  the  laws  of  war.  When  hospitals  or  ambu- 
lances come  into  the  power  of  the  enemy,  their  attafhr^ 
may  either  continue  to  serve  in  them  or  may  return  t<»  xht- ir 
own  army  with  their  personal  effects.  Sick  and  wouinlfl 
who  come  into  the  power  of  the  enemy,  when  cured  Am  a 
be  returned  to  their  own  country  if  incapable  of  senic^ : 
otherwise  they  shall  be  paroled.  An  immediat'C  return  ••( 
wounded  soldiers  to  their  own  army  may  be  made  by  agn\- 
ment. 

Commanders-in-chief  shall  have  general  control  of  th« 
execution  of  the  details  of  this  convention,  in  confomiitv 
with  its  rules  and  the  instructions  of  their  government-. 
Of  course  the  protecting  emblems  can  be  granted  only  l\v 
authority  and  their  abuse  will  be  punished.  In  1^68 'fi\r 
explanatory  articles  were  added  and  a  similar  system,  so  far 
as  practicable,  was  extended  to  naval  warfare.  FLjatin/ 
hospitals  remain  subject  to  capture,  but  their  chara4't«r  van 
not  be  changed,  and  their  personnel  is  neutralized.  If  fitt«-i 
out  bv  neutrals  they  are  not  liable  to  capture,  but  must  net 
interfere  in  naval  operations. 

Some  of  the  rules  of  these  conventions  are  not  sufficient!^ 
clear ;  it  is  probable  that  in  some  cases,  notably  during  th^> 
Franco-German  war,  the  rights  granted  under  them  ha\»- 
not  been  altogether  observed.  Nevertheless,  on  the  who)*-, 
the  Geneva  convention  has  worked  exceedingly  well  ai.-i 
should  be  considered  a  valuable  agent  in  lessening  tii>' 
horrors  of  war.  Theodore  S.  Woolsey. 

Geneva,  Lake  of,  or  Lake  Lenian  [Leman  is  from  Lat. 
Locus  Leman'nus,  Lake  Leman] :  a  lake  situated  1.2*Jt> 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  between  Switzerland  ani 
Savoy  (now  a  part  of  France);  extending  45  miles  fnin 
E.  to  W.  in  tne  shape  of  a  crescent.  It«  width  vaii'/^ 
from  a  mile  at  the  west  end  to  nearly  10  miles  at  the  ♦'»?! 
end,  where  its  greatest  depth  reaches  980  feet ;  aren.  2*2ii  -<j. 
miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  river  Rhone,  which  disc  ban:.  ^ 
its  muddy  waters  in  it,  and  issues  from  it  at  Geneva  (wheinf 
the  name  Lake  Geneva),  at  its  southwest  extremitv,  a  j)i.iv 
and  transparent  stream  of  a  deep-blue  color.  ThL<  lak. , 
which  fills  a  vast  basin  between  the  snowy  Alps  and  ih*- 
Jura  Mountains,  is  much  celebrated  for  the  grandeur  i>: 
the  surrounding  scenery  and  the  loveliness  of  its  5>h<jn-, 
which  teem  with  thriving  cities  and  picturesque  villasr*^. 
It  is  navigated  by  steamboats  and  sailing  vessels,  but  i^ 
not  so  much  used  for  communication  since  the  completii>D 
of  the  railway  on  its  north  shore. 

Genevan  Bible :  See  Bible. 

Gene vl dye  (Fr.  pron.  «hen'vee-av').  Canons  of  St :  a 

branch  of  the  Canons  Regular;  first  propo^  in  1614  h\ 
Charles  Faure,  who,  with  the  assistance  of  Cardinal  do  la 
Rochefoucauld,  established  the  new  congregation.  In  16^54 
Pope  Urban  VIII.  confirmed  the  organization. 

Genevi^ye,  Daughters  of  St.,  called  also  Miramion^: 
an  order  of  religious  women  in  France ;  founded  in  16:^^)  h\ 
Francesca  de  Biosset.  Its  members  took  no  monastic  v<»vr-. 
but  devoted  themselves  to  teaching  and  to  caring  for  t  L  ■ 
sick.  In  1665  the  order  was  united  to  the  proj»er  Mini- 
mions  (founded  in  1661).  The  united  order  flourished,  ani 
attained  extensive  usefulness. 

Genevidye,  Saint  :  patron  saint  of  the  city  of  Paris ;  i-. 
about  422  at  Nanterre,  or,  according  to  anotller  account,  aL 
Montriere ;  dedicated  in  her  girlhood  to  a  life  of  virginity  an-: 
religious  devotion  through  the  influence  of  St,  German^^  I 
Auxerre.  After  the  death  of  her  parents  she  went  to  Vat>. 
where  her  active  charities  and  holy  life  won  the  affection  ,'f 
the  people.  She  prophesied  the  invasion  of  the  Iluns  un«i»: 
Attila,  but  declarea  that  Paris  would  be  spared.  Ti.«r 
prophecy  came  true,  and  added  to  her  reputation  for  sar.v> 
tity.  On  the  capture  of  Paris  by  the  Franks,  her  intvn  t^ 
sion  caused  the  city  to  be  treated  with  gnreat  leniency  b>  t*i- 
conquerors.  D.  in  Paris  about  612,  and  was  buneii  in  thi- 
church  that  bore  her  name.  A  later  edifice  built  in  btr 
honor  in  1764  became  the  Pantheon  in  1791. 

Genga,  jen'gaa,  Girolamo:  painter;  b.  at  Urbino,  Itah. 
in  1476 ;  he  w^as  placed  with  Luca  Signorelli  at  the  a«:«  •  f 
thirteen,  and  during  his  many  years  of  scholaiship  vui* 


716 


GENIUS 


GENNESARET,  LAKE  OF 


are  discovered.  By  attention  only  is  memory  made  faith- 
ful, and  the  lessons  of  the  past  made  available.  And,  more- 
over, it  is  by  attention  that  selections  are  made  of  what  is 
really  valuable,  beautiful,  true,  useful,  and  it  is  just  this 
fact  of  selection  which  makes  constructive  imagination 
more  valuable  than  fancy.  Consequently,  if  a  man  can  not 
give  prolonged  and  undistracted  attention  to  one  topic, 
until  all  he  knows  about  it  or  has  heard  about  it,  all  he  nas 
ever  suspected,  thought,  imagined  about  it,  falls  together  in 
one  system  or  intuition,  whose  parts  admit  no  other  ar- 
rangement as  comprehensive  and  all-embracing — if  a  man 
can  not  attain  this,  the  great  feat  which  Newton  called 
"  patient  thought " — he  has  not  the  first  mark  of  genius. 

But,  in  the  second  place,  a  genius  must  be  well  informed 
in  the  particular  line  of  wonc  in  which  he  shows  himself 
remarkable,  and  to  be  well  informed  he  must  be  industrious. 
Any  amount  of  ability  is  of  no  avail  if  it  have  insufficient 
material  to  work  upon.  The  power  of  "  patient  thought " 
or  of  imaginative  synthesis  may  be  present,  and  often  is,  in 
those  we  know  about  us,  who,  nevertheless,  never  accom- 
plish much.  These  are  the  exceptions,  however.  It  is  true 
as  a  rule  of  this  function — like  all  other  functions,  both 
bodjr  and  mind — that  it  grows  by  exercise  and  takes  its  pro- 

Eortions  from  what  it  feeds  upon.  A  man  may  be  born  to 
e  a  genius  and  turn  out  a  monomaniac.  We  do  not  expect 
great  electrical  discoveries  from  men  who  are  not  professional 
or  practical  electricians.  We  give  no  credence  to  the  re- 
ported invention  of  flying-machines  by  the  general  run  of 
experimenters.  Mathematicians  have  long  since  given  up 
the  attempt  to  square  the  circle,  and  yet  they  constantly  hear 
that  amateurs  have  accomplished  the  feat.  In  short  a  discov- 
ery by  a  genius  involves  the  most  detailed  and  exhaustive 
knowledge  of  all  the  elements  which  enter  into  the  problem, 
and  of  all  the  possible  combinations  of  these  elements;  and 
although  his  nnal  inspiration  comes  to  him,  as  Wundt  has 
said,  "like  a  flash  of  lightning,"  nevertheless  it  comes  to 
the  mind  of  him  who  broods  patiently  over  what  he  already 
knows,  and  molds  by  tireless  thinking  all  his  mental  store 
into  shape  for  the  final  synthesis  which  puts  his  genius  in 
evidence.  Of  these  two  essentials,  however,  it  is  easy  to 
see  which  is  the  more  important.  The  man  who  can  not 
think  a  thing  out,  who  can  not  detect  what  is  worthful  in 
shape  and  color  and  harmonious  in  sound — such  a  man  can 
never  make  himself  a  genius  by  hard  work  in  any  one  of 
these  lines.  He  can  discipline  his  powers  and  inform  his 
mind  and  make  of  himself  a  great  man.  but  still  endowment 
remains  the  first  essential,  and  there  is  only  a  modicum  of 
truth  in  Carlyle's  dictum,  **  Genius  is  hard  work."  A  ge- 
nius must  work  in  order  to  develop  his  brain,  but  work  can 
not  take  the  place  of  brain. 

Coming  closer  to  the  individual  types  of  mental  endow- 
ment, which  we  call  geniuses,  we  find  very  wide  diversities. 
Two  great  spheres  of  the  operation  of  constructive  imagina- 
tion are  recognized  by  psychologists — the  sphere  of  art  and 
that  of  science.  So  we  may  distinguish  artistic  from  sci- 
entific imagination,  and  artistic  from  scientific  genius.  The 
distinction  has  profound  psychological  justification,  and 
gives  us  light  on  that  most  perplexing  phenomenon  called 
the  *'  eccentricity  of  genius." 

Psychology  assures  us  that  the  mind  in  all  its  operations 
shows  a  principle  of  *'  identity,"  in  accordance  with  which 
all  mental  objects,  presentations,  images,  tend  to  be  identi- 
fied with  one  another  as  far  as  possible.  There  is  a  constant 
tendency  and  effort  of  consciousness  to  assiraihite  all  new 
things  to  the  shape  and  meaning  of  old  things,  to  keep  its 
categories  as  few  as  possible,  to  bring  its  knowledge  into  the 
unity  of  a  system.  Whenever  this  is  done,  whenever  two 
elements  of  content  fall  together  and  become  one,  or  get 
related  to  each  other  as  elements  in  a  larger  whole,  then 
great  pleasure  is  experienced.  All  identities  are  the 
source  of  mental  satisfaction.  This  being  tnie,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  products  of  the  constructive  imagination 
may  be  looked  at  in  two  ways— either  from  the  side  of 
the  construction  itself,  the  amount  of  truth  and  practical 
value  it  possesses,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  from  the  side  of  its 
hedonic  value,  its  pleasure-giving  effect.  In  one  ca-^e  we 
have  imagination  working  under  the  limitations  and  re- 
quirements of  actual  truth — i.  e.  giving  rise  to  inventions, 
scientific  discoveries,  astronomical  prophecies,  etc.  In  the 
other  we  have  no  such  limitation  :  the  object  of  the  a'sthetie 
imagination  is  the  hedonic  effect  itself,  and  nature  is  tran- 
scended, truth  interpreted,  beauty  secured  by  the  further 
advance  of  construction  under  more  emotional  and  uncrit- 
ical rubrics.    The  scientific  man  is  accordingly  most  suc- 


cessful when  his  devices  and  discoveries  are  true,  no  mat- 
ter what  happiness  they  give;  but  those  of  the  arti^t.  iu 
literature,  in  fine  art  generaUy,  must  please,  whatever  t^l?.- 
is  true  of  them.  Philosophy  expresses  this  distinction  l»y 
saying  that  the  ideal  of  art  is  an  ideal  of  form,  its  end  is 
the  supreme  embodiment  of  the  formal  relationships*  i<i 
which  the  mind  takes  pleasure,  while  the  ideal  of  seiner 
and  philosophy  is  an  ideal  of  matter  or  content  The  arti^ 
tic  genius  tnerefore  is  a  man  with  an  extraordinary  s^n^ 
of  formal  relationships,  of  the  fitness  of  things  to'g<»  to- 
gether, and  an  abhorrence  of  the  inconsistent^  the  unpar* 
allel,  the  crooked.  The  scientific  genius  cares  for  the  saiie 
things,  as  far  as  the  principle  of  identity  is  coneerne*!,  hu\ 
h^  demands  truthful  construction  first  of  all  as  the  highi^: 
kind  of  identity,  and  the  emotional  element  is  or  may  U-  a 
hindrance  to  him. 

This  distinction  in  types  accounts  for  the  mistake  so  oft»  u 
made  by  ordinary  people,  who  believe  that  creniuses  art*  al- 
ways singular,  a  little  unbalanced,  and  perhaps  abuoniial, 
thus  denying  genius  to  men  of  wonderful  scientific  ima^^ina- 
tion,  like  Newton,  Cuvier,  Darwin,  Agassiz.  These  are  the 
very  sanest  of  men.  But  the  artists  are,  in  the  nature  of  thf 
case,  men  of  strongest  emotional  character:  (heir  ideals  nrt. 
ill  so  far,  a  departure  from  the  prosy  facts  of  things.  The \ 
have  no  liking  for  convention,  for  conformity,  for  rule ;  for 
artistic  creations  can  never  be  expressed  by  formula  nnr 
measured  by  rule.  So  they  are  intolerant^  often  one-sidc«l, 
often  rationally  warped,  always  intensely  individual,  ami 
never  capable  of  ouite  the  same  social  normality  as  th*  ir 
brother  geniuses  the  scientists,  or  their  brother  men  hIk. 
are  not  geniuses.  There  is  sufficient  ground,  therefore.  f<»r 
the  popular  view  that  a  genius,  i.  e.  an  artistic  genius.  i> 
likely  to  be  eccentric;  but  there  is  not  sufficient  ground  f^ir 
the  view  which  has  been  seriously  exploited  that  genius  i>  n 
form  of  insanity,  or  at  least  of  mental  abnormity.  In  his- 
tory many  geniuses  have  been  peculiar,  indeed  some  hnw 
obtained  part  of  their  rejjute  for  genius  from  their  peculiari- 
ties ;  but  these  peculiarities  are  still  within  the  ran^re  •  f 
sanity.  Yet  it  is  true  that  the  degree  of  eccentricity  and  utj- 
conventionality  and  unsociality  so  often  found  in  nun  «'f 
great  apsthetic  genius  may  inaicate  a  progressive  ner\»  ti^ 
tendency,  which  in  time  destroys  the  man's  sanity.  But  in 
this  case  it  is  easy  to  see  that  by  the  same  pro'grt^ss  iiii.. 
disease,  his  genius  is  destroyed  also.  Undoubtedly  thi^  fa*^ 
of  progressive  neuropathic  temperament,  culmiDatiii^'  in 
positive  disease — a  thing  which  in  its  incipient  stages  miuht 
nave  an  exalting  effect  upon  the  sensibilities,  and  so  at : 
aesthetic  creation — accounts  for  much  of  the  jxjpular  im- 
pression that  a  genius  is  unbalanced.    J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Genlis,  ^haan'lees',  Stephanie  F£licit6  Ducrest  i>e  >t.- 
AuBiN,  Countess  de :  writer;  b.  near  Autun,  France.  Jrtii,  Sk 
1746;  in  1752  entered  the  Church  as  canoness  of  Alix.  wi". 
the  title  of  Countess  of  Lancy;  in  1761  was  marrietl  to  th^ 
Count  de  Genlis;  in  1770  became  attached  to  the  hi'U>*  h.  :.i 
of  the  Due  de  Chart  res  (afterward  the  citizen  fegalitr}:  u: 
1783  became  governess  to  his  children, and,  according  t«>  i\ 
popular  ojnnion,  was  his  mistress.  In  1793  she  wa>  ol>iu'-^i 
to  leave  France.  From  Napoleon  and  Joseph  Bonaparti-  -h- 
subsequently  received  liberal  pensions.  Among  Inr  b.  -• 
writings  are  the  educational  works  deisigned  for  her  yoiir  ^ 
pupils,  the  Orleans  princes,  and  MademoiseUe  de  (Itnu 
a  snort  novel  of  great  excellence.  Her  personal  Jdhnoi. 
in  ten  large  volumes,  abound  in  scandal,  and  are  fuii 
malignant  attacks  up<m  the  prominent  persons  of  her  tim-. 
D.  at  Paris,  Dec.  31,  1830.  It  is  l>elieved  that  Pnnw  '  i, 
wife  of  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  (1763-98),  was  her  daiul  • 
ter  by  Philippe  Egalite. 

Gennes'aret,  Lake  of  [G ennesaret  ^Gr,  Ttw^n^apir^ 

Aramaic  Oenesareth^  fr.  Heb.  Oenuaar,  the  name  of  a  ft-r. 
tile  district  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee] :  a  lake  in  Palestin*-  !•- 
tween  lat.  32'  42'  and  32  54'  N„  now  called  Bahr  TulHir;;,r '. ; 
mentioned  only  five  times  in  the  Old  Testament  iXu!  . 
xxxiv.  11 ;  Deut.  iii.  17 ;  Josh.  xi.  2,  xii.  3,  xiii,  27),  whtn.-  j* 
is  called  the  Sea  of  Chinnereth  or  Chinneroih  ;  in  the  Ajnh- 
rypha  called  the  Water  of  Gennesar;  by  Joseph  us  <-3ilI<'i 
the  Lake  of  Gennesar,  or  Tiberias;  in  tKe  New  Ti\<tMnni  r 
called  once  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret,  but  oftener  the  Sm  "** 
Galilee,  or  Tiberias,  It  is  12^  miles  long  and  8  milo>  wid- . 
Its  surface  is  680  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Me<literrHiuM:i 
Its  greatest  depth  is  165  feet.  Its  waters  are  clear,  ct*  i, 
and  sweet,  abounding  with  fish.  Its  whole  eastern  "^idt-  i- 
bounded  by  a  steep  mountain-wall,  rising  nearly  2,00<>  f»-  *. 
and  spreading  off  into  the  table-land  of  Bashan.    On  lU 


1 '  > .  I ' 


.'i 


718 


GENRE 


GENUS 


omist  he  belonged  to  the  mercantile  school.    D.  in  Naples, 
1769. 

Genre*  zhAnV :  in  fine  art,  the  use  of  subjects  of  simple 
and  everyday  nature;  domestic  scenes,  common  incidents, 
and  the  like.    See  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Fine  Arts. 

Gens :  See  Tribe. 

CtoBMiii',  or  Won-San :  one  of  the  open  ports  of  Korea ;  on 
the  east  coast,  on  Yung-Hine  Bay;  fat.  39*  5  N.,  Ion.  127' 
10'  E.  (see  map  of  China,  ref.  ^L).  The  commerce  is  slight, 
and  entirely  m  the  hands  of  Japanese.  M.  W.  H. 

Gens  d*Armes,  zhuan'daarm'  [FV.,  liter.,  people  or  men  of 
arms] :  a  title  in  France  anciently  applied  to  the  whole  body 
of  men  liable  to  military  service.  From  the  twelfth  to  the 
sixteenth  century  it  designated  the  body  of  nobles  and  gen- 
try serving  under  the  Kings  of  France.  It  now  denotes  the 
armed  and  mounted  rural  police,  generally  soldiers  detailed 
from  the  army. 

Gen'serie :  King  of  the  Vandals ;  the  natural  son  of  a 
Vandal  king  in  Spain,  and  joint  heir  of  the  kingdom  with 
Gon<leric,  his  brother,  whom  he  succee<led  in  428  a.  d.  ; 
crossed  to  Africa  in  429  with  50,000  men,  who  were  joined 
by  the  savage  native  tril)es  and  the  Donatists;  sacked  and 
burned  Hippo  in  431;  banished  the  Catholic  bishops  437; 
capturc<i  Carthage  in  439.  Lnd  dismantletl  all  the  African 
towns  except  Carthage ;  terrifle<l  the  Mediterranean  coasts ; 
overran  Sicily  440 ;  took  and  sacketl  Rome  for  fourteen  days 
and  nights  455,  carrying  oflf  the  empress  and  her  daughters 
and  robbing  the  city  of  its  most  valuetl  treasures  of  art ; 
remaine<l  master  of  Cartha^  and  the  terror  of  both  the  East- 
em  and  the  Western  empire,  successfully  repelling  all  at- 
tacks.   D.  Jan.,  477. 

GentiRD  [M  Eng.  genciane,  from  O.  Ft,  gentiane  <  Lat. 
gentia'na,  from  Or.  ynmairii,  gentian] :  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
family  OentianareiP,  of  which  the  most  important  species  is 
the  yellow  gentian  {Oentiana  lutea),  growing  on  the  moun- 
tainous meadows  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe.  This  is 
a  perennial  plant,  with  a  thick,  long,  branching  root,  erect 
stem  3  or  4  feet  high,  broad,  ovate,  bright-green  leaves,  and 
rather  large,  bright-yellow  flowers.  The  name  is  said  to  be 
deriviHl  from  Gentius,  an  ancient  King  of  Illvria,  who  intro- 
duced yellow  gentian  into  medicine.  The  dried  root  is  an 
important  drug.  It  is  of  spongy  texture,  faint  o<lor,  but  in- 
tensely bitter  taste.  Its  active  principle  is  proliably  a  bitter 
crystallizable  neutral  substance,  the  gentiopierin  of  Ludwig 
and  Kn>mayer,  a  IxmIv  Ih^longing  cnemically  to  the  gluco- 
sides.  This,  like  other  simple  vegetable  bitters,  when  taken 
internally  tends  to  increase  the  appetite  and  promote  diges- 
tion by  gentle  irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomaeh.  The  root  is  accordingly  uschI  medicinally  as  a 
8t«)mHchic  tonic  in  simple  digestive  debility,  l)eing  given  in 
the  form  of  solid  and  fluid  extract,  compound  infusion,  or 
tincture.  The  roots  of  the  several  jwrennial  species  of  the 
U.  S.  have  similar  medical  pro|)erties.  Many  spei-ies  have 
very  b<*autiful  flowers,  as,  for  instance,  the  fringed  gentian 
{(}.  criniia),  an  autumnal  biennial.  Ilorne  gentian  is  a  sjie- 
cies  of  Triosleum,    See  Fevkrwort. 

Revisetl  by  Charles  R  Besset. 

GentlRD  Fftinlly :  the  Oentianacr<p ;  a  small  group  of 
about  500  siKfies  of  herbaceous  plants,  mo^tly  natives  of 
teni|MTale  and  cold  climates,  and  aistingui>lutl  by  their  o|>- 
fxisite  leaves,  regular  gainofietalous  flowers,  and  single  suijc- 
rior  one-celled,  many-seede*!  ovaries.  In  North  Amenca 
there  are  fourteen  genera,  Eryihnta^  Euatoma^  Franrra^ 
(Jentiarui,  ete.,  and  lOH  sfH*<Mi»s.  C.  E.  B. 

Gentile  [from  liat.  genti  iis,  pertaining  to  a  clan  or  race, 
(gfnji),  in  plur.  foreiirn.  i.  e.  not  Kontan,  later,  in  lM»th  sing, 
und  plur.  pn^nn.  gentile,  a  tran?*l.  of  Gr.  ^tfn«^t.  heat  hen,  p-n- 
tile.  deriv.  of  f0tni  (plur.  of  l#i*ot,  j>eople,  rme),  heathen,  liter., 
ntttioii»;  trajiM.  of  ]Ieb.(/r>f/iff»,  nations,  (tentiles):  one  not  a 
Jew;  ■  nauje  applieil  by  t  lie  Jews  to  all  who  wen*  not  of  their 
own  nationality.  Betwi'en  Jews  and  (Jentiles  there  was  a 
pntfountl  mutual  aversion,  the  intensity  of  which  it  is  hanl 
for  U"*  to  omteive,  altlin»ii;h  the  f»M'hu^'  itM'lf  is  n<»t  yei  ciuite 
obsolete.  The  Mormunn  a[)|»ly  the  term  (ientile  to  tn«»s«' 
mhii  an*  nniher  Mimnons,  nor  Jews,  nor  aU>rit:inaI  Indians, 
for  they  ri'ganl  the  hitter  as  a  remnant  of  the  ten  lost  tril>es 
of  Lsrael. 

Gentile  d*  FabrUno.  Clr^'TlI.^  i>t  Nn  «ou>  Mas**!:  paint- 
er: b.  at  Fabriano.  in  rnibria,  Itnlv,  ahnut  1.150.  B«'fore 
1422  he  ha«l  puiuleil  h(»mu*  puture^  in  the  dueal  {talatt*  at 
Venice,  whieh  were  destroyed  in  the  ttro  of  1479.     In  1422 


'H 


he  went  to  Florence,  and  spent  most  of  his  aftrr  ^f-  -  . 
tral  Italy.     He  is  classed  as  one  of  the  Cmbnan  «:  . ,  i. 
though  the  character  of  his  art  is  peculiar  in  ii»  trt . ',  . 
minute  finish,  extreme  elaboration  of  detail,  axvi  !••  «. 
tion  to  it  of  rich  ornament  even  in  the  form  of  rmU*..:  i 
incised  gilde<l  work  minified  with  the  naintms.    lU  f* 
at  Orvieto,  Siena,  Perugia,  and  CittA  di  Cart*!.-  m  «-    • 
at  Florence  and  Rome.     His  paintings  ha^e  c*t>tr\  •   r- 
ished:   those  which  exist  in  Euro^Mwn  gmllm*^  t.**    • 
only  single  members  of  large  co-onlinatr<i  vorit  •       « 
altar-pieces,  where  many  setiarate  panel*  arr   trvt". 
gether  in  an  architectural  design.     As  m^trr  iif  j»    * 
Beluni  {q.  V.)  he  exercised  a  great  influence  i<j  tW  in- 
cipient Venetian  school.     He  die<l  at  Rome  in  ItiT  >     \ 
large  picture  in  the  Academy  at  Florence,  AtL»r*t',  ^    •  ^ 
nree  Kin^B,  once  formed  the  center  of  an  elaU  fit.  %  .- 
piece.    This  is  perhaps  Gentile's  most  valoat'Ir  ♦.n  i 
work.    A  Virgin  and  Child  in  the  Berlin  Mu.«c    •«    ■ 
nation  of  the  Virgin  at  the  Brera  in  Milan,  a  JZ-wi  *• 
the  town-hall  at  Fabnano,  and  a  Virtfim  and  <  m.  »   • 
Jarves  Gallery  at  Yale  College,  New  lia»en.  mat  ■»  - 
tionod.  RiHMU.  St  a.  • 

Gentllly,  zhaan  tec  yee  :  a  village  of  PrarnT.  m  *>.  ^ 
partment  of  Seine :  by  the  walls  of  Paris  dni-i-M  :■  •< 
parts.  Great  and  Little  Gentilly,  and  c*)Oiajn*  t*.-  u  i 
hospital  of  Bicetre  and  numenms  manufac  t<  nr*. .  (  •  ^ 
those  of  chemicals  are  quit4*  extensive  ^<«e  niAf  ^-f  Ir*  -i 
ref.  3-F).     Pop.  (1891)  15,017. 

GentlemRD  [M.  Eng.  gt^tilman\  gent\l^  Km*I',  r^  ■  I 
of  good  family  +  man,  after  the  tyfw  of  O.  Fr  y-*'  i 

gentleman:  ^en/i7,  gentle <  Lat. 'yrn/i /ij.  c.f  ^.i:  '•  \ 
deriv.  of  gen«,  family  +  Aomm^  man]:  in  <ir»-»t  I.r  ■  i 
man  of  a  rank  above  that  of  yeoman.  The  wr^  ^^  .  i 
large  sense  includes  the  nobility,  but  in  (-  j  *:*r  .-  i 
excludes  them.  Thus  British  Wxiel^  i-  •m.-if-l  .-."  { 
bility,  gentry,  and  yeomanry,  and  familiri*  an-  .  /•-'  *  \ 
gentle,  or  simple.  Some  of  the  Plantatf«-i.-<  i:*  *»  ••! 
patents  of  gentility.  Sir  Thomas  Sniiih  ITiIV-T:  ^-i 
**.  .  .  Whosoever  studieth  the  laws  <if  thr  nalm,  »-.  -•  U"! 
in  the  universities,  who  profe:«eth  the  lit*  rml  '*  '  t  ^  i 
(to  be  short)  who  can  live  idly  ami  iiiih<»ut  n.ai<u*  *  I 
and  will  Ijear  the  port,  charge,  and  of*unteriAi>  r  .  f  *  ,-  i 
man,  he  .  .  .  shall  be  taken  for  a  gentbnvan  **  !-»•  4 
thorities  make  the  bearing  of  (H>at -armor  the  tc-*:  '  *-•  | 
but  the  poet  Chaucer  puts  it  on  a  liettrr  ^jr*  u  •• 
gentil  that  doeth  gentil  detlea.**  The  Frtin  h  ..»••  ■  i 
was  properly  a  title  belonging  to  ih«>^  of  i>. .c  .•-  •  -  v       i 

GenUeraen-at-Arins  (or,  more  fnllf.    -  H**  V» 
B<Kly-guard  of  the  Hon.  Corps  of  (trntltWn-atAr-  • 
merly  called   "Gentlemen    Pennoner*  "i :    :n  !^-^ 
Great  Britain,  one  of  the  division*  of  t he  r».iA  t«. 
the  others  !>eing  the  **  Ve«»men  of  tJif  <tuanl  ~    IW-  •  - 
and  the  Royal  Archers  (for  S-irtland).     TK--  «..■•■ 
Arms  consist  of  one  captain  {ihiUi  Siuk*,  .  -  • 
(Silver  Stick),  one  staniianl-ltearer  tSdtrr  >c    %  . 
of  the  cheque,  adiutant  and  harbmjrvr.  •»n#'  •■."-  ■•    ■ 
forty  gentlemen,  for  the  mi>e*t  part  n-tinil .  f  ■  -  -*  .  f  • 
It  is  the  oldest  e*)rph  in  her  maje^  vV  t^ri  h  •       : .  . 
1509  b^' Henry  Vfll.  this  l»<Mi>.guanl  rt-.'..»t^i  :•- 
name  in  1K34.     It  is  only  muMen^l  fur  d.jfv  •»     * 
rcK)m8,  levees,  and  great  stat*»  rerrm.ktuc^      fi-  «*-■ 
the  corps  g.jes  out  of  office  with  the  niwiKry. 

Ge'nnfi,  plur.  Gen'eni  [I^t.,  birth,  r»<v.  «  r:.  k  •  ■ 
of  gig  nere,  genitum,  l)eget  <  Ind.»-Kur  ^r%-  ■  fr  .  ; 
the  lowest  group  in  the  animal  or  veir«tai..^  i  ^ 
which  a  name  is  habitually  o<»nnert«i  th*t  r-  *.->  .- 
com  |x  wit  ion  of  the  Sfiecific'dc^ignaiion  if  •»  •  :  -,• 
sjMHies;  thus  the  wolf  is  (1)  a  rvprr^f.:**.  w  tj|  »  _ 
{(\iniA),  to  which  it  l»elongs  in  o<»mmiin  «.th  a  i-as.'*  ^ 
other  animals;  and  (2)  of  a  (Nvuliar  ft|«^-i«-*  if  .••••  ,  H 
the  s|)ecific  name  (Tan i«  /«;mii)  iv  as  a  «K  ..  ■•■  -i 
itsi'lf  and  sharwl  with  n«»  other  !*p«  it-*.  Tl 
limite<l,  has  lieen  deflne<)  as  the  exprr^:  r.  ,  ' 
iiKMli  float  ion  of  structure;  and  thi*.  ditii  r.  «  i 
go<xl  as  one  <if  such  few  wonl*  can  U\  t>ut  m.\t 
tion  it  will  convey  an  err(me<m«  it\rm  to  tK  av  v^  ■-« 
wis**  unwMpiaintwi  with  natural  ««nvn<>-,  »fta  •i-- 
can  only  l)e  appnviate^l  when  Ibr  «rr>H«p  :♦••  if  i*  *"  ■ 
understofHl ;  and  hentv  it  can  mA  lir  <>*  n^.  Urt^-  m  ^ 
turn  in  the  tnie  sense  of  the  m  nL  An  **!•■«.  ^"^ 
only  lie  given  by  example:  thu*  the  w-  f.  it.'  ^*^  • 
the  doif.  coyote,  jackal,  and  ci  rtatn  ■<b*-r  ;  a»  »  — 
stiluti^s  a  genus,  Cani$,  in  contr»diMtn(-ti.  «  t 


1 


H 

-i 


i 


i 


720 


GEOFFREY  OF  MONMOUTH 


GEOGRAPHICAL  BOTANY 


With  a  geodetic  survey  are  frequently  combined  determi- 
nations of  the  force  of  gravity  at  the  principal  stations. 
This  is  effected  by  means  of  the'  Pendulum  (g.  v.). 

General  results  of  geodetic  measures,  so  far  as  the  mag- 
nitude and  figure  of  the  earth  are  concerned,  will  be 
found  under  Earth.  Students  of  geodesy  may  be  re- 
ferred to  Clarke's  Geodesy  (London,  1880)  and  Gore's 
Geodesy  (New  York,  1884)  for  a  full  and  scientific  treat- 
ment of  the  subject.  A  history  of  geo<iesy  has  also  been 
published  by  the  last-named  author,  containing  an  interest- 
ing account  of  the  attempts  matle  at  different  times  to  de- 
termine the  magnitude  and  figure  of  the  earth. 

S.  New  COMB. 

Geoffrey  (jefree)  of  Monmouth :  a  Welsh  chronicler ; 
became  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph  in  1152.  His  most  important 
work,  Historia  Britonum,  is  a  pseudo-chronicle  of  the  early 
Kings  of  Britain,  such  as  Lear,  Gorboduc,  Arthur,  etc.,  but  it 
so  alx)unds  in  fables  as  to  have  small  historic  value.  It  was 
translated  into  English  by  Aaron  Thompson  (London,  1718 ; 
revised  ed.  1842).    Died  probably  in  1154. 

Geoffrin,  ^ho'frfin',  Marie  Th^r&se  (Rodei) :  a  French- 
woman famous  for  her  tact  and  wit ;  b.  in  Paris.  1699  ;  mar- 
ried M.  Geoffrin,  a  man  of  insignificant  character  but 
great  wealth.  The  generosity,  tact,  and  natural  keenness 
of  intelligence  of  M^amc  Geoffrin  enabled  her  to  secure 
a  high  position  in  the  society  of  Paris,  where  she  became 
the  intmiate  friend  of  the  most  distinguished  people  of  the 
time.  She  made  her  house  the  resort  of  authors,  savants, 
artists,  and  representatives  of  the  aristocracy,  whom  she  en- 
tertained at  regular  intervals,  appointing  a  special  time  for 
each  class  of  guests.  In  sfiite  of  ner  defective  education  she 
presided  over  these  gatherings  with  a  grace  and  cleverness 
that  made  her  the  most  celebrated  hostess  in  Europe,  and  in 
her  travels  she  received  the  most  flattering  attentions  from 
foreign  courts.  Her  intimacy  with  the  Encyclopedistes, 
however,  who  were  not  favored  by  the  French  (jfovernment, 
prevented  her  being  received  at  Versailles.  Iler  beneficence 
was  remarkable,  and  included  all  classes  of  society.  Many 
of  the  literary  men  of  Paris  were  her  pensioners,  and  Ponia- 
towski,  afterward  King  of  Poland,  was  one  among  many 
othei-s  who  profited  by  her  liberalitv.  D.  at  Paris,  1777. 
See  Marmontel,  Memoires,  and  d'Alerabert,  Morellet,  and 
Thomas,  £loge  de  Madame  Geoffrin, 

Geolfrion  (Fr.  pron.  zhoin-dh'),  F^lix:  Canadian  mem- 
ber of  Parliament ;  b.  at  Varennes,  Province  of  Quebec,  Oct. 
4,  1832.  He  became  a  notary ;  was  registrar  for  Verchcres 
from  1854  till  1863 ;  and  has*  been  president  of  the  Montreal, 
Cbambly,  and  Sorel  Railway.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Canada  Assembly  1863-67,  and  since  1867  has  sat  in  each  suc- 
cessive Parliament  of  the  Dominion  up  to  the  present  (1893). 
He  was  appointed  Minister  of  Inland  Revenue  m  1874,  a  port- 
folio whicn  he  resigned  in  1876.  Neil  Macdonald. 

Geoffroy,  ^ho'frwaa',  Jean  :  genre  and  portrait  painter ; 
b.  at  Marennes,  Charente-Inferieure,  France ;  contemporary. 
Pupil  of  Levasseur  and  Eugene  Adan ;  third-class  medal. 
Salon,  1883 ;  second-class.  Salon,  1886,  Ths  Unfortunate 
(1883)  is  in  the  Luxembourg  Gallery,  Paris.    Studio  in  Paris. 

W.     A.     \Jm 

Geoffroy  Salnt-Hilaire,  sftn'tee-lffr',  foiENNE :  zwJlogist 
and  physiologist ;  b.  at  fitampes,  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  Apr. 
15, 1772 ;  distinguished  himself  by  his  brave  rescue  of  Hal\y 
from  the  Terrorists  1792;  became  Professor  of  Zoology  in 
the  Mus6um  d'histoire  naturelle  1793 ;  was  actively  engaged 
in  the  Egyptian  exploration  1798-1802 ;  was  chosen  to  the 
Legion  of  Honor  1803,  to  the  Institute  1807 ;  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Zoology  in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  1809.  In  1829 
his  fatnous  controversy  with  Cuvier  regarding  the  unity  of 
plan  lying  at  the  basis  of  the  philosophic  or  transcendental 
system  of  comparative  anatomy,  the  soundness  of  which  sys- 
tem Cuvier  denied,  broke  out.  Geoffroy,  who  was  a  synthe- 
sist,  contended  that,  though  all  animals  are  formed  accord- 
ing to  some  common  plan,  the  same  forms,  owing  to  a  change 
in  the  conditions  of  life,  have  not  been  preserved  ;  while 
Cuvier,  who  was  an  analytic  observer,  maintained  the  ab- 
solute invariability  of  species.  The  controversy  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  whole  civilized  world,  and  the  sympa- 
thy of  the  public  was  pretty  equally  divided  between  the 
two  opponents.  Geoffroy  wrote  Sur  le  Principe  de  V  Unite 
de  composition  organiqu^  (1828) ;  Principe  de  philosophie 
zoolo^ique  (1830)  ;  Notions  synthetiques,  historiques^  et 
physwfogiques  de  philosophie  naturelle  (1838),  etc.  D.  in 
Paris,  June  19, 1844. 


Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  IsiDoas,  M.  D. :  naturalist :  son 
of  fitienne  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire ;  b.  in  Paris,  Dec.  16.  180r» : 
became  his  father's  assistant  1824 :  took  his  degive  1829  ;  en- 
tered the  Institute  1833 ;  became  inspector  of  the  Acadtin  y 
of  Paris  1840 ;  Professor  of  Zoology  in  the  Museum  1841, 
and  in  the  Faculty  of  Science  1854;  Professor  in  the  .s..- 
ciete  d'Acclimatation  1854.  Author  of  the  Lift  of  h> 
father,  and  of  good  treatises  on  teratology.  acclimatizati«>ti. 
etc.  His  principal  works  are  Histoire  giniralt  ti  parti- 
culiere  des  anomalies  de  Vorganisaiion  ches  Vhomme  et  tr* 
animaux  (1832-37,  3  vols.)  and  Histoire  ncUurelle  (1854-62. 
3  vols.).    D.  in  Paris,  Nov.  10. 1861. 

Geogrraphlcal  Botany :  that  department  of  b(>tan> 
which  treats  of  the  differences  in  the  vegetation  of  diff**n  r/t 
regions,  and  undertakes  to  explain  the  distribution  of  t»-l'»- 
table  life.  There  are  numv  factors  to  be  confide re<1  :r. 
studying  the  subject,  and  it  is  impossible  to  make  any  ^m:- 
mary  statement  of  them  which  will  solve  the  problem.  Tht^.* 
factors  may  be  Briefly  considered  as  follows: 

1.  Preceding  Vegetation, — The  vegetation  of  any  region 
is  derived  from  that  which  preceded  it.  This  is  tnit*  «<•: 
only  for  the  present,  in  whicn  it  is  a  matter  of  comtnim  oU 
servation,  but  it  is  also  true  that  modem  floras  are  lia«*-»i 
upon  those  of  the  later  geological  periods,  the  Creta<t»i  .u^. 
Tertiary,  and  Quaternary.  The  origin  of  the  vegetable  lif- 
of  any  region  must  be  sought  in  fossil  floras. 

2.  The  Glacial  Period. — The  destruction  and  cham:*- 
wrought  upon  the  vegetation  of  northern  regions  by  t la- 
great  sheets  of  ice  wriich  pushed  southward  durini  thf 
glacial  period  are  still  plainly  seen.  In  the  southnHni  re- 
treat of  plants  before  the  advancing  cold  many  species  vn-vi' 
destroyed,  and  when  with  the  returning  warmth  the  exikxl 
species  moved  northward  again  it  was  a  greatly  chaiijrtti 
vegetation  which  took  possession  of  the  denuded  "soil. 

8.  Physical  Barriers. — Throughout  all  time  there  ha^*^ 
been  here  and  there  certain  physical  barriers  which  Ii«vk 
profoundly  modified  the  streams  of  vegetation,  especial  Is 
auring  the  periods  of  great  migrations.  Mountain-<'hdiri« 
when  of  sufficient  height  effectually  prohibit  the  :?i»rii:'i 
of  certain  species  beyond  them.  So,  too,  great  Ikh1iV>  •  f 
water  form  barriers  to  many  species,  hence  insular  fl»*ra< 
often  present  marked  peculiarities.  In  like  manner  gr.ai 
plains,  and  to  a  more  marked  degree  sandy  deserts,  are  bar- 
riers across  which  few  species  migrate. 

4.  Temperature. — For  every  plant  there  is  a  certain  ranc*' 
of  temperature  above  or  below  which  it  can  not  live.  Thr 
maxima  and  minima  vary  greatly  for  different  pUnts.  a 
temperature  which  would  be  fatal  to  some  being  m<>e*t  favor- 
able to  others.  The  temperature  of  a  region  is  therefor*: 
one  of  the  most  important  of  the  factors  in  determining  r< 
vegetation. 

5.  Moisture. — Other  things  being  equal,  that  region  in 
which  the  moisture  is  greatest  has  the  most  abundant  vi-r*^ 
tation.  Thus  in  the  tropical  and  temperate  climates  vt  1: - 
tation  is  abundant  or  not  as  the  moisture  is  or  is  not  amp.'f. 
Even  in  deserts  the  presence  of  springs  insures  an  <•«-•-. 
and  the  irrigation  of  a  dry  plain  turns  it  into  a  fertile  ficl-I. 

6.  Light. — The  proper  supply  of  light  is  essential  t.»  «I1 
green  plants,  but  here  again  species  differ  greatly.  .Sm.e 
are  able  to  grow  in  the  dark  snadows  of  heavy  f'ores^i*i, « -r 
the  gloomy  depths  of  cafions  and  narrow  ravines.  \kh;.o 
others  languish  unless  they  are  supplied  with  the  dinv: 
rays  of  unotjstructed  sunlight.  Many  mosses  and  ferns  a'-t* 
entirely  absent  from  the  prairies  and  plains  becau^te  of  ih*- 
absence  of  shady  forests  and  ravines. 

7.  Elevation. — Vegetation  is  generally  denser  at  the  lower 
levels,  and  at  great  elevations  ceases  altogether.  This  is  due 
largely,  but  not  entirely,  to  the  lower  temperature  of  moun- 
tain-tops. While  there  is  a  similarity  between  certain  It  js 
of  vegetation  on  mountains  and  those  at  lower  levels  n<  anr 
the  poles,  they  are  by  no  means  identical.  After  making 
due  allowance  for  the  influence  of  temperature,  moistun*. 
physical  barriers,  etc.,  it  appears  that  mere  elevation  ah  tie 
(with  its  accompanying  rarefied  air,  more  powerful  ins.  i lo- 
tion, and  rapid  radiation)  must  be  considered  one  of  the 
factors  controlling  the  vegetation  of  a  region. 

8.  Plant  Migration. — The  winds  and  waters  of  the  eartli 
have  through  all  time  been  the  great  agents  in  the  disji^T- 
sion  of  plants.  Animals  of  various  kinds  have  carrie«l  st*r«1s 
and  spores,  and  doubtless  have  contributed  not  a  littl«  t*» 
the  plant  migrations  of  the  past.  Thus  it  is  known  tl-.n' 
birds  often  carry  seeds  in  their  crops  for  long  distan^*»•^ ; 
quadrupeds  carry  many  seeds  in  their  fur;  insects  often 


722  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  DISEASES 


GEOLOGY 


Floras^  in  Th^  Gardeners'  Chronicle  (1867) ;  Meyen's  Oeoa- 
raphy  of  Plcmta  (1846) ;  Spalding's  Distribution  of  Plants^ 
in  Th^  American  Naturalist  (1890).  Also  papers  by  Watson, 
Coulter,  Underwood,  Halgtead,  Beal,  and  Britton,  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  American  AssocicUion  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  (vol.  xxxix.,  1891).      Charlks  E.  Besset. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Diseases  is  largely  de- 
pendent upon  the  physical  conditions  of  the  various  coun- 
tries of  the  globe.  It  has  long  been  known  that  certain  dis- 
eases are  endemic,  or  peculiarly  prevalent  at  all  times,  or  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year,  in  particular  countries  and  re- 
gions. The  ancients  knew  this,  and  recorded  many  inter- 
esting facts  in  relation  to  it ;  but  the  idea  of  a  generaliza- 
tion of  the  known  facts,  and  of  a  systematic  and  thorough 
search  after  new  and  unknown  ones,  originated  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  topics  which  physical  geography  con- 
siders are  the  great  facts  which  bear  upon  the  health  of 
man  and  the  lower  animals.  Latitude,  elevation,  surface  of 
country,  climatic  zones  and  isothermal  lines,  variations  of 
temperature,  the  geological  and  chemical  character  of  soil, 
water-distribution  in  air  and  soil,  the  vital  characters  of 
different  races,  the  injurious  and  salutary  influences  of  vege- 
tation— these  are  some  of  the  topics  which  must  be  consid- 
ered in  discussing  the  eeop^raphical  distribution  of  diseases. 
See  also  Climate,  in  relation  to  medicine. 

Geogr'rapliy  [Fr.  giographie,  from  Lat.  geogra'phia,  from 
Gr.  yritoyoa/pla,  geography,  deriv.  of  yiictypd^s,  geo^apher, 
lit.,  eartn-describer ;  yfj,  earth  -f  7pd^«tv,  write] :  literally, 
a  description  of  the  earth.  A  simple  description,  including 
the  nature  of  the  land  and  waters,  of  the  climate  and  natu- 
ral productions,  of  the  various  countries  of  the  globe,  to- 
gether with  an  account  of  the  people  and  nations  inhabiting 
them,  and  of  their  social  ana  political  condition,  was  the 
substance  of  the  first  geographical  writings  transmitted  to 
us  by  the  ancients.  Thougn  information  relating  to  all 
parts  of  the  earth  is  now  far  more  extensive  and  reliable, 
geography  has,  to  this  day,  necessarily  retained  its  descrip- 
tive character ;  for  an  accurate  description  of  the  phenome- 
na observed  in  nature  and  in  human  societies  is  the  only 
foundation  for  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  earth.  It  is 
therefore  quite  natural  that  most  of  the  geographical  trea- 
tises confine  themselves  to  the  task  of  drawing  such  pictures 
as  will  seem  to  their  readers  sufficient  for  practical  purposes. 
This  is  General  Descriptive  Geography,  But  tne  great 
progress  of  physical  ana  natural  science,  as  well  as  of  the 
science  of  man  in  all  his  conditions,  has  awakened  a  desire 
for  a  higher,  more  comprehensive,  and  intelligent  knowledge 
of  the  earth.  To  describe  without  rising  to  the  causes  and 
descending  to  the  consequences  of  the  phenomena  is  not 
science.  The  reflective  mind  craves  more.  While  studying 
the  earth  in  its  natural  aspects,  it  wishes  to  learn  why  these 
natural  phenomena  are  as  they  appear,  how  they  are  pro- 
duced, and  what  laws  govern  them.  It  se«ks  to  understand 
the  relations  of  mutual  dependence  which  bind  them  to- 
gether, as  causes  and  effects,  into  a  vast  system,  into  one 
^eat  individual  mechanism,  which  is  the  terrestrial  globe 
itself,  with  all  it  contains.  Such  a  science  must  endeavor 
to  discover  those  incessant  mutual  actions  of  the  different 
portions  of  physical  nature  upon  each  other,  of  inorganic 
nature  upon  organized  beings — upon  man  in  particular — 
and  upon  the  successive  development  of  human  societies; 
in  a  word,  to  study  the  reciprocal  action  of  all  these  forces, 
the  perpetual  play  of  which  constitutes  what  might  be 
callea  the  life  of  the  globe.  This  is  Scientific  Geography, 
which  may  be  defined  as  the  science  of  the  general  phenom- 
ena of  the  globe  and  its  life,  in  reference  to  their  connection 
and  mutual  dependence. 

It  may  be  asked  whether  a  science  which  thus  embraces 
the  whole  domain  of  nature  and  man  has  a  claim  to  an  in- 
dividual existence ;  but  when  geology  has  taught  the  com- 
position of  the  earth *8  crust  and  the  history  of  its  gradual 
formation,  physics,  the  laws  which  govern  matter — when 
botany  and  zoology  have  classified  the  plants  and  animals 
according  to  their  affinities  and  differences  in  a  grand  sys- 
tem of  life;  when  ethnography  and  history  have  done  their 
special  work — it  still  remains  for  geography  to  trace  out 
tne  relations  of  these  various  orders  of  things  to  each  other. 
Geographv  needs  the  results  of  all  these  sciences,  but  is  not 
to  be  confounded  with  them. 

Geop*aphy,  as  the  science  of  the  earth,  is  naturally  di- 
vided into  three  greaX  departments,  corresponding  to  three 
orders  of  facts :  the  earth  considered  as  a  planet,  a  part  of 
the  solar  system,  or  Astronomical  Geography;  the  earth 


considered  in  itself,  the  Geography  of  Nature^  or  Physjcnl 
Geography ;  the  earth  considered  as  the  abode  of  man,  t  h* 
Geography  of  Man,  These  three  departments  are  usual  1> 
called  ifathematical.  Physical,  and  Political  Geography. 

Mathematical  Geography  embraces  two  distinct  5cienr(>>, 
both  of  which  need  mathematics  as  their  principal  in^tni- 
ment :  a.  Astrotwmical  Geography,  which  treats  of  the  [m^i- 
tion  of  the  earth  in  the  solar  system,  of  its  movements  u' 
rotation  and  revolution  around  the  sun  as  causes  of  ii< 
daily  and  annual  changes  in  the  distribution  of  solar  \i^\r 
on  the  surface  of  our  manet,  or  the  succession  of  da^-s  Mrt . 
nights  and  seasons.  (See  Earth.)  b.  Mathematical  0V</.;- 
raphy  proper  includes  geodesy,  which  teaches  the  seieiititu 
methods  of  ascertaining  the  exact  form  of  the  earth,  and  of 
all  portions  of  its  surface,  and  their  precise  location  in  lr>np- 
tude  and  latitude;  Topography,  which  surveys  the  inin«5r 
features  of  relief  and  position  of  land  and  water,  the  loca- 
tion of  mountains,  rivers,  and  places;  and  Cartography, 
which  teaches  how  to  represent  them  on  maps  and  globe:^. 
See  Geodesy,  Map,  and  Suevbyino. 

Physical  Geography  is  the  geo^phy  of  nature.  When 
it  confines  itself  to  a  simple  description  of  the  natural  fea- 
tures of  the  land  it  is  called  Physiography,  When  applied 
to  the  waters,  it  is  Hydrography, 

Ph3rsical  geojgraphy,  however,  goes  further,  and  seekj  by 
careful  comparison  to  discover  the  laws  which  regulate  the  p-^.^ 
sition  and  arrangement  of  the  continents ;  how  the  relief  of  t  h*- 
continents  controls  their  drainage  and  shapes  the  vast  rivtT- 
systems ;  how  the  forms  of  the  lands,  together  with  their 
size  and  relative  situation,  modify  the  climate,  the  produc- 
tions, and  therefore  the  capacity  of  each  country  for  com- 
merce and  civilization ;  how  the  great  marine  currents  arv 
set  in  motion  by  the  sun  and  modify  the  distribution  of  it< 
heat;  and  how  the  gaseous  and  liquid  envelopes  react  ck 
the  solid  sphere,  remodeling  its  slopes,  clothing  them  with 
an  infinite  variety  of  plants,  and  peopling  them  with  an  in- 
finite variety  of  animals.  In  a  narrower  sense  physii-nl 
geography  is  the  study  of  the  processes  of  change  by  whi(  b 
the  forms  of  the  surface  are  created  and  remodeled.  Thu< 
restricted  it  coincides  in  part  with  Dynamic  Otology,  wh]<  h 
investigates  the  processes  by  which  the  structure  of  the 
earth's  crust  has  been  developed  and  is  still  modeled,  and  ii 
is  distinguished  from  the  study  of  the  earth's  envelop  i^^ 
The  investigation  of  the  causes  and  conditions  incuiris: 
and  determining  ocean  currents  belongs  to  the  science  >  f 
Oceanology,  The  determination  of  the  influence  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  land  and  water,  mountain  and  plain,  on  the 
local  warmth,  moisture,  and  movements  of  the  air  constitut*^? 
Climatology,  (See  Climate.)  The  investigation  of  the  di<^ 
tribution  of  animals  in  relation  to  the  various  elements  r.f 
topography  and  climate  is  known  as  the  Geography  of  Am- 
mals  or  Zoogeography,  and  its  sister  science  is  the  Ger»g- 
raphy  of  Plants  or  Phytogeography, 

In  this  cyclopedia  physiography  and  hydrography,  ci  m- 
sidered  as  parts  of  physical  geography,  are  not  summarize^i 
in  special  articles,  out  are  treated  in  detail  under  individ- 
ual continents,  countries,  mountain-systems,  plains,  basing 
oceans,  lakes,  etc.  Physical  geography  proper  is  dividtsi 
between  Eaeth,  Continent,  Mountains,  volcanoes.  Val- 
ley, Lakes,  Rivers,  etc.  Oceanology  is  treated  under  Oteax 
and  Gulf  Stream. 

Political  Geography,  or  the  globe  as  the  abode  of  bum^n 
races  and  societies,  can  be  viewed  under  different  a5pe<:ts 
It  may  be  a  simple  description  of  the  various  races  and  na- 
tions of  men  as  found  in  their  present  dwelling-plait^: 
Ethno^aphy,  the  scientific  form  of  which,  inquiring  ini> 
the  pnnwples  underlying  their  nature,  relations,  and  forma- 
tion, is  Ethnology,  To  give  a  description  of  the  civil !/«««' 
nations,  their  characteristics,  their  boundaries  and  ezXei  t 
their  territories,  an  enumeration  of  their  cities,  an  accou;/. 
of  their  constitution  and  government,  of  their  populati.>L 
and  resources,  is  the  object  of  Polilic-al  Geogra^y  proper, 
while  Statistics  gives  the  numerical  data  relating  to  tht-^ 
various  branches  of  the  subject.  See  Ethnology,  Man.  ai.<* 
Statistics.  Arnold  Guyot. 

Revised  by  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Geological  Saryeys :  See  Surveys,  Geological. 

Geology  [Germ.  Geologic  :  Pr.  giologie,  from  Mod.  L»t. 
geolo'gia,  from  Gr.  7^,  earth  -f  \4y€Uf,  tell,  sayl :  the  scit'i:-  v 
of  the  earth.  Distinguishing  the  rocky  body  of  the  earth,  1 1-  • 
lithosphere,  from  its  envelope  of  water  and  air,  W^^^fiJ  ninv 
be  defined  as  the  science  of  the  lithosphere.  Though  li . 
solid  earth  has  been  appealed  to  by  the  writers  of  all  a^e5  ^-^ 


724 


GEOLOGY 


Earth.)  If  the  rate  of  increase  of  temperature  with  depth 
continues  downward  indefinitely,  the  temperature  of  the 
nucleus  must  far  transcend  human  experience,  and  in  any 
event  it  appears  certain  that  it  is  so  high  as  to  have  impor- 
tant influence  on  the  earth's  density.  Pressure  tends  to 
compress  all  substances,  heat  to  expand  them ;  and  the  nu- 
cleus of  the  earth,  being  subject  to  pressures  and  tempera- 
tures of  a  higher  order  of  magnitude  than  those  with  which 
roan  is  famuiar,  may,  for  aught  that  can  now  be  told,  be 
much  denser  or  much  less  dense  than  its  material  would  be 
if  conditioned  only  by  moderate  pressure  and  temperature. 
It  is  therefore  impracticable,  for  the  present  at  least,  to  in- 
fer the  composition  of  the  nucleus  from  its  density. 

Equal  difficulty  is  found  in  determining  whether  the  nu- 
cleus is  solid  or  liquid.  The  determination  of  high  tem- 
perature, and  especially  the  extrusion  of  lavas,  early  led  to 
the  belief  that  it  is  in  a  condition  of  igneous  fusion.  This 
opinion  was  strengthened  by  the  discovery  that  rock  masses 
which  have  been  deeply  buried  within  the  crust  and  after- 
ward brought  to  the  surface  by  denudation  exhibit  a  sort  of 
flow  structure,  as  though  they  had  been  in  a  plastic  condi- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  now  known  that  solid  rock  is 
denser  than  liquid,  so  that  if  the  earth's  solid  crust  were 
floated  on  a  liquid  nucleus  the  equilibrium  would  be  un- 
stable, and  an  eruption  of  molten  rock,  if  once  instituted, 
would  continue  indefinitely.  As  eruption  does  not  continue 
indefinitely,  but  ceases  after  a  time,  the  evidence  afforded 
by  volcanic  phenomena  is  not  wholly  favorable  to  the  theory 
of  a  liquid  nucleus,  but  tends  rather  to  show  that  liquidity 
is  limited.  The  question  has  been  otherwise  discussed  from 
astronomic  data,  it  being  argued  hj  students  of  celestial 
mechanics  that  if  the  nucleus  were  liquid  it  would  respond, 
along  with  the  ocean,  to  tidal  infiuence,  and  the  differential 
tides,  which  alone  we  observe,  either  would  not  exist  or 
would  be  of  smaller  amount. 

Thus  the  questions  as  to  the  composition,  temperature, 
densities,  ancl  physical  condition  of  the  nucleus  are  inti- 
mately interwoven,  so  as  to  constitute  a  complex  problem 
with  many  unknown  quantities ;  and  indeed  the  complexity 
of  the  problem  is  far  greater  than  might  be  inferrea  from 
the  preceding  brief  statement.  Its  solution  does  not  appear 
possible  until  knowledge  of  the  physical  properties  of  matter 
nas  been  greatlj  advanced.  Knowledge  of  the  way  in  which 
the  compressibility  of  matter  is  related  to  volume,  and  the 
way  in  which  its  expansibility  is  related  to  temperature  and 
volume,  should  be  as  complete  as  is  knowledge  of  the  rela- 
tion of  gravitational  attraction  to  mass  and  distance. 

Dynamic  Geology. 

The  processes  of  change  affecting  the  earth's  crust  fall 
into  two  general  classes,  those  of  the  one  having  their  source 
and  principal  seat  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
hence  called  hypogene,  and  those  of  the  other  having  their 
source  and  principal  seat  either  on  or  above  the  surface,  and 
hence  called  epigene,  Hypogene  processes  include  diaatro- 
phism,  or  the  rising  and  sinking  of  continents  and  the  up- 
heaval of  mountain-ranges ;  'tx)lcanism^  or  the  flow  of  molten 
rock  from  below  upward ;  and  metamorphism^  or  changes  in 
the  composition  and  texture  of  rocks.  The  epigene  processes 
transfer  matter  from  place  to  place  on  the  sunace,  the  work 
being  accomplished  by  a  variety  of  agencies,  and  having  for 
its  general  tendency  the  degradation  of  the  surface  oi  the 
land  and  the  building  up  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean.  The  hypo- 
gene  processes,  diastrophism  and  volcanism,  are  primarv 
or  initiative  with  respect  to  the  epigene  processes,  which 
may  be  called  secondary  or  responsive,  for  there  would  be 
neither  degradation  nor  deposition  if  there  were  no  land, 
and  the  land  would  long  ago  have  been  obliterated  by  ero- 
sion had  it  not  been  from  time  to  time  restored  or  enlarged 
through  hypogene  processes. 

Hypogene  rEOCESSEs.  Diastrophism. — One  of  the  first 
questions  to  which  geologic  study  was  directed  arose  from 
tne  occurrence  of  marine  shells,  not  only  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  sea,  but  at  a  great  altitude  above  it ;  but  a  complete 
and  satisfactory  answer  to  the  question  has  never  been 
found.  It  has  been  determined  that  the  shells  are  parts  of 
animals  which  once  lived  in  the  sea,  that  since  their  death 
the  boundaries  of  land  and  sea  have  been  changed,  and  that 
the  portion  of  sea-bed  which  they  inhabited  has  been  con- 
verted into  dry  land  by  uplift ;  but  the  causes  of  the  uplift 
and  of  other  geographic  changes  with  which  it  was  asso- 
ciated have  not  been  discovered.  Until  they  shall  become 
known  a  satisfactory  classification  of  diastrophic  processes 
can  not  be  made;  but  it  is  convenient  in  the  present  condi- 


tion of  knowledge  to  distinguish  two  types,  the  one  com- 
prising the  uplift  and  the  subsidence  of  broad  tracts.  th<- 
other  comprising  the  upheaval  of  mountain-ridges.  To  tin- 
first  are  ascribed  the  formation  of  great  plateaus  and  t  h«' 
principal  changes  in  the  extent  of  continents ;  to  the  second 
mountain-ranges  and  mountain-svstems. 

The  standard  plane  to  which  tne  altitudes  of  contin4'nt,s 
and  continental  plateaus  are  referred  is  the  level  of  thr 
ocean ;  but  the  standard  is  rather  convenient  than  absolute, 
for  changes  in  the  configuration  of  the  ocean  bed  must  affii't 
the  capacity  of  the  reservoir  and  the  height  of  the  water- 
leveL  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  principal  geolo^ru* 
changes  in  the  relations  of  land  and  sea  may  have  results] 
from  oscillations  of  the  sea  alone ;  but  there  is  abund&riT 
evidence  that  the  relative  heights  of  adjacent  plateaus  or 
even  of  parts  of  the  same  plateau  differed  in  former  tim^ 
from  the  present.  It  has  been  suggested  that  portions  of 
the  crust  to  which  great  load  is  added,  as  by  the  accumu- 
lation of  sediment,  are  carried  downward  by  their  burden, 
and  that  land  areas  unloaded  through  erosion  rise  in  eons*.'- 
quence,  and  much  may  be  said  in  favor  of  unloading  un<i 
loading  as  causes  of  elevation  and  subeidence.  Il  is  %pe- 
cially  noteworthy  that  some  of  the  gpreatest  local  accumula- 
tions of  sediment,  constituting  rock  series  many  thousHiui 
feet  in  thickness,  exhibit  at  numerous  horizons  evidence  thar 
they  were  deposited  at  or  near  sea-leveL  There  are,  how- 
ever, many  instances  of  great  elevation  and  great  subsi4lene<> 
which  can  not  be  explained  in  this  way,  and  it  appears  fn»n. 
theoretic  considerations  that  this  proce.«is  can  at  most  have 
only  a  conservative  function,  tending  to  maintain  an  exist- 
ing relation  of  land  and  sea  rather  than  to  institute  gtM:>- 
graphic  revolutions.    See  Continemt. 

Most  mountains  are  ranges  or  ridges ;  that  is,  their  len«rth 
is  great  compared  to  their  width,  fi  their  structure  be  care 
fully  studied  it  is  usually  found  that  the  principal  nv  k 
masses  of  which  they  are  composed  are  more  or  less  eloncatt: 
and  lie  parallel  to  the  ran^s.  In  mountain  systems  (^ im- 
posed of  many  sanges  individual  ridges  are  usually  parallel 
to  one  another  and  to  the  general  trend  of  the  sy^teoi. 
These  facts,  taken  in  connection  with  the  occurrence'  i*f 
folded  rocks  in  many  mountains,  have  led  to  the  theory  th.<tt 
mountain  ranges  in  general  are  produced  by  horizt»TiTjil 
forces  acting  in  directions  at  right  angles  to  the  trends  of 
the  ranges.  Where  rocks  are  composed  of  sediment arr 
strata  whose  original  position  and  extent  can  be  infernal 
from  a  study  of  the  structure,  it  is  possible  to  estimat**  th*- 
amount  of  horizontal  compression.  In  the  Appalaehiar. 
mountains,  for  example,  the  amount  is  probably  from  o  t<> 
10  miles.  In  other  mountain  systems,  as,  for  instance,  thr 
desert  ranges  of  Western  North  America,  it  appears  fn*n. 
the  structure  that  the  uplift  of  ridges  was  not  aceomfianu^i 
by  lateral  compression,  yet  the  phenomena  of  trend  ar%*  h1- 
most  equally  pronoimced.  The  origin  of  mountains  hit> 
been  the  subject  of  much  study,  and  numerous  theories  bavf 
been  proposed,  but  the  subject  is  still  involved  in  doubt 
The  tneory  most  widely  accepted  appeals  to  the  shrinkac" 
of  the  earth's  nucleus.  The  temperature  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face is  determined  by  solar  radiation  and  by  certain  pn>{Hi>r- 
ties  of  the  atmosphere,  and  is  assumed  to  be  approximatvh 
constant.  The  heat  of  the  nucleus  is  gradually  transfenv: 
by  conduction  through  the  crust  to  the  surface,  and  thentv 
dissipated  by  radiation.  The  nucleus  is  therefore  s^rinkin  j 
from  loss  of  heat,  while  the  crust  is  relatively  constant  in 
temperature,  and  the  adjustment  of  the  rigid  crust  Xo  \\.r 
shrinking  nucleus  produces  a  corrugation  which  may  \^ 
compared  to  the  wrmkling  of  an  apple-skin  as  the  fruit  dn-^ 
and  shrinks.  Critics  of  this  theory  have  pointed  out  that  .: 
does  not  apply  to  moimtains  of  the  desert-range  type,  ai  u 
have  also  argued  that  the  amount  of  shrinkage  which  uuv 
reasonably  he  ascribed  to  the  nucleus  is  not  sufficient  t< 
account  for  the  observed  amount  of  crumpling.  For  h 
account  of  other  theories,  see  Mountains,  and  also  ref  eppnc*n= 
at  the  end  of  this  article  to  the  writings  of  Dutton,  Fish«r. 
Leconte,  and  Ileade. 

Volcanism, — At  all  periods  of  the  development  of  tl.^- 
crust  molten  rock  has  moved  upward,  occupying  and  trav- 
ersing crevices  in  the  solid  rocks  and  ascenom^  to  the  M;r- 
face.  Congealing  in  subterranean  crevices,  it  constitute-* 
dikes  and  sheets ;  issuing  at  the  surface,  it  builds  volcai  ^ 
cones.  The  phenomena  of  eruption  and  the  forms  as^iii]  ^.^ 
at  the  surface  by  the  products  of  eruption  are  greatly  van-*-" 
but  depend  primarily  on  the  temperatures  of  the  lava.*;  ai  * 
their  relation  to  water.  Lava  containing  little  or  no  waT*^'- 
rises  quietly  to  the  surface,  and  flows  to  a  considerable  <ii- 


726 


GEOLOGY 


ward.  For  the  transportation  of  the  smallest  particles  a 
certain  velocity  is  necessary ;  for  those  of  larger  size  a  cer- 
tain greater  velocity;  and  the  amount  of  geologic  work 
which  a  stream  can  perform  depends  also  on  its  volume.  See 
Rivers. 

The  material  transported  acts  likewise  as  an  agent  of  de- 
struction. If  lifted  by  the  current  and  allowea  to  fall,  it 
strikes  a  blow  where  it  reaches  the  bottom;  if  rolled  or 
dragged  along  the  bottom,  its  rubbing  has  abrasive  power. 
The  transported  particles  are  themselves  worn  and  re- 
duced, ana  they  also  wear  the  bottom,  rendering  the  chan- 
nel deeper.  This  degradation  of  stream  channel  is  known 
as  comision. 

When  the  velocity  of  a  detritus-loaded  stream  is  checked 
a  portion  of  the  detritus  is  deposited,  and  when  the  stream 
reaches  a  bixly  of  standing  water — a  lake  or  the  sea — all  of 
its  load  falls  to  the  bottom.  The  coarser  part  is  lodged  at 
the  shore ;  the  finer  may  fall  so  slowly  as  to  reach  bottom 
only  at  a  considerable  distance.  The  conditions  affecting 
deposition  are  greatly  modified  by  the  currents  and  other 
movements  caused  by  winds  and  By  the  sway  of  tides ;  but 
in  general  the  deposits  are  arranged  in  belts  parallel  to  the 
coast,  the  finer  being  the  more  remote. 

Of  all  the  sculpturing  agencies  water  is  the  most  impor- 
tant. Indeed  its  work  far  transcends  in  amount  that  of  all 
others  combined.  Though  it  works  so  slowly  that  its  func- 
tion may  readily  be  overlooked,  and  though  it  deals  for  the 
most  part  with  minute  quantities,  it  yet  labors  so  persist- 
ently and  universally  that  it  accomplishes  most  stupendous 
and  impressive  results.  The  Grana  Cafion  of  the  Colorado, 
250  miles  in  length  and  with  an  average  depth  of  4,000  feet, 
is  a  result  of  oorrasion  through  hara  rocks,  and  affords  a 
striking  illustration  because  its  narrowness  enables  the  ob- 
server to  bring  both  walls  under  one  view,  and  thus  realize 
the  extent  of  the  excavation.  But  a  study  of  the  geology  of 
the  river's  upper  basin  shows  that  a  tract  500  miles  across 
has  been  degraded  to  an  average  depth  of  not  less  than  a 
mile,  the  whole  task  having  been  accomplished  during  a  small 
fraction  of  geologic  time. 

The  Work  of  Wind, — Currents  of  air,  like  currents  of 
water,  are  able  to  lift  and  transport  particles  of  disintegrated 
rock,  and  in  a  similar  manner  they  corrade.  They  are  in- 
operative where  vegetation  clothes  the  surface,  and  their 
work,  being  thus  restricted  to  barren  localities,  has  little  im- 
portance except  in  arid  regions.  Usually  the  coarsest  ma- 
terial transported  is  sand.  This  may  be  derived  from 
beaches  or  stream  bluffs  or,  in  desert  regions,  from  the  dis- 
integration of  sandstone.  Its  mode  of  transportation  in- 
volves the  formation  of  a  hill  of  peculiar  type  called  a  dune. 
On  the  windward  side  the  air  current  is  accelerated,  and  on 
the  leeward  side  it  is  retarded,  and  in  conseouence  the  wind 
continually  removes  sand  from  one  side  ana  deposits  it  on 
the  other,  so  that  the  hill,  while  retaining  its  general  form, 
travels  across  the  land.    See  Dune. 

The  finer  particles  fall  less  rapidly  through  the  air,  and 
are  carried  to  great  distances.  After  a  desert  windstorm 
the  air  is  charged  with  dust  for  many  days,  and  it  finally 
falls  to  the  surface  in  a  thin  sheet  of  great  horizontal  ex- 
tent. It  is  believed  that  a  deep  formation  covering  exten- 
sive areas  in  China  has  been  accumulated  in  this  way,  and  a 
similar  origin  is  ascribed  by  some  geologists  to  the  loess  of 
the  Rhine  and  Mississippi  valleys.  (See  Loess.)  The  march 
of  dunes  is  arrested  when  they  reach  a  river,  and  deposits  of 
iBolian  dust  are  usually  washed  from  the  land  by  the  next 
rain.  Thus  a;olian  deposits  are  largely  recast  by  aqueous 
processes. 

Wave  Work, — Wave  work  is  logically  intermediate  be- 
tween water  work  and  wind  work.  As  waves  break  upon  a 
shore,  their  water  moves  violently  toward  and  from  the 
land.  The  wind  by  which  they  are  raised  produces  also  a 
continuous  current  which  usually  moves  parallel  to  the 
shore.  By  the  to-and-fro  movement  particles  are  disturbed 
and  lifted,  and  by  the  coincident  shore  current  they  are  car- 
ried along.  Where  the  shore  current  slackens  or  leaves  the 
coast  the  fragments  are  deposited.  Thus  the  aqueous  cur- 
rents caused  by  the  wind  erode,  transport,  and  deposit  detri- 
tus. Where  detritus  is  moved  across  or  against  rock,  the 
rock  is  corraded,  and  the  analogy  of  wave  action  with  stream 
action  thus  becomes  complete.  The  work  of  waves  is  lim- 
ited to  a  narrow  belt  where  water  and  land  meet ;  but  within 
that  belt,  at  least  on  the  margin  of  the  ocean,  erosion  is  more 
rapid  than  over  the  surface  of  the  land,  and  its  visible  prog- 
ress early  attracted  attention,  cn'casioning  a  false  impression 
of  the  relative  iin|)ortancu  of  waves  jis  a  geologic  agency. 


The  carving  of  broad  plains  from  continental  uplifts,  or 
even  the  excavation  of  mountain  gorges,  was  for  a  long  tiiri" 
ascribed  to  "  marine  denudation,  and  it  was  only  by  cii- 
grees  that  this  idea  was  replaced  by  the  modem  do^trm^' 
that  the  great  work  of  degradation  has  been  and  is  perfonneti 
by  rains  and  streams. 

The  coarser  part  of  the  material  excavated  by  wave^  i^ 
built  into  ridge-like  structures  |x»culiar  to  coasts,  and  c  alKl 
spits,  bars.  etc.  The  fine  material  is  carried  seaward,  chi^'flr 
by  undercurrents,  and  is  mingled  in  deposition  with  M^ii- 
ments  brought  by  rivers.  At  the  mouths  of  lai^ge  strt^ani- 
the  work  of  waves  merely  modifies  the  distribution  of  iLt 
stream-borne  detritus.  At  the  mouths  of  small  stn-a.'n^ 
coastal  processes  dominate,  and  the  stream  detritus  is  men  .^ 
added  to  the  larger  body  that  drifts  along  the  beach.  N:* 
Coast. 

Ice-work, — In  polar  repfions  and  on  lofty  mountain-, 
where  the  snow  of  winter  is  not  fully  dissipated  by  t  he  tjuil 
mer's  melting,  the  accumulated  ice  crystals  are  welded  iht- 
glaciers.  These  flow  away  from  the  centers  of  accumulatii  <d. 
either  descending;  the  slopes  of  mountains  or  spreading  lat- 
erally upon  plams.  An  account  of  the  mode  and  condi- 
tions of  their  formation  and  progress  will  he  found  nndt^r 
Glaciers.  As  the  glacier  moves  over  the  land  the  }>lastic  i(v 
receives  into  its  ma.ss  detached  masses  of  rock,  and  it  d«.>ut>t- 
less  possesses  in  itself  power  to  break  away  projecting  antrU-^ 
and  to  detach  blocks  loosened  bv  natural*  partings.  Whe^ 
the  ice-stream  follows  a  valley  fragments  from  the  wall*^  cf 
the  valley  fall  upon  its  back,*  and  some  of  these  find  t}j»:  ir 
way  through  crevices  of  the  ice  to  its  lower  portioiL  II 
these  various  ways  the  under  part  of  the  glacier  comes  v> 
contain  a  greater  or  Isss  quantitv  of  bowlders  and  saD*j 
which  are  dragged  over  the  undisturbed  rock  bene«iTh. 
Armed  in  this  way  the  glacier  constitutes  a  huge,  flfxi^l-^ 
file,  by  which  the  land  beneath  it  is  abraded.  A  tract  «hi'  h 
has  been  traversed  by  a  glacier  and  afterward  laid  Iwre  t^- 
tifies  to  this  grinding  in  the  smooth,  wavy  lines  of  it>  mn- 
tours  and  its  striated  and  polished  rock  surfaces.  Th^ 
products  of  glacial  corrasion,  together  with  other  maters, 
transported  by  the  ice,  are  chiefly  deposited  at  the  en'i  •' 
the  glacier,  where  the  ice  melts,  and  they  constitute  peculjir 
ridges  called  moraines.  These  consist  chiefly  of  bowldtiN. 
pebbles,  and  sand,  confusedly  mingled  and  usually  imbcddt-: 
m  a  matrix  of  fine  rock  flour.  The  rock  fragments  are  int- 
perfectly  rounded,  and  their  faces  show  scratches  of  a  f^*- 
culiar  and  characteristic  type.  Rock  floors  and  bowld«r^ 
thus  scratched  are  usually  described  as  glaciated.  The  u:  - 
sorted  detritus  is  called  till^  or  bowlder  clay,  and  the  fii.;i> 
melting  of  a  glacier  may  leave  a  thin  sheet  of  this  sprva . 
over  its  entire  bed.  Sometimes  masses  of  till  are  depnsitt-tt 
beneath  the  ice,  and  if  these  are  afterward  laid  bare  th»7 
constitute  roundish  hills  called  drumlin,  (See  Drumli>!> 
The  melting  of  the  ice  near  its  mai^n  furnishes  lar*.> 
streams  of  water,  which  sort  and  distribute  portions  of  tit 
detritus,  producing  peculiar  hills  and  ridges  of  gfravel  an  1 
sand  called  kames  and  eakera. 

The  rate  at  which  a  glacier  degrades  its  bed  varies  f  r*  m 
point  to  point,  but  on  the  average  it  probably  does  not  dif » r 
greatly  from  the  rate  at  which  land  is  degn^aded  by  ^\iu"^ > .? 
processes.  As  glaciers  occupy  but  a  small  fraction  *»f  t^•■ 
entire  surface  of  the  earth,  tneir  aggregate  accomplish nn  1 1 
is  a  correspondingly  small  factor  of  earth-sculpture.. 

The  Work  of  Seat  and  Gravity, — The  processes  just  •> 
scribed  all  depend  on  the  circulation  of  air  and  water,  m  i 
these  in  turn  are  dependent  on  the  co-operation  of  solar  h'-&* 
and  gravitation,  but  those  forces  also  act  directly.  ]!•»' 
works  mechanically  for  the  disintegration  of  rocks,  ainl  :' 
has  much  to  do  with  the  subterranean  work  of  water,  stu!  •. 
lating  the  circulation,  carrying  it  to  depths  that  would  i  . 
otherwise  be  reached,  and  promoting  the  varied  cht^nn  ^ 
reactions  by  which  minerals  are  transferred  and  ooiu ti- 
trated. Gravity  works  directly  by  breaking  away  the  tip^-* 
slopes  of  cliffs  whose  bases  are  sapped  by  streams  or  wav,^ 

The  Work  of  Life, — ^The  reagents  absorbed  by  rain  wa^- 
from  the  air  and  soil  to  be  used  in  the  disintegrati«'>n  >' 
rocks  are  chiefly  by-products  of  animal  and  vegetable  lif  . 
and  it  is  through  these  that  life  affords  its  chief  eon trit  ^.- 
tion  to  erosive  work.  Disintegration  is  also  promntt*<i  I  . 
the  penetration  and  growth  of  roots  and  by  the  evacuat  i«  *  ^ 
of  burrowing  animals,  which  continually  oVertum  and  mi:.- 
gle  the  soil.  In  another  way  vegetation  serves  as  an  obst  n.t  - 
tive  condition,  retarding  currents  and  thus  interfering*  ahk* 
with  a'olian  and  tvqueous  transportation. 

In  the  deposition  of  minerals  held  in  aolntioo  life  pU>t 


GEOLOGICAL  MAP  OF 

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730 


GEOLOGY 


Periods  are  themselves  grouped  into  eras,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  authors  with  respect  to  these  exhibits  great  diversity. 
Periods  are  also  subdivided  into  epochs.  An  attempt  has 
frequently  been  made  to  include  epochs  in  the  universal 
time  standard,  but  as  the  difficulties  of  correlation  increase 
rapidly  with  the  narrowness  of  the  standards  such  attempts 
have  been  unsuccessful.  In  modem  practice  the  epoch  is 
usually  treated  as  a  unit  of  local  geologic  chronology  just  as 
the  reign  of  a  monarch  is  sometimes  used  &s  an  historic 
standard  for  the  events  of  a  single  kingdom. 

The  Periods, — The  Archean  period  is  the  time  occupied 
in  the  formation  of  the  oldest  known  rocks.  These  rocks 
are  largely  of  igneous  origin,  but  probably  also  in  part  sedi- 
mentary. They  have,  however,  been  so  profoundly  meta- 
morphosed that  the  determination  of  their  early  history  is 
difficult,  and  present  conclusions  are  largely  tentative.  A 
peculiar  structure  discovered  in  Archean  formations  of 
Canada  has  been  supposed  to  be  a  fossil,  and  was  named 
JSozoon ;  but  it  is  now  regarded  by  most  students  as  inor- 
eanic,  and  the  metamorphic  condition  of  the  rocks  renders 
it  highly  improbable  that  fossils  will  ever  be  found  in  them, 
even  if  originally  contained. 

The  formations  representing  the  Algonkian  period  are 
manifestly  clastic,  and  are  in  general  less  metamorphosed 
than  the  Archean.  A  few  ill-preserved  fossils  have  been 
found,  and  the  presence  of  life  during  the  period  is  indi- 
rectly indicated  oy  the  abundance  in  its  formations  of  min- 
erals which  are  now  deposited  chiefly  by  organic  processes. 
It  is  also  indicat<ed  hj  the  high  development  of  the  Cambrian 
fauna.  In  the  classification  of  the  animal  kingdom  rank  is 
ascribed  to  the  different  groups  in  accordance  with  their  de- 
gree of  or^nization — that  is,  in  accordance  with  the  ex- 
tent to  which  special  organs  are  provided  for  special  func- 
tions. Paleontology  shows  that  the  progress  of  life  from 
Cambrian  time  to  the  present  has  in  general  been  toward 
high  organization,  and  it  is  analogically  inferred  that  the 
first  forms  of  life  were  little  organized.  As  the  organization 
of  Cambrian  forms  is  not  of  low  type,  it  is  inferred  that  life 
began  much  earlier.  The  Algonkian  formations  in  some 
regions  are  of  great  thickness,  and  are  divided  into  systems 
by  unconformities  representing  great  lapses  of  time.  It  is 
believed  that  the  period  was  not  onl^  much  longer  than  any 
succe^ing  perioa,  but  possibly  equivalent  to  all  succeeding 
periods. 

The  periods  from  Cambrian  to  Neocene  inclusive  are 
characterized  by  their  several  faunas,  and  the  formations 
representing  them  are  for  the  most  part  identified  by  means 
of  fossils.  In  general  the  older  formations  are  more  thor- 
oughly indurated  than  the  newer,  but  to  this  rule  there  are 
many  exceptions.  The  formations  of  each  period  represent 
all  types  of  sedimentation,  so  that  petrographic  characters 
can  be  used  only  in  local  classification.  Certain  minor  ex- 
ceptions to  this  general  fact  are  of  interest,'  but  have  not 
yet  been  shown  to  have  important  significance.  One  of  the 
most  striking  occurs  in  the  case  of  the  Triassic  formations, 
which  are  characterized  bv  red  color  in  manv  different 
provinces,  but  there  are  otner  provinces  where  this  charac- 
ter is  wanting.  The  Carboniferous  period  was  so  named  on 
account  of  the  coal  contained  in  some  of  its  formations  in 
Europe,  and  the  Carboniferous  of  eastern  America  is  similarly 
characterized  by  coal  seams ;  but  in  western  America  coal  oc- 
curs in  Cretaceous  and  Cenozoic  rocks,  and  the  Carbonifer- 
ous formations  are  barren.  Chalk,  which  is  a  rock  of  rare 
occurrence,  is  so  characteristic  of  Cretaceous  formations  in 
England  and  France  as  to  have  given  its  name  to  the  period, 
andis developed  among  formations  of  the  same  age  in  Texas 
and  neighboring  States.  Glauconitic  rock,  or  greensand, 
having  its  greatest  development  in  the  Cretaceous  of  Eng- 
land, occurs  also  in  Cretaceous  rocks  of  the  coastal  plain  of 
the  U.  S. 

Among  the  rocks  of  all  periods  occur  formations  charac- 
terized by  fresli-water  shells,  or  otherwise  shown  to  have 
been  deposited  in  inland  water,  but  these  are  peculiarly 
abundant  in  the  Eocene  and  Neocene.  The  explanation  of 
the  peculiarity  is  probably  found  in  the  fact  that  lake 
beds  are  specially  liable  to  be  carried  high  above  base  level 
by  continental  changes,  and  therefore  often  completely  dis- 
appear through  degradation  of  the  land.  Those  of  the  later 
periods  are  better  preserved  because  exposed  to  erosive 
agencies  for  shorter  times. 

The  Pleistocene  period,  which  was  closed  by  the  Cuam- 
PLAiN  Epoch  (q.  v.),  was  shorter  than  any  other,  and  is 
peculiar  in  that  its  chief  events  were  primarily  climatic  and 
its  most  important  deposits  are  glacial  instea<l  of  sedimen- 


tary.   As  its  formations  overlie  all  others,  their  orifrii. 
tours  are  usually  preserved,  and  physiocrajihio  n- 
have  replaced  stratigraphic  and  paleont^logio  mr:  . 
their  study.    In  all  regions,  but  more  especially  n    • 
and  temperate  zones,  ^Icuziers  then  advanced  far  U  \  ' . 
present  limits,  and   immense  ice-fieldis  were  dcC' 
Europe  and  America,  the  retreat  of  which  wm*?  m.. 
characteristic  deposits,  such  as  the  Erie  Clay  ig.  • 
the  tracts  covered  by  these  ice-fields  and  in  thfir  ii  / 
vicinity  Pleistocene  phenomena  are  sharply  di>tiij 
from  all  others,  and  an  effect  of  the  associatid  • 
changes  has  been  recognized  in  the  enlare^ment  of  - 
lakes  and  seas.    To  a  limited  extent  also  certaiL 
changes  have  been  connected  with  glacial  phennni'  - . 
over  the  greater  portion  of  the  Und  Pleistocene  fon.. 
have  not  been  discriminated  from  the  Neocene. 

Further  information  concerning  each  period  will  U ' 
in  the  article  bearing  its  name.  Their  faunas  are  il»> ' 
in  the  articles  treating  of  fossil  plants,  fossil  invert' ir- 
fossil  vertebrates,  and  paleontologv.  For  the  enum  ^ 
and  description  of  formations  and  the  history  of  c-  . 
events,  the  reader  should  consult  one  of  the  manuii.-  - 
tioned  at  the  end  of  this  article. 

Duration  of  Geologic  Time, — As  the  subdivision  of : 
ic  time  into  periods  is  arbitrary  and  essentially  an?. 
convenience,  it  has  not  been  found  advantageous  t.-  .' 
the  determination  of  periods  of  equal  length.    >ir  • 
older  formations,  being  largely  buried  by  the  new-: 
greatly  invaded  by  erosion,  and  being  in  places  oK  • 
metamorphism,  are  difficult  of  correlation,  thev  ha^ 
grouped  under  periods  relatively  long.     The'  Pl^^x 
period,  whose  formations  overlie  all  others  and  aiv  •/ 
exceptionally  convenient  for  study  and  of  peculiiir  *^  - 
importance,  is  the  shortest  of  all;  and  it  is  anprox.- 
though  not  strictly  true  that  the  duration  of  the  |»r 
proportioned  to  their  outcrop.    The  time  ration  ini 
these  statements  have  been  deduced  by  the  compar:- 
the  thicknesses  of  deposits  representing  the  sevt-r*.  ' 
ods,  it  being  assumed  either  that  the  rate  of  accui!: 
has  been  substantially  uniform  or  that  it  has  Tar;.^ 
uniform  way.    It  is  believed  that  the  Cenozoic  ^n 
twenty  to  one  hundred  times  as  long  as  the  PKi< 
perioa,  that  the  Mesozoic  era  was  two  to  four  time>  j.»    - 
as  the  Cenozoic,  the  Paleozoic  three  to  six  times  as  i ' : 
the  Mesozoic,  and  the  Agnotozoic  one  to  three  tinit^  a> 
as  the  Paleozoic. 

The  determination  of  the  earth's  age  in  years,  or  ' 
number  of  years  represented  by  the  clastic  fornis'    - 
even  more  difficult ;  and  though  it  has  been  attempt  -. 
and  by  a  ^reat  variety  of  methods,  the  only  result  wr; ' 
yet  be  claimed  with  confidence  is  that  the'time  i>  v»  r.    - 
One  method  compares  the  modem  rate  of  sedin.:*- 
with  the  amount  of  sedimentation  during  ge<'i<i: 
The  rate  can  not  be  determined  directly,  but  is  ♦>! '  • 
by  observing  the  amount  of  detritus  carried  aniv-' 
rivers.    Most  rivers  which  have  been  investigalt^i  i- 
way  traverse  settled  countries,  and  their  records  are  ^  *  - 
by  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  which  tends  to  iiu  :•  -*  ' 
output  in  sediment.    It  liappens,  however,  that  a  >r;    •. 
river,  the  Mississippi,  was  studied  at  a  date  wht  r. ' ' 
small  portion  of  its  drainage  district  was  under  ('iili*'^-' 
and  tne  data  thus  deriv^  are  therefore  of  sfecis  7 
Reliable  measurement  was  made  of  the  volume  of  •J'^- 


, — practioL 

measurement.    A  third  factor,  the  matter  in  ^^^'"^  ' 
been  determined  only  at  a  single  stage  of  the  river,  ar . 
not  yet  possible  to  compute  its  annual  quantity.   l':> 
aid  of  rude  guesses  at  tne  undetermined  quant  it  n*^  "*  - 
been  provisionally  estimated  that  the  basin  of  ili*"  ^' 
sippi  is  degradwl  a  foot  in  4,500  years.    By  acHvitii : 
rate,  with  or  without  qualification,  as  the  avcratrt'  ^'' 
all  the  land,  by  assuming  that  the  land  area  in  eari<''  - 
has  been  the  same  as  now  or  that  it  has  diffemi  in  a  • 
way,  by  assuming  that  the  average  geologic  rate  -f    ■" 
dation  has  been  the  same  as  at  present  or  ha<  diff^^'* ; 
definite  manner,  and  by  determining  the  total  an.  "•' 
material  contained  in  the  sedimentary  rocks  and  tht;  ar 
which  has  been  removed  from  them  by  erosion,  i^  i\ 
dently  possible  to  obtain  an  estimate  of  geologic  tirof-   ' 
determination  of  the  volumes  of  sedimentary  n^cks^^*;, 
admit  of  high  precision  because  only  a  small  pt">rti<^n  '■. 
is  accessible,  th«'  remainder  being  huri«l  divp'^  '"^  ' 


GEOLOGICAL  MAP   OF 

Sboaing  tbt  distribution  of  Pitiitoctne  I, 


Favsd  axprcHly  'or  io'^"' 


THE  NEW  YORK 
FUSLIC    LIBRARY 


A«^TOf»,  LENOX  AMD 
Ti   0    N  FOUNDATIONS. 


732 


GEOLOGY 


Co-ordinate  in  importance  with  the  soils  of  the  earth  are 
its  waters.  The  courses  of  subterranean  water  are  deter- 
mined by  the  textures  and  structures  of  rock.  The  sub- 
stances they  bring  to  the  surface  in  solution  give  to  them 
qualities  which  affect  their  uses,  and  they  are  otherwise 
modified  by  subterranean  temperatures.  Questions  of  sup- 
ply for  agricultural,  domestic,  and  municipal  uses,  and 
questions  of  contamination,  are  in  large  part  geologic.  See 
Artesian  Wells,  Ibbioation,  Thermal  springs,  and 
Water. 

Building  stone,  brick  clay,  limestone,  sand,  cement  rock, 
slate,  and  other  materials  of  construction  abound  in  many 
localities  and  are  used  in  vast  quantities.  Fertilizers,  abra- 
sive materials,  precious  stones,  pigments,  glass  sand,  coal, 
asphaltum,  petroleum  and  natural  gas,  and  salt  occasion 
each  a  separate  industry  or  group  of  industries.  Each  of 
these  and  many  other  mineral  products  are  treated  under 
separate  heads. 

Compounds  of  the  useful  and  precious  metals  occurring 
in  such  concentration  as  to  be  available  for  mining  are 
called  ores.  They  are  all  so  rare  that  search  is  necessary 
for  their  discovery,  and  the  greater  number  are  so  related  to 
other  rocks  that  much  skiU  and  labor  must  be  applied  to 
their  successful  exploitation  and  separation.  See  Ore  De- 
posits, Mines  and  Minino,  and  the  names  of  the  several 
metal& 

Geologic  Technology. 

Geology,  like  all  other  objective  sciences,  is  developed 
through  the  interaction  of  observation  and  theory.  Special 
modes  of  investigation  subordinate  to  the  general  method 
are  invented  by  the  geologist  as  occasion  requires.  With 
the  progress  of  the  science  its  data  have  been  classified,  and 
there  have  thus  arisen  categories  of  knowledge  to  which  ad- 
ditions are  made  by  uniform  methods.  To  whatever  extent 
this  uniformity  obtains,  the  acouisitiou  of  new  data  becomes 
an  art,  and  there  is  thus  a  boay  of  geologic  art  subsidiary 
to  geologic  science. 

Surveying, — For  many  purposes  of  geological  generaliza- 
tion, and  especially  for  the  purposes  of  economic  geology,  it 
is  important  that  the  attitudes,  arrangement,  and  extent  of 
rock  bodies  be  known.  The  process  of  ascertaining  these  is 
called  geologic  surveying.  Horizontal  relations  are  exhib- 
ited on  maps,  vertical  relations  in  sections.  To  obtain  the 
areal  data  the  geologist  first  ascertains  the  stratigraphic 
and  other  structural  elements  of  his  district,  and  then  traces 
the  boundaries  of  these  by  direct  observation  iii  the  field, 
either  marking  them  at  once  upon  a  topographic  map  or 
taking  such  notes  as  will  enable  him  to  do  so  afterward. 
Where  portions  of  boundaries  are  concealed,  as  bj  over- 
placed  soils,  their  position  is  inferred  by  considering  the 
geologic  structure  in  relation  to  topograpnic  configuration. 
UsuaUy  the  prominent  topographic  features  are  so  depend- 
ent upon  geologic  structure  as  to  afford  important  aid.  The 
instruments  and  other  means  of  measurement  employed  in 
this  work  do  not  differ  essentially  from  those  of  topographic 
surveying,  but  are  in  general  simpler.  When  the  ^unda- 
ries  have  all  been  marked  out  the  areas  between  them  rep- 
resent the  surface  outcrops  of  the  several  formations. 

The  third  dimension,  or  the  vertical  element  of  geologic 
structure,  is  determined,  first,  by  observing  the  dips  of  strata, 
the  hades  of  fault  planes,  and  in  general  the  inclination  of 
division  planes  as  seen  at  the  sui^ace ;  second,  by  data  de- 
rived from  wells  and  other  excavations  or  borings ;  third,  by 
inferences  employing  certain  general  principles  of  structural 
geology.  Dips  and  hades  are  usually  measured  by  means  of 
a  special  instrument  called  a  clinometer.  Vertical  data  and 
the  associated  inferences  are  afterward  compiled  in  structure 
sections,  each  of  which  represents  the  intersection  of  the 
rock  mass  by  a  vertical  plane.  Usually  in  the  delineation 
of  the  structure  of  a  region  a  number  of  sections  are  pre- 
pared, corresponding  to  a  like  number  of  ideal  intersecting 
planes  distributed  so  as  to  exhibit  the  characteristics  of  dif- 
lerent  parts  of  the  region. 

Nomenclature. — Whenever  the  development  of  a  science  in- 
volves a  large  number  of  particulars  requiring  separate 
names,  confusion  can  be  avoided  only  by  the  adoption  of  a 
systematic  nomenclature,  and  this  is*  eventually  controlled 
by  a  body  of  conventional  regulations.  (See  NoMisNCLATURE.) 
In  geology  there  are  three  departments  requiring  such  regu- 
lation— petrography,  paleontology,  and  stratigraphy. 

That  part  of  petrography  which  pertains  to  the  clastic 
formations  possess  a  nomenclature  which,  though  created 
largely  before  the  birth  of  geology  as  a  science,  is  neverthe- 


less convenient  and  adequate.  Its  terms  come  from  nianv 
languages  and  dialects,  and  have  no  fonqal  similarity ;  but 
they  serve  to  distinguish  the  rock  species  dependent  on  ui«il.- 
of  genesis,  as  well  as  many  varieties  depenaent  on  c'oiii]M<^t> 
tion. 

The  igneous  and  metamorphic  rocks,  having  com^mrH- 
tively  few  modes  of  genesis  but  varying  in  composition, 
have  proved  so  difiicult  of  classification  tnat  the  principl*^ 
of  their  nomenclature  are  not  yet  fixed.  It  is  believe<l  b> 
some  petrographers  that  there  is  a  liioited  number  of  i\\o^ 
under  which  all  varieties  are  naturally  grouped,  and  t  h<it 
these  types  afford  a  natural  basis  for  classification  and  i:<>- 
menclature.  By  others  it  is  held  that  there  is  a  completr 
gradation  between  all  extremes  of  composition,  whetht-r 
chemical  or  mineralogic,  and  that  classification  is  there  fun- 
necessarily  arbitrary.    See  Petrography. 

Paleontology,  being  a  comparatively  recent  addition  t<> 
the  science  of  biology,  has  inherited  its  elaborate  system  of 
classification  and  nomenclature.    See  Paleontology. 

In  strati^aphic  geology  much  confusion  has  arisen  fnm 
the  indefiniteness  of  the  phenomena.  Whatever  definiti<  n 
be  pven  to  a  formation,  more  or  less  diflSculty  will  be  found 
in  its  application;  and  however  definite  the  sepMuation  cf 
strata  into  formations  in  one  region,  doubt  always  arise:^  &S 
to  the  distance  to  which  the  local  classification  can  be  car- 
ried. Nevertheless,  the  number  of  formations  is  so  gn^&i 
that  systematic  classification  is  essential  to  their  discuK<«i<>ii. 
When  higher  units  than  the  formation  are  considerc<i  \\*- 
difiiculty  does  not  diminish,  and  the  attempts  to  corn- Lit *- 
the  groups  of  formations  recognized  in  different  distrirt^ 
have  led  to  many  discrepancies  and  controversies.  An  in- 
ternational congress  of  geologists,  first  convened  in  Paris  ir 
1878,  and  afterward  meeting  at  Bologna,  Berlin,  Londctt. 
Washington,  and  Berne,  has  undertaken  to  establish  a  :^-><- 
tem  of  universal  conventions  for  geologic  nomenclatim-. 
One  of  its  most  important  decisions  affects  the  rank  to  U- 
assigned  to  the  tenns  employed  in  stratigraphic  and  chnu- 
ologic  taxonomv.  As  each  stratigraphic  unit  convs[>on«i^ 
to  a  portion  of  geologic  time,  a  series  of  time  terms  &iv 
made  the  equivalents  of  a  series  of  stratigraphic  terms.  &:> 
follows : 


stratigraphic  terms. 


time  terms. 


Group.  Era. 

System.  Period. 

Series.  Epoch. 

Stage.  Age. 

The  word  formation  is  applied  to  any  stratigraphic  unit. 
large  or  small,  when  considered  with  reference  to  its  niMie 
of  origin. 

To  what  extent  the  discrepancies  of  nomenclature  will  N- 
remedied  by  this  congressional  action  is  uncertain ;  but.  n>>t- 
withstanding  the  evident  convenience  of  uniformity.  \\> 
authors  employing  the  English  language  did  not  prompt iy 
modify  their  usage.  The  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  in  pn  - 
paring  a  scheme  for  the  publication  of  it«  geologic  mai  -. 
adopted  the  term  period  as  defined  by  the  congrei« ;  but  :^ 
selected  formation  instead  of  stage  as  the  lowest  unit  vi 
stratigraphic  classification.  No  action  was  taken  by  th* 
survey  with  reference  to  the  other  terms  of  the  scheme ;  I  -t 
usage  in  the  U.  S.  is  approximately  conformable  with  re^J"•vl 
to  the  terms  era,  epoch,  and  system.  It  departs  widely  wirr 
respect  to  group,  making  it  int«rmediate  in  rank  betw»  or 
formation  and  system. 

The  Geological  Survey  has  further  regulated  the  iioiii*-!!- 
clature  of  its  maps  by  providing  that  each  new  format  :<n 
name  shall  consist  of  a  noun  indicative  of  the  kind  of  n>«  il. 
and  a  geographic  adjective  indicative  of  a  locality  ^»htre 
the  formation  is  well  exhibited ;  e.  g.  Potsdam  sands fvr.f 

Map  Notation, — In  the  publication  of  geologic  n\u\^ 
many  notations  are  employed.  Some  of  these  con?i>i  « ' 
patterns  of  various  kinds,  others  of  colors,  and  vet  others  ■  J 
patterns  and  colors  combined.  The  most  elective  m&\> 
employ  colors  only,  but  when  a  very  large  number  of  f  r- 
mations  are  to  be  distinguished  on  the  same  sheet  co!  r^ 
need  to  be  supplemented  by  other  means ;  and  for  an  atla^  ••{ 
a  large  country,  for  example  the  U.  S.,  the  number  of  .n?- 
tinctions  to  be  made  is  entirely  beyond  the  possibility"' 
distinction  by  color  alone,  unless  the  same  color  be  useil  *>v 
different  sheets  for  different  things.  Most  national  sur\t^* 
have  therefore  employed  combinations  of  colors  and  {oi 
terns.  An  attempt  was  made  by  the  geological  conirri'ss  u 
establish  a  universal  map  notation,  but  great  diversity-' 
opinion  was  encountered  and  the  attempt  was  finally  al»Ar. 


734 


GEOMETRY 


graphic  or  projective  geometry.  On  this  system  geometri- 
cal figures  are  not  so  much  quantities  to  be  measured  as  ob- 
jects whose  properties  are  tx>  be  investigated.  A  straight 
line  is  considered  as  going  out  without  end  in  either  direc- 
tion. A  portion  of  such  a  line  bounded  by  two  ends  is  con- 
sidered simply  as  a  part  of  the  infinite  line  from  which  it  is 
cut  out.  Tnis  geometry  is  largely  occupied  with  the  anhar- 
monic  ratios  of  points  m  a  straight  line  or  of  straight  lines 
passing  through  a  point.  The  properties  with  which  it  is 
concerned  are  called  projective,  because  if  the  figure  which 
they  concern  is  projected  on  a  plane  (as  by  casting  its 
shadow  from  a  luminous  point)  its  properties  are  thereby 
unaltered.  For  example,  ii  two  curves  are  tangent  to  each 
other,  their  projections  will  also  be  tangent  to  each  other ; 
if  four  points  are  in  a  straight  line  so  are  their  projections ; 
and  the  latter  have  the  same  anharmonic  ratio  as  the 
points  themselves.  Circles  are  not  considered  as  portions 
of  a  plane,  but  are  defined  wholly  by  their  bounding  cir- 
cumferences. A  quadrilateral  consists  of  four  indefinite 
lines,  no  three  of  which  pass  through  the  same  point ;  hence 
it  has  six  vertices  instead  of  four.  Instead  of  two  diag- 
onals, as  in  the  Euclidean  geometry,  the  quadrilateral  of 
the  graphic  geometry  has  three,  each  line  joining  the  points 
of  intersection  of  any  two  pairs  of  sides. 

In  colleges  the  term  analytic  geometry  is  frequently  used 
as  if  it  were  a  separate  kind  of  geometry.  This,  however,  is 
not  so  much  a  new  development  of  geometry  as  a  different 
method  of  teaching  or  investigating  the  subject.  Geom- 
etry treated  by  the  methods  of  Euclid  and  Apollonius  is 
called  synthetic,  in  opposition  to  this  analytic  geometry, 
where  the  mode  of  reasoning  is  algebraic.  But  the  syn- 
thetic and  analytic  methods  can  be  applied  to  either  of  the 
two  branches,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  subject  may  be 
taught  in  both  ways,  sometimes  one  method  ana  sometimes 
the  other  being  found  best. 

Both  metric  and  graphic  geometry  are  founded  on  famil- 
iar conceptions  of  space ;  but  during  the  nineteenth  century 
a  further  extension  has  been  made,  sometimes  known  as 
hypergeometry  and  sometimes  as  non-Euclidean  geometry. 
The  term  hypergeometry  is  generally  applied  to  that  system 
in  which  space  is  assumed  to  have  more  than  three  dimen- 
sions. Notwithstanding  the  inconceivable  character  of  this 
hypothesis,  the  reasonings  upon  it  may  be  conducted  with 
entire  rigor.  The  idea  on  which  it  proceeds  may  be  ex- 
plained in  this  way :  The  l)eginner  is  first  concerned  with 
plane  geometry,  in  which  he  considers  fie^res  which  lie  in 
the  same  plane.  They  have  length  and  breadth,  but  no 
thickness.  It  is  therefore  called  a  geometry  of  two  dimen- 
sions. But  when  he  passes  to  solid  geometry,  a  third  dimen- 
sion in  space  is  recognized  and  new  possibilities  arise.  For 
example,  in  a  plane,  two  lines  whicn  are  not  parallel  will 
necessarily  intersect  if  continued  far  enough,  but  in  space 
they  need  not  intersect  because  one  might  pass  above  or 
below  the  other.  In  a  plane  only  a  single  line  can  be  drawn 
which  shall  be  perpendicular  to  another  line  at  a  given 
point.  But  in  space  any  number  of  such  perpendiculars  can 
DC  drawn,  some  passing  above  the  plane  and  some  below  it. 
The  only  restriction  upon  these  perpendiculars  is  that  they 
will  all  lie  in  one  plane  perpendicular  to  the  given  line. 
Now  four  dimensional  geometry  may  be  conceived  to  start 
from  this  question :  Suppose  space  had  four  dimensions  in- 
stead of  only  three,  then  what  further  extension  would  be 
made  to  geometrical  theorems  and  possibilities  ? 

One  result  would  be  that  four  straight  lines  coidd  pass 
through  a  given  point,  each  of  which  would  be  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  other  three.  Solids  could  be  turned  inside  out 
without  tearing  them.  A  knot  in  an  endless  rope  could  be 
untied  without  passing  the  ends  through  it.  A  world  of 
possibilities  of  the  most  extraordinary  kind  would  be 
brought  to  light.  So  far  as  relations  to  the  actual  universe 
are  concerned,  this  system  of  geometry  is  a  pure  fancy ;  yet 
it  is  useful  in  assisting  the  language  and  conceptions  of 
certain  branches  of  the  higher  mathematics. 

The  term  non-Euclidean  geometry  is  generally  applied  to 
those  systems  in  which  the  famous  Euclidean  axiom  of  par- 
allels is  no  longer  supposed  true.  The  axiom  in  question  is 
sometimes  expressed  by  saying  that  through  any  point  in  a 
plane  one  line  may  be  drawn  which  shall  be  parallel  to  a 
given  straight  line,  and  therefore  never  intersect  it,  while 
any  other  line  through  the  point  will  necessarily  intersect  it 
if  continued  far  enough.  It  has  long  appeared  that  this 
axiom  ought  to  be  proved  rather  than  assumed,  and  in- 
numerable attempts  have  been  made  to  supply  a  satisfactory 
proof.    Every  one  of  them,  however,  is  found  to  rest  upon 


some  assumption  which  is  equivalent  to  basing  the  reason- 
ing upon  its  own  conclusion.  The  fallacy  of  all  these  a*- 
tempts  suggested  to  Lobatschevsky  the  question  whether  it 
was  not  possible  to  construct  a  system  of  geometry  in  whici 
this  axiom  should  not  be  true,  in  which,  in  fact,  sever., 
straight  lines  might  lie  in  one  plane  and  neither  interstn.t 
nor  be  parallel.  He  showed  that  the  system  was  quite  \k*^ 
sible,  and  in  perfect  accord  with  reasoning  in  every  olht  r 
point.  In  this  system  the  sum  of  the  three  angles  of  a  tri- 
angle is  less  than  two  right  angles,  the  amount  of  the  defi- 
ciency increasing  with  tne  area  of  the  triangle.  When  lo- 
batschevsky *s  conclusions  were  studied  it  was  found  tl-a* 
the  opposite  hypothesis  might  equally  be  made,  namely,  that 
the  sum  of  the  three  angles  of  a  plane  triangle  should  ex- 
ceed two  right  angles ;  then  any  two  lines  in  a  plane,  ewu 
though  parallel  in  starting,  would  ultimately  intersect.  A 
straight  line  would  return  into  itself  just  as  a  circle  around 
a  sphere  does.  Paradoxical  though  this  appears,  no  foniijil 
disproof  of  it  can  be  constructed.  True,  it  seems  contra«iir- 
tory  to  one's  conceptions,  but  the  solution  of  the  quest i^.n 
may  be^  imagined  by  supposing  animals  living  on  the  surfacf 
of  an  immense  sphere  lixe  the  earth  without  any  idea  of  & 
space  either  outside  the  sphere  or  within  it.  These  anim&l> 
would  be  unconscious  of  living  on  a  curved  surface  anJ 
would  suppose  themselves  upon  a  plane.  Their  geonietn 
would  he  our  ordinary  plane  geometry ;  yet  were  they  to  at- 
tempt to  continue  tlieir  straight  lines  forever  they"  would 
ultimately  pass  around  the  sphere  and  so  return  into  them- 
selves. In  this  system  space  is  not  absolutely  infinite,  Ua 
includes  only  a  certain  number  of  cubic  mije&  Fanoif.ii 
though  the  idea  is  there  is  no  way  of  absolutely  disprovin:: 
it.  This  consideration  has  led  to  different  new  and  valuable 
ideas  of  the  relations  of  ordinary  graphic  and  metric  gec>ii;- 
etry.  As  a  thing  is  never  thoroughly  understood  until  it  is 
compared  with  things  outside  of  itself,  so  a  complete  con- 
ception of  ordinary  geometry  is  found  only  by  comparing  it 
with  what  it  would  be  were  the  space  in  which  we  live  re- 
stricted as  it  is  by  Euclid's  axiom  of  parallels. 

History  of  Geometry. — The  following  sketch  of  the  history 
of  geometry  has  been  compiled,  mostly  from  Rouch^  and  di^ 
Comberousse.  Ideas  of  form  and  extension  are  as  old  as  the 
human  race,  but  the  first  attempts  to  co-ordinate  and  sys- 
tematize them  were  made  by  the  Egyptians  and  Chaldieaii«. 
Geometry,  as  a  science,  was  introducoci  into  Greece  by  Thal"> 
of  Miletus  (037-^548  b.  c.)  ;  he  founded  tlie  Ionian  school,  ar.  1 
is  said  to  have  demonstrated  many  propositions  which  wen* 
afterward  incorporated  with  Euclid's  Elements,  It  «a> 
Thales  who  discovered  the  properties  of  similar  triangl*-^. 
Pythagoras  of  Samos,  a  disciple  of  Thales  (580  b.  c),  fouud^i 
in  Italy  the  celebrated  school  which  bore  his  name.  Ht$ 
demonstrated  the  relation  between  the  three  sides  of  a  righ'- 
angled  triangle,  and  showed  that  the  circle  contains  a  greater 
area  than  any  plane  figure  having  the  same  perimeter,  ari 
that  the  sphere  contains  the  ^atest  volume  bounded  by  a 

g'ven  surface.  He  also  investigated  the  properties  of  rt'V'j- 
r  polyhedrons,  and  established  those  relations  which  fornit -i 
so  conspicuous  an  element  in  the  cosmogonies  of  the  Mi<j4i>' 
Ages.  Plato  (430-347  B.  c.)  laid  the  foundation  of  th" 
analytical  method  ;  he  investigated  the  nature  of  the  com- 
sections  and  developed  the  fundamental  principles  of  ^\°<>- 
metrical  loci.  It  was  in  the  school  which  he  establi^i.t^l 
that  the  noted  problems  of  the  duplication  of  the  cube  and 
the  trisection  of  an  angle  were  first  discussed.  It  is  s&id 
that  Plato  himself  gave  a  solution  of  the  first  of  these  pr»b^ 
lems.  Euclid,  who  belonged  to  the  famous  school  of  Alex- 
andria, fiourished  about  the  year  285  b.  c.  He  wrote  on 
various  mathematical  subjects,  but  he  is  especially  noted  a^ 
the  author  of  the  Elements  of  Geometry ^  in  which  he  col- 
lected and  systematized  all  the  truths  and  principles  of  f  1*^ 
mentary  geometry  that  were  known  before  his  time.  an<i  ^^ 
which  he  added  many  new  ones.  It  is  in  Euclid*s  Elemtrt* 
that  the  method  of  proof  known  as  the  reductio  ad  absurd hn 
first  appears.  Many  of  his  works  have  been  lost,  the  m.  < 
important  of  which  is  his  treatise  on  porisms.  His  Elenuu.* 
of  Geometry  have  been  translated  into  all  civilized  tonpuf-N 
and  to  the  present  day  form  a  favorite  text-book  for  »  - 
mentary  instruction.  Immediately  after  Euclid  came  And: 
medes  and  Apollonius,  two  of  the  most  distinguished  ^^^nn  - 
eters  of  the  most  brilliant  era  of  the  Alexandrian  soht^l 
The  attention  of  Archimedes  (287-212  b.  c.)  was  spec i a . 
directed  to  metrical  geometry.  He  determined  the  ratio 
the  diameter  of  a  circle  to  its  circumference,  and  also  inv 
tigated  the  areas  of  the  circle  and  parabola.  He  discu!v^  \ 
the  properties  of  spirals,  the  relation  of  the  sphere  U»  iu« 


.f 


f^ 


736 


GEORGE  I. 


GEORGETOWN 


cording  to  the  legend,  he  became  a  prince  in  Cappadocia. 
He  was  a  Christian,  and  suffered  martyrdom  at  Nicomedia 
in  808,  some  sa^  Apr.  23,  for  having  torn  down  the  edict  of 
Diocletian  against  Christians,  the  emperor  himself  being 
then  in  the  city.  St.  George  is  venerated  in  the  Eastern 
and  Latin  Churches,  and  even  by  the  Mohammedans  is  re- 
garded with  great  reverence.  He  is  distinguished  for  his 
exploit  of  rescuing;  a  king's  daughter  from  a  dragon ;  but 
this  storv  is  a  medieval  invention.  He  is  sometimes  identi- 
fied with  George  of  Cappadocia,  a  fuller,  who  in  861  was 
killed  by  the  pagans.  But  authorities  decide  that  they  are 
not  identical. 

George  I. :  the  first  Hanoverian  King  of  Great  Britain ; 
b.  at  OsnabrQck,  May  28, 1660 ;  was  the  son  of  Ernst  Au- 
gust, Elector  of  Hanover,  and  great-grandson,  on  his  mother*s 
side,  of  James  I.  of  England.  In  1682  he  married  his  cousin, 
known  as  Sophia  of  Celle,  from  whom  in  1694  he  was  di- 
vorced on  account  of  her  adulterous  intrigue  with  Philip, 
Count  Kdnigsmark.  In  1608  he  became  elector;  served 
against  the  'Danes  and  Swedes  1700;  and  held  a  high 
command  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  1701-09; 
succeeded  Anne  as  sovereign  of  Great  Britain  in  1714  in 
consequence  of  the  exclusion  of  the  Stuarts;  was  never 
popular  in  England,  which  he  in  turn  disliked,  although  he 
served  British  interests  faithfully  and  with  more  than  or- 
dinary ability;  but  his  private  character  was  thoroughly 
bad.  Memorable  event^s  of  his  reign  were  the  first  Jacobite 
rebellion  (1715-16);  the  failure  of  the  South  Sea  Company 
(1720);  the  restoration  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath  (1725);  the 
Spanish  war  of  1726.    D.  near  OsnabrUck,  June  10, 1727. 

Geone  II. :  King  of  Great  Britain ;  b.  at  Hanover,  Oct. 
80,  1688 ;  was  throughout  life  an  object  of  dislike  to  his 
father,  in  consequence  of  which  his  education  was  slighted, 
and  his  intellect,  not  naturally  brilliant,  suffered  from  this 
neglect;  married  in  1705  the  rrincess  Wilhelmina  Carolina 
of  Brandenburg-Anspach,  whose  remarkable  abilities  for 
many  years  made  good  the  defects  of  her  husband ;  fought 
with  conspicuous  valor  at  Oudenarde  1708;  succeeded  his 
father  in  1727.  His  reign  was  singularly  adorned  by  men 
great  in  art,  letters,  war,  and  diplomacy.  The  king's  fond- 
ness for  war  led  him  to  take  command  at  the  battle  of  Det- 
tingen  (1743),  where  he  won  a  victory  in  spite  of  tactical 
blunders.  Other  great  events  of  his  reign  were  the  battle  of 
Minden  1789 ;  of  Fontenoy  1745 ;  the  second  Stuart  invasion 
1745-46;  the  wars  of  Clive  in  India;  and  the  conquest  of 
Canada.  The  king  was  a  man  of  obstinate  temper,  and  was 
far  more  fond  of  Hanover  than  of  Great  Britain,  where  he 
was  personally  unpopular,  but  he  advocated  liberal  measures, 
by  means  of  which  tne  country  made  greai  material  and  in- 
dustrial progress.     D.  at  Kensington,  Oct.  25,  1760. 

George  III. :  Kin^  of  Great  Britain ;  son  of  Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales;  b.  in  London,  June  4,  1738;  succeeded 
his  ^andfather,  George  II.,  in  1760.  He  was  the  first  Han- 
overian king  who  had  a  British  education  and  a  deep  regard 
for  his  country,  but  his  patriotism  proved  a  far  worse  thing 
for  his  subjects  than  the  neglect  and  open  dislike  shown  by 
his  predecessors.  He  was  a  man  of  conscientious  principles, 
and  felt  a  high  regard  for  religion  and  morals,  which  con- 
traste<l  strangely  with  the  lewdness  of  the  two  preceding  as 
well  as  the  two  succeeding  monarchs,  but  this  was  neutral- 
ized by  his  intellectual  sluggishness,  his  blind  obstinacy 
and  craft,  his  revengeful  and  implacable  hostility  to  those 
who  opposed  his  reactionary  policy,  and  his  equally  blind 
partiality  to  his  political  friends.  The  annals  of  his  reign 
of  sixty  years,  tne  longest  in  English  history,  are  replete 
with  great  events,  among  which  are  the  Spanish  war  of 
1762-63;  the  Wilkes  controversy  1762-82;  the  passage  of 
the  American  Stamp  Act  1765 ;  the  publication  of  the  Ju- 
nius letters  1769-72;  the  American  Revolution  1775-83;  the 
Fox  and  North  coalition  1783;  the  French  Revolution 
1789,  seq.;  the  Irish  Rebellion  179^;  and  the  Napoleonic 
wars.  (See  Napoleon  I.)  The  king's  mind  was  naturally 
infirm,  and  in  1810  a  fifth  attack  of  insanitv  came  on  ani 
proved  incurable.  Blindness  also  supervened,  and  in  1811 
the  Prince  of  Wales  became  regent.  The  Tory  foreign  pol- 
icy of  the  king  was  continued  until  Napoleon's  power  was 
finally  crushed.  D.  at  Windsor,  Jan.  29,  1820.  His  reign 
is  memorable  for  great  literary  and  industrial  activity. 

George  IT. :  King  of  Groat  Britain ;  b.  in  St.  James's 
P^ace,  London,  Aug.  12,  1762;  received  a  careful  training, 
but  became  early  conspicuous  for  his  loose  habits.  In 
1781  joined  the  Whig  opposition  to  his  father's  public  pol- 
icy ;  in  1791,  in  consequence  of  misconduct  on  tne  turf,  he 


got  into  trouble  with  his  Whig  friends,  and  then  becfini«'. 
and  ever  after  remained,  a  Tory;  married  Caroline  Ani*^':n 
of  Brunswick  1795,  and  in  1796  separated  from  her  on  tr.- 
ground  of  her  supposed  adultery,  for  which  she  was,  how- 
ever, not  brought  to  trial  until  18^,  and  was  then  acqaitt-«i. 
In  1811  George  became  regent,  and  in  1820  king.  Th* 
wars  with  Napoleon,  that  of  1812-15  in  the  U.  S.,  the  Kid- 
man Catholic  emancipation,  the  conquest  of  Aracan,  an<i 
the  Tenasserim  provinces,  the  slow  but  healthy  advance  •  f 
liberal  ideas  in  Great  Britain,  so  vigorously  and  const  ami} 
opposed  by  able  Tory  leaders,  and,  above  'all,^he  progr»^* 
of  the  physical  sciences,  pure  and  applied,  in  Englaii'i. 
make  the  reign  of  George  IV.  one  of  the  most  interest  irji- 
periods  of  British  history.  (See  Thackeray's  Four  Oeor<}-f 
(I860) ;  TAe  Greville  Memoirs  (1874)).  D.  at  Windsor,  J  lif  j. 
26, 1830. — Princess  Charlotte  Augusta,  his  only  child  by  Ki- 
wife,  (jueen  Caroline,  and  greatly  beloved  by  the  Knlrh-K 
people,  was  married  in  1816  to  Leopold  of'Saxe-C'obur;; 
afterward  King  of  the  Belgians,  and  died  in  the  follow iUjC 
year. 

George  T. :  ex-King  of  Hanover.  See  Cumbsbx.akd  am^ 
Teyiotdale,  Duke  of. 

George  I. :  King  of  Greece,  with  the  title  '* Kine  of  tie 
Hellenes  " ;  b.  at  Copenhagen,  Dec.  24, 1845 ;  second  srm  .>f 
Christian  IX.,  King  of  Denmark.  In  1863  he  accepted  t '  •- 
offer  of  the  crown.  King  Otho  having  been  depCKsed.  In 
1867  he  married  Ol^a  Constantinovna,  daughter  of  t'* 
Grand  Duke  Constantine  of  Russia.  His  chiloren  are  br  n 
in  the  Greek  faith,  but  the  king  is  a  Lutheran. 

George,  Henbt:  political  economist;  b.  in  Philadeht})  a 
Pa.,  Sept.  2,  1839 ;  attended  the  public  schools  until  IK^ : . 
went  then  into  a  counting-house,  learned  to  set  type.  U- 
came  a  sailor,  and  went  to  California  in  1858.  After  wnrK- 
ing  at  the  case  for  some  years  he  became  first  a  rep<int  r 
and  afterward  the  editor  of  the  San  Francisco  Times,  ar.  i 
was  in  1876  appointed  State  inspector  of  gas-meters  for  <  *a:i- 
fomia,  but  moved  in  1880  to  New  York.  In  1880-hI  t. 
visited  the  United  Kingdom,  and  has  since  become  wid»!> 
known  as  a  writer  and  lecturer  on  subjects  of  politicil 
economy  and  social  reform.  His  principal  pjiblicationh  arv 
Our  Land  and  Land  Pblicy  (ISTl);  Progress  emd  P&vtrf\, 
(1879) ;  me  Irish  Land  Question  (1881) :  Social  Pn»bh  n., 
(1884) ;  Protection  or  Free  Trade  (1886).  He  waa  nominatt-i 
by  the  Central  Labor  convention,  Sept.  23,  1886,  for  may*>r 
of  New  York,  but  was  defeated  in  the  election.  He  so  -l 
afterward  founded  The  Standard^  &  weekly  newspaper  (nnv 
defunct),  and  became  its  editor. 

George,  James  Zachabuh:  U.  S.  Senator;  b.  in  Monr« 
CO.,  Ga.,  Oct.  20,  1826;  educated  in  the  common  soh<>i»N; 
served  as  private  in  the  Mexican  war;  on  his  return  studi*  : 
law ;  reporter  of  the  high  court  of  errors  and  appeals  IKU- 
64  ;  voted  for  the  ordinance  of  secession  in  Mississippi  istil . 
colonel  and  brigadier-general  in  Confederate  armr  1861 -^"i 
chief  justice  of  Supreme  Court  of  Mississippi  187^-Sl ;  eleC'-l 
to  the  Senate  as  Democrat  from  Mississippi  in  1880 :  n- 
elected  1886  and  1892,  his  entire  term  in  the  Senate  Ih^ii  .: 
1881-99.  C.  U.  T. 

George,  Lake:  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water  in  the  State  •  f 
New  York,  extending  N.  N.  E.  and  S.  S.  W.,  and  havi-  ^' 
Warren  County  on  the  N.  W.  and  Washington  Count  v  « :i 
the  greater  part  of  its  S.  E.  border.  Its  length  is  36  roilr^ : 
its  breadth,  from  1  to  3  miles.  Lake  George  was  the  set rr 
of  important  military  operations  during  the  French  hi  i 
Indian  war  of  1755-59.  Here  stood  Port  Geoi^.  F«  n 
William  Henry,  and  other  works.  The  lake  is  310  ft*: 
above  tide.  Its  outlet  flows  into  Lake  Champlain.  Tn 
lake  contains  some  300  islands.  Its  waters  are  clear  H\>t 
are,  in  some  places,  400  feet  deep.  Steamboats  ply  up«>i.  r 
in  summer.  It  is  sometimes  called  Lake  Horicoii,  but  r- 
Indian  name  was  Caniaderioit. 

Georges,  Karl  Ernst  :  Latin  lexicographer ;  b.  in  Got  r  x 
Germany,  Dec.  26,  1806.     Studied  classical  philoloKy  .: 
Gfittingen  and  I^eipzig  from  1826-29.     His  LtUin-Gern-^ '. 
Dictionary  (4  vols.,  10  edit,  1882),  while  not  aiming  at  th* 
completeness  of  a  thesaurus,  is  the  most  reliable  and  s<'i*-''' 
tific  work  on  Latin  lexicography  published  up  to  date  (isM 
He  is  also  the  author  of  a  German- lAiiin  Lexicon  (2  w.- 
1882,  7  edit.)  and  a  very  valuable  Wdrterbuch  der  latu** 
Wortformen  {\S9l),  Alfred  Gudkm  an. 

Georgetown  (commonly  called  Demerara) :  capital  ai  • 
chief  town  and  port  of  British  Guiana;  on  tne  right  bark 
of  the  Demerara  river,  a  mile  above  its  mouth  (see  map « f 


tbe  coast,  anil  seven  sounds  between  these  and  the  niiUD- 
land.  The  coast,  for  20  miles  inland,  is  low  and  swampj: 
at  that  difitance  it  rises  by  a  terrace  [ormation  70  to  100  feet 
for  20  miles  more,  when  a  second  terrace  appears,  rising 


Seal  of  Qeorgla. 

graduallj  to  5TiS  feet  above  the  sea  in  Baldwin  County,  160 
to  200  miles  from  the  sea.  Here  the  foot-hilh  tiegin,  and 
rise  in  the  W.  and  N.  W.  lo  2,500  and  4,000  feet.  The 
mountain  district  covers  35  counties,  lying  mostly  N.  W.  of 
the  Chattahoochee.  The  hills  run  in  nearly  parallel  ranges 
with  each  other,  though  with  outlying  spurs.  There  are 
many  beautiful  cataracts  and  waterfalls  in  this  region. 

Oeology,  Minerals,  Mining,  tie. — -Seorgia  is  characterized 
by  four  distiiict  belts,  representing  (o)  the  crystalline  rocks, 
supposed  to  be  AiohteBn.  occupying  a  large  portion  of  the 
northeast  part  of  the  State ;  {b)  the  Palieozoic  group  occur- 
ring only  in  ten  counties,  in  the  extreme  northwest ;  (c)  the 
Cretaceous,  in  the  middle  west  ^rt  of  the  Stat«  around  Co- 
lumbus ;  (d)  the  Tertiary,  covering  the  entire  southeast  and 
south  part  of  the  State.  A  large  portion  of  the  country, 
underlaid  by  the  crystalline  roc  lis,  consists  of  the  so-ealled 
Piedmont  pfains.  or  a  gently  rolling  country  with  an  altitude 
of  from  700  to  1,200  or  1,300  feet  above  the  sea;  but  in  the 
more  northwestern  portion  of  this  belt  the  crystalline  rocks 
rise  into  bold  mountains  intercepted  bv  valleys.  The  Palie- 
ozoic country  consists  of  a  number  of  broad  valleys  from 
800  to  1,000  feet  above  the  sea,  traversed  by  many  ridges  a 
few  hundred  feet  high,  and  some  narrow  mountains  rising 
from  l,500toa,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  Cretaceous  conn- 
try  occupies  a  rather  small  triangular  area,  500  or  800  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  consist  of  plains  intersected  with  many 
deep  valleys,  A  considerable  portion  of  the  Tertiary  coun- 
try has  an  altitude  of  from  400  to  800  feet,  and  consists  of 
plains  with,  however,  some  higher  ridges;  but  the  country 
gradually  descends  to  near  sea-levcl. 

The  total  annual  value  of  mineral  products  according  to 
the  census  of  1S80  was  $553,913 ;  by  the  census  of  16»0  it 
was  J2.088,B35— an  increase  of  $2,435,022.  or  439-60  per 
cent.  In  the  mineral  resources  may  be  mentioned  exhaust- 
less  beds  of  mu-ble  of  excellent  quality.  Greorgia,  though 
only  lately  developing  this  source  of  wealth,  already  r 
fourth  among  the  States  in  marble  products.  Iron  ore: 
found  in  eihaustless  beds  all  over  the  northern  section  of 
the  Slate.  Extensive  coal-fields  are  to  be  found  in  North- 
west Geoi^ia,  corundum  and  abeslos  in  the  northeast ;  build- 
ing-stones and  slate  in  vast  abundance,  fire-clay.  IwBiiiite, 
and  other  materials  used  in  trade  and  art  are  to  be  found 
in  papng  tjuantitics.  Gold  mines  are  successfully  worked, 
and  there  is  a  vast  store  of  this  most  precious  of  metals  in 
the  soil  of  the  State.  The  clays  of  the  State  are  extremely 
variable  and  are  suitable  for  brick  and  tiles  of  all  kinds; 
fire-clay  occurs  in  all  the  great  groups  or  formations  de- 
scribeii,  and  some  of  these  are  naturally  white  and  form 
kaolin;  others  again  are  tinted.  The  principal  products  in 
1891  were  cement.  $40.000 ;  coal,  $256,500 ;  coke,  $231.878 ; 
gold.  $80.000 ;  granite,  $790.000 ;  iron  ores,  long  tons,  350.- 
755 ;  manganese  ores,  $27.82.'i ;  marble.  $27-i.OOC ;  pig  iron, 
short  tons.  55,841  ;  and  roofing  skte,  $I3,.W0. 

Soil,  ProdKclioiui,  fie. — Tbe  soils  of  Georgia  may  be  de- 
Kribed  as  the  red  and  brown  loams,  gray-gravelly  lands. 


sandy  lands  and  flatwoods  of  extreme  Northwest  Georgu: 
tbe  red-clay  lands  and  grav-sandy  lands  of  Middle  ui^ 
Northeast  Georgia;  the  red-clay  lands  (marl  beds);  it;- 
sandy  lands  of  Middle  and  Southern  Georgia;  uid  the!«vuj- 
and  palmetto  flats  of  the  coast.  Along  the  coast,  iiiibr 
ivial  lands  of  the  river  valleys,  and  in  the  bctt«r  pan-  r/ 
the  northern  section  of  the  State,  the  soil  is  fertile.  Tli- 
portion  of  the  soil  Is  of  medium  fertility.  Init  iita- 
lii^h  development.  The  forest  growth  is  red,  vhi!'. 
and  Spanish  oak.  hickory,  dogwood,  poplar,  cheetDuf.  iha 
pine;  the  agricultural  products  are  com,  oats,  wheat,  nn-. 
clover,  grasses,  and  long  and  short  staple  cotton.  Thi- 1.'^ 
low  pine  furnishes  a  large  proportion  of  the  wealth  (jF  XVr 
State,  the  cutting  of  lumber  and  the.  m^ing  of  turpcnii:. 
constituting  two  of  tbe  largest  and  most  profitable  iniii.- 
tries.  Savannah  and  Brunswick  are  the  largest  markii-* 
for  naval  stores  in  the  world. 

Oranges,  lemons,  pineapples,  bananas,  and  olive*  an'  pn'wr: 
to  perfection  in  the  southern  part.  The  growing  of  jvhi  lk^ 
grapes,  and  watermelons  (Georgia  being  the  home  of  '•■•■ 
best  varieties  of  both  melons  and  peaches)  has  beconiv  ^r. 
profitable.  A  profit  of  $100  an  acre  has  not  been  unii-iU.L 
Apples  are  successfully  raised  in  the  northern  portinii.  asA 
peejs,  cherries,  plums,  quinces,  strawberries,  and  other  frii!* 
are  grown  Bverywhcre.  Tobacco,  sugar-cane,  sorghum,  j-s- 
nuts,  and  Irish  and  sweet  potatoes  are  also  raised.  It^- 
methods  of  cultivation  have  much  improved,  and  the  ft- 
suits  are  encouraging. 


tionin  1892  was  4.030,114. 

Of  wild  animals,  etc.,  may  be  mentioned  tbe  black  >:il 
brown  bear  (very  scarce) ;  panther  and  wild  cat  in  North,  n 
Georgia,  but  very  few  of  either  species  are  left  The  t*- 
coon,  opossum,  rabbit,  and  squirrel  abound  everywhtn. 
Alligators  are  found  in  waters  of  the  extreme  southern  y.j- 
tion,  and  venomous  serpents  in  the  southern  swamjis. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Georgia  is  variable,  bnl  en^  i- 
ingly  healthful.  Its  range  embraces  quite  cold  wi-aif.-r 
with  snow  and  ice,  in  the  mountainous  regions  in  the  uor^t- 
em,  and  a  semi-tropical  temperature  in  the  southern  |<  r- 
tion.  Very  hot  or  very  cold  spells  are  rare,  and  the  rtiii.^ 
part  of  the  State  possesses  a  mild  and  invigorating  clini:i>. 
The  mean  for  January  for  the  State  is  about  90',  for  .tu ' 
80°,  and  for  the  year  about  65".  The  rainfall  for  the  S*..-. 
averages  about  48  inches,  the  fall  being  generally  dl?;:i'-- 
uted  throughout  the  year;  there  are  neither  wet  nor  ilr^ 
seasons,  the  driest  part  of  the  year  falling  in  September  ici 
October.  The  winters  are  usually  mild,  and  the  gaDiiii'-i>. 
while  warm  in  the  south,  are  never  excessively  so. 

Divisions, — For  administrative  purposes.  Georgia  i"  •\>- 
vided  into  137  counties,  as  follows: 


SEC 


Barlow  \\'.'. :  i-F 


Chattahoochee . .    6-F 


P.,. 

as*. 

^■^ 

m 

,i'^ 

li'iAi 

sIlRS 

MTM 

V^t 

».SM 

i-w 

ii-^ 

iK.ore 

19,9« 

Uilledgevoie!!'       l' 

C^nri^Hae . .  '-'■ 

Nuhilllr • 

Mdcon... &■ 

SS"::;;::    ': 

SlatHboro < 

Wai'iH«lHiro .- ,, 

Bt.Vivj-t.'.'.'.V. 
Fklrbiim..  .  . 
CarTollKin n 

Tni§Si  Hill. : ; : 

&avuub.  .   .       t' 

Fort  Oklww. . . 
Jone«horri — 
UooKTTiHe.. 
Msripita 

Mouftrir  ::,;■■ 

ApfUnr 

knoKriu'f  . . . .  - 

Trenton 

OamooTillr. . . 

BainbridBe 

«  map  OC  OwtbU. 


the  coast,  »nd  aeveo  toands  between  these  uid  the  main- 
land. The  coMt.  lor  30  miles  inland,  ia  low  and  swampji 
at  that  distance  it  ri«-s  by  a  ttrraec  formation  TO  I«  100  let't 
tor  ao  miles  more,  whcii  a  nerond  terracv  appears,  rising 


ttaal  oT  OeoTRia. 
paduftllj  to  ST5  teet  above  the  sea  in  Baldwin  CouDtjr,  160 
lx>  200  miles  from  the  sea.  Here  the  foot-hills  bei^iii  m"* 
rise  in  the  W.  and  N.  W,  to  3.500  and  4,000  (cet.  The 
mountain  district  oovers  25  counties,  lying  mostly  N,  W.  of 
the  ChMtaboochee.  The  hills  run  in  nMrly  parallel  ranges 
with  each  other,  though  with  outlying  spurs.  There  are 
many  beautiful  eal&racts  and  waterfalls  in  this  region, 

Gfoloffy,  Mintralg,  Mining,  tic. — Qeurgia  is  characterized 
by  tour  di:<tinct  belts,  representing; (o)  the  crystalline  rocks, 
iup|H>sed  to  be  Arehcan,  occupying  a  large  portion  of  the 
northeast  pari  of  the  Slate;  (ft)  the  Palsoioic  group  occur- 
ring only  m  (en  ctiunties,  in  the  extreme  northwest ;  (c)  the 
Cretaceous,  in  Ihe  middle  west  part  ot  the  State  around  Co- 
lumbus ;  (d)  the  Tertiary,  covering  the  entire  southeast  and 
south  part  ot  the  Stale.  A  larg«  portion  ot  the  country, 
unilerlaid  br  the  crystalline  mcks,  consists  ot  the  »>H^led 
Piedmont  ptaint,  or  a  gently  rolling  country  with  an  altitude 
of  from  700  to  1,200  or  1,300  teft  above  the  sea;  but  in  the 
more  norlbwi'snem  portion  of  this  belt  the  crystalline  rocks 
rise  into  bold  mountaina  interrupted  bv  valleys.  The  Pahe- 
OEoic  country  oiinsists  «t  a  number  of  broad  valleys  from 
800  to  1,000  feet  above  the  at 
few  hundred  fret  high,  and 
fn.m  l,.W0  to  2,000  twt  al«ve  the  sea.  The  Cretjicoous  coun- 
try occupies  a  rather  small  triangular  area,  500  <ir  600  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  consist  of  plains  interscclcil  with  many 
deep  valleys.  A  considerable  iwrtioti  of  the  Tertiary  coun- 
try has  an  altitude  ot  Imm  400  to  600  fet't,  and  consists  of 
plains  with,  however,  wirne  higher  riilgex;  but  the  country 
grailually  ilesuends  t<i  near  sra-level. 

The  total  annual  value  of  mineral  products  according  to 
the  census  of  IHMO  wiu  |L-%.'i:t.91.1 ;  by  Ihe  census  ot  imK)  it 
waa  $3,tiHH,035— an  increase  ot  $3,435,023.  or  430-60  i>er 
cent.  In  Ihe  mineral  n-uiurces  may  be  mentioned  exhaust- 
li-Hs  belts  ut  marlde  of  excellt-iit  igitality.  Georgia,  though 
only  lately  devi-luping  this  soun-e  of  wealth,  alreaily  ranks 
fourth  among  the  Siad's  in  marble  proilucts.  Iron  ores  are 
found  in  ciliausil.-«i  l^ls  all  over  the  northern  si-clion  ot 
the  Slate.  Kilen'ive  coal-Bclds  are  to  lie  found  in  North' 
wesi  (ii-<.r(,'iii.''i'riindum  and  alu-stos  iti  the  northea-st ;  build- 
iliK-M'iti.-K  unci  -lull'  in  vast  abundance.  nriM'tny,  beauxite, 
and  olhrr  iiiHtcriHl^  usol  in  tnule  ami  art  are  tii  be  found 


nandy  lands  and  fUtwoods  ot  eitreroc  XalUiwr<«  0~ta 
the  red-clay  lands  and  grBT-saody  lands  ot  Mhld*  u. 
Northeast  Geovia:  the  red-clay  lands  (mart  bn]>'.  '.■• 
sandy  lands  uf  Middle  and  Southern  Georgia;  and  ibr  wiu 
nas  and  palmetto  flats  of  the  coasL  Along  thirroait.lL  ■- 
alluvial  lands  ot  the  river  vallen,  and  in  ttw  brtla  pwt>  '  . 
be  northern  section  of  the  Sl^,  the  soil  i*  tmik.  TV 
Tcater  portion  of  Ihe  soil  is  of  medium  feniliii.  but  'if* 
lie  of  high  developmenL    The  forest  growth  a  rrd,  i'  ~ 


clover,  grasses,  and  long  and  short  staple  c<4t'i(L    Tbr 
low  pine  furnishes  a  Ivge  proportion  of  the  wtstih   t  _ 
State,  the  cutting  of  lumber  and  the  making  of  tores'.'-  1 
constituting  two  of  the  largest  and  must   proSlaUf  .t-l»- 
tries.    Savannah  and   Brunswick  are  the   larimt  mttvi 
tor  naval  stot^  in  the  world. 

Oranges,  lemons,  pineapples,  bananas,  and  olivfv  an  r-*i 

perfection  in  the  southern  part.  The  growing  ■•/  \*^^ 
grapes,  and  watermelons  (Georgia  being  Ibr  hi^w  •■!  '!• 
best  varieties  of  both  melons  and  peacht-i  ha*  beei^  i-- 
proHtable.  A  profit  of  |100  an  acre  hv  not  bn«  cn*-.i. 
Apples  are  successtuliy  raised  in  the  northfm  p>'n>c.  ^  . 
pears,  cherries,  plums,  quinces,  strawberrieo.  aod  i<b*r  t^  ■ 
are  grown  everywhere.  Tobacco,  sugar-cane,  MTghoa.  p* 
nuts,  and  Irish  and  sweet  potatoes  are  also  raw^  v 
methods  of  cultivation  have  much  improved,  ami  i^  •- 
suits  are  encouraging. 

The  principal  cereal  productions  are  Indian  n<n.  •>. 
and  wheat,  and  Ihe  total  area  of  these  cinw  ondcf  ra-:  'i- 
tionin  tH03  was  4,020,114. 

Of  wild  animals,  etc.,  may  be  menlionMl  the  black  &■' 
brown  bear  (very  scarce);  [lanlher  and  wild  cai  in  S'»t>- 
Georgia,  but  very  few  of  either  sprvie*  are  lefL  Tbt  •* 
coon,  opossum,  rabbit,  and  squirrel  alound  rirrywti!- 
AUigatorv  are  found  in  waters  of  the  eitrvme  wutlHre  p> 
tion.  and  venomous  servients  in  the  •nulbern  rwaiof*, 

Ctimatt. — The  climate  of  Georgia  is  variahW,  tat  tli* 
ingly  healthful.  Its  range  embraces  quite  n-U  «•»" 
with  snow  and  ice,  in  the  mountainous  refoooa  id  Ibr  »  ' 
era,  and  a  semi-tropical  temperature  in  the  HjotWn  •- 
tion.  Very  hot  or  very  cold  spells  are  rarr,  and  iW  tf*- ' 
part  of  the  Stale  poseeseeg  a  mild  and  invigiiraliiig  (t.r  •• 
The  mean  for  January  for  the  XUte  is  alwit  30  .  !•(  -.  ■ 
80°,  and  tor  the  year  about  65  .  The  rainfall  f or  tfe  •<. 
averages  about  48  inches,  the  UI  being  frr-Dcrally  iL-  '-' 
uted  throughout  the  year:  there  are  nrilhrr  w*<  »■<  .-r 
SeoHins.  the  driest  part  ot  the  year  falling  in  ><rMiRnt>"  ai 
October.  The  winters  are  usually  mild,  and  tbr  Matron 
while  waim  in  the  south,  are  never  ezcmivply  »v 

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GEORGIA 


GEORGIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


about  8,250,  with  a  membership  of  ab<Mit  320,000.  In  1890 
there  were  6,899  church  organizations,  having  7,008  church- 
es, about  700,000  members,  and  church  property  valued 
at  $8,228,060.  The  Baptists  have  8,966  churches,  valued 
at  $3,109,390 ;  the  Methodists  have  2,406  churches,  valued  at 
$2,783,267 ;  the  Presbyterians  have  201  churches,  valued  at 
$776,025 ;  the  Catholics  have  64  churches,  valued  at  $485,- 
123 ;  the  Protestant  Episcopalians  have  46  churches,  valued 
at  $492,300 ;  the  Conpregationalists  have  73  churches,  valued 
at  $75,350 ;  the  Disciples  of  Christ  have  64  churches,  valued 
at  $197,925 ;  Jewish  congregations  have  9  churches,  valued 
at  $159,000;  Lutherans  have  18  churches,  valued  at  $124,- 
150 ;  Christians,  2  churches ;  Christian  Scientists,  2  churches ; 
Spiritualists,  2  churches ;  Universalists,  15  churches. 

The  last  public  school  enumeration  (1898)  showed  that 
there  were  604,971  children  of  school  age,  which  is  six  to 
eighteen ;  of  these,  315,040  were  white  and  289,931  colored. 
The  enrollment  for  1892  was  415,647— whites,  253,942  ;  col- 
ored, 161,705.  The  amount  expended  in  1892  for  public 
schools  was  $1,664,191;  amount  available  for  1898  about 
$1,800,000.  There  are  7,700  public  schools.  There  are  22 
colleges,  having  about  4,500  pupils ;  the  State  University  at 
Athens  embraces  four  branch  colleges.  A  normal  school 
has  been  started  at  Athens  under  State  control.  A  girls' 
normal  and  industrial  college  and  an  industrial  college  for 
colored  students  have  been  established  by  the  State.  A 
school  of  technology  has  been  established  at  Atlanta  as  a 
branch  of  the  State  university.  These  institutions  are  ad- 
mirably conducted,  are  well  equipped,  and  are  growing. 
There  are  six  colleges  for  colored  students  (included  in  the 
above  total).  Percentage  of  illiteracy  (1893)  is  11  white  and 
27  colored ;  average,  18. 

Charitcbble  and  Penal  Institutiona, — Of  charitable  insti- 
tutions, Georgia  has  an  asylum  for  lunatics,  with  about  1,500 
inmates,  under  control  of  a  board  of  trustees  and  directlv 
managed  by  a  su])erintendcnt,  and  is,  in  common  with  all 
State  institutions,  mspected  by  the  Legislature  at  every  ses- 
sion; an  institute  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  with  70  white 
and  30  colored  inmates,  and  an  institute  for  the  blind,  with 
72  white  and  17  colored  inmates,  both  under  management 
simiUr  to  that  of  the  asylum.  All  are  supported  by  yearly 
appropriations  by  the  Legislature.  The  convicts  of  the 
State  are  not  confined  in  the  penitentiary,  buiare  leased  out 
to  companies  formed  for  the  purpose.  Leases  expire  in 
1899.  There  are  2,170  State  convicts.  In  all  jails  and 
workhouses,  etc.,  in  1890,  there  were  2,938  prisoners,  of 
whom  2,596  were  colored — 2,784  males  and  154  females. 

There  were  901  paupers  in  almshouses — 398  male  and  508 
female,  and  738  inmates  of  various  benevolent  institutions — 
313  males,  425  females. 

History. — Georgia  was  one  of  the  thirteen  original  States, 
but  was  settled  much  later  than  the  others ;  patent  for  it 

f  ranted  to  Oglethorpe,  Whitefleld,  the  Wesleys,  et  al,^  June 
,  1732;  first  colony  (120  persons)  came  in  1733;  objects  of 
the  colony,  to  establish  a  uarrier  between  the  Spanish  and 
Indians  on  the  S.  and  South  Carolina  and  North  Carolina 
on  the  N.,  and  to  provide  a  refuge  for  the  needy  and  desti- 
tute, and  especially  pcwr  debtoi's,  orphans,  and  friendless 
children  and  vouth ;  the  latter  obiect  was  Whitefield*s.  Sa- 
vannah founded  in  1733 ;  the  colony  was  at  first  military 
and  the  colonists  received  their  lands  on  condition  of  mili- 
tary service :  this  occasioned  discontent,  and  the  colonists 
deserted  to  North  Carolina;  the  policy  was  changed,  and  50 
acres  of  land  offered  free  to  settlers,  and  manv  Scotch  and 
German  emigrants  came  in.  War  between  (ireat  Britain 
and  Spain  1739-43 ;  Oglethorpe  attacked  Spaniards  in  Flor- 
ida in  1739,  but  the  expedition  was  a  failure;  Spaniards  at- 
tacked Savannah  in  1742,  but  were  alarmed  by  Oglethorpe's 
stratagems,  and  returned  to  Florida;  after  the  peace  Geor- 
gians demanded  slaves,  which  had  bt»en  prohibited  to  them ; 
in  1752  the  trustees  surrendered  the  colony  to  the  crown, 
and  Negro  slavery  was  permitted ;  progress  of  the  colony 
rapid  for  next  twentv  years;  in  1736  the  commerce  of  the 
colony  amounted  to  ^741,615,  and  in  1775  to  $1,086,270.  It 
was  at  this  time  that  Georgia,  not  itself  suffering  from  Brit- 
ish oppression,  from  sympathy  for  the  other  colonies  made 
common  lot  with  them  in  the  Uevolutionary  war.  During 
that  war  (Jeorgia  suffered  severely :  was  overrun  by  British 
troops;  Savannah  captured  in  1778,  Augusta  and  Sudbury 
in  1779;  Savannah  held  by  British  till  close  of  the  war,  de- 
spite the  efforts  of  the  Americans  and  French  to  retake  it. 
Georgia  formed  first  constitution  in  1777,  second  in  1785, 
the  third,  which  with  some  amendments  lasted  till  1861,  in 
1798,  and  another  in  1877;  U.  S.  Constitution  ratified  in 


Jan.,  1788,  There  was  some  difficulty  with  Creeks  ai  .i 
Cherokees  1783-90,  but  treaties  of  peace  with  them  W4!> 
concluded  in  1790  and  1791,  and  in  1802  the  Creeks  wth  W 
to  the  U.  S.  what  now  constitutes  the  finest  counties  «•' 
Southwestern  Georgia;  these  lands  were  subsequently  as- 
signed to  Georgia,  and  the  State  in  turn  relinquished  t«> 
the  U.  S.  all  its  claims  W.  of  the  Chattahoochee — i.  v 
Alabama  and  Mississippi.  In  1860  Georgia  followtni  tii' 
lead  of  South  Carolina,  and  seceded  in  Jan.,  1861,  thi»nj' 
with  a  large  minority  in  opposition ;  took  an  active  part  i- 
the  civil  war;  from  the  battle  of  Chickamauga  in  Sept.,  Wl-' 
to  the  winter  of  1864-65  it  was  almost  constantly  tno  m«  •  • 
of  conflict ;  Sherman's  mareh  to  Atlanta  and  his  inan*h  u 
the  sea  were  both  almost  entirely  in  its  territory ;  Sa>  au- 
nah  captured  Dec,  1864.  Georgia  repealed  the  act  of  .sih*-- 
sion  Oct.  80,  1865;  a  new  constitution  was  adopted,  and  tr.* 
Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S. 
ratified,  but  Congress  was  dissatisfied  with  Georgia's  con^ti- 
tution,  the  State  was  put  under  military  rule,  and  a  n^^w 
constitutional  convention  was  ordered,  which  fornietl  t re- 
present constitution,  ratified  in  1868.  The  St«te  was  n*- 
stored  to  the  Union  on  its  ratification  of  the  Fourtttrr^ 
Amendment  in  1868-69,  but  on  its  refusal  to  ratify  tr.- 
Fifteenth  Amendment  was  again  put  under  military  Hi i«  . 
on  compliance  with  this  demand  it  was  reinstate<l.  Tt.< 
great  National  Exposition  of  cotton  and  other  South«n. 
products  at  Atlanta  in  the  autumn  of  1881  gave  its  a^:-.- 
cultural  and  manufacturing  interests  a  very  wonderful  i-:  ■ 
pulse.  The  following  list  embraces  all  the  Governors  -i 
Georgia  since  the  adoption  of  the  U.  S.  Constitution  : 

Geocge  Walton 1789-90 

Edward  Telfair 1790-93 

Oeorge  Matthews 1798-96 

Jared  Irwin 1796-98 

Jaraefi  Jackson 1796-1801 

David  Emanuel  (acting). .        18U1 

Josiah  Tatnall 1801-02 

JohnMilledge 1802-06 

Jared  Irwin 1806-09 

David  B.  Mitchell 1809-18 

Peter  Early 1818-18 

David  B.  Mitchell 1815-17 

WiUiam  Rabun 1817-19 

Matthew  Talbot  (acting). .       1 81 9 

John  Clarke 1819-28 

George  M.  Troup 1888-«7 

John  Forsyth 1827-89 

Oeorge  R.  Oilmer 1829-81 

Wilson  Lumpkin 1881-85 

William  Schley 1885-87 

George  K.  Gilmer 1887-80 

Charles  J.  McDonald 1889-48 

George  W.  Crawford 184S-47 

George  W.  Towns 1847-51 

William  J.  North  ex. 

Oeonrla,  Gulf  of :  the  body  of  water  between  the  m*-  • 
land  of  British  Columbia  and  Vancouver  island.     It  niMv  - 
regarded  as  a  northward  extension  of  Puget  Sound.    ^ 
Strait  of  San  Juan  de  Fuca  is  the  southern  entrance  to  :- 
gulf  and  to  Puget  Sound.    Queen  Charlotte's  Sound  i^  tr 
northern  entrance.    The  Gulf  of  Georgia  is  a  sound  or  <•!■  v  • 
nel,  rather  than  a  gulf,  is  100  miles  long,  and  in  some  pla.  -> 
20  miles  broad. 

Georgian  Bay:  the  easternmost  portion  of  Lake  II n* 
lying  within  the  province  of  Ontario,  Canada,  and  st»i»ar..'. 
from  the  rest  of  the  lake  by  the  Great  Manitoulin  islaii'l  .f. 
by  a  peninsula  (Cabot's  Head)  which  extends  N.  from  Br:  • 
County,  Ontario.    The  bay  was  formerly  called  Lake  Mai  • 
toulin'    Length,  120  miles;  breadth,  50  miles. 

Georgian  Language  and  Literature:  the  speech  ^:  ' 
literature  of  a  branch  of  the  Caucasian  family, and  with  -.r 
Mingn^liaa,  Lasian,and  Suanian,  it  constitutes  the  s^uitn  ': 
group  of  the  family.  The  language  is  spread  over  a  «H)n«'.-  r- 
able  extent  of  territory,  occupying  the  greater  jwirt  f 
Transcaucasia,  and  has  a  numner  of  subdivisions  or  i.c 
lects.  The  tongue  is  somewhat  rugge<l  and  harsh,  but  • 
interesting  to  the  philologist. 

On  the  authority  of  Anton  Schiefner  and  P.  V.  I  '»' 
{Academie  Imperiale  des  Sciences  de  St.  Peiersbourtj,  \<"' 
seq.),  the  Georgian,  with  the  other  Caucasian  liuiguaL*^r>-.  - 
l)est  chissified  as  distinct  from  the  Indo-European  fan :  ' 
The  speech  presents  certain  similarities  to  the  Baxpi'    ' 
stnu'ture,  but  none  in  vocabulary.    Some  of  its  chanc  '  * 
istics  are  of  the  agglutinative  type  ;  but,  on  the  other  b:  ■ 
with  its  simple  declension,  the  same  for  noun,  adj<H»tivc.  a 

Eronoun,  it  presents  an  inflectional  stage  that  appron. '  - 
ut  is  earlier  than  that  found  in  the  Indo-European  fnsi    ' 
The  alphabet  is  based  on  the  Armenian,  and,  like  the  v 


Howell  Cobb 

Herscbel  V.  Johnaon 

Joseph  E.  Brown 

Jas.  Johnson  (prov.) 

Charles  J.  Jenkina 

Gen.  T.  H.  Ruger  (prov.). 

Rufus  B.  Bullock 

Benjamin  Ocmley  (acting) 

James  Milton  Smith 

Alfred  H.  ColquiU 

Alex.  H.  Stephens 

J.  S.  Boynton  (acting) 

Henry  D.  McDanleL 

John  B.  Gordon 

WUliam  J.  Northen. 


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742 


GERARD 


GERHART 


following  year,  after  the  victory  of  Bautzen,  was  named  by 
Napoleon  a  count  of  the  empire ;  commanded  the  army  of 
the  Moselle  1815,  and  was  with  Grouchy  in  that  cam- 
paign ;  returned  to  France  1817 :  was  made  War  Minister 
and  marshal  1830 ;  reduced  Antwerp  1832  ;  became  a  peer 
of  France  1832,  Prime  Minister  1884;  commander  of  the  na- 
tional guard  1888 ;  senator  1852.    D.  at  Paris,  Apr.  17, 1852. 

Gerard,  FRANgois  Pascal,  Baron :  historical  and  por- 
trait painter;  b.  of  French  parents  in  Rome,  Mar.  14, 
1770.  Pupil  of  the  sculptor  Pajou,  of  Brenet,  and  David  ; 
second  Prix  de  Rome  1TO9 ;  executed  important  works  for 
Napoleon,  who  appointed  him  official  portrait-painter; 
member  of  the  Institute  1812;  was  patronized  by  Louis 
XVIII.  and  Charles  X. ;  created  baron  1819.  Several  large 
canvases,  including  Hie  Battle  of  Austerlitz  (1810)  and  a 
number  of  portrait,  are  in  the  Versailles  Museum.  D.  in 
Paris,  Jan.  11, 1837.  W.  A.  C. 

Gerard  de  Nerval,  zha'raar'de-nSr'vaal' :  the  pseudonym 
of  GERARD  Labrunie;  author;  b.  in  Pari9,  May  21, 1808. 
He  made  his  literary  debut  with  a  series  of  poems  which  he 
called  eligiea  rMtioTwIes,  and  which  attracted  some  attention 
on  account  of  their  controversial  character.  But  his  fii-st 
great  literary  success  was  his  translation  of  Goethe's  Faust, 
which  the  old  poet  himself  pronounced  a  marvel  of  style, 
and  from  which  Berlioz  borrowed  some  of  the  choruses  in 
his  Damnation  of  Faust,  He  also  wrote  some  original 
dramas,  and  was  a  steady  contributor  to  the  Presse  and  the 
It&uue  des  Deux  Mondes ;  but  toward  the  close  of  his  life  he 
became  insane,  and  he  finally  committed  suicide  in  Paris, 
Jan.  25,  1855.  A  collected  edition  of  his  Works  appeared 
in  Paris  in  1868,  in  five  volumes. 

Gera'sa  (Arabic,  Jerash) :  a  ruined  city  20  miles  E.  of 
the  Jordan;  in  a  shallow  valley  about  5  miles  N.  of  the 
Zerka  (ancient  Jahhok\  and  about  the  same  distance  N.  E. 
of  Dibbin,  or  Dhib^,  where  the  Moabite  Stone  was  found 
in  1868.  This  place'  is  not  spoken  of  in  the  Bible.  It  is  first 
mentioned  by  Josephus  {Jew,  War,  1,  4,  8)  as  captured  by 
Alexander  Jannaeus  (105-78  b.  c.)  about  85  b.  c.  It  was  one 
of  the  ten  cities  of  Decapolis,  Having  been  twice  destroyed, 
it  was  rebuilt  with  great  splendor  in  the  time  of  the  Anto- 
nines  (138rl80  a.  d.).  Its  ruins  are  the  most  extensive  and 
beautiful  E.  of  the  Jordan.  Its  walls,  in  places  of  the  orig- 
inal height,  with  three  of  the  ancient  ^teways  nearly  per- 
fect, inclose  a  square  of  about  a  mile.  Inside  are  ruins  of  a 
forum,  and  of  baths,  theaters,  and  temples.  More  than  230 
columns  still  remain  upon  their  pedestals.  Among  the 
ruins  are  the  remains  of  a  Christian  church.  A  bishop  of 
Gerasa  attended  the  Council  of  Seleucia  in  359,  another 
that  of  Chalcedon  in  451.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Gerberon,  ehSrb'rdn',  Gabriel:  theologian;  b.  at  St.- 
Galais,  in  the  department  of  Sarthe,  Aug.  12,  1628.  He  en- 
tered the  Benedictine  congregation  of  St.  Maur  in  1649,  and 
taught  philosophy  in  various  schools  of  the  order,  but 
espoused  Jansenism  so  openly  in  his  Miroir  de  la  pietS  chrS- 
tienne  (Brussels,  1676)  that  the  fury  of  the  Jesuits  was 
aroused,  and  jie  had  to  fiee  for  his  life.  For  twenty -five 
years  he  lived  in  various  cities  in  the  Netherlands,  and  pub- 
lished a  great  number  of  books  (of  which  the  best  known  is 
his  Jlistoire  gSnerale  du  Jansenisine^  Amsterdam,  1700),  but 
was  in  1703  arrested  in  Brussels  at  the  instance  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Malines  and  kept  in  prison  until  he  recanted. 
Shortly  before  his  death,  however,  he  recalled  his  recanta- 
tion.   D.  at  St.-Denis,  Mar.  29,  1711. 

Ger'bil  [from  Mod.  Lat.  gerhilln^,  dimin.  of  gerhua  (or 
jerboa),  from  Arab,  yarbii,  gerbil.  jerboa] :  a  name  applied 
to  various  members  of  the  sub-family  Gerbillinte,  a  group  of 
rat-like  rodents,  found  mostly  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Eastern 
Europe.  They  have  long  bushy  t^ils,  long  hind  \im\ys,  and 
large  auditorv  bulhe.  Tlu»y  are  active  in  their  movements, 
and  are  usually  of  a  delicate  shade  of  brown  or  fawn  color, 
but  frequently  possess  an  offensive  odor.  These  animals 
are  nocturnal  in  habit  and  dwell  in  burrows,  where  they 
store  up  considerable  quantities  of  grain.  P.  A.  L. 

Gerboa :  See  Jerboa. 

Gerfalcon,  jor'faw-k'n,  or  GyrTalcon:  the  Falco  gyr- 
falco  of  Iceland,  Scandinavia,  Asia,  and  North  America, 
one  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  of  the  noble  falcons  used 
in  hawking;  was  trained  with  great  difliculty,  and  com- 
manded a  very  high  price.  It  is  about  2  feet  long,  and  has 
mostly  white  plumage,  especially  when  full  grown.  There 
are  several  closely  related  si)ecies,  among  tnern  Falco  is- 
landus  and  Falco  candicans.    See  Falcon. 


Gerhard,  gSr'haart,  Eduabd  :  Greek  and  Roman  an*hd<- 
ologist ;  b.  at  Posen,  Prussia,  Nov.  29,  1795.  Studied  in 
Breslau  and  in  Berlin  under  Boeckh;  privat  docent  in 
Breslau  in  1816.  After  1819  he  traveled  repeatedljr  to  Ituh. 
In  1829  he  founded  the  Roman  Archa^logical  Institute,  hi 
1844  he  was  appointed  archaeologist  of  the  Berlin  Museum. 
to  the  organization  of  which  he  largely  contributed,  and 
professor  at  the  university.  He  is  not^  as  the  author  of  An- 
tike  Bildwerke  (Stuttgart,  1827-44,  with  140oopper-plati*<^); 
Griechische  Vasenbilder  (4  vols.,  with  880  plates,  183ft-5>*j; 
Etruscan  Mirrors)  4  vols.,  860  plates,  1848-68) ;  Greek  My- 
thology (2  vols.,  1885).  His  many  original  contributions  havt- 
now  onlv  an  historical  interest.  D.  May  12, 1867.  See  O.  Jahn. 
Eduard  Gerhard  (Berlin,  1868).  Alfred  Gudkman. 

Gerhard,  Johann  :  theologian ;  b.  at  Quedlinburg,  Sax- 
on v,  where  his  father  was  burgomaster  or  mayor,  Oct.  17. 
15§2;  John  Amdt  was  the  pastor  of  his  boyhood;  stuflini 
theology  in  Wittenberg,  Jena,  and  Marburg ;  was  su|)erin- 
tendent,  and  subsequently  superintendent-general,  of  Saxe- 
Coburg  1606-16;  returned  then  to  Jena  as  Professor  i>f 
Theology.  D.  there  Aug.  17,  1687.  His  Loci  Commune* 
llieologici  (1610-21)  is  tne  fullest  exposition  of  Lutheran 
theology  ever  published,  characterized  by  erudite  thorough- 
ness, transparent  clearness,  and  comprehensiveness.  \W 
combines  sound  judgment,  devout  spirit,  and  enormous  in- 
dustry. His  Ateditationes  Sacrm  (1606)  is  a  devotiona] 
work,  collecting  the  choicest  sentences  from  patristic  hvA 
mediasval  writers.  He  wrote  a  very  extensive  controversial 
work  against  Roman  Catholicism  entitled  Confessio  Cath- 
olica,  and  completed  the  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  begun  hy 
Chemnitz  and  continued  by  Lyser. 

'  Revised  by  Henbt  E.  Jacobs. 

Gerhardt,  Charles  Fb^d^ric  :  chemist ;  b.  at  Strassburc;. 
which  at  that  time  belonged  to  France,  Aug.  18,  1816; 
studied  chemistry  under  Liebig;  was  a  professor  at  Mcnt- 
pellier  1844-48;  pursued  chemical  investigaticms  in  Par:> 
lor  some  years,  and  was  1855-56  Professor  of  Chemi>lry 
and  Pharmacy  at  Strassburg.  His  Traiti  de  ehimie  orgnn- 
ique  (4  vols.,  1853-66)  is  a  work  of  great  value.  GerhaniiV 
immortalitv  rests  upon  the  reform  in  chemical  notation  in- 
augurated by  him,  but  his  early  death  left  the  work  incom- 
plete.   D.  at  Strassburg,  Aug.  19,  1856. 

Gerhardt,  Paul:  German  hvmn-writer;  b.  at  Grafen- 
hainichen.  Saxony,  Mar.  12, 160t.  He  studied  theolog}-  at 
Wittenberg,  and  was  appointed  pastor  at  Mittenswalde  in 
1651  and  at  the  Church  of  St.  Nicolai  in  Berlin  in  1657.  A< 
he  refused  to  subscribe  to  the  edicts  of  June  2,  1662.  an>i 
Sept.  16,  1664,  which  he  considered  as  attempts  to  unite  th^ 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches,  he  was  dismissed  in 
1666,  but  was  in  the  following  vear  made  archdeac*on  <>[ 
Ltlbben.  A  critical  collection  of  his  131  hymns  has  Wfv. 
made  by  Dr.  J.  F.  Bachmann  (1866) ;  there  are  other  edition^ 
by  Wackernagel,  GSdeke,  and  Gerok.  Many  of  his  hynin^ 
have  been  translated  into  English  (by  Rev.  John  Weslf). 
Miss  V.  Winckworth,  Rev.  Dr.  J.  W.  Alexander,  and  KeV. 
John  Kelly)  and  incorporated  with  collections  of  hvmns,  as 
for  instance,  0  Sacred  Head,  now  Wounded ;  Oh,  how  h/hkV 
I  Receive  Theef',  Give  to  ths  Winds  thy  Fears,  etc.  Therv 
is  also  a  complete  translation  by  John  Kelly,  I\iul  Gerhardt* 
Spiritual  Songs  (London,  1867).  ''He  went  back."  i^a}^ 
Gervinus,  "to  Luther's  most  genuine  type  of  hymn  as  r..- 
one  else  had  done,  only  so  far  modified  as  the  requiremt'iit."^ 
of  his  times  demanded.*'  The  Life  of  Gerhardt  was  writt.  :■ 
by  Wildenhahn  (Basel,  1844;  translated  into  English.  Phila- 
delphia, 1881);  also  by  Becker  (Leipzig,  1880);  and  Wangt- 
mann  (Berlin,  1884).    D.  at  Ltlbben,  June  7,  1676. 

Revised  by  Henry  E.  Jacobs 

Oerhart,  Emanuel  Vooel,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  a  minister  hvA 
author  in  the  Reformed  (German)  Church  in  the  U.  S  . 
b.  in  Freeburg,  Pa.,  June  13,1817;  graduated  from  Mar- 
shall College  (1888)  and  the  Mercersburg  Theological  Sm- 
inary  (1841).  After  several  years  of  pastoral  and  missionan 
wort  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  he  became  in  1851  pnM- 
dcnt  of  Heidelberg  College,  and  Professor  of  Systematic  arii 
Practical  Theology  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Titli*, 
O.  Here  he  served  till  1855.  He  was  president  of  Prank.i.i. 
and  Marshall  College,  and  Professor  of  Mental  and  Mora. 
Philosophv  there  1855-66,  and  remained  there  as  profe>'^  r 
two  years  longer.  Since  1868  he  has  been  Professor  of  Sv^ti- 
matic  and  Practical  Theology  in  the  Mercersburg  ThtH^ 
logical  Seminary  (removed  to  Lancaster  in  1871).  Be<i'^•« 
many  addresses,  pamphlets,  and  articles,  he  published  J"-- 
losophy  and  Logic  (Philadelphia,  1858);  a  monograph 


•  c 


744 


GERMAN  EMPIRE,  THE 


(Berlin,  1891) ;  Meyer's  Across  East  African  Glaciers  (trans- 
lated, London) ;  Westphal's  Sanzibar  und  das  deutsche  Ost- 
afrika;  Ueichskrd's  Deutsch-Ostafrika  (Leipzig,  1892);  and 
the  Deutsche  Kolonialzeitung.  C.  C.  Adams. 

German  Empire,  The:  the  empire  established  in  1871 
by  the  union  of  the  German  states  of  Central  Europe  under 
the  leadership  of  Prussia.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  North 
Sea,  DenmarK  (Jutland),  and  the  Baltic;  E.  by  Russian 
Poland  and  Galicia ;  S.  by  Austria  from  the  Vistula  to  the 
Li^e  of  Constance,  and  by  Switzerland ;  and  W.  by  Prance, 
Luxembourg,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands.  It  lies  be- 
tween lats.  AT  16'  and  55"  53'  N.  and  Ions.  5"  25'  and  22"  25' 
E.  of  Greenwich,  and  a  diagonal  line  drawn  across  it  from 
S.  W.  to  N.  E.  measures  862  English  miles.  The  area  of  the 
empire  amounts  to  208,738  English  sq.  miles.  The  popula- 
tion numbered  49,428,470  at  the  census  of  Dec.  1, 1890.  The 
table  below  gives  the  figures  for  the  separate  states : 


STATES. 


Prussia 

Bavaria 

Wartemberg 

Saxony 

Baden 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin 

Hesse 

Oldenbure 

Brunswick 

Saxe- Weimar 

MecklenbuTK-Strelitz 

Saxe-Meinin^n 

Anbalt 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 

Saxe- Altenburg 

Waldeck. 

Ldppe 

Schwarzburg-RudolBtadt 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen . . 

Heufls-Schleiz 

Scbaumburg-Lippe 

Keuss-Oreiz. 

Hamburg 

Bremen L  •  •  < 

Alsace-Lorraine -. 


ATM. 


,•-? 


*f  ♦. 


184,468 
88,288 

7,628 

6,787 

5,821 

5,187 

2,065 

2,479 

1,424 

1,888 

1,181 

958 

906 

756 

511 

482 

469 

868 

888 

819 

181 

..122- 

158 

6,668 


FepnlAtloB. 


29,957.867 

6,594,982 

2,036,522 

8,602,684 

1,667,867 

578,842 

992,883 

854,968 

408,773 

326,091 

97,978 

228,882 

271,963 

206,513 

170,864 

128,495 

57,281 

85,863 

75,510 

119,811 

-  89.168 

•  62,754 

622.580 

76,485 

180,443 

1,603,606 


InhaUtanU 
to  1  iq.  m. 


223 

191 
270 
606 
885 
118 
835 
143 
288 
285 
87 
286 
800 
278 
832 
182 
874 
286 
287 
276 
299 
514 

8,949 
666 

1,823 
888 


Surface, — With  respect  to  its  surface,  Germany  consists 
of  three  different  regions — th^alpine  region  along  the  south- 
ern frontier,  the  mountain  region  of  Central  Germany,  and 
the  North  German  lowland.  Of  the  Alps,  only  some  of  the 
less  elevated  northern  ranges  befong  to  the  empire — those 
which  extend  from  the  Lake  of  Constance  eastward  to  the 
vicinity  of  Salzburg  on  the  Salzach.  The  westernmost  of 
these  ranges  are  known  as  the  Algauer  Alps.  These  "Ore 
grandest  near  the  sources  of  the  Stillach  and  the  Trettach, 
which  form  the  lUer ;  here  the  Bavarian  territory  stretches 
far  into  Tyrol,  and  on  the  frontier  rise  the  Mftdeler  Gabel 
(8,670  feet)  and  Hoch  Vogel  (8,494  feet).  The  Bavarian  Alps 
extend  from  the  Lech  eastward  to  the  Inn ;  the  Zuff  Spitze 
is  the  highest  peak  of  the  empire  (9,515  feet).  The  Salz- 
burger  Alps,  E.  of  the  Inn,  and  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  empire  (Bavaria),  are  most  remarkable  at  Reichenhall 
and  Berchtesgaden,  two  places  in  the  vicinity  of  Salzburg, 
among  magnificent  alpine  surroundings.  To  the  S.  of  Berch- 
tesgaden, which  lies  1,900  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is 
situated  the  King's  Lake,  the  most  beautiful  lake  of  the  em- 
pire, 1,980  feet  above  the  sea,  in  the  center  of  a  magnificent 
landscape,  in  which  arise  to  the  W.  the  Watzmann  (8,900 
feet)  and  to  the  S.,  but  within  the  Austrian  frontier,  the 
St<)ne  Sea  (8,950  feet),  and  the  mountain  of  Hochkonig  (9,312 
feet). 

Along  the  northern  terminations  of  the  Alps  the  Swabian- 
Bavarian  plateau  extends ;  to  the  S.  W.  it  stretches  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  the  empire  into  Switzerland,  as  far  as  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  and  to  the  E.,  in  Austria,  it  connects  with 
the  plain  of  the  March  and  the  Hungarian  lowlands.  A 
fine  hilly  landscape  spreads  along  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  dotted 
with  beautiful  lakes  (Ammcr,  Wllrra,  and  Chiem  in  Bavaria) ; 
to  the  S.  of  the  Ammer  Jjake  the  Hohe  Peissenberg  (8,185 
feet)  offers  a  splendid  prospect.  Otherwise  the  plateau  is 
uniform,  and  even  more  monotonous  than  many  parts  of 
the  North  German  lowland.  Large,  partly  uncultivated 
swamps  are  found  in  several  places:  tnose  below  Munich 
(1,700  feet  above  the  sea)  include  the  Dachau  Moss  on  the 
left  and  the  Erdinger  Moss  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Isar, 
and  between  Ulm  and  Ingolsladt  the  intricate  Danube 
swamps.  The  fertility  of  tlie  plateau  is  very  slight  in  the 
center,  around  Munich,  where  large  forests  abound,  but  very 


^reat  between  the  Inn  and  the  Danube,  especially  at  Stnml - 
ing,  the  granary  of  Bavaria.  Those  parts  of  the  plat*  au 
which  belong  to  Wilrtemberg  are  more  varied  with  hills  ai.d 
vales,  but  even  there  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  not  g^rear. 
The  climate'  is  generally  rough,  and  vine-cultivation  .sl.*- 
ceeds  only  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  plateau,  at  the  L&k** 
of  Constance. 

The  mountains  of  Central  Germany  are  separated  frcrn 
the  Alps  by  the  Swabian-Bavarian  plateau,  but  coniitH-t*'<l 
with  the  Carpathian  Mountains  between  the  sources  of  W.r 
Oder  and  the  Vistula.    They  consist  of  three  8)stenis  :  tl.t^ 
Rhenish- Westphalian  slate  mountains,  or  the  ^tavian  >>'}  — 
tem;  the  Rhenish  system;  and  the  Hercynian  or  Sudrri- 
system.    (1)  The  Rhenish- Westphalian,  or  the  Batavian  sys- 
tem, is  of  no  considerable  height,  but  is  cleft  by  many  det  p 
river- valleys.     It  occupies  parts  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  We>t- 
phalia,  and  Hesse-Nassau,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Rhint^, 
which  between  Bingen  and  Bonn  forms  a  deep  and  ofr^n 
very  narrow  valley.    To  the  W.  of  the  Rhine  the  Moi^*ll»* 
forms  in  the  slate  mountains  a  deep  and  very  winding  valhv 
between  Trier  and  Coblenz,  separating  the  HunsrQek  from 
the  Eifel.  The  southern  boundaries  of  the  system  are  desig- 
nated by  the  coal-hills  of  SaarbrQck,  at  the  sou  them  nMist 
g)int  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  the  beautiful  grc»up  of  the 
onners  Berg  (2,267  feet)  in  Rhenish  Bavaria.    N.  of  the 
Moselle,  the  Eifel  forms  a  plateau,  the  highest  point  of  win-  h 
is  the  Hohe  Acht  (2,493  feet).    The  northwestern  part  of 
Eifel,  the  Hohe  Venn  (2.280  feet),  situated  S.  of  Aix-U- 
Chapelle,  is  entirely  bare,  and  constitutes  the  most  inho^f-!- 
table  region  of  the  empire.    On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rliiur* 
the  hill-ranges  of  the  Hunsrtick  are  continued  bv  those  <.f 
Taunus.  They  are  rich  in  forests  and  mineral  springs,  sIojk- 
rather  abruptly  to  the  S.,  toward  the  lowland  of  the  ui»pt-r 
Rhine,  and  to  the  E.,  toward  the  Wetterau,  but  rise  in  F*!*]- 
berg  to  the  height  of  2,890  feet,  and  are  celebrated  for  tli*  :r 
magnificent  vmeyards,  especially  along  the  foot    of   tht 
western  part  of  them,  the  so-called  Rhinegau,at  Rfldoshoiin. 
Johannisberg,  and  Assmannshausen.    (2)  The  Rhenish  s>s- 
tem  follows  the  course  of  the  Rhine  from  Basel  to  Mainz, 
whence  it  continues  in  the  same  direction,  but  to  the  E.  cf 
the  slate  mountains,  to  the  Weser.    With  its  two  higli»'s: 
branches,  the  Vosges  and  the  Black  Forest,  it  incloses  the 
low  plain  of  the  upper  Rhine,  which  stretches  on  both  sidf-s 
of  this  river  from  Basel  to  Mainz,  and  which  must  be  c'«  >d- 
sidered  as  the  finest  region  of  Germany,  on  account  of  t  ht^ 
fertility  of  the  soil,  the  mild  climate,  the  excellent  fruit,  and 
the  superior  wine.    Although  the  Vosges  in  Alsace-Ix^rraine 
and  France,  and  the  Black  Forest  in  Baden  and  WGrtoiu- 
berg,  are  separated  by  the  low  plain  of  the  upper  Rliine. 
they  show   manv   similarities ;   the   same   heignt^ — Suizer 
Belchen  in  the  Vosges  is  4,680  feet,  Feldberg  in  the  Bla<  k 
Forest  4,900  feet;  the  same  abrupt  descent  toward  the  })l.Mm 
in  the  re^ons  of  the  older  formation,  and  the  same  geiitx^ 
declivity  m  those  of  the  later ;  the  same  construction — gran- 
ite, gneiss,  and  Devonian  strata  in  the  higher  parts,  tiiou^'h 
the  latter  are  more  prominent  in  the  Black  Forest,  the  fornur 
in  the  Vosges.    Also  the  beauties  of  nature,  the  tradition^ 
and  the  rums  are  similar,  though  they  certainly  are  minh 
richer  in  the  Vosges.  But  while  uie  Black  Forest  entirely  iliv 
appears  between  Carlsruhe  and  Pforzheim,  the  Vosges  rearL 
to  the  latitude  of  Strassburg  in  their  full  height,  and  ("n- 
tinue  then  through  lower  formations  of  red  sandstone  int.. 
Rhenish  Bavaria,  where  at  Kaiserslautem  a  connection  tak.^ 
place  with  the  slate  mountains.    To  the  E.  of  the  low  fiLiin 
a  small  range  of  hills  connects  the  Black  Forest  with  Odn 
Wald,  which,  chiefly  extending  between  the  Neckar  and  \\x 
Main,  encircles  Heidelberg,  and  is  separated  from  the  Sfh>- 
sart  by  the  Main.  Odenwald  and  Spessart  are  also  verv  simi- 
lar, being  of  the  same  height  (about  2,000  feet)  anrl  sani." 
formation,  sandstone  prevailing,  with  granite  and  gneiss  -  ii 
the  western  side.    E.  of  the  sandstone  formation  folli'W>. 
from  Heidelberg  to  Nuremberg,  a  formation  of  shell-liii  t- 
stone  and  red  sandstone,  the  Swabian-Franconian  terract*. 
This  region  of  terraces  extends  as  far  as  the  Jura  Mountain?. 
which  rise  very  abruptly  from  it,  while  on  the  other  ^ilr 
they  slope  gently  down  toward  the  Swabian-Bavarian  platoHU. 
The  German  Jiira  is  a  continuation  of  the  Swiss  Jura,  l.i 
differs  very  much  from  it^    It  has  not  those  parallel  ndz^-i 
which  characterize  the  Swiss  Jura ;  it  rises  in  elevated  fla'N 
traversed  by  valleys.    At  some  elevations  there  is  a  ceniral 
scarcity  of  water,  as  the  water  sinks  very  rapidly  tiiri>Ui:r. 
the  Jurassic  limestone,  and  forms  copious  springs  at  the  fi*' 
of  the  mountains  and  in  the  deep  valleys.    Numerous  tav> 
are  found,  especially  in  Wilrtemoerg  and  Franconitv  aim  ti; 


THE  NEW  YORK  1 
PUBLIC    LIBRARY 


T,    D    N   FOuNDATiONS. 


746 


GERMAN  EMPIRE,  THE 


it  became  still  more  striking.  In  1867  the  number  of  large 
towns  of  over  100,000  inhabitants  was  only  7,  with  a  total 
population  of  1,657,517  souls.  In  1890  there  were  26  such 
towns  with  6,003,972  inhabitants.  The  largest  of  these  were 
Berlin  (1,578,794);  Hamburg  (569,260);  Munich  (349,024); 
Leipzig  (354,900);  Breslau  (335,186);  Cologne  (281,681);  Dres- 
den (276,522);  and  Magdeburg  (202,239).  On  an  average 
there  are  237  inhabitants  to  a  square  mile,  and  the  population 
is  most  dense  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  and  the  manufac- 
turing districts  on  the  lower  Rhine.  The  birth-rate  is  40  to 
1,000  inhabitants,  the  death-rate  28,  and  the  annual  excess 
of  births  over  deaths  averaged  683,000  during  1880-90,  but, 
owing  to  a  very  active  emigration,  this  is  far  in  excess  of 
the  actual  increase  of  the  population.  This  emigration  has 
fluctuated  considerably  in  aifferent  years,  for  while  in  1862  it 
only  embraced  27,529  individuals,  it  rose  in  1881  to  220,902. 
The  number  of  emigrants,  1887-92,  was  644,271  persons,  of 
whom  601,897  embarked  for  the  U.  S.  Between  1820  and 
1892  the  emigration  to  the  U.  S.  numbered  nearly  5,000,000 
individuals.  In  addition  to  this  emigration,  which  is  di- 
rected to  countries  outside  Europe,  Germany  annually  sends 
many  emigrants  to  European  countries,  including  more  es- 

?ecially  France  and  Soutneastern  Europe.  There  are  about 
04  females  to  every  100  males. 

Languctge, — German  is  the  mother-tongue  of  the  bulk  of 
the  population,  and  is  spoken  in  a  number  of  dialects,  name- 
ly, Frisian,  Low  German  and  Upper  German,  the  languf^e 
of  culture  being  known  as  High  German  (HochdeutacK), 
The  leading  German  "  tribes  "  are  the  Frieslanders,  Saxons, 
Franks,  Swabians,  Alemannes,  and  Bavarians,  including 
Austrians.  The  non-German  speaking  inhabitants  of  the 
empire  are  about  7  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  Thej 
include  Poles  (2,513,000),  in  Prussia  proper,  Posen,  and  Si- 
lesia; Lithuanians  (150,000),  to  the  E.  of  the  river  Memel ;  a 
few  hundred  Kures,  the  kinsmen  of  the  now  extinct  Prus- 
sians, around  Memel;  Czechians  and  Wends  (180,000),  in 
Brandenburg,  Saxony,  and  Silesia;  Danes  (140,000),  in  North- 
em  Schleswig;  Walloons  (9,600),  at  Malmedy,  on  the  Bel- 
gian frontier;  and  French  (220,000),  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 

Religion, — In  1890  the  population  included  31,026,810 
Protestants  (62*8  per  cent.);  17,674,921  Roman  Catholics; 
145,540  Christian  sectarians ;  567,884  Jews.  Roman  Catho- 
lics were  in  a  majority  in  Alsace-Lorraine  (78  per  cent.), 
Rhenish  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Posen,  Baden,  Silesia,  and  West- 
phalia. The  relations  between  Church  an<f  state  are  inti- 
mate, and  the  ministers  of  Roman  Catholic  as  well  as  of 
Protestant  congregations  are  in  receipt  of  salaries  and  other 
subsidies  from  the  government.  In  the  Protestant  states 
the  sovereign  is,  as  a  rule,  head  of  the  Church,  while  the 
Roman  Catholics  are  placed  under  5  archbishops  and  20 
bishops.    The  Old  Catholics  have  a  bishop  at  Bonn. 

Ediication  is  compulsory  throughout  Germany,  and  the 
fact  that  out  of  184,382  recruits  levied  in  1891-92  only  824 
had  not  received  an  education  shows  that  this  law  is  not  a 
dead  letter.  Education  is  more  backward  in  the  eastern 
provinces  of  Prussia,  with  their  Polish  population,  most  ad- 
vanced in  Wtlrtemberg,  Baden,  the  old  free  towns,  and  some  of 
the  minor  states.  Most  of  the  elementary  schools  are  denom- 
inational. There  are  about  58,300  of  these  schools,  with  8,- 
120,000  pupils  and  120,000  teachers,  all  of  whom  must  hold 
certificat.es,  and  whose  training  is  attended  to  in  256  semi- 
naries. The  number  of  secondary  schools  (Burgerschulen) 
is  very  large,  while  of  high  schools  there  are  1,192,  including 
427  Oymna»ia^  or  classical  schools.  The  number  of  tech- 
nical and  industrial  schools  is  very  large.  They  include  9 
polytechnic  high  schools,  31  agricultural  colleges,  9  schools 
of  forestry,  23  of  art  and  art-industries,  7  music  conserva- 
tories, a  naval  college  at  Kiel,  military  academies  at  Berlin 
and  Munich,  49  navigation  schools,  and  many  others.  Of 
universities  there  are  22,  with  (in  1892)  2,431  professors  and 
27,430  students.  The  universities  having  the  largest  num- 
ber of  students  are  Berlin  (5,371),  Leipzig  (3,368),  and  Munich 
(3,294).     See  Schools. 

Agriculture. — The  countrv  is  mainlv  an  agricultural  one. 
The  average  annual  yield  (1882-92,  in'tons  of  2,200  lb.)  was 
as  follows:  Cereals,  15,594,284  (rve,  5,735,857;  oats,  4,505,- 
717;  wheat,  2,558,175)  roots,  20,114,765:  potatoes,  23,600,- 
539;  pulse,  757,8613  ;  hops,  26,189  ;  hay,  25,057,697. 

Notwithstanding  her  own  very  considerable  production, 
Germany  is  dependent  upon  foreign  countries  (the  U.  S. 
and  Russia)  to  satisfy  her  ever-increasing  demand  for  food- 

Sroducts.    Rye  is  the  principal  cereal  cultivated  for  food, 
[aize  grows  only  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Neckar.    The 
potato  yields  the  raw  material  for  (1891)  57,766  distilleries, 


which  produced  65,000,000  gaJ.  of  alcohol ;  while  the  biht  b 
made  into  sugar  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxonv  (1^1- 
92,  9,488,002  tons).  The  cultivation  of  flax  and  hemp.  wbi<  h 
thrive  in  hilly  regions,  has  been  decreasing,  as  has  als4>  tL&t 
of  oil-seeds,  in  consequence  of  the  large  importation  of  \*- 
troleum  from  the  U.  S.  The  principal  dyestuJSs  produ^t-i 
are  madder,  safflower,  and  wood. 

Erfurt  is  famous  among  German  towns  for  its  horticultunil 
produce.  Fruit-trees  are  grown  throughout  Germany,  bur 
especially  in  the  southweSem  part,  wnere  even  almor.'i*, 
flgs,  and  Spanish  chestnuts  succeed  in  favorable  loealit  i -<. 
The  vine  yields  her  choicest  juice  on  the  slopes  of  the  Tau- 
nus  in  the  Rheingau.  Hops  succeed  best  in  Francouia,  ^r  \ 
Bavaria  produces  the  best  beer  (total  (1892)  for  all  German? 
1,170,510,000  gal.).  The  tobacco  cultivation  is  carried  ..n 
more  especially  in  the  Palatinate,  Baden,  and  Alsace,  tii 
yielded  (in  1892)  34,815  tons. 

Domestic  AnimcUs. — Horses  are  bred  more  especially  l 
East  Prussia,  Schleswig-Holstein,  Oldenburg,  in  the  n.Vi 
Alsace,  Wllrtemberg,  and  Bavaria,  in  the  south.  Ca't  - 
breeding  is  most  successfully  practiced  in  the  **niarsb'^" 
along  the  North  Sea  (Friesland,  Oldenburg,  Schleswig-H  !- 
stein),  and  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  the  south  (AlsrSu;. 
The  genuine  merino  sheep  of  the  Escorial  breed  was  intr-)- 
duced  into  Germany  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteen: h 
century ;  later  on,  another  breed,  also  Spanish,  the  Negi>'*L 
spread  into  Silesia  from  Bohemia  and  Moravia;  and  in  l*«viJ 
a  crossing  of  these  two  breeds  was  effected,  and  resulttnl  m 
the  improved  Escorial-Negretti,  which  was  introduced  pn- 
eralljr.  The  great  wool-markets  are  Berlin  and  Breslau.  \V«.-- 
phaliais  famous  for  its  hams ;  Bnmswick  for  its  sausages.  Be^ 
are  most  extensively  kept  in  Hanover  (Lllnebur^  Heat  h ).  Ger- 
many exports  sheep  and  cattle,  but  imports  pigs  and  hoi^?. 

Miniiig. — The  produce  of  the  mines  and  salt-works  9&^ 
valued,  in  1892,  at  $157,458,800.  This  included  92.3a5,Cis: 
tonsof  coal  ($129,921,000),  11,539,237  tons  of  iron  ores  ($9.i:.> 
000),  95,967,263  tons  of  other  ores  ($9,478,400),  and  77.3.^/' 
tons  of  salt  ($8,886,400).  The  metals,  etc.,  produce<l  fr^ 
these  ores  had  a  value  of  $90,437,000.  Ther  inclu  • 
4,913,174  tons  of  pig  iron  ($50,655,100),  262,652  tons  of  i.i  - 
copper,  and  other  metals  ($22,306,200),  491  tons  of  gcjld  anu 
silver  ($14,451,300),  and  431,172  tons  of  sulphuric  at;:. 
vitriol,  etc.  ($8,024,400).  There  are  about  850,000  min^ r*, 
besides  47,0()0  men  emploved  in  smelting-works.  The  >>r 
industry,  as  a  whole,  employs  150,000  men.  There  are  sev^^. 
layer  coal-fields,  viz.,  those  of  Upper  Silesia  (540  so.  mil->^ 
Lower  Silesia,  the  Ruhr  (340  sq.  miles):  Aix-la-Chape  i. 
the  Saar  (Saarbrilcken),  Dresden  (Pottschappel),  and  Cbrr- 
nitz.  The  deposits  of  lignite  are  still  more  extensive.  !'•'.>' 
is  found  in  the  moorlands  of  North  Germany  and  on  t- 
Bavarian  plateau.  Various  kinds  of  bituminous  shale  ^xn 
utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  mineral  oils;  asphalt  > 
found  near  Hanover :  amber  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic 

The  richest  deposits  of  iron  ore  are  foimd  in  Westphau 
(Siegen),  in  Nassau,  and  in  Lorraine,  the  largest  of  a 
Iron  in  smaller  quantities,  but  sometimes  of  superior  q^:A  - 
ity,  is  also  found  in  the  Fichtel  Mountains,  in  the  ore  nii» ..  - 
tains,  and  elsewhere.  The  most  important  iron-works  s"» 
those  of  Upper  Silesia  (Beuthen),  of  Bochum,  Dortmuni. 
Siegen,  and  Essen  (Krupp)  on  the  lower  Rhine,  of  Saji:- 
briicken,  and  Northern  Lorraine. 

Zinc  is  the  most  important  metal  next  to  iron.  It  is  r.'v- 
tained  in  Upper  Silesia  (Beuthen)  and  in  Rhenish  Pru--i» 
(Aix-la-Chapelle,  Arnsberg).  Other  metals  of  some  imi-r- 
tance  are  copper,  lead  (Bleiberg  near  Aix-la-Chapelle).  anu- 
mony,  cobalt,  nickel,  manganese,  and  mercnry.  Silver  lia? 
been  mined  near  Freiberg  in  Saxony  since  1168. 

The  production  of  salt  mcreases  everv  year.  Many  of  ih- 
salines,  however,  have  ceased  to  be  worked  since  the  dis<-«'\- 
ery  of  the  large  strata  of  rock-salt.  Among  these,  that  la 
the  Alps  of  Salzburg  has  been  in  operation  for  a  long  ti:i  •:. 
In  1816  the  rock-salt  layers  were  reached  in  WQrtemb«^rg  *y 
boring,  in  1853  those  at  Stassf art  in  the  province  of  Sav-r.v 
and  since  that  time  many  others  in  different  places  art  u  i 
the  Thilringer  Wald  and  the  Harz.  In  the  North  (lenru 
lowland  rock-salt  layers  of  immense  depth  were  discovor  d 
by  boring,  in  1867at  Sperenberg  in  Brandenburg,  in  li?6>j.i 
Segeberg  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  in  1871  at  Inowrazl..' 
in  Posen.  The  average  annual  production  of  salt  amoui  •« 
to  nearly  800,000  tons.  Germany  is  very  rich  in  minerti 
springs.  The  most  important  are  Baden-Baden  in  Badon. 
Kissingen  in  Bavaria;  Wiesbaden,  Homburg,  Ems,  ar.J 
Nieder-Selters  in  Hesse-Nassau;  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  Rheni^i 
Prussia ;  and  Pyrmont  in  Waldeck. 


748 


GERMAN  EMPIRE,  THE 


for  the  whole  of  the  empire.  All  other  courts  are  state  courts, 
but  the  appointment  oi  the  judges,  as  well  as  their  practice, 
must  conform  to  imperial  legislation.  Small  civil  cases,  up 
to  about  $100,  are  aecided  by  a  single  judge  in  the  Am(8- 
gericht :  above  this  there  is  the  Landesgerichtf  and  finally 
the  Oberlandesgericht,  the  highest  of  all  the  state  courts. 
Commercial  cases  may  be  dealt  with  by  arbitrators  or  experts, 
presided  over  by  a  judge.  The  same  courts  or  judges  deal 
with  misdemeanor  or  crime.  Minor  offenses  are  dealt  with 
by  a  Schdppengericht,  that  is  a  court  presided  over  by  one 
judge  ana  two  Schdppen^  or  assessors,  elected  by  the  rate- 
payers. Serious  crimes  are  adjudged  by  a  jury.  Altogether 
there  are  2,116  courts  of  justice,  presided  over  by  7,256 
iudges.  In  1892  as  many  as  381,816  persons  were  convicted 
for  misdemeanors  or  crimes. 

Revenue. — The  revenue  is  derived  from  customs  and  ex- 
cise duties,  stamps,  posts,  and  telegraph  railway's  (in  Alsace), 
and  the  "  matricular  "  contributions  of  the  individual  states, 
which  are  intended  to  make  up  any  deficit  in  proportion  to 
population.  In  1892-93  the  revenue  amounted  to  $267,093,- 
100,  of  which  $134,185,000  were  derived  from  customs  and 
excise  duties,  and  $71,302,000  from  "  matricular  "  contribu- 
tions. These  latter,  however,  ceased  with  1893,  as  addi- 
tional sources  of  revenue  have  been  set  aside  to  meet  im- 
perial requirements.  The  army  and  navy  cost  $146,263,000 
m  1892-93.  There  is  a  debt  (including  treasury  bills)  of 
$386,883,000.  A  war  treasury  of  $27,00^,000  in  gold  is  kept 
in  the  fortress  of  Spandau. 

Army  and  Navy. — See  Army  and  Ships  of  War. 

Colonies. — In  1884  Germany  sent  Dr.  Nachtigal  in  a  gun- 
boat along  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  took  possession  of 
various  territories  there  which  had  not  yet  been  appro- 
priated by  other  European  states.  In  the  following  year  a 
footing  was  obtained  next  to  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar's  do- 
minions, and  in  New  Guinea.  The  various  foreign  posses- 
sions include  Togoland,  on  the  Slave  Coast  (16,000  sq.  miles, 
600,000  inhabitants) ;  Camaroons  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  (13,- 
000  sq|.  miles,  2,600,000  inhabitants);  Damara  and  Wama 
lands  m  Southwest  Africa  (340,000  sq.  miles,  250,000  inhabit- 
ants) ;  German  East  Africa  (380,000  sq.  miles,  1,900,000  in- 
habitants) ;  Northern  New  Guinea  or  Ivaiser  Wilhelmsland, 
the  Bismarck  Archipelago,  several  of  the  Solomon  islands 
and  the  Marshall  islands  in  the  Pacific  (100,150  sq.  miles, 
400,000  inhabitants).  The  total  for  these  dependencies  is 
thus  966,250  sq.  miles,  with  5,650,000  inhabitants.  None  of 
these  possessions,  except  Southwestern  Africa,  are  suited  for 
the  permanent  settlement  of  Europeans. 

History. 

Germany  in  the  Dark  Ages. — The  history  of  the  empire 
begins  witn  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  843.  (For  the  relations 
between  Germany  and  the  Roman  empire,  see  Germania  ; 
for  the  relations  between  Germany  and  the  Prankish  empire, 
see  Franks.)  By  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  Germany  (Eastern 
Franconia)  became  separated  forever  from  France  (Western 
Franconia),  and  Lorraine  (Middle  Franconia)  was  thrown 
between  them  as  the  apple  of  discord.  Ludwig  the  Child, 
the  last  Carolingian  in  Germany,  died  in  911.  At  this  time 
the  Germans  were  threatened  by  the  Norsemen  from  the 
north,  by  the  Wends  on  the  Elbe* and  the  Havel,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  Hungarians  in  the  east,  while  in  the  interior  a 
sort  of  national  or  tribal  division  became  more  prominent ; 
so  that  at  the  extinction  of  the  Carolingian  house  Germany 
was  divided  into  five  large  dukedoms-Saxony  (with  Thur- 
ingia),  Franconia,  Swabia  (formerly  Alemannia),  Bavaria, 
and  Lorraine,  The  Franks  elected  their  own  duke,  Conrad, 
King  of  Germany,  and  he  was  acknowledged  by  the  other 
tribes,  with  the  exception  of  Lorraine,  which  fell'to  Western 
Franconia  (France).  Conrad,  however,  did  not  succeed  in 
consolidating  the  empire  internally  or  strengthening  it  out- 
wardly, but  after  his  death  the  Franks  and  the  Saxons  chose 
the  mighty  Saxon  duke  Henry  for  king.  Henry  I.  (912- 
936)  is  the  founder  of  the  empire.  He  vindicated  the  royal 
authority  against  the  dukes  ;  he  acquired  Lorraine  for  Ger- 
many ;  he  fought  with  success  against  his  foreign  enemies, 
the  Wends  on  the  Havel  and  the  Hungarians,  whom  he 
defeated  at  Merseburg  in  933.  In  the  interior  he  improved 
military  affairs  by  developing  a  new  system  of  cavalry ; 
built  numerous  towns,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  king- 
doms of  Saxony  and  Prussia  by  establishing  against  the 
Wends  the  margraviates  of  North  Saxony  and  Meissen.  Of 
still  greater  consequence  was  the  reign  of  his  son,  Otho  I. 
the  Great  (936-973).  He  crushed  the  rising  oi)position  of 
the  princely  aristocracy ;  gave  the  dukedoms  to  friends  and 


relatives ;  acquired  the  crown  of  the  I^om  bards  in  951  ;  (\^ 
feated  the  Hungarians  at  Augsburg  on  the  Lech  in  1t>5: 
and  assumed  in  962 — not  to  the  advantage  of  Germany— 
the  imperial  title,  which  from  that  time,  and  up  to  1806.  rt- 
mained  with  the  German  kings.  After  him  followed  thrr-r 
emperors  of  the  Saxon  house,  Otho  II.,  Otho  III.,  and  Ht  r.^x 
II.  But  under  them  the  royal  authorities  lost  very  much  :*\.t 
princes  and  the  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  became  very  b<- -1 . 
and  the  popes,  hitherto  always  submitting  to  the'  strPi: 
emperor,  began  now  to  aspire  to  the  empire  of  the  w«  r.o. 
With  Conrad  II.  (1024-89)  begins  the  Franconian  or  >«j!r 
dynasty,  under  which  the  royal  power  culminated  in  i  i.  r- 
many ;  so  that  if  Henry  III.  (1089-56)  had  lived  longer,  d  t 
only  would  the  imperial  dignity  have  become  hereditan  .n 
his  family,  but  an  end  would  have  been  put  to  the  injuri«  .- 
interference  of  the  pope  in  German  anairs.  His  govt-n- 
ment  in  the  interior  was  severe  but  just,  and  it  was  re.<ipe(t«-j 
in  foreign  countries ;  in  papal  affairs  he  was  general  ly  n> 
f  erred  to  as  arbiter.  But  ne  died  when  only  thirty-nine  vearv 
old,  and  all  the  fruits  of  his  policy  were  lost  for  cenf'urti 
under  his  son  Henry  IV.  (1056-1  Kfe).  Henry  was  gifted  » s 
nature,  but  having  been  educated  by  priests  he  suffer^] 
very  much  from  their  influence.     Under  him  the  feudatitn 

Erinces,  the  Church,  and  the  Saxons,  took  back  what  thev 
ad  lost  under  his  father,  and  the  pope  compelled  him  *' 
humiliate  himself  at  Canossa  (1077),  bv  which  he  in  a  maniit^r 
acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  Church  over  the  cro»ii. 
Henry,  however,  supported  by  the  burghers,  oontinu***]  T'» 
struggle  against  the  Church  with  various  fortune.  At  on.. 
time  he  even  expelled  the  pope,  Gregory  VII.,  from  R«»ri,^. 
But  his  last  days  were  mucti  embittered  by  his  own  ^  •., 
Henry  V.  (1106-25),  who  was  won  over  to  the  pi4>al  jwrt* 
and  rose  against  him.  As  soon,  however,  as  Henry  V.  nuiK 
to  power  he  followed  the  example  of  his  ancestors,  but  wv- 
compelled  by  the  papal  party  to  conclude  the  conconlat  -f 
Worms  in  li22 ;  with  him  the  Franconian  dynasty  betani- 
extinct.  The  Saxon  Lothaire  followed  (1125-37) ;  he  yitl:-  i 
to  the  princes  and  the  Churc\>,  and  by  marrying  his  dautrh- 
ter  to  Henry  the  Proud,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  fee  left  his  pos- 
sessions to  the  house  of  the  Guelphs. 

Later  Mediceval  Period. — On  his  death  the  powerfil 
house  of  Hohenstauffen  ascended  the  German  throne  (\V'>- 
1254).  Conrad  III.  (1138-52)  confined  himself  to  GentaL 
affairs,  but  his  successor,  Frederick  I.  Barbarossa  (1152-i»i'. 
tried  to  extend  his  power  beyond  the  boundaries  of  t:. 
empire.  In  Italy  he  was  not  successful  against  the  I^-rr- 
bard  cities  and  the  pope ;  but  when  his  son  married  i  L' 
heiress  of  the  Norman  empire  in  Lower  Italy,  he  gair -^ 
new  influence,  while  in  Gennanv  he  succeeded  in  curb  :.*: 
Henry  the  Lion  of  the  powerful  house  of  the  Guelphs.  il- 
died  in  Asia  on  a  crusade.  His  son,  Henry  VI.  (1190-iC 
ruled  with  vigor  and  severity,  but  died  very  early  :  and  -  "- 
his  death  a  contest  began  between  Philip  o\  Swabia,  of  nt^ 
house  of  Hohenstauffen,  and  Otho,  of  the  house  of  'K 
Guelphs.  The  latter  was  supported  by  the  pope,  Innmi!.: 
III.,  and  Philip  was  killed;  but  when  Otho  iV.  lv<a::- 
sole  emperor  he  could  not  satisfy  the  papal  demands,  arv. 
a  son  of  Henry  VI.,  Frederick  II.  (1212-50),  was  eleit^-i 
king  by  the  papal  party  in  opposition  to  him.  Frecier  » 
gained  the  superiority,  but  as  the  popes  soon  became  h* 
most  inveterate  enemies,  and  were  supported  by  tn 
Lombard  cities,  he  had  to  fight  against  tne  Church  tiiir- 
ing  his  whole  life  ;  and  although  his  ad  versanti  •!  . 
not  succeed  in  placing  another  king  of  any  pt-w  - 
against  him  in  Germany,  still  the  empire  suffered  fri;;'  :- 
fully.  During  his  reign  the  Germans  succeeded  in  l»nak- 
ing  the  power  of  the  Danes  in  the  battle  of  Bom  h  "••.->: 
(1227),  and  in  1230  the  Teutonic  Order  conquere<i  t'e 
country  of  Prussia  to  the  E.  of  the  Vistula.  But  after  h> 
death  the  house  of  Hohenstauffen  declined  rapidly,  ('.n- 
rad  IV.  died  in  1254,  and  his  son,  Conradin,  the  last  (»f  iL- 
family,  was  beheaded  at  Naples  in  1268  while  tryin|r  to  r<- 
conquer  his  heritage  in  Lower  Italy  from  tfie  inv*irr. 
Charles  of  Anjou.  William  of  Holland  reigned  in  Germa*  ^ 
to  1256,  but  then  followed  an  interregnum  to  1273.  Neiti  : 
of  the  two  foreign  princes  who  were  elected  German  enij  •-- 
ors  had  any  authority  at  all.  On  the  election  of  R<h1o1j  i. '. 
the  house  of  Habsburg  ascended  the  German  throne.  K  - 
dolph  restored  general  tranquillity  to  the  empire,  which  .i-.> 
ing  the  interregnum  had  fallen  under  club-law,  and  by  :•.- 
battle  on  the  March  in  1278,  in  which  Othokar  II.  of  H  !  - 
mia  was  killed,  he  acquired  the  duchy  of  Austria,  and  L 
the  foundation  of  the  Austrian  state.  After  Adolph  of  >.»> 
sau  (1292-98)  came  Rodolph's  son,  Albert  L  (1398- i:v  - 


760 


GERMAN  EMPIRE,  THE 


lowed  by  the  victories  at  Rossbach  (Nov.  5,  1757)  and  at 
Leuthen  (Dec.  5, 1757) ;  the  defeat  at  Kunersdorf  (Aug.  12, 
1750)  was  followed  by  a  series  of  operations  which  auite 
neutralized  the  advantages  the  enemy  had  gained  over  nim. 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  France  retired  from  the  field,  one  after 
the  other,  and  at  last  Austria  herself  was  compelled  to  make 
peace  at  Hubertsburg  (Feb.  15,  1763).  From  that  moment 
there  existed  in  Germany  a  pernicious  dualism,  until  in  1866 
Prussia  acc^uired  a  decided  superiority. 

The  Period  of  the  French  ItevoluHon. — The  emperor,  Jo- 
seph II.  (1765-90),  a  son  of  Maria  Theresa,  tried  by  education, 
religious  freedom,  and  political  reforms  to  bring  his  people 
up  to  the  standard  of  the  age.  But  he  was  less  successful  in 
this  respect  than  the  Prussian  king  had  been,  partly  because 
he  introduced  his  reforms  with  some  violence,  partly  because 
he  was  thwarted  by  the  Roman  Catholic  clergv,  but  more 
especially  because  in  Austria  no  preparations  had  been  made 
by  his  ancestors.  Nevertheless,  his  reforms  were  of  great 
importance  to  Austria,  and  in  spite  of  a  violent  reaction  they 
still  form  the  foundation  of  Austrian  life.  Both  Frederick 
the  Great  and  Joseph  II.  took  part  in  the  first  division  of 
Poland  (1772),  in  which,  however,  as  in  the  two  following 
(1793  and  1795),  Russia  received  the  lion's  share.  But  the 
attempts  of  Joseph  II.  to  annex  Bavaria  to  Austria  were 
frustrated  by  Frederick  the  Great.  In  Prussia  the  weak 
Frederick  WiUiam  II.  (1 786-97)  followed  Frederick  the  Great, 
but,  although  the  country  was  much  enlarged  by  the  division 
of  Poland,  yet  it  was  brought  near  to  ruin  by  internal  mis- 
management, by  prodigality,  intolerance,  and  false  adminis- 
trative measures.  After  the  short  reign  of  the  Emperor  Leo- 
pold II.  (1790-92),  Austria,  under  the  Emperor  Francis  II. 
(1792-1835),  and  Prussia  united  into  a  war  against  France 
when  the  Revolution  of  1789  had  brought  all  the  states  of 
Europe  into  fermentation.  Royalty,  which  was  in  danger 
in  France,  and  which  was  to  be  helped  by  the  allies,  was 
finally  overthrown  after  the  first  slight  successes  of  the 
Prussian  arms,  which  served  only  to  exasperate  the  French 
against  their  king.  A  republic  was  declared,  and  Louis  XVI. 
was  beheaded.  In  the  field  fortune  changed.  The  Prussians 
had  to  leave  France,  the  Austrians  Belgium,  and  the  jealousy 
between  them  prevented  any  energetic  action.  Meanwhile 
the  Reign  of  Terror  in  France  had  passed  away,  and  Prussia 
made  peace  with  the  French  republic,  while  Austria  and 
Great  Britain  continued  the  war.  But  after  the  victories 
of  Napoleon  in  Italy  in  1796,  which  opened  the  way  for  him 
into  Styria,  Austria  concluded  peace  at  Campo  Formio  in 
1797,  and  gave  up  Lombardy,  for  which  it  received  Venice. 
In  1799,  however,  Austria  again  began  war  against  France, 
this  time  in  connection  with  Russia  and  Great  Britain.  The 
French  were  repeatedly  defeated  both  in  Italy  and  Germany, 
but,  on  account  of  a  quarrel  between  Austria  and  Russia, 
the  Russian  troops  under  Suwaroff  were  withdrawn,  and  soon 
after  Napoleon  Bonaparte  returned  from  Egypt  and  became 
first  consul. 

French  Ascendency  in  Germany. — By  the  battle  of  Ma- 
rengo (June  14,  1800)  Austria  lost  Italy,  and  irfter  the  dis- 
aster at  Hohenlinden  (Dec.  3,  1800)  she  was  compelled  to 
conclude  the  peace  of  Lun6ville  (1801),  by  which  tne  Rhine 
became  the  boundary  of  France.  Several  German  princes 
lost  their  possessions  on  the  left  side  of  the  Rhine,  but  they 
received  ample  indemnification  on  the  right — together  with 
some  former  Italian  princes — by  the  mediatization  of  the 
ecclesiastical  states  and  the  imperial  cities.  In  1804  Napo- 
leon became  Emperor  of  France.  A  third  coalition  against 
France  was  dissolved  by  the  defeat  of  Russia  and  Austria  at 
Austerlitz  (Dec.  2, 1805),  and  Austria  lost  large  territories 
by  the  Peace  of  Pressburg ;  Bavaria  and  Wilrtemberg  were 
made  kingdoms.  In  1806  Napoleon  united  all  that  re- 
mained of  Germany,  with  the  sole  exception  of  a  much- 
curtailed  Prussia  and  Austria,  into  a  Rnenish  Confedera- 
tion, under  his  own  protectorate.  Numerous  mediatiza- 
tions  of  minor  states  took  place,  and  (Aug.  6,  1806)  the 
Emperor  Francis  abdicated  his  dignity  as  chief  of  the  em- 
pire and  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria.  With 
this  event  the  so-called  Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  dating  from  Charlemagne's  coronation  in  800 
A.  D.,  came  to  an  end.  Prussia,  under  Frederick  William 
III.  (1797-1840),  had  hitherto  lived  in  peace  with  France 
— not  to  her  own  advantage — but  in  1806  she  felt  compelled 
to  declare  war,  and  before  the  Russians  could  come  to  her 
support  she  was  completely  defeated  at  Jena  and  Auerst&dt 
(Oct.  14, 1806),  and  thoroughly  subdued,  owing  to  the  un- 
exampled cowardice  and  treachery  of  many  of  her  generals. 
After  the  battles  of  Eylau  and  Friedland  (Feb.  8  and  June 


14, 1807)  peace  was  concluded  at  Tilsit,  by  which  PmsMa 
lost  half  of  her  possessions,  and  kept  the  other  half  onlj 
on  very  hard  conditions.  Aiter  the  peace,  however,  Bair.n 
von  Stein  effected  a  thorough  regeneration  of  social  an-i 

g)litical  life  in  Prussia,  and  Schamhorst,  supporti'd  It 
IQcher  and  Gneisenau,  became  the  founder  of  a  new  mili- 
tary system.  In  1809  Austria  ventured  once  more  on  a  «  a.- 
with  France.  The  Archduke  Charles  won  the  battle  if 
Aspem  (May  21,  1809),  but  at  Waeram  he  was  defeat*-t: 
(July  5,  1809),  and  by  the  Peace  of  Schonbruun  Aii>ir.a 
lost  other  territories  and  became  totally  excluded  from  tlif 
sea.  In  1810  Napoleon  incorporated  the  Hanseatic  citie*  ^.f 
Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  Liibeck  into  his  empire,  but  on  th..- 
retreat  from  Russia,  after  the  burning  of  Moscow,  in  It*  12, 
he  lost  his  whole  army. 

Th^  War  of  Liberation. — In  the  banning,  Pmssia  &i.! 
Russia  fought  alone  against  Napoleon,  and  they  wew  n- ' 
successful.  They  lost  the  battles  at  GrossgQrschen  (May  2. 
1813)  and  Bautzen  (May  20, 1813),  and  Davoust  maintairie«l 
himself  in  Hamburg  up  to  1814.  But  during  the  armisti.  «- 
from  June  to  Aug.,  1813,  Austria  and  SwSen  joiuefl  t!.f 
coalition  of  the  three  armies — the  chief  army,  under  the 
Austrian  Schwarzenberg  in  Bohemia;  the  army  of  thi 
North,  under  the  Swedish  crown  prince,  the  former  Fnc'  h 
marshal,  Bemadotte ;  and  the  Silesian  army,  under  BlQch^^r 
in  Silesia — the  last,  though  the  smallest,  turned  the  fortui.  • 
of  the  war.  Silesia  was  delivered  by  the  battle  on  the  Katz- 
bach  (Aug.  26).  The  French  force,  pushed  toward  B<*rlin. 
was  defeated  by  Billow  and  Taueuzien  at  GroMbeeren  (Aul'. 
23)  and  Dennewitz  (Sept.  6),  and  on  Oct.  3  BlQeher  cross^^i 
the  Elbe  at  Wartenberg,  following  the  movements  of  t:j»- 
army  of  the  North,  while  the  main  army,  after  the  defeat  at 
Dresden  (Aug.  26^  and  the  victory  of  Kulm  (Aug.  29),  pu5hf -1 
forward  from  Bohemia  toward  lieipzig.  The  battle  of  I^ij- 
zig,  commonly  called  the  Battle  of  the  Nations  (Oct,  16-11*. 
1813),  decided  the  destiny  of  Germany  and  Napoleon.  Tlif* 
allies  followed  the  fleeing  emperor  into  France,  and  afr*  r 
entering  Paris  (Mar.  31, 1814)  they  compelled  him  to  aMic-af*^' 
the  crown  of  France  and  retire  to  the  island  of  Elba.  By 
the  Treaty  of  Paris  the  Bourbons  returned  to  Prance,  uii'i 
German  affairs  were  regulated,  under  the  more  immedinrv 
influence  of  Mettemich,  bv  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1814-1  "ii. 
The  Period  of  Reactitm,—¥Tom  1815  to  1848,  the  influ- 
ence of  Mettemich,  the  Austrian  minister,  was  predominant 
in  Europe.  The  (jerman  Confederation  developed  no  lif-. 
The  diet,  sitting  at  Frankfort-on-t  he-Main,  suppressed  evf  ry 
free  movement.  The  promised  constitutions  were  nirey 
given.  By  the  establishment,  however,  of  the  Zollverein.  in 
1833,  Prussia  laid  the  foundation  of  a  united  Germany.  &: 
least  with  respect  to  commercial  matters.  Ferdinand  1  J 
ruled  in  Austria  from  1835  to  1848.  In  Prussia,  Frederi>  k 
William  IV.  inaugurated  a  powerful  ecclesiastical  react !•  ;<. 
which,  after  the  transient  success  of  the  revolution  of  l?^'*. 
extended  also  to  political  affairs,  and  placed  Prussia  uiii* r 
the  influence  of  Russia  and  the  Ultramontanes.  The  Re^"- 
lution  of  1848  had  no  permanent  results.  A  constitution  «i> 
proclaimed  by  the  German  Parliament  at  Frankfort  in  Mar^ 
1849,  but  the  pusillanimous  King  of  Prussia  declined  to  nr- 
ceive  the  imperial  crown  at  the  hands  of  a  sovereign  \w^ 

Sle.  Revolutionary  risings  in  Baden,  the  Palatinate,  I)^**- 
en,  and  elsewhere,  were  suppressed  by  Prussian  bayoncb. 
and  the  old  Bundestag  met  once  more  at  Frankfort  on  Stp t. 
2,  1850.  Prussia,  which  had  endeavored  to  bring  abt»uF  a 
union  of  all  German  states,  to  the  exclusion  of  Austria,  w 
weak  enough  to  sign  the  humiliating  convention  of  Olm"::: 
(Nov.  29,  1850),  the  result  of  which  was  that  the  inhabitar/> 
of  Schleswig-Holstein  were  surrendered  unconditionally  i  • 
the  Danes.  Reaction  was  everywhere  triumphant,  but  thr 
seed  sown  by  the  eminent  representatives  of  the  Genua:, 
people  who  met  at  Frankfort  m  1848  was  yet  to  bear  fni/. 
Prtissian  Ascendeficy. — In  Prussia,  William  I.  govfrr.-i 
from  1857  as  prince-regent  instead  of  his  brother — f  n>m  l^i 
as  king.  He  first  tried  constitutional  methoils,  but  when  xy 
LandtAg  refused  to  sanction  an  increase  of  the  army  (1S62> 
he  placed  Bismarck  at  the  head  of  affairs,  whose  Violen? 
and  arbitrariness  estranged  all  liberal  element-s  of  the  i^j 'il- 
lation. He  was  forgiven,  however,  when  the  results  stvii  vi 
to  justify  the  unconstitutional  means  he  had  employed.  I . 
1863  Bismarck  found  an  opportunity  of  showing  his*  fon^it'^. 
policy.  When  the  Danish  dynasty  became  extinct  he  !;- 
puteu.  together  with  Austria,  the  claims  of  Denmark  on  t:  i 
duchies  of  Schlcswig  and  Holstein,  and  by  the  war  of  IhW 
he  acquired  these  two  countries  for  Germany.  Then  th^r 
arose  a  quarrel  between  Prussia  and  Austria,  as  Prus^i* 


762 


GERMAN   LANGUAGE 


by  Kiepert.)  German  is  a  member  of  the  west  (Germanic) 
branch  of  the  Teutonic  group  of  languages.  (See  Teutonic 
Languages.)  German  and  its  dialects  stand  apart  from  the 
rest  of  the  group  in  their  consonants  on  account  of  the 
second  or  (High)  German  shifting.  (See  Grimm's  Law  and 
Verner's  Law.)  All  the  Teutonic  languages  shifted  certain 
consonants  once,  German  shifted  once  more,  but  this  second 
shifting  was  not  so  uniform  or  so  thorough.  Some  German 
dialects  shifted  more,  some  less.  Upon  the  extent  of  the 
shifting  a  classification  of  the  dialects  can  be  based.  This 
is  done  here,  and  a  few  other  characteristics  are  added. 
Beginning  with  the  south  where  the  shifting  started,  there 
are:  1.  South  or  Upper  German  dialects  (Oberdeutsch). 
They  shifted  almost  completely.  In  strictly  South  German 
every  voiced  explosive  ^,  rf,  g)  became  the  corresponding 
voiceless  explosive  (p,  ^,  i);  every  voiceless  explosive  "oe- 
came  the  corresponding  fricative  or  spirant  ( o/,  / :  z  (te),  s ; 
kch,  eh).  Of  the  spirants,  only  th  shiftea  and  became 
the  voitid  explosive  a.  Their  vowel-system  still  preserves 
the  old  diphthongs  ie,  uo,  He.  These  dialects  are  grouoed 
as  Alemanic  and  Bavarian.  The  Alemanic  is  subdivided 
into  Alemanic  proper,  spoken  in  the  larger  part  of  Baden 
and  in  German  Switzerland,  and  into  Suabian  in  most  of 
Wtlrtemberg  and  Suabian  Bavaria.  The  Bavarian  covers 
the  larger  part  of  Bavaria  and  German  Austria,  but  the 
German  of  Transylvania  is  Middle  Prankish.  2.  The  Mid- 
dle, or  better  the  Midland,  dialects  which  excepted  from  the 
southern  shifting  6,  g,  and  initial  k.  They  contracted  the 
old  diphthong  t6,  uo^  He  into  the  single  long  vowels  t,  u,  u, 
and  shortened  long  vowels  before  more  than  one  consonant. 
They  are  grouped  as  follows :  Prankish,  Thuringian,  Upper 
Saxon,  and  Silesian.  Prankish  is  variouslv  subdivided. 
Important  are  Mid(fte  Prankish  (Prussian  Rnine  province 
with  the  city  of  Cologne),  South  Prankish  and  Hessian, 
East  or  High  Prankish  (Pulda);  but  Low  Prankish,  the 
modern  Dutch,  is  Low  German.  These  dialects  cover  the 
midlands  between  South  and  North  Germany,  and  hence 
their  name.  The  term  High  German  (ITochdeutach)  is  used 
to  embrace  both  South  and  Midland  dialects.  3.  The  Low 
German  dialects.  They  shifted  only  th  into  d.  The  other 
consonants  are  preserved  almost  as  they  were  in  general 
Teutonic.  Strictly  speaking,  neither  Prisian  nor  Old  Eng- 
lish are  Low  German,  because  they  preserved  even  the 
Teutonic  th.  In  the  Low  German  dialects  started  the 
lengthening  of  short  accented  vowels  in  an  open  syllable, 
now  a  feature  of  standard  German.  But  they  never  diph- 
thongized the  long  vowels  i,  u,  U  (»u),  a  movement  which 
started  in  Bavarian  and  then  became  a  feature  of  the  writ- 
ten language.  The  chief  divisions  are  Low  Saxon  and  Low 
Prankish.  The  first  is  called  Plattdeutsch  or  Piatt,  which 
embraces  numerous  smaller  dialects,  like  the  Mecklenburg, 
Schleswig-Holstein,  Westphalian,  Bremen,  Hamburg.  The 
terms  Low,  Piatt,  refer  to  the  lowlands  of  Northern  Ger- 
many, just  as  High,  Upper  (06«r,  Hoch)^  refer  to  the  moun- 
tainous southern  and  central  regions  of  Germany.  The 
cradle  of  all  Saxons  was  the*  country  between  the  Weser 
and  the  Elbe.  Low  Prankish  is  the  only  Low  German  di- 
alect that  has  become  a  literary  language — viz.,  Dutch. 
(See  Dutch  Language.)  References:  Wenker's  Spra4ih- 
atlas  von  Nord  und  Mitteldeutachland ;  Bernhardi*s  Sprach- 
karte  von  Deutschland ;  Piper's  Die  Verhreitung  der  deut- 
schen  DiaXekte  bis  um  das  Jahr  1300;  Behaghers  and 
Kauffmann's  articles  in  Paul's  Orundriss  der  germanischen 
Philologie,  i. ;  Brandt's  German  Grammar,  §§  480-83 ;  and 
the  general  maps  mentioned  above. 

To  understand  the  relation  of  the  dialects  to  the  standard 
literary  language  (Schriftsprache),  the  origin  and  history  of 
the  latter  must  be  studied.  The  history  of  German  is  usu- 
ally divided  into  three  great  periods— ^viz..  Old  High  Ger- 
man as  far  as  1100,  Middle  High  German  as  far  as  1500,  New 
High  German  since  then.  But  these  dates  are  almost  arbi- 
trary. There  are  no  sharp  and  sudden  divisions  between  the 
periods.  In  Old  High  German  the  unaccented  and  inflec- 
tional vowels,  a,  o,  u,  tu,  are  still  intact ;  in  Middle  High 
German  they  are  worn  down  to  e.  The  umlaut  (the  modifi- 
cation of  a^o,  u  into  a,  o,  ti),  which  hml  begun  with  cr,  spread 
over  the  other  vowels.  References :  Braune's  Althoch- 
deutsches  Lesehuch  (Old  High  German  Reader);  Wripfht's 
Old  High  (Tcrman  Primer-,  Schade's  Altdeutsches  W^ortpr- 
buch.  The  differences  between  Middle  and  New  Higli  Ger- 
man are  as  follows:  1.  The  long  vowels  i,  u,  iu  (=  u)  were 
diphthongized.  2.  The  diphthongs  I'g,  wo,  ue  were  made 
single  long  vowels  (a  Middle  German  feature).  3.  The  short 
accented  vowels  in  an  open  syllable  were  lengthened,  while 


the  long  vowels  before  more  than  one  consonant  were  sh«'r 
ened.     The  first  started  in  Low  German;  the  8e<"ond  :! 
Middle  German.    4.  s  before  /,  w,  w,  w,  p,  and  /  passiii  i:  • 
Hch,    This  started  in  South  German  and  spread  over  Mm- 
land  and  even  over  Eastern  Low  German  dialects.    5.  eh  u- 
came  palatal  after  palatal  vowels  and  after  c<»nsonant&  \''.' 
became  k  before  s — ^a  Low  and  Middle  German  changt-  thi* 
has  become  classical.    6.  Pinal  m  became  n;   mb  be<^aI:^ 
mm,    7.  The  difference  between  the  stera-vowcl  of  the  yr'- 
terit  singular  and  of  the  preterit  plural  disappeared  in  tm 
seventeenth  century— e.  g.  ichfand,  wir  fundt^hecAw*-  <•• 
fandy  tPtrfanden.    8.  The  umlaut  spread  by  anidogy.  t.  ^. 
as  a  means  of  forming  the  plural,  Baden,  Boden.    R*  f-  :- 
ences:  The  grammars  of  Weinhold  and  Paul;    Wrigii^'? 
M.  H,  G.  Frim&rx  Lexer's  Mhd.  W6rterbuch  (in  3  vols.t. 

In  the  Old  High  German  period  the  dialects  reign»^d  -j- 
preme ;  in  the  Middle  High  German  are  found  the  iKir.r.- 
nings  of  a  common  written  language;  in  the  New  U:^] 
German  the  same  becomes  fully  established.  Tberv  an 
several  official  or  state  languages  {Kamlersprachen}  in  sh- 
utter half  of  the  fourteenth  ana  in  the  fifteenth  centun^-^ 
e.  g.  the  Imperial,  the  Austrian,  the  Bohemian,  the  Vy.'^ 
Saxon.  Of  these  the  Imperial,  being  less  local  than  Mr 
others  and  reaching  all  parts  of  the  country,  had  the  gn  i'- 
est  influence.  The  local  chancelries  throughout  the  cfiji- 
try  imitated  this  and  one  another  not  a  little.  Then  s*'v<  r^. 
factors  made  themselves  felt  in  the  evolution  of  a  standard. 
language — viz.:  1.  The  Reformation  and  its' lit^»ratir- 
2.  Luther  with  his  strong  personality.  3.  The  inveiu  <  • 
of  printing.  4.  The  public  school  with  its  primers  hl. 
spellers.  Luther  says  m  his  Table  Talk :  *^  I  have  no  fix*^: 
especial  language  of  my  own  in  German,  but  use  the  o<  ir;- 
mon  German  language  so  that  both  highlanders  and  ]«•«• 
landers  may  understand  me.  I  speak  according  to  tit- 
Saxon  chancelry  which  all  princes  and  kings  in  Ciermaiiy 
follow.  All  the  imoerial  cities  and  the  courts  of  prin;->« 
write  according  to  the  Saxon  chancelry ;  therefore  it  b  u.' 
most  common  German  language.  Emperor  Maximilian  &:j  i 
Elector  Prederic,  Duke  of  Saxony,  have  thus  drawn  into  .-r.- 
fixed  language  the  German  languages  of  the  Roman  t-m- 
pire."  Tne  statement  as  to  the  universality  and  fixity..' 
the  one  language  must  be  taken  cum  grano  salts.  Not  un.ii 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century*  i.  e.  the  b^innintr  <  f 
the  classical  literature,  was  the  standard  language  fully  v^ 
tablished.  Humanism  advocating  and  using  Liatin.'  ih^ 
confessional  prejudice  of  the  Reformed  Swiss  and  of  ti^ 
Catholic  Soutii,  together  with  local  prejudice,  opposed  hir- 
common  language,  but  especially  Luther's.  But  the  \>ni 
spirit  of  the  Reformation,  its  hearth  at  the  very  center  •' 
(iermanv,  the  fact  that  the  common  language  was  stronj  y 
Midlancf,  a  compromise  as  it  were  between  North  and  S  -.ii. 
dialects,  the  efforts  of  the  Spra<;hgesell8ehaften  (lan^iu^ 
societies),  and  of  the  authors  of  the  seventeenth  and  i•2l^.^ 
eighteenth  centuries  at  last  brought  about  a  full  reoogniti  > 
References:  Rlickert,  Geschichte  der  nhd.  Schrift^pra--' 
Pietsch,  Martin  Luther  utid  die  hd,  Schrift^trachei  Sn  r . 
Schriftsprache  und  Dialekte  im  Deuischen ;  BehaghelV  an- 
cle in  Paul's  Grundriss  and  his  separate  work  Die  DthU 
Sprachey  which  has  been  published  in  English  as  '*  an  it  - 
torical  grammar  of  the  Gennan  language  " ;  also  the  citnv  t> 
account  in  Brandt's  Grammar,  §§  485-91. 

The  German  word-stock  is  almost  purely  German.  «v.r- 
sisting  of  words  inherited  from  the  old  Teutonic  st*xk.  i-  * 
of  such  as  have  been  formed  upon  and  from  these.  Gen'  a'. 
has  a  remarkable  power  of  building  up  and  eomp(>uM<i!j. 
home  words,  but  it  lacks  the  power  that  En^ish  ha^:  of  »- 
similating  and  naturalizing  foreign  words.  The  first  ^n^H-  r 
infiux  of  foreign  words  occurred  through  Roman  ei^L'-- 
tion  and  through  Christianity.  The  crusades  and  chiv»;^. 
humanism  and  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  brought  in  i«ome  iii"  n 
During  the  last  200  years  German  has  drawn  upon  I^:  ■• 
and  Greek  for  scientific  terms.  But  all  modern  fi>r.;."i 
words  are  quite  strictly  relegated  to  a  dictionary^  of  fi"M-'n 
words  and  excluded  from  the  regular  German  dictionarv 

While  all  Germans  readily  accept  their  common  litt-r-.n 
language,  they  are  not  so  ready  to  recognize  a  stanwA^^- 
spoken  language.    Only  the  theater  and  the  small  cIhn>   . 
the  highly  cultured  aspire  to  a  dialect-free  pn.>nancia:  •  - 
The  reasons  why  a  standard  of  pronunciation  is  not  v*    r 
and  followed  by  more  are  as  follows:   1.  German  ha*  :? 
such  authorities  as  Prench  has  in  the  Academy  and  in  ti 
predominant  city  of  Paris,  or  English  in  its  great  dicn  ' 
aries  and  in  London.    German  (uctionaries  never  ever  x 
lude  to  pronunciation.    2.  The  spirit  of  provinciali>n'  •> 


754 


GERMAN  LITERATURE 


taries,  and  for  a  longtime  precludes  purely  aesthetical  enjoy- 
ment. As  the  citizen  class  in  the  rich  towns  outrivaled  the 
nobility  in  pecuniary  affairs,  so  it  now  assumes  the  literary 
leadership.  Meistersong  takes  the  place  of  Minnesong,  and 
the  need  for  entertainment  which  was  met  by  the  court  epic 
is  satisfied  by  means  of  novelettes  and  nonsense-tales 
(Schw&nke).  But  with  the  stern  honesty  of  the  Meister- 
singer  there  appears  among  the  learned  schwank  poets  a 
tendency  towara  the  coarse  and  vulvar.  At  the  same  time 
may  be  perceived  the  germs  of  new  literary  forms.  Starting 
from  the  sermon  there  is  a  gradual  development  of  German 
prose  which  was  destined  to  play  so  great  a  rOle  in  the  spir- 
itual conflicts  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  order  to  meet 
the  awakening  historical  interest  numerous  chronicles  are 
written,  among  which  the  Limhurger  Chronik  tells  of  the 
slowly  reawakening  folk-son^  which  was  now  to  reach  its 
zenith.  In  addition  to  the  historical  lays  and  love-songs  we 
find  songs  which  represent  the  most  ditferent  circles  of  folk- 
life,  and  make  it  clear  that  spiritually  the  German  nation 
still  presents  an  undivided  unity,  that  the  contrasts  between 
Volkspoesie  and  Kutistpoeaie,  between  the  learned  class  and 
the  unlearned,  are  not  yet  sharply  defined.  The  rise  of  the 
modern  drama  also  dates  from  this  time.  While  it  is  true 
that  the  Old  Germanic  dramatic  plays  had,  in  spite  of  the  op- 
position of  the  Church,  been  preserved  up  to  the  late  Middle 
Ages,  of  the  real  development  of  the  drama  in  Germany  we 
can  not  speak  until  the  Church  itself  began  to  make  use  of 
the  dramatic  form  for  its  own  ends.  Then  in  quick  suc- 
cession appear  the  Christmas  carnival.  Passion  and  Easter 
plan's,  in  which  there  is  indeed  little  dramatic  art,  but 
which  show  how  susceptible  were  the  people's  minds  to  this 
art-form. 

Among  the  rich  cities  whose  citizens  devoted  themselves 
especially  to  the  study  of  poetry  Nuremberg  must  be  men- 
tioned particularly.  Here  Hans  Polz  (1480)  founds  a  new 
and  more  vigorous  school  of  Meistersong,  and  here,  too,  the 
popular  drama  finds  its  most  important  center  under  Hans 
Uosenblut  (1450),  the  forerunner  of  Hans  Sachs. 

The  zenith  of  this  period  is  reached  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  This  century  is  ushered  in  with  Sebastian  Brant's 
Narrenschiff^  a  work  which,  by  its  combination  of  popu- 
lar feeling  with  didactic  learning,  may  be  taken  as  a  model 
for  the  coming  age.  The  satirical  tone  with  which  it 
prepares  the  way  for  the  great  spiritual  revolution  of  the 
Reformation  is  afterward  continued  by  the  still  more  tal- 
ented and  witty  Thomas  Mumer.  Brant  and  Murnor  re- 
ceived their  stimulus  from  the  older  school  of  humanists  in 
Southern  Germany,  which  reflected  the  first  influences  of 
the  Italian  Renaissance  in  Germany.  Soon  the  humanistic 
tendency  spread  further,  and  created  in  various  places,  es- 
pecially at  Erfurt,  literary  centers  where  poetry  in  the  Latin 
language  was  cultivated.  Of  this  younger  band  of  human- 
ists, Reuchlin,  the  teacher  of  Melanchthon,  must  be  con- 
sidered as  leader.  From  the  circle  of  poets  at  Erfurt  ema- 
nated (1515)  the  Epistolm  ohscurorum^  one  of  the  finest 
satires  known  to  the  world's  literature. 

The  strongest  literary  personality  of  the  time  is,  however, 
Luther.  Although  he  had  been  deeply  affected  by  human- 
ism, he  was  pre-eminently  a  man  of  the  people  and  a  theo- 
logian who  did  not  share  the  purely  testhetical  interests  of 
humanism.  To  his  superior  translation  of  the  Bible  and 
his  numerous  smaller  prose  writings  is  due  in  lai^  measure 
the  ascendency  gainea  by  the  present  German  literary  lan- 
guage over  the  many  dialects.  He  deepened  the  moral  con- 
sciousness of  his  people  in  every  walk  of  life,  worked  for  a 
more  general  popular  education,  interested  himself  in  the 
drama,  was  a  friend  to  poetry  and  music,  and  through  his 
clai>sical  church  hymns  gave  to  his  people  a  poetic  source  of 
reli«;ious  edification.  In  all  the  domains  of  literary  activity 
in  Germany  may  be  traced  the  influence  which  his  mighty 
personality  exercised  over  friend  and  foe. 

In  this  stirring  time — shaken  to  the  foundation  by  re- 
ligious, political,  and  social  strife — little  room  was  left  for 
I)ure  delight  in  the  beautiful.  One  of  the  most  gifted  of  the 
lumanists  himself,  Ulrich  von  Ilutten  was  drawn  into  the 
vortex  of  these  conflicts,  so  that  he  finally  devoted  his  liter- 
ary activity  entirely  to  the  questions  of  the  day,  and  turned 
from  the  Latin  to  the  German  language  in  order  to  be 
sure  of  reaching  the  wider  circles  of  his  contemporaries. 
What  remains  at  this  time  of  activity  in  pure  art  finds  its 
representative  in  Hans  Sachs,  who,  although  intellectually 
dependent  upon  Luther,  maintains  still,  beside  this  intel- 
lectual giant,  an  independent  station.  A  shoemaker  by 
trade,  but  a  man  of  poetic  talent,  open-minded  and  athirst 


IS. 


[^ «  .  - 


i     I 


for  knowledge,  he  began  in  early  youth  as  a  Meistersirnj-r, 
and  brought  the  Meistersinger  school  at  Nuremberg  i:/  < 
great  renown.  He  also  adopted  the  short  rhymed  Damn. •> 
which  comes  into  use  as  early  as  the  end  of  the  thirtet :  *:. 
century.  Soon  he  turned  to  the  drama,  the  form  of  \yc  r* 
which  was  best  adapted  to  the  life  of  the  sixteenth  ceniu: 
and  in  which  this  century  showed  the  greatest  crcu*: 
power.  The  drama,  which  had  been  especially  pronii  '• 
after  the  pattern  of  Plautus  and  Terence  oy  the  human > 
had  been  quickly  employed  in  the  service  of  the  Refnri' 
tion,  and  in  the  most  widely  different  regions  of  Gumi;. 
from  Switzerland  to  Lower  Germany,  we  can  observe  it 
tivation.  Biblical  stories,  as  well  as  the  pattern  of  the  K 
lish  Every  Man,  furnish  the  themes  for  these  dramas,  wl. 
for  the  most  part  reflect  the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  K«  f 
mation.  With  Hans  Sachs  we  find  this  same  com{>aN^ 
material,  but  enlarged  so  as  to  include  the  German  h* 
song  and  general  history.  Although  without  real  dram: 
power,  there  is  still  apparent  in  Hans  Sachs  the  endeavi>r  -  • 
treat  the  questions  of  the  day,  and  when  he  handler  a  «l!- 
ject  to  which  his  talent  is  adequate,  we  flnd  the  people's  \t  ^  t 
cheerful,  full  of  humor,  and  of  the  wisdom  of  life. 

The  English  comedians  who  came  to  Germany  at  the  t-n.] 
of  the  century  brought  with  them  a  more  hiehly  devil  i-  i 
stage-art  The  effect  of  this  upon  the  development  of : it 
German  drama  soon  shows  itself. 

While  we  can  observe  in  this  period  of  German  literat'.r» 
a  decadence  of  the  metrical  art,  which  in  its  essential  {»•:  r- 
had  been  transmitted  from  the  classical  period  of  the  i\  .:• 
teenth  centurj,  we  can  also  perceive  a  rise  of  prose  which  >  .<■ 
bly  increases  in  flexibility  and  power  of  expression.  Sub]«  <  *- 
which  had  formerly  allowed  only  of  verse  now  began  l<-  >'• 
treated  in  prose.  The  thirst  for  entertainment,  t<»o,  is  :i  ** 
almost  exclusively  satisfied  with  prose.  So  there  api>*-'\ 
partly  from  earlier  sources  which  reach  back  into  the  r.w  ■ 
of  the  court  poetry,  partly  from  later  myths  and  verM-'  % 
the  Volksbueher;  Kaiser  Octnvian,  Fortunate  Eulen^pi"  - . 
Dr,  Fattsi,  The  Wanderiftg  Jew,  etc.  The  spirit  of  •. 
whole  stirring  time  is  seen  again  toward  the  ena  of  the  -  v  - 
teenth  century  incarnate  in  Johann  Fischart  (1550-1  >'}.«•• 
In  command  of  language,  in  power  of  expre^ion  ami  ri 
resentation,  he  can  be  compared  only  with  Luther. 

if'ottr^A  PmW  (1624-1748).— The  wealth  of  thought  a' 
material  of  the  sixteenth  century  would  surely  have  aN  •  . 
veloped  a  greater  perfection  of  form  had  not  the  T}.:-  • 
Years*  war.  the  most  fearful  disaster  that  ever  befell  a  ....- 
tion,  now  set  in.  The  prosperity  of  the  nation  was  desm ;.  -.. 
and  the  population  of  Germany  decreased  by  more  than  li . ' 
yet  these  were  but  minor  evils  compared  with  the  fatt  u 
the  national  spirit  also  entirely  disappeared.    Only  th*-  ->- 
ligious  feeling  could  develop  independently  in  the  mt2>^-r«    ' 
external  circumstances.    And  so  in  the  beginning  of  :. 
period  we  see,  partly  in  opposition  to  the  prevailinsr  -    - 
sided  dogmatism  of  theology,  the  beginnines  of  pit-T  - 
which  was  to  be  an  important  factor  in  the  Titerarr  dc" 
opment  of  later  times. 

While  the  voice  of  popular    poetry  gradually  b^x- 1  * 
mute,  from  the  circles  of  humanism  arises  a  reform,    i. 
was  an  act  of  great  importance  for  the  future  when  M«r: 
Opitz  undertook,  in  his  book  on  German  poetry  (1624 .  * ' 
reform  the  German  verse-structure  in  accordance  ynxh  n  - 
cient  models,  without,  however,  disregarding  the  diffen  • 
between  the  ancient  and  the  German  languages.     Ani- 
Opitz,  who  looked  upon  fame  and  immortality  as  the  {•<«   ^ 
highest  goal,  but  was  himself  possessed  of  slight   [«••* 
talent,  was  grouped  the  first  Silesian  school  of  poetry,  v!  -• 
most  gifted  members  are  Paul  Fleming,  Simon  Dach,  - 
Friedrich  von  Logan.    While  these  poets  stand  for  tho  i*  - 
part  under  the  influence  of  humanism,  the  second  Sil>*-  i' 
school  shows  in  Hofmannswaldau  and  Lohenstein  how  ' 
taste  of  the  public  is  entirely  subject  to  the  influence  of '  '■ 
eign  countries,  especially  of  France,  Spain,  and  Italy.    I'  ^ 
in  vain  that  individual  'men  and  the  German  lAnguap-  ^  - 
cieties  revolt  against  this.    The  national  feeling  ha.>  'i.^ 
peared  from  the  nation,  and  it  must  be  fought  for  iu  * 
future  by  individual  men  with  full  consciousness.    OuU  i 
German  Protestant  Church  hymn  reached  its  perfect  i«':i  ■• 
this  time  with  Paul  Gerhardt ;  and  only  in  the  satirt^,  a>  > 
ployed  by  Schuppius,  Lauremberg,  and  particularly  M«- 
erosch  in  the  Wunderlic?ie  GeaicMe  Pnilanders  tvn  >  ■ 
tenwald,  does  there  still  breathe  something  of  the  sjiir.t 
the  sixteenth  century.    A  faithful  mirror  of  the  time  a{'I^  -** 
finally  in  the  writings  of  Christoph  von  Grimmelshaus^'n. « 
produced  in  his  novel  Simplicissimus  the  greatest  inA. 


756 


GERMAN  LITERATURE 


GERMAN  METHODIST  CHURCH 


ripest  works,  as  Iphigenie  and  TctaaOy  left  the  public  cold, 
and  during  the  next  ^ears  Goethe  stood  alone,  finding  his 
satisfaction  only  in  science,  which  he  enriched  in  the  realms 
of  anatomy  ana  botany  with  some  of  the  most  important 
discoveries.  Not  until  he  had  formed  the  bond  of  friend- 
ship with  Schiller  did  he  turn  again  with  new  love  to  {X)etry. 

Schiller,  too,  had  gone  through  a  purifying  process  since 
his  storm  and  stress  period.  He  haid  applied  himself  first 
to  historical  investigations  and  then  to  the  study  of  Kant's 
philosophy,  but  had  not,  withal,  allowed  the  poetic  develop- 
ment of  Goethe  to  escape  his  notice.  A  nearer  relation  to 
the  greatest  poet  of  Germany  had  long  seemed  to  him  the 
goal  of  his  ambition,  and  when  he  at  last  attained  it  he 
stood  before  Goethe  as  a  mature  thinker  and  critic,  who 
might  well  boast  himself  to  have  developed  peculiarly  and 
successfully  the  aesthetic  and  ethical  views  of  Kant,  the 
greatest  of  German  philosophers. 

Now  began  for  both  poets  a  time  of  rich  poetical  produc- 
tiveness. Goethe  in  these  years  wrote  Hermann  und  Doro- 
thea^  completed  the  novel  Wilhelm  Meister,  and  enlarged 
the  first  part  of  Fatuit.,  Schiller,  on  the  other  hand,  now 
wrote  his  classical  dramas,  Wallenstein,  Maria  Stuart, 
Jungfrau  t*on  Orleans,  Tell,  Braut  von  Messina,  each  of 
which  appears  as  an  attempt  of  the  poet  to  realize  the  ideal 
of  a  national  German  drama. 

The  poetic  art  now  formed  the  center  of  the  intellectual 
life  of  the  nation.  It  had  taken  as  its  task  the  solution  of 
the  greatest  problems  of  human  life,  and,  in  holding  up  a 
new  ideal  to  numanity,  sought  to  influence  the  education  of 
the  nation.  Unhappily  Schiller  died  too  early  to  see  the 
fruits  of  his  own  and  his  p^reat  friend's  works,  which  were 
also  political  in  nature,  as  is  seen  in  the  national  uprising 
during  the  wars  for  liberation. 

While  Goethe  followed,  more  and  more  in  solitude  after 
Schiller's  death,  his  artistic  and  scientific  inclinations,  there 
arises,  largely  incited  by  himself,  a  younger  literary  school 
which  is  generally  known  as  the  romantic  scliool,  whose 
oldest  leaders  are  to  be  found  in  the  Schlegel  brothers,  in 
Tieck  and  Novalis.  The  fact  that  this  school  could  be 
formed  while  Goethe  and  Schiller  held  literary  sway  finds 
its  explanation  in  certain  one-sided  tendencies  of  the  classi- 
cists. Inasmuch  as  the  romanticists  were  closely  con- 
nected with  the  storm  and  stress  period,  and  especially  with 
Herder,  they  awakened,  in  opposition  to  Goethe's  and 
Schiller's  classical  tendencies,  a  love  for  the  German  past, 
and  fought  for  the  justification  of  the  religious  feeling  in 
the  intellectual  life.  (Schieiermacher.)  While  their  at- 
tempts often  degenerated  into  fantastical  nonsense,  and 
while,  through  a  one-sided  accentuation  of  the  imagination, 
they  produced  no  work  of  art,  still  they  developed  histori- 
cal interest,  and  brought  about  an  advance  in  the  national 
feeling.  The  immense  advance  in  the  philological  and  his- 
torical sciences  also  came  from  the  circle  of  the  romanti- 
cists. Franz  Bopp,  the  Grimm  brothers,  Karl  Lachmann, 
Niebuhr — all  drew  the  inspiration  to  their  great  services 
from  romanticism.  Even  Goethe  was  not  able  to  withhold 
himself  from  their  powerful  influence,  and  paid  tribute  to 
the  new  spirit  in  his  later  creations — Wcddverwa/ndschaften, 
Wanderjahre,  Faust,  etc. 

In  poetry  the  lyric  was  especially  benefited  by  romanti- 
cism. Aside  from  the  poets  of  the  wars  for  liberation,  as 
E.  M.  Arndt,  Theodore  K6rner,  Max  von  Schenkendorf,  etc., 
who  are  called  forth  by  the  political  situation,  romantic 
strains  are  heard  in  the  songs  of  nearly  all  the  great  lyric 
poets  of  this  period.  This  is  pre-eminently  the  case  with 
Ludwig  Uhland  (1787-1862),  the  author  of  beautiful  ballads 
and  fervent  folk-songs;  Eduard  M6rike  (1804-75),  the  most 
notable  and  the  deepest  lyric  poet  after  Goethe ;  William 
Mailer  (1794-1827);  A.  von  Chamisso  (1781-1888);  Jos.  von 
Eichendorff  (1788-1857);  and  finally  also  with  Heinrich 
Heine  (1799-1856). 

For  the  drama,  on  the  contrary,  the  teaching  of  roman- 
ticism proved  utterly  fruitless.  That  which  was  produced 
in  the  aramatic  field  in  the  period  up  to  Goethe's  death  was 
essentially  influenced  by  Schiller,  as,  for  example,  the  so- 
called  Schicksals-dramen.  Only  the  unfortunate  Ileinrich 
von  Kleist  (1776-1811)  and  the  gifted  Grillparzer  (1791-1871) 
show  original  dramatic  talent.  Even  less  of  a  lasting  na- 
ture, if  we  except  Goethe,  was  pro<luf'ed  during  this  period 
in  the  realm  oi  romance.  Only  Hokierlin,  with  his  novel 
Hyperion,  may  be  mentioned  here,  although  this  poet  is 
really  one  of  the  greatest  lyrics  of  the  German  language, 
who  seems  in  his  best  poems  to  unite  the  merits  of  both 
Goethe  and  Schiller.     Later,  under  the  influence  of  Walter 


Scott,  Wilhelm  Hauff  developed,  whose  novel  Liehtensteu* 
(1826)  has  not  grown  antiquated. 

Sixth  Period  (1832  to  the  Present).— The  growth  of  na- 
tional feeling  during  the  wars  for  liberation  was  follov^j 
by  a  time  of  reaction  and  of  political  lassitude  which  w»f 
indeed  favorable  to  the  development  of  science  but  n«/i  --f 

g)etry.  Thence  it  came  that  gifted  poets  like  Frie<J  ri'  : 
fickert  (1788-1866)  and  Platen  (1796-1835)  turned  towar  i 
the  Orient  after  Goethe  himself  had  set  the  example  in  I  :> 
Westdsflicher  Diwan  (1819).  Shortly  before  Goethe's  dearh. 
in  consequence  of  the  French  July  revolution,^ a  change  u&>i 
taken  place  in  the  spiritual  and  political  life  of  Genu  am. 
The  group  of  writers  who  stood  in  the  forefront  of  this  ri»  w 
movement  are  usually  known  under  the  name  of  the  Y^ui:^ 
Germany.  They  were  a  number  of  young  men  whose  (bit? 
talent  lay  in  journalism,  and  whose  greatest  service  was  dv  nt 
by  combating  romantic  extravagances  in  political,  mr>r<i.. 
ai}d  religious  flelds.  As  poets  they  were  all  like  Ludwij 
BQme,  Heinrich  Laube,  etc.,  of  a  low  order  of  talent.  Ev.  m 
Heinrich  Heine,  the  clever  imitator  of  folk-songs,  in  spit^  •  i 
many  successful  poems,  is  not  to  be  exempted  from  this 
judgment. 

Political  interests  which  are  directed  toward  the  unity  ^f 
Germany  fill  the  nation*s  life  during  the  ensuing  pen>«L 
The  idea  of  a  renewed  German  empire,  which  first  t«-  k 
shape  among  romantic  circles,  is  gradually  taken  up  by  tLe 
opposite  party,  the  Liberals.  From  the  struggle  lorGr^r- 
man  unity  rises  the  political  lyric  in  the  hands  of  Herwt  -rt:, 
Dingelstedt,  Freiligrath,  and  others.  Among  these  jx-t^ 
only  Emanuel  Geitel  (1815-84)  rose  to  the  faeignt  of  real  a^i. 
In  addition  to  these  are  still  to  be  mentionea  R.  ReirirL 
Aug^ust  Kopisch,  and  the  melancholy  Nikolaus  Lenau  (IntJ- 
50).  In  the  case  of  the  latter,  love  for  America,  which  rul-^ 
so  many  of  the  best  German  poets  since  the  Sturm  tn.; 
Drang  period,  becomes  so  strong  that  it  leads  him  to  om.- 

f:rate,  only,  indeed,  to  return  in  a  short  time  disillusioih-  i. 
n  the  field  of  the  novel,  Karl  Immerman  (1813-63)  is  U*  {it- 
mentioned,  who  g[ave,  through  his  Oherhof,  the  incitati--, 
to  the  Dorfgeschichte,  which  was  taken  up  by  Jervc.n- 
Gotthelf,  B.  Auerbach,  M.  Meyr,  and  many  othere.  'The 
most  noteworthy  dramatist  of  the  time  is  seen  in  the  pcrsi^u 
of  Friedrich  Hebbel  (1813-63). 

As  after  the  wars  for  liberation,  so  after  the  year  1848,  wrL 
the  failure  of  the  national  hopes,  a  state  of  lassitude  sui^  r- 
venes,  in  which  poetry  no  lon^r  exercises  the  chief  influ- 
ence over  the  life  of  the  nation.  This  fact  is  not  altc-n^i 
through  the  circumstance  that  King  Maximilian  II.  of  Ba- 
varia assembles  about  himself  a  circle  of  poets  to  which  t-^ 
long  Geibel,  Bodenstedt,  Schack,  Ling^,  Riehl,  Paul  HevM^, 
and  others.  Natural  science  and  social  questions  advaLv< 
further  and  further  into  the  foreground  of  the  intellei't;>iii 
life.  Even  the  great  Franco-Prussian  war  and  the  re-estai- 
lishment  oi  the  empire,  the  fulfillment  of  the  patriotic  drpani.- 
of  centuries,  brougnt  no  new  impetus  to  German  litemtur^. 
Poets  like  Gustav  Freytag,  Jos.  von  Scheffel,  Gottfried  Ki- 
ler,  and  Paul  Heyse,  who  lived  to  see  this  great  event.  t<>- 
longed  to  an  earlier  generation,  and  receivS  their  ani>:i. 
views  from  a  time  still  filled  with  classical  and  romar/ac 
traditions.  The  youngest  generation,  the  so-called  Young- 
est Germany,  is  seeking  to  break  with  these  tradition>  en- 
tirely, and,  m  imitation  of  Scandinavian,  Russian,  and  t>^>> 
cially  French  models  (Zola),  to  create  a  new  realistic  fi)riii  : 
writing.  Hitherto  it  has  produced  only  programmes ;  wi  i«s- 
tiently  await  the  promised  poetical  achievements.  Howt>\  r, 
a  real  poet  of  deep  humor  and  high  art  has  recently  ap^van^ 
in  Hans  Hoffmann,  who,  by  his  excellent  works,' has  pvei 
proof  that  German  literature  is  still  bearing  fresh  blosv  r^s 
BiBLioGHAPUY. — Gervinus,  Gesckiehte  derdeutsehen  Ih'^- 
tung  (Leipzig,  1874) ;  Koberstein,  Omndriss  zur  Gesch.  d.  d. 
Lit.  (Leipzig,  1874);  Goedecke,  Grundriss  zur  Geseh.d  - 
Dicht.  (DreSen,  1884);  Wackernagel,  Geseh,  d,  d.  L.  ,Rv 
sel,  1879);  W.  Scherer,  Gesch.  d,  d.  Lit,  (1891);  MhXiCu. 
Gesch,  d.  altdeutschen  Poesie;  Biedermann,  DeutjucU.:  i 
im  18,  Jahrh.;  H.  Hettner,  ZAtteraiurge^ich.  des  JS.  Jtr^r 
(1883);  Julian  Schmidt,  Gesch.  d.  d.  Lit,  von  Leibni:  ' 
auf  unsere  Zeit  (1886) ;  (Jottschall,  Deutsche  Naitonailit,  ' « 
19.  Jahrh. ;  Ad.  Stern,  Die  deutsehe  Naiionallit,  it>w  T  • 
Goethes  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (1890) ;  Rud.  Haym,  Die  ror*' 
Schule  (1870);  Joh.  Prolss,  Dew  junge  Deutschland  il^)*- 
Prolss,  Gesch.  des  neuem  Dramas  (1880) ;  Bobertag,  (/>> ' 
des  Romans.  JuLirs  Goebel. 


German  Methodist  Charch :  See  Evangelical  A 


>r<- 


ATION. 


758 


GERMAN  THEOLOGY 


two  catechisms  of  Luther  (1520),  with  the  Schmalkald  Arti- 
cles (1587),  which  are  essentially  in  unison  with  these  writ- 
ings of  Melanchthon.  These  five  symbols  present  the  first 
formation  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine,  the  most  systematic 
and  summary  being  the  Augsburg  Confession ;  for  justifica- 
tion by  faith  constitutes  the  center  from  which  all  else  is 
ruled  (Art.  IV.) ;  its  theological,  anthropological,  and  Chris- 
tological  presuppositions  are  ^ven  in  the  first  three  articles, 
while  the  fourth  article  contains  the  union  of  the  free  grace 
of  God  with  the  believing  soul.  It  then  proceeds  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  origin  and  nature  of  this  faith.  Its  origin  is 
through  the  ecclesiastical  office,  which  administers  the  word 
of  God,  and  the  sacraments,  these  being  accompanied  by  the 
agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Art.  V.).  Faith  grows  into  new 
obedience  or  love  (Art.  VL).  If  this  be  the  nature  of  evan- 
gelical faith  in  ite  origin  and  growth,  it  of  necessity  leads  to 
the  Church,  which  partly  presupposes  faith,  partly  supports  it ; 
therefore  the  Church  is  treated  of  at  length  in  Arts.  VI L- 
XVII.  Art.  VII.  determines  the  fundamental  idea  of  the 
Church  as  an  everlasting  communion  of  saints  or  believers, 
which  is  recognized  externally  by  the  pure  doctrine  of  the 
gospel  and  the  proper  administration  of  the  sacraments, 
and  which  preserves  its  unity  even  in  the  dissimilarity  of 
human  tradition.  The  Church  in  its  realization  is  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  inconsistent  with  its  idea,  and  hence  there  arises 
the  distinction  between  the  invisible  and  visible  Church, 
which,  however,  docs  not  find  its  expression  in  the  Lutheran 
symbols.  This  inconsistency,  however,  on  the  side  of  the 
subjective  factors  of  the  Church  does  not  go  so  far  as  to  do 
away  with  the  efficacy  of  the  objective  factors,  the  Word 
and  sacraments.  These  objective  factors,  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper,  were  now  positively  stated  (Arts.  IX.-XII.) 
with  silent  polemic  toward  the  Koman  Catholic  Church, 
and  her  apparentiv  fuller  doctrines  of  the  sacraments  (viz., 
penance,  with  confession  and  ordination) ;  the  opus  opera- 
turn  was  rejected,  because  contrary  to  faith  (Art.  XIIL), 
and  the  evangelical  idea  of  ordination  was  defined  as  the 
lawful  call  to  the  public  administration  of  the  means  of 
grace,  as  opposed  to  anarchy  as  well  as  hierarchy,  so  that 
the  balance  is  restored  between  church  order  and  evan- 
gelical freedom.  The  principle  of  faith  entirely  unites  the 
objective  or  necessary  side  with  the  subjective  side,  and 
transfigures  both  into  evangelical  freedom.  On  this  very 
account  the  evangelical  type  of  teaching  is  friendly  to  the 
state  which  it  acknowledges  as  a  divine  institution,  and  en- 
gages to  serve  with  the  cheerful  obedience  of  love  (Art. 
XVI.).  Finally,  Art.  XVII.  treats  of  the  final  destiny  of 
the  Church,  excluding  enthusiastic  millenarianism.  The 
remainder,  for  the  niost  part,  refutes  misconceptions  re- 
specting evangelical  doctrines,  such  as  the  supposed  entire 
denial  of  free  will  and  the  charging  the  divine  causality 
with  the  origin  of  evil,  the  supposed  despising  of  good 
works  and  the  law ;  and  closes  with  the  rejection  of  the 
principal  ecclesiastical  abuses,  such  as  withdrawal  of  the 
cup  from  the  laity,  the  celibacv  of  the  priests,  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass,  oral  confession,  laws  about  eating,  monastic 
vows,  as  well  as  the  unevangelical  exaltation  of  episcopal 
power  over  against  the  laity  and  the  state.  That  which 
nas  lust  been  stated  is  the  substance  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Lutheran  Church — that  which  constituted  the  official  doc- 
trine until  1750.  These  Lutheran  symbols  contain  in  gen- 
eral an  harmonious  whole,  and  have  shown  themselves 
capable  of  establishing  an  evangelical  Church  and  an  in- 
dependent evangelical  literature  and  learning.  Several 
important  points,  however,  were  either  not  discussed  in  this 
first  confession,  or  were  not  clearly  decided  in  harmony  with 
the  general  evangelical  type.  Above  all,  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures are  indeed  presupposed  as  authority,  but  are  mentioned 
only  as  a  means  of  grace ;  no  doctrine  respecting  them  as  a 
norm  is  established,  even  though  they  are  implicitly  under- 
stood to  be  so  as  a  matter  of  course.  There  is  a  marked 
difference  in  this  respect  in  the  Reformed  confessions,  since 
they  very  early  presented  the  article  respecting  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  as  a  particular  doctrine,  some  of  them  with  a 
specification  of  the  particular  writings  which  were  to  be  re- 
garded as  canonical.  The  Formula  Concordim  (1577)  partly 
made  up  the  deficiency.  But  it  evidently  proves  that 
Luther's  clear  insight  into  the  relation  of  faith  to  the  word 
of  God  and  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  the  principles  briefly  men- 
tioned above,  as  resulting  from  faith  with  respect  to  the 
canonicity  and  criticism  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  as  well  as 
their  interpretation,  had  by  no  means  become  the  general 
conviction  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  deficiency  in  the 
working  out  of  this  fundamental  principle  constitutes  the 


mainspring  of  the  theological  movements  of  the  two  folVi-v- 
ing .centuries,  which  somewhat  differ  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  Lutheran  Reformation.  There  are  other  ineqoalit  >!> 
or  deficiencies,  such  as  the  following :  While  the  opus  optrfi- 
turn  is  decidedly  denied,  owing  to  the  fundamental  prw.- 
ciple  that  salvation  must  be  apprehended  by  personai  ikix  r^ 
yet  regenerative  power  was  ascribed  to  the  oaptism  <  >f  iii- 
lants,  even  at  the  moment  of  its  administration,  not  in«l»^: 
by  the  Augsburg  Confession^  but  by  the  common  LutberaL 
doctrine.  And  notwithstanding  Luther's  attempts  to  e<<  a^^' 
the  difficulty  by  the  supposition  that  even  infants  who  h»v,' 
been  baptized  Have  faith  (analogous  to  Calvin's  fides  semina- 
lis\  another  inconsistency  threatened  with  the  (>osition  tit^-jtl- 
edly  taken  aeainst  enthusiasts,  that  faith  comes  only  tbrtm^i 

S reaching.  Luther  hinted  at  a  better  solution  in  lus  LanrT 
atechism — namely,  that  baptism  has  not  merely  momtT- 
tary  significance  as  an  act  of  the  eternal  God  in  His  adopt i:.: 
grace,  but  is  a  revelation  of  His  gracious  will,  which  reinaat- 
valid  and  efficient  until  human  unbelief  shall  have  destn.}  t  «i 
the  baptismal  covenant.  But  this  solution  was  not  maiii. 
use  of  oy  the  Lutheran  theologians. 

There  is  another  inequality  with  reference  to  the  doctrirt 
of  predestination.    It  is  indeed  true  that  Luther  never  l*^: 
sight  of  the  universality  of  the  divine  gracious  wilL  &tA 
would  found  the  consciousness  of  salvation  not  on  the  knowl- 
edge of  everlasting  election  working  through  faith,  but.  4  .i 
the  contrary,  on  the  gracious  will  revealed  m  the  word  ar.«: 
sacraments  and  apprehended  by  faith — maintaining  likt- 
wise  a  possibility  of  a  falling  away  from  grace.    Nevertl  ~ 
less  Melanchthon,  in  the  first  edition  of  his  Led,  the  earli<  < 
dogmatical  work  of  the  Reformation,  as  well  as  Luther '^ 
treatise  De  servo  arbitrio  (1525)  against  Erasmus,  shows  thai 
in  the  beginning  the  leading  men  of  the  Lutheran  Chun  h 
maintained  a  position  similar  to  that  of  the  founders  of  titv 
Reformed  Church  and  theology,  for,  while  avoiding  »i- 
solute  predestination  with  reference  to  both  the  elect  and  xin 
reprobate  (the  prcedesiinatio  duplex),  they  decidedly  Lei-i 
fast  to  the  doctrine  of  a  complete  extinction  of  the  fre**  w::; 
by  means  of  original  sin,  and,  in  connection  with  this  Aupi- 
tinian  rejection  of  every  form  of  synergism,  admitted  a  ^r. 
of  eternal  predestination  with  reference  to  the  elect.    Si...  h 
was  the  standpoint  which,  in  a  somewhat  mitigated  and  n*- 
laxed  form,  was  maintained  not  only  by  Luther  in  his  larer 
writings  (after  1530),  but  also  by  his  disciples  and  immetlLv 
followers,  the  so-called  Gnesio-Lutherans  of  the  second  half 
of  the   sixteenth  century.    The  concluding  Confessiou  ^i 
Faith  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  epoch  of  its  first  forma- 
tion, the  Formula  Concordics  (1577),  decidedly  and  cUariy 
expresses  the  same  meaning  in  its  eleventh  chapter  {Ih  a^: 
prcedestinatione  et  elections  Dei)^  where  both  the  double  i]- 
cree  of  the  Calvinists  and  the  synergism  of  the  later  f^l  - 
tions  of  Melanchthon's  Loci  and  of  his  one-sided  d'\sci\  Vi 
(the  so-called  Philippists)  are  equally  rejected.  The  (JenLun 
evangelical  people,  no  we  ver,  from  the  very  beginning  diii  n  : 
agree  with  tne  absolute  denial  of  the  freedom  of  the  will  v« 
is  clear  from  the  letters  of  the  laity  to  the  Reformers.    Ab- 
solute determinism,  even  in  the  Augustinian  form,  did  d  i 
please  them,  and  they  could  not  be  contented  with  the  n.fr? 
liberum  arbitrium  in  civilibus  which  the  leaders  of  the  Rr'- 
ormation  earlv  acknowledged.  {Conf,  Aug,  X  VIII. ;  i'or'n. 
Cofve.,  ch.  ii.)  ^his  was  in  the  interest  of  not  letting  the  ca  .^ 
of  evil,  nor  indeed  the  ruin  of  the  descendants  of  Adanj  •  i. 
account  of  original  sin,  fall  back  upon  God.  But  since  even  thi 
Reformers  had  been  led  by  a  religious  motive  to  the  dti.i* 
of  freedom  toward  the  good — namely,  by  the  doctrine  th^t 
all  good  Cometh  from  above — it  became  a  necessary  as  ^»  . 
as  a  difficult  task  to  reconcile  the  apparent  conflict  in  a:. 
harmonious,  well-adjusted  doctrine  oi  sin  and  grace.    T^^ 
Lutheran  theology  of  the  seventeenth  century  sought  iK. 
solution  by  presupposing  as  necessary  for  conversion  cert*.  - 
inevitable  operations  of  grace,  whereby  the  liberum  nW.- 
trium  was  restored,  upon  the  use  of  which,  then,  nian*<  firv 
fate  depends.    But  tnereby  it  did  not  take  away  all  oi*^- 
ciilties  involved  in  the  problem ;  for  while  laying  "too  nr  ■  '■ 
stress  upon  the  necessity  of  certain  electing  and  ppe«^ni.iL 
ing  acts  of  God  with  regard  to  the  human  individual,  Ji  -^ 
theologians  did  not  conceive  the  inevitable  effects  of  gni  t 
to  be  universal,  whether  in  this  world  or  the  next ;  and  Wh- 
in the  eighteenth  century  the  universal  salvation  of  iK 
heathen,  even  without  Christ,  was  frequentlv  acknowledj:' : 
nothing  was  gained  thereby.  It  was  not  until  the  ninetetrf       ' 
century  that  the  universality  of  the  call  by  the  gosrel  :>       ■ 
faith  and  salvation  was  taught  also  by  Lutneran  or(M  t       | 
theologians  on  the  ground  of  1  Pet.  iii.  18.  , 

I 


760 


GERMAN  THEOLOGY 


Beformers  in  the  epoch  subsequent  to  the  founding  of  the 
Evangelical  Church  nad  to  exhibit  no  trifling  power  of  faith 
in  the  bloody  conflicts  which  were  excited  and  nourished 
by  the  counter-Reformation,  especially  by  the  Jesuits.  It 
is  enough  that  they  accomplished  something  in  true  labor 
for  the  task  which  was  laid  upon  them.  The  principle  of 
the  Reformation,  in  accordance  with  its  great  historical  sig- 
niflcance  for  the  world,  must  first  secure  the  firm  establish- 
ment of  Protestantism  in  the  midst  of  the  Old  World.  It 
was  not  of  so  much  importance  to  bring  forth  new  treasures 
out  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  chambers  of  the  believ- 
ing spirit,  as  to  carry  out  the  Reformation's  idea  of  the 
world  through  the  consideration  of  the  history  of  the 
Church.  It  was  necessary  to  search  into  the  entire  sources 
of  the  revelation  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  to  study 
them  in  the  light  of  the  newly  gained  knowledge,  and  thus 
to  take  spiritual  possession  for  t^e  new  Church  of  the  whole 
previous  world.  It  was  necessary  to  find  confirmation  and 
proof  for  the  truth  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures and  the  history  of  the  Church.  The  whole  of  theol- 
ogy under  these  circumstances  became  the  servant  of  dog- 
matics— yea,  almost  became  absorbed  in  it.  What  had  been 
planted  by  the  Reformation  in  the  heart  of  the  German 

Eeople  was  taken  possession  of  in  the  seventeenth  century 
y  the  architectonic  spirit,  in  order  to  build  up  a  systematic 
structure  for  offense  and  defense.  A  well-organized  method, 
equipped  with  logical  powor,  endeavored  to  arm  Protestant 
truth  on  all  sides.  The  indefatigable  diligence  and  acute- 
ne^s  of  the  ^reat  dogmatic  writers  of  that  century  surround- 
ed the  district  of  evangelical  truth  on  all  sides  with  fortifi- 
cations in  order  to  present  it  as  a  great  invincible  citadel. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  century,  and  indeed  subsequently, 
there  was  no  lack  of  the  power  of  a  spiritual  life.  It  re- 
sounds with  abundance  of  noly  hymns  and  mighty  chorals, 
and  the  people  were  edified  by  excellent  evangelical  preach- 
ing. But  an  abatement  of  spiritual  power  was  soon  mani- 
fest. The  thought  of  the  conquest  of  the  world,  Roman 
Catholic,  heathen,  and  Jewish,  was  scarcely  agitated,  nor 
was  there  any  ^reat  effort  to  carry  out  the  Protestant  prin- 
ciple in  an  ethical  direction  in  the  whole  life  of  the  Church. 
Rather  with  the  one-sided  effort  to  preserve  that  which  had 
been  won,  the  evangelical  principle  itself,  in  accordance 
with  an  internal  law,  changed  in  tneir  very  hands.  This  is 
shown  in  the  treatment  of  the  principle  of  the  Reformation 
itself,  which  was  for  Luther  the  living  soul  and  controlling 
center  of  the  whole,  and  which  the  Augustana  (see  above) 
shows  to  be  fruitful  in  the  production  of  an  entire  system 
of  doctrine,  as  well  as  in  criticism  and  polemics.  But  now 
the  principle  became  a  single  article  of  doctrine  alongside 
of  others,  and  in  the  schol^tic  treatment  to  which  the  doc- 
trine of  justification  was  likewise  subjected  can  be  traced, 
only  too  clearly,  an  internal  uncertaintv  respecting  impor- 
tant points  in  the  principle  itself,  as  well  as  in  its  systematic 
position. 

There  was  an  uncertaintv  respecting  the  time  of  the  di- 
vine act  of  justification  with  reference  to  the  individual; 
thus  whether  justification  is  adjudicated  to  man  only  as 
subsequent  to  faith,  either  as  coming  into  existence  or  con- 
firmea,  or  whether,  on  the  other  hand,  the  declaration  is 
made  known  to  man  by  God  that  He  ?ias  forgiven  him  for 
Christ's  sake,  and  justification  is  thus  offered  in  order  that 
he  may  believe.  Since  faith  and  true  repentance  were  more 
and  more  demanded  in  such  a  manner  as  a  condition  of 
justification  that  faith  almost  gained  the  significance  of  a 
meritorious  or  efficient  cause  oi  justification,  the  pious  be- 
gan to  be  doubtful  whether  they  were  in  possession  of  true 
repentance  and  true  faith,  or  not,  as  well  as  to  doubt  (in  the 
eighteenth  century)  respecting  the  true  evidences  of  genuine 
faith.  Finally,  these  evidences  were  found  in  faith  working 
by  love,  and  the  assurance  of  justification  was  drawn  from 
good  works  as  the  evidences  of  true  faith.  And  thus  they 
had  returned  by  a  roundabout  way  to  the  boundaries  of 
Rome.  So  likewise  there  appeared  more  and  more  uncer- 
tainty whether  faith  might  oe  sure  of  eternal  election  or 
onljr  of  present  grace,  as  J.  Musaeus  (of  Jena,  v,  infr.) 
claimed.  It  was  of  more  importance  to  theology,  however, 
that  justification  bv  faith  was  no  longer  treated  as  a  princi- 
ple, but  only  the  Holy  Scriptures.  They  were  now  brought 
forward  in  such  a  way  that  they  were  treated  b}r  the  dog- 
matic writers  as  the  only  foundation  of  Christian  truth. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  so  wrought  out 
that  it  should  be  clear  that  the  evidence  of  the  truth  con- 
sisted solely  and  sufficiently  in  the  fact  that  it  could  be 
proved  to  be  contained  in  the  sacred  books.    Accordingly, 


then,  the  theory  of  Philo  respecting  inspiration  pperioiis  t- 
the  Christian  era  became  almost  the  model  for  the  Christ L.. 
theory  of  inspiration.    It  was  said  that  the  contents^  ar<i 
words  of  Scripture  were  dictated  to  their  authors,  and  ii: - 
parted  non  ad  sciendum  aed  ad  scribetidum,  while,  on  ^h^- 
other  hand,  it  Ls  the  characteristic  of  the  New  Te&tani» :/ 
economy,  by  which  it  is  essentially  distinguished  fn>m  u  > 
time  before  Christ,  that  the  subject-matter  of  salvatic»n  i-- 
longer  remained  merely  external  to  the  spirit,  but  unit*.-^  it- 
self with  its  innermost  convictions  and  knowledgte  of  ri- 
truth.     While  the  significance  of  the  gospel,  accordinjr  T" 
Protestantism,  consisted  above  all  in  the  building  up  of  fri-- 
and  conscious  individuals,  that  theory  made  the  pillar<  < ' 
the  Church,  the  teachers  of  mankind,  into  mere  machinf-. 
so  that  their  personal  faith  and  knowledge  were  not  t*::^- 
ployed  as  co-operative  factors  in  the  preservation  and  tran^ 
mission  of  the  gospel.    That  theory  passed  rather  light Iv 
over  the  fact  of  the  different  individualities  of  the  wnter^ 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  as  well  as  the  various  readings  of  th*- 
original  text,  the  impossibility  that  believers  in  general 
should  resort  to  the  original  sources,  and  the  imperfecti<-.:.<i 
in  the  style  and  language  of  the  various  compositions.      \'A 
the  differences  and  lack  of  harmony  in  parallel  histoni-ai 
statements  were  balanced,  not  unfrequently  by  an  over- 
strained endeavor  to  harmonize  them.    Thus  there  wa»  & 
recoil  from  the  critical  principles  of  Luther  with  reference 
to  the  canonicity  of  particular  writings,  important  as  they 
were  in  religion  ana  theology,  as  if  they  were  somethir.i: 
which  was  not  to  be  followed,  but  rather  pardoned  in  hi  in  : 
but  they  had  nothing  better  to  substitute  for  them  than  a 
renewal  of  the  authority  of  the  Church  in  constituting  tb«> 
canon,  as  indeed  the  view  of  Quenstedt  (of  Wittenberpr.  r 
f'n/r.)  was  that,  granted  the  Gospel  according  to  MattDt? 
were  spurious,  it  would  nevertheless  retain  its  anthoriiy  J 
the  Church  should  ascribe  canonicity  to  it.     In  the  ^^ru^ 
manner  the  difference  between  proto  and  deutero  canonii^ii 
writings  of  the  New  Testament,  which  was  still  recogniz^i 
in  the  editions  of  the  Bible  of  the  sixteenth  century,  v&5 
abolished  in  the  seventeenth.    Yet  they  did  not  deviate  <•• 
far  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Reformation  as  to  treat  men* 
historical  faith  {fiaes  h%8lorxca\  or  evidence  of  the  same.  &> 
a  substitute  for  the  proper  assurance  of  faith  (fide^  dinni . 
On  the  contrary,  they  laid  great  stress  on  the  f^t  thnr  i 
special  operation  of  the  Spirit  accompanied  the  reading <! 
the  Scriptures  to  receptive  souls,  or  that  the  Scriptures  were 
the  peculiar  channel  for  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Spirit  of  truth. 
This  significance  of  the  Scriptures  as  a  means  of  grace— 
which  characteristic  they  eternally  possessed  independ^ct 
of  all  criticism — was,  however,  immediately  invertea  in  ih^ 
doctrine  that  the  Holy  Spirit  gives  immediately,  and  d  *. 
only  to  true  believers,  divine  assurance  respecting  thtir 
divine  origin  and  the  fact  of  their  inspiration.    Hence  vit$ 
derived  their  normal  authority.    Instead  of  their  being  »i  • 
knowledged  as  the  document  and  source  of  the  knowieil^:? 
of  the  genuine  original  Cliristianity,  their  contents,  thej 
were  considered  as  likewise  a  sufficient  attestation  of  the 
truth  of  these  contents.    Furthermore,  it  was  granted  tha: 
each  individual  could  be  enlightened  and  assured  respeotinj 
the  truth  of  the  contents  of  the  Scriptures  through  th«- 
working  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  these  Scriptures,  without  the 
necessity  of  the  operation  of  the  power  of  the  gospel  il 
changing  the  heart    This  decline  to  the  standpoint  of  intel- 
lectualism,  with  its  latent  Pelagianism,  oocuired  in  the  >c- 
called  Theologia  irregenitorum,  which  led  the  wav  to  Pela- 
gianism through  the  magical  operation  of  the  Scripture^ 
and  the  Holy  Spirit — a  doing  away  of  the  difference  l<r- 
tween  nature  and  grace,  and  between  the  regenerate  ana 
unregenerate. 

Space  will  not  permit  the  insertion  of  details  with  refrr- 
ence  to  the  deviations  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Reforma- 
tion which  are  involved  in  the  chang^  in  the  fundamcnta 
principle  already  described.  However,  it  must  not  be  « im- 
posed that  all  theologians  took  this  direction  of  establishirc 
a  Protestant  tradition  as  an  external  assurance  of  the  r^ 
demptive  power  and  truth  of  the  gospel.  The  various  tuii- 
versities  (each  of  which  had  its  peculiar  type  of  theoN-L.' 
took  up  different  positions  with  reference  to  uiis  matter,  an  1 
are  represented  by  important  theologians,  the  authors  of  rv- 
markable  dogmatical  works.  The  strict  Lutheran  orthiKiiv 
was  especiafiy  represented  in  Wittenberg  and  Tilhinff»f . 
subsequently  also  in  Rostock.  A  fieer  tendency  was  ivi  rt- 
sented  by  (Jeorge  Calixtus  (d.  1656)  and  his  school  (callr: 
by  their  opponents,  Calov,  Hfllsemann,  etc.,  Synereti^s  s. 
Helmst&dt,  K5nigsberg,  and  the  Nuremberg  university  < ' 


762 


GERMAN  THEOLOGY 


period ;  but  he  found  no  sufficient  grounds  for  the  move- 
ments and  changes  in  the  system  of  doctrine.  Whatever 
had  been  added  to  the  common  Christian  doctrine  ^ven  in 
the  Apostles'  Creed  was  to  him  indeed  not  necessarily  erro- 
neous or  a  decline,  but  a  matter  of  indifference  and  subor- 
dinate, as  then  he  did  not  reckon  the  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion among  the  common  Christian  doctrines.  The  theologians 
subsequent  to  Calixtus,  just  mentioned,  were,  like  him, 
characterized  by  a  more  objective  historical  spirit  of  inves- 
tigation. It  is  true  they  were  in  advance  of  Arnold,  yet  it 
was  only  through  Arnold's  exaggerations  that  their  atten- 
tion was  directed  to  the  importance  of  heretical  movements ; 
it  was  reserved  for  a  subsequent  period  to  recognize  and 
show  that  it  is  by  means  of  heretical  movements  that  an 
advance  in  the  Church  is  mediated,  and  to  represent  them 
not  merely  as  an  accidental  swarm  of  opponents,  but  rather 
as  those  who  stepped  forth  in  opposition  to  a  still  unprepared 
Church  doctrine  in  points  where  a  further  development  was 
necessary,  although  with  a  one-sided  or  distorted  emphasis 
of  the  elements  that  were  still  lacking. 

The  above-m.entioned  theologians,  for  the  most  part  de- 
voted to  historical  theology,  in  sympatliy  with  the  culture 
of  the  time,  and  in  anticipation  of  approaching  storms, 
desired  to  establish  themselves  on  a  good  footing,  and 
everywhere  to  break  off  the  sharp  edges  of  the  old  doc- 
trines. Original  sin  became  significant  only  after  consent 
to  it ;  inspiration  was  merely  assistance  by  tne  Holy  Spirit ; 
the  communicatio  idiomatum  was  more  and  more  limited  ; 
the  doctrine  of  justification  was  obscured  by  mixing  it  with 
sanctification.  With  reference  to  other  doctrines,  such  as 
the  Trinity,  the  incarnation,  the  work  of  atonement,  the 
Lord's  Supper,  they  avoided  the  difficulties  of  the  Church 
form  of  doctrine  by  referring  to  their  inconceivableness  and 
mystery.  A  new  regenerative  principle  was  lacking.  Yet 
they  went  back  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  distrust  of  the 
doctrinal  development  of  the  Church.  Faith  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures — ^which  were  identified,  on  their  part,  with  reve- 
lation itself — was  regarded  in  its  way  as  Christian  faith,  so 
that  they  thought  only  of  doctrines,  especially  of  mysteries, 
in  connection  with  it,  and  not  of  real  vital  communion  with 
Gk)d  in  Christ,  and  of  the  assurance  to  be  wrought  by  the 
Holy  Spirit.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  notwithstanding 
the  systematic  subordination  of  the  material  principle  to 
the  formal,  it  was  still  maintained  that  assurance  was  to  be 
gained  only  through  the  Holy  Spirit,  whose  testimony 
united  itself  to  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures ;  whereby,  to 
be  sure,  the  contents  of  the  testimony  were  more  and  more 
regarded  to  be  so  much  the  power  of  the  gospel  unto  salva- 
tion or  the  experience  of  salvation,  as  rather  the  divine  ori- 
gin of  the  Holy  Scriptures  (their  inspiration),  and  through 
them  the  truth  of  Christian  doctrines.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  the  testimonium  Spiritua  Sancti  was  more  and 
more  abandoned,  as  in  general  the  fervent  sense  of  the  ac- 
tive nearness  of  God  and  the  presence  of  the  Spirit  in  the 
Church  vanished. 

In  order,  now,  to  gain  a  substitute  for  the  assurance  of 
Christianity,  the  way  of  demonstration  offered  itself.  To 
this  path  philosophy,  which  had  begun  its  course  since 
Leibnitz  (d.  1716)  and  Wolff  (d.  1754)  with  a  strong  feeling 
of  self-consciousness,  successfully  invited.  The  school  of 
Wolff,  flourishing  before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  .cen- 
tury, undertook  to  establish  Christianity  by  mathematical 
demonstration.  Reusch,  Schubert,  Carpzov,  Canz,  Rein- 
beck  and  particularly  Sigmund  Jacob  Baumgarten  of  Halle, 
(d.  1757),  belong  to  this  school.  They  began  the  proof  for 
Christianity  through  a  rational  demonstration  of  tne  divine 
authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  should  be  superior 
to  what  they  regarded  as  t-ne  merely  apparent  proof  from 
the  experience  of  the  operations  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The 
idea  of  God  derived  fr6m  the  lumen  natures,  the  righteous- 
ness, holiness,  goodness,  and  power  of  God  in  the  presence 
of  sin  and  guilt,  prove  the  necessity  of  the  revelation  of  an 
atonement,  if  an  atonement  should  in  any  way  be  possible 
or  capable  of  being  known.  Its  possibility  is  evident  from 
the  fact  that  the  predicates  ascribed  to  it  are  not  contra- 
dictorv;  these  predicates  constitute  at  once  the  criteria 
whereby  a  true  revelation  may  be  known.  Now,  the  Holv 
Scriptures  correspond  with  these  criteria,  since  they  teach 
the  way  of  peace,  and  contain  mysteries  which  coulcf  not  of 
themselves  be  derived  from  the  reason.  This  method  of 
proof  goes  no  further  into  the  consideration  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, their  origin,  and  the  formation  of  the  canon,  while 
indeed  these  criteria  do  not  of  themselves  prove  the  divine 
authority  of  the  Scriptures.    About  this  time  the  science  of 


biblical  theology  began,  after  Emesti's  InstittUio  interprefU 
Novi  Testamenti  (1761),  through  the  labors  of  BQsehing, 
ZachariA,  Hufnagel,  Ammon,  U.  Lorenz  Bauer,  and  esf*- 
cially  Gabler,  who  has  the  merit  of  having  clearly  statc^l 
the  historical  character  of  biblical  theology  (which  hA> 
since  been  more  thoroughly  wrought  out  by  Schmid  ami 
Oehler,  in  Ttlbingen,  B.  Weiss,  in  Berlin,  H.  Schultz,  in  Gr^t- 
tingen,  and  others).  From  this  circumstance,  as  well  as  thf 
fact  that  Baumgarten's  pupil,  J.  Sal.  Sender  (d.  1791),  be- 
gan the  period  of  the  criticism  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  it 
resulted  that  the  elder  Ttlbingen  school,  under  Storr,  Flatt. 
SUsskind,  paved  the  way  for  the  purely  historical  proof  of 
the  divine  origin  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  thereby  of 
Christianity.  The  apostles,  and  the  scholars  of  the  apostles, 
said  they,  composed  the  Scriptures  of  the  New  Testament 
canon  (tne  proof  of  their  authenticity  and  integrity) ;  the^ 
Scriptures  are  historically  worthy  of  confidence  (fides  hu- 
mana) ;  the  apostles  could,  would,  and  must  have  spc^kcn 
the  truth.  Tnese  writings  describe,  on  the  one  side,  Christ's 
sinless  character— on  the  other  side.  His  miraculous  acts ; 
both  together  attest  the  truth  and  full  authenticity  of  His 
statements  respecting  Himself  and  His  divine  mi<9:ion. 
Now,  Christ  promised  His  disciples  the  gift  of  the  Ho.t 
Spirit;  and  tnat  He  was  able  to  fulfill  this  promise  is 
proved  by  His  miracles ;  and  thus  they  were  in  pos5e5«>ioc 
of  an  inspiration  corresponding  with  His  veracity ;  conse- 
quently, whatever  is  contained  m  these  writings  is  divint-iy 
attested  (fides  dimna) ;  and  the  authority  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment likewise  rests  on  that  of  the  New.  That  which  U  htre 
called  fides  divina  is  thus  by  no  means  assurance  of  salvm- 
tion  or  divine  assurance,  but  is  human  assurance  of  dinnr 
things.  This  whole  method  of  proof  is  based  on  the  formal 
principle,  and  is  a  revival  and  improvement  of  the  idea  r.f 
Hugo  Grotius ;  it  is  in  an  altogether  intellectual  form,  and 
essentially  changes  the  principle  of  faith  of  the  Reformat  i'^n. 
About  the  same  time  theological  ethics  were  likewise  in«n- 
and  more  separated  from  their  internal  connection  with 
the  principle  of  faith,  partly  through  the  influence  of  th* 
popular  philosophy  of  Wolff  (Steinbart,  Eberhardt,  Bahr«2T 
m  the  manner  of  eudsemonism,  partly  in  earnest  natun-^. 
under  the  influence  of  Kant,  through  the  ethics  of  liit 
reason. 

The  supematuralism  of  the  rational  as  well  as  the  his- 
torical method  formerly  maintained  the  supernatural  clutr- 
acter  of  Christianity — miracles,  prophecy,  etc. — ^bat  i«'»r\- 
and  more  tended  to  depreciate  ana  weaken  that  which  cc  n- 
stituted  the  subject-matter  of  the  doctrine.  Thus  the  d»  .t-- 
trine  of  the  Trinity  (and  this  could  not  but  be  significa;.: 
for  Christology)  was  constituted  by  some  in  the  form  "f 
subordination — e.  g.  by  Tfillner  (who  likewise  denied  tbr 
saving  significance  of  the  active  obedience  of  Christy  \>y 
D5derlein,  and  by  Flatt ;  by  others,  as  Urlspercer,  in  th*» 
form  of  Sabellianism  or  a  modal  Trinity.  In  {naoe  of  th-* 
Church  doctrine  of  the  atonement,  it  was  supposed  thai 
there  was  a  kind  of  acceptilatio  of  the  obedience  of  Chn-r 
for  the  blotting  out  of  guilt ;  the  Church  was  defined  &<  a 
work  of  believing  individuals  uniting  themselves  togiethrr ; 
and  the  doctrine  of  justification  was  placed  almost  at  iht 
end  of  the  system.    (Storr.) 

The  incongruity  of  the  significance  that  was  ascribed  t<^ 
the  still  remaining  elements  of  Christianitv  with  the  super- 
natural form  now  invited  rationalism  to  advance  with  con- 
fidence of  victonr ;  so  much  the  more  as  the  first  philosophu 
systems  of  Wolff,  Kant,  Jacobi,  and  Fichte  gave  systeniat  \.i 
expression  with  ever-increasing  boldness  to  the  self-cor:n- 
dence  of  the  newly  awakened  subjectivity.  Snpematunu- 
ism  in  vain  sought  to  appropriate  these  svstems  and  turn 
them  in  a  direction  favorable  to  itself.  iTius  with  refer- 
ence to  the  system  of  Kant:  StUudlin,  SQsskind,  K.  L 
Nitsch,  and  Stapfer — to  that  of  Jacobi:  Vater,  Steu«M, 
Emmerich,  Heydenreich.  The  rationalists  of  the  school  «! 
Kant,  Tieftrunk — subsequently  likewise  Ammon  ;  funh*  r- 
more  Lflffler,  Henke,  Schmid,  Krug,  Rohr,  Paulus,  Wt^^:- 
scheider  (to  a  certain  extent  tinctured  with  the  dei'^m  ^5 
the  school  of  Wolff) ;  likewise  scholars  of  Jacobi,  such  a- 
Heinrich  Schmid,  Koppen,  Kohler,  or  of  Jacobi  and  Fn«^ 
such  as  De  Wette — forced  back  supematuralism  still  fur- 
ther from  its  standpoint,  until  that  miserable  abortion  «>i 
a  rational  supematuralism  and  supernatural  ration ali>/i 
threatened  theology  with  self-destruction. 

At  first,  the  elements  of  Christian  faith  became  rici  :. 
and  afterward  weakened;  and  this  had  the  saddc^st  c  f>- 
sequences  with  reference  to  the  Church,  its  constitution  &i  " 
laws.    In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the  cler<r« 


764 


GERMAN  THEOLOGY 


GERMINATION 


ing  the  boundaries  of  truth,  or  by  marking  out  the  heret- 
ical points  of  the  compass.  He  fixed  in  a  scholarly  manner 
the  difference  between  heterodoxy  and  heresy,  which  the 
Moravian  Brethren,  among  whom' he  had  been  trained,  had 
practically  carried  out  in  the  different  types  which  it  would 
embrace  within  itself.  He  thus  defined  the  conditions  of 
church  membership,  the  limits  of  liberty  in  teaching.  This 
led  to  the  great  service  which  he  rendered  for  the  union 
of  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches  in  German  v.  His 
Glauhenalehre  (Der  christl.  Glauhe  nach  den  O'runisdtzen 
der  evang.  Kirche,  2  vols.,  1831 ;  2d  ed.  1830),  returning  to 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  sought  a  reconciliation 
of  tne  Reiormed  and  Lutheran  types  of  doctrine.  Thus  in 
the  doctrine  of  predestination  he  combined  Lutheran  uni- 
versalism  with  the  Reformed  absolute  decree;  Lutheran 
mysticism  and  the  demand  that  objective  Christianity 
should  be  appropriated  in  the  inmost  soul,  with  the  ethical 
tendency  of  tne  Reformed  type  of  doctrine ;  and  the  person- 
al assurance  in  one's  self  with  the  awakening  of  the  sense 
for  the  practical  problems  of  the  Church  and  of  Christian 
national  and  political  life ;  and  thus  he  became,  although 
without  high  ecclesiastical  office,  a  true  prince  of  the 
Church  in  revived  German  Protestantism.,  He  would  not 
have  the  union  itself  to  be  a  mere  work  of  the  state  or  politics ; 
still  less  did  he  require  for  union  that  all  differences  of 
doctrine  should  be  abandoned.  According  to  the  principle 
of  individuality  which  he  regarded  as  so  important,  there  is 
no  justice  or  necessity  for  blotting  out  any  true  peculiar- 
ities, whether  they  appear  in  individuals  or  in  the  uniform 
belief  of  g^eat  masses ;  but  only  of  delivering  them  from 
morbid  conditions,  amon^  which  was  especially  to  be  reck- 
oned a  separatistic  position  toward  other  individualities. 
Thus  he  did  not  demand  a  union  which  should  dissolve  dif- 
ferences, nor  indeed  a  postponing  of  union  until  a  reconcil- 
iation of  the  points  of  difference  in  the  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed doctrines  should  be  reached  through  a  higher  unity ; 
what  he  demanded  was  simplj  the  mutual  granting  of 
church  communion,  especially  m  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
that  such  a  significance  should  not  be  given  to  aoctrinal 
differences  as  to  allow  them  to  bring  about  a  separation  of 
churches.  It  appeared  to  him  unprofitable  to  go  back  to 
doubtful  doctrines.  He  considered  that  the  unity  of  the 
Church  was  not  only  consistent  with  the  existence  of  differ- 
ent branches  living  in  mutual  recognition  of  one  another, 
but  that  it  was  likewise  quickened  and  enriched  thereby  in 
the  interchange  of  spiritual  blessings  on  the  part  of  each 
one  of  the  branches,  which,  going  on  without  interruption, 
was  thus  preparing  that  higher  unity. 

Since  tne  death  of  Schleiermacher,  i.  e.  during  the  sec- 
ond and  the  last  third  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Ger- 
man theology  has  been  divided  into  a  liberal  and  a  conserv- 
ative party,  each  of  which  includes  two  principal  schools  or 
groups. 

1.  Of  the  liberal  groups,  the  first  appears  (more  or  less) 
attached  to  the  philosophical  principles  of  Hegel.  Most  of 
the  representatives  of  this  Hegelianizing  tendency  belong  to 
the  so-called  younger  TUbingen  school^  whose  founder  and 
head  was  Ferd.  Chr.  Baur,  professor  at  Tubingen  (d.  1860). 
Amon^  the  more  radical  adherents  of  this  numerous  group 
of  critics  of  the  New  Testament  history  and  writings  Bavid 
Strauss  (the  famous  author  of  the  Life  of  Je8U8,  d.  1872) 
has  exerted  the  greatest-  influence,  but  an  influence  not  so 
much  upon  the  theological  world  itself  as  upon  the  public 
opinion  of  laymen  and  larger  circles  of  the  people.  To  the  more 
moderate  scholars  and  successors  of  tne  Baurian  critical 
doctrine  belong  Th.  Keim  (d.  1878),  K.  H.  Weizsficker,  H. 
Holtzmann,  O.  Pfleiderer,  A.  Hilgenfeld,  and  others.  A  sec- 
ond group  of  liberal  theologians  is  formed  by  a  series  of 
adherents  of  the  philosophical  standpoint  of  Kant  in  appli- 
cation to  religious  and  theological  principles.  Of  these 
Kantianizing  theologians  some — as  Alex.  Schweizer  (d. 
1888)  and  R.  A.  Lipsius  (d.  1892)— for  a  part  of  their  teach- 
ings recurred  to  tne  system  of  Schleiermacher,  while  the 
greater  part,  since  about  1870,  have  gathered  round  the 
theology  of  Albrecht  Ritschl,  professor  at  GQttingen  (d. 
1889).  W.  Herrmann,  Jul.  Kaftan,  Ad.  Harnack,  the  first 
at  Miirburg,  the  two  latter  at  Berlin,  are  the  principal  living 
representatives  of  this  Ritschlian  school,  which,  in  some  few 
of  its  most  radical  offsets  (e.  ^.,  W.  Bender,  at  Bonn),  is 
nearly  approaching  to  the  position  of  the  most  advanced 
TObingen  critics,  such  as  Strauss,  etc. 

2.  Of  the  two  conservative  schools,  the  one  adheres  to  the 
principle  of  the  evangelical  union,  theologicallj  founded 
and  asserted  by  Schleiermacher,  while  the  other  is  opposed 


to  this  union  principle  or  general  evangelic  tendency  fr  ~ 
a  more  or  less  strict  con&ssionalistic    standpoint   (i.;.-* 
Lutheran  or  Calvinistic).    To  the  most  prominent  leader^  ' 
the  unionistic  or  evangelical  scliool  (sometimes  calie«l  "t: 
right  wing"  of  the  Scnleiermacherian  school),  the  writ*  r  - ' 
this  article  Isaac  A.  Dorner,  professor  at  Gottingnu  »-.. 
later  at  Berlin  (d.  1884),  belonged.    Besides  him,  F.  Am 
Tholuck  and  Jul.  Mdller,  at  Halle  (d.  1877  and  d.  I'*:* 
Richard  Rothe,  at  Heidelberg  and  Bonn  (d.  1867),  and  < . 
Nitzsch,  at  Berlin  (d.  1868),  were  distinguished  advc>oat^  ' 
this  group.    A  large  part  of  the  Confessional  or  Luth^-ri* 
orthodox  theologians  formerly  gathered  round  the  teacliiu: 
of  the  Erlangen  professors  Haness  (d.  1879),  Thomasiu<    : 
1875),  Hofmann  (d.  1877),  of  whom  the  last  for  some  tb- 
exerted  a  large  infiuence,  and  therefore  was  regarded  a> '  - 
head  of  a  hopeful  and  widespreading  schooL     But  thi>  £' 
lanaen  school Yiba  lost  somewhat  of  ite  former  authority.  a.> : 
at  the  same  time  has  modified  its  methods  of  teaching  and  v' - 
dencies.    Among  the  living  representatives  of  the  Luth'  r  ■  i 
type  of  German  theology  Professors  C.  E.  Luthardt,  at  L  i.  - 
zig,  F.  H.  R.  Frank  and  Theod.  Zahn,  at  Erlan^n,  and  Str  : 
meyer,  at  Berlin,  are  among  the  most  influential  and  won  r 
For  an  accurate  and  complete  historical  sketch  of  the  a 
velopment  of  German  theology  during  the  nineteenth  :-- 
turv,  compare  chiefly  the  works  of  P.  Kippold  (Berlin.  \K» 
and  of  0.  Pfleiderer  (Freiburg,  1891).     Isaac  A.  Dorm  a. 

Revised  by  O.  Zoecklel 

German  Tinder :  See  Amadou. 

German  town  (Pennsylvania) :  See  PmLADELPHiA. 

Germany :  See  German  Empire. 

Germination  [vi&  Fr.  from  Lat.  germtna'tio,  sprout ir.;. 
budding,  deriv.  of  germina're,  sprout,  bud,  germinate,  d.r.T 
of  ger'ment  sprout,  bud,  whence  Eng.  germ  J :  in  botanr,  ti 
term  used  to  denote  the  steps  in  the  development  of  the  ^i.- 
bryo  in  the  seed  into  the  plant.  It  is  naturally  extendeii  :> 
the  analogous  development  of  any 
cryptogamous  plant  from  its  spore, 
which  answers  to  seed.  The  em- 
bryo, originated  in  the  ovule 
through  its  fertilization  by  a  grain 
of  pollen,  completes  its  first  st^^ 
of  development  in  the  seed  whue 
connected  with  the  mother-plant ; 
when  the  seed  matures  it  has  a 
period  of  rest ;  after  which,  when 
placed  in  favorable  circumstances, 
germination  takes  place.  Seeds 
vary  neatly  as  to  the  length  of 
time  during  which  they  preserve 
their  vitality.  Many  seeds,  espe- 
cially oily  ones,  soon  lose  the  pow- 
er of  p^rmination  unless  they  are 
committed  to  the  ground  soon  after 
their  ripening,  although  when  in 
the  ground  they  sometimes  remain 
ouiescent  for  two  or  three  ^ears. 
Others,  especially  leguminous 
seeds,  when  Kept  dry,  may  retain 
the  power  of  germination  for  sev- 
eral, or  even  for  many,  years. 
The  same  is  true  of  many  seeds 
when  rather  deeply  buried  in  the 
soil;  after  long  burial  some  of 
them  germinate  on  being  brought 
to  the  surface.  But  the  accounts 
of  "  mummy-wheat,"  etc.,  growing 
after  the  lapse  of  2,000  or  3,000 
vears  may  be  wholly  discredited. 
The  conditions  necessary  to,  or 
favorable  for,  germination  are  a 
congenial  temperature,  varying  with  the  species,  moi>i  '• 
and  darkness  or  a  certain  amount  of  obscurity.  In  the  m  :t 
ent  process  water  is  absorbed,  and  certain  chemical  clmii:  * 
(involving  fermentation)  are  set  on  foot,  through  which  ^  ■ 
nourishing  matter  in  the  seed  is  gradually  liquefied  »• 
made  available  for  growth.  In  this  a  certain  amount  ' 
carbonic  acid  gas  is  evolved  and  the  temperature  rat^ - 
(which  becomes  very  perceptible  in  bulk,  as  is  seen  in  tl^' 
malting  of  barley),  showing  that  a  portion  of  the  Pton'  i' 
the  seed  is  consumed  or  decomposed  to  render  the  rest  avs' - 
able.  Sometimes  this  store  of  food  is  in  the  embryo  it^  ' 
usually  in  the  cotyledons,  as  in  the  bean  and  pea,  when  ')' 
germ  makes  the  wnole  kernel  of  the  seed:  sometimes  ma:'' 


Fio.  1.— I,  section  of  w*^i  ^* 
momlnic-Klory,  sh4>«'^ 
the  embrro  :  s.  k&r.^ 
embrvo  detached  »^' 
■trai^tened ;  S,  trrr.^ 
nation  of  the  mon  •/ 

5 lory  ;  4,  same,  furtt'' 
eveloped. 


766 


GEBSTlGKEB 


GESNEB 


divinity,  been  employed  upon  missions  to  the  rival  popes, 
with  a  view  to  ending  the  CTeat  schism  then  existing.  In 
1409  he  went  to  the  Council  of  Pisa,  and  in  1414  to  that  of 
Constance,  in  which  he  represented  the  Gallican  Church, 
and  in  which  he  favored  the  superiority  of  the  councils  to 
the  pope  and  the  reforms  of  the  Church  within  itself.  He 
zealously  advocated  the  burning  of  Huss  and  Jerome  of 
Prague.  His  opposition  to  the  preaching  friars  (Dominicans), 
as  rivals  of  the  secular  clergy,  raised  up  so  many  enemies 
that  he  retired  to  Germany,  where  he  lived  until  1419,  after 
which  he  went  to  the  Celestine  convent  of  Lyons  and  be- 
came a  catechist  of  poor  children.  He  died  there  July  12, 
1429.  Gerson*s  chief  aim  was  the  reform  of  the  Church 
from  within  itself.  He  gave  much  attention  to  the  subject 
of  judicial  astrology,  which  he  combated  with  success.  He 
was  a  voluminous"  writer,  and  many  authorities  (chiefly 
French  or  Benedictine)  have  claimed  for  him  the  author- 
ship of  De  Imitatione  Chriati,  usually  ascribed  to  Thomas 
k  Kempis. 

Gerstlicker,  gSr'stek-er,  Friedbich:  traveler  and  author; 
b.  in  Hamburg,  Germany,  May  16,  1816.  After  a  brief 
schooling  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  grocer,  but  ran  away  to 
Bremen,  whence  he  shipped  in  1837  as  cabin-boy  on  a 
vessel  bound  for  New  YorK.  After  journeying  through  the 
U.  S.  and  Canada,  performing  such  work  as  he  could  get,  he 
returned  to  Germany  in  1843,  and  published  an  account  of 
his  travels  in  several  volumes  (1843-49).  He  spent  the  years 
1849-52  in  making  a  journey  around  the  world,  and  a  nar- 
rative of  his  travel  which  he  published  on  his  return  became 
very  popular.  In  1860-61  he  made  the  tour  of  South  Amer- 
ica, and  in  1862  accompanied  Duke  Ernest  of  Gotha  on  a 
tour  through  Africa ;  visited  Central  America  in  1863,  and 
in  1867  started  upon  another  journey  around  the  world,  re- 
garding which  he  wrote  a  number  of  interesting  volumes. 
His  works  have  been  translated  into  English.  D.  in  Vienna 
May  31,  1872. 

Gerster,  gSrster,  Etelka:  singer;  b.  in  Kaschau,  the 
capital  of  Upper  Hungary,  June  16,  1856.  She  studied 
under  Madame  Marchesi,  the  vocal  teacher  of  the  Vienna 
Conservatory,  and,  having  been  urged  by  Verdi  to  go  on  the 
lyric  stage,  made  her  debut  as  a  soprano  singer  in  Jan., 
1876,  in  Venice  at  the  Teatro  del  la  Fenice,  as  Gilda  in  Verdi's 
Rigoletto,  with  much  success.  She  subsequently  appeared 
as  Onhelia  in  Ambroise  Thomas's  Hamlet,  in  Lucia,  Son- 
namoula,  and  Faust,  She  next  went  to  Genoa,  and  after- 
ward to  Berlin,  where  Signer  Carlo  Ganlini,  whom  she  mar- 
ried, was  her  manager.  She  was  equally  successful  in  St. 
Petersburg,  Moscow,  and  Paris.  She  first  appeared  before 
an  English  audience  at  Her  Majesty's  theater,  London,  June 
23, 1877,  in  La  Sonnamhula,  She  sang  for  the  first  time  in 
the  U.  S.  in  the  New  York  Academy  of  Music,  Nov.  11, 1878. 
Her  success  was  pronounced  and  instantaneous.  In  1879 
she  returned  to  Europe,  and  did  not  sing  again  until  the 
season  of  1880-81,  when  she  again  visited  tne  U.  S.  She 
made  a  third  tour  of  the  U.  S.  in  the  season  of  1883-84. 
Madame  Gerster's  voice  at  its  best  had  a  peculiar  bird-like 
quality,  with  a  compass  of  two  and  a  half  octaves. 

B.  B.  Vallentine. 

Gerrao.  gSr-vaa'd  [the  Brazilian  name] :  a  South  American 
and  West  Indian  shrub,  Stachytarpheta  j'amaicensia  {t&milj 
Verhenacece),  whose  leaves  have  valuable  medicinal  proper- 
ties, and  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  tea ;  also  for  adulterat- 
ing tea  in  Europe. 

Ger'Tase  of  Canterbury :  chronicler ;  b.  in  Kent  about 
1141;  became  a  monk  of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury,  1163; 
began  the  composition  of  his  valuable  Chronicle  1188,  and 
carried  it  down  to  1210,  when  probably  he  died.  He  wrote 
also  a  history  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury.  See  his 
works,  edited  by  Bishop  Stubbs,  Rolls  Series  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1879-80).  S.  M.  J. 

Gervase  of  Tilbury:  hist/)rian;  b.  at  Tilbury,  Essex, 
Kngland ;  a  reputed  nephew  of  Henry  II. ;  about  1208  made 
marshal  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries.  Author  of  a  remarkable 
OUa  Imperialia,  a  medley  of  history,  curious  learning,  fa- 
bles, and  the  natural  sciences  of  that  day;  and  perhaps 
aiithor  of  a  History  of  Britain,  which  must  not  be  con- 
fofinded  with  the  valuable  Chronicle  of  Geevase  of  Can- 
terbury {q.  v.), 

Gerrex,  zhffr'va',  Henri  :  figure  and  portrait  painter ;  b. 
in  Paris  in  1848.  Pupil  of  Fromentin,  Cabanel,  and  Brisset; 
second-class  medals,  Salons,  1874  and  1876 ;  officer  Legion  of 
Honor  1889.   One  of  the  ablest  painters  of  the  French  school 


of  to-day,  his  work  being  especially  notable  for  purity  and 
beauty  of  color.  The  nude  female  figure  in  Rolla  (187><t  L-^ 
one  of  the  finest  pieces  of  painting  by  a  modem  mast'.-r 
Among  other  works  are  Satyr  playing  with  Bacchante  (1^74 «. 
Luxembourg  Gallerj',  Paris;  Civil  Marriage  (1881),  mayor** 
office,  Nineteenth  Arrondissement,  Paris.    Studio  in  Pari5v. 

W.  A.  CoFFUf. 

Gerrlnus,  gar-vee'ndbs,  Georo  Gottfried  :  historian  an.  1 
politician ;  b.  at  Darmstadt,  Germany,  May  20, 1805 ;  studie»i 
at  Heidelberg  and  in  Italy;  became  in  183o  professor  extraor- 
dinary at  Heidelberg;  was  1836-37  Proiessor  of  Hilton 
and  Literature  at  Gottingen,  but  lost  his  ^ace  for  polit n  ..J 
reasons;  became  honorary  professor  at  Heidelberg  1844. 
His  works  include  Geschichte  der  Angelsachsen  im  Vt-^^^r- 
hlick  (1830);  Oesehichte  der  deutschen  Dichtung  (1*^71 1; 
Geachichte  des  fieunzehnten  Jahrhunderts  (8  vols^  1855-o6t ; 
works  on  Shakspeare,  etc.  He  was  prominent  as  a  liberal 
journalist.  His  lii.story  of  the  nineteenth  century  had  a  pn>- 
found  political  influence  in  Germany,  at  once  correcting  th* 
revolutionary  tendencies  of  his  time,  and  checking  the<'[- 
posing  reaction  of  the  conservative  classes.  His  History  i*f 
German  Poetry  is  also  a  work  of  great  value.  D.  at  Ilei.ivi- 
berg.  Mar.  18,  1871. 

Ge'ryon  (in  Gr.  Fijp^v),  or  Gery'ones  (in  Gr.  r^^mv  : 

the  son  of  Chrysaor  and  Uallirrhoe,  a  daughter  of  Ocean u-. 
He  was  a  giant  with  three  bodies,  six  feet,  six  hand^,  ami 
three  heads.  He  was  king  of  the  island  of  Erythea,  on  the 
coast  of  Spain,  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  (Straits  '»f 
Gibraltar).  The  tenth  labor  of  Hercules  was  to  bring  i«^ 
Greece  the  beautiful  herd  of  cattle  that  belonged  to  Geni.n 
and  were  guarded  by  the  powerful  Eurjtion  and  the  t*wr»- 
headed  dog,  Orthus,  the  son  of  Echidna  and  Typho.  Mas- 
ter, servant,  and  dog  succumbed  to  the  prowess  of  HereiiU-. 

J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

GesenluB,  gff-sfi'neVdbs,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Wilhei.y, 
D.  D. :  Orientalist;  b.  at  Nordhausen,  Germany,  Feb.  3, 17V»: 
studied  at  Helmst£dt  and  Gottingen,  and  taught  in  Uth 
universities;  became  in  1809  Professor  of  Ancient  l^iton*- 
ture  at  Heiligenstadt ;  Professor  of  Theology  at  Halle  in 
1810.  He  was  an  eminent  scholar,  and  gave  a  great  inipul^^ 
to  Semetic  learning  by  his  philological  works.  The  chief 
of  these  are  Hebrdisches  ufid  Chalddisches  Handicorifr- 
huch  (1810-12;  10th  ed.  Leipzig,  1886 ;  Eng.  trans,  by  IM*- 
inson  and  by  Tregelles) :  Heordische  Grammatik  (181^ :  sev- 
eral English  translations  and  editions);  Kritische  GeschicK'f 
der  Hebr,  Sprach^  (1815);  De  Pentatenchi  Samaritahi 
Origine  (1815) ;  a  translation  and  commentarv  on  IsAinri 
(1820-21);  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Thesaunis',  finished  hy 
RSdiger  (3  vols.,  1827-53);  and  Scriptura  linguceque  J^htrni- 
cicB  monumenta  mwtquot  aupersunt  (3  parts,  1837).  I),  at 
Halle,  Oct  23,  1842.  See  his  biographv  by  H.  Gesenius 
(Halle,  1886).  Revised  by  C.  H.  Toy, 

Gesner,  ges'ner,  Johann  Matthias  :  classical  scholar  and 
educator;  b.  in  Roth,  near  Ansbach.  Germany,  Apr.  9, 1691 ; 
rector  of  the  Thomas  Gymnasium  in  Leipzig  (1730),  which 
dates  its  great  celebrity  from  this  time.  In  1734  Ge^n-r 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Poeti^  and  Eloquence  in  the 
newly  founded  University  of  GSttmgen.  By  reviving^  tLf 
study  of  Greek,  and  confining  Greek  and  Latin  instruct ii^r. 
in  the  schools  to  classical  authors,  he  became  the  great  re- 
former of  the  learned  institutions  throughout  Germany.  I). 
Aug.  3,  1761.  His  chief  work,  justly  esteemed  for  a  lone 
time,  though  now  superseded,  is  his  Novus  lingua  et  ern^ii- 
tionis  romanm  thesaurus.  He  also  edited  the  Script  ore  m  r^i 
rusticcs  (2  vols.,  1735);  §tttn<f7ia»(1738);  Pliny  the  Youn(:^r 
(1739);  Claudian  (1759,  and  numerous  school  editioit-.; 
Opusc.  Min.  (8  vols.,  Breslau,  1745).  Cf.  Ernest i's  Xarrnt^'y 
de  Gesnero  (Leipzig,  1762)  and  Fr.  Paulsen's  Ge^K  d«  ..v- 
lehrten  Unterrichts  in  Deutschland  (Leipzig,  1885,  pp.  4'J7- 
440).  Alfred  GuDiuaAN. 

Gesner,  or  Gessner,  Salomon:  author  and  artist;  b.  at 
Zurich,  Switzerland,  Apr.  1, 1730;  author  of  Daphni^  (IT.'Vi  ; 
Inkle  und  Yaric/);  Idyls  {1156\  B,nd  other  poetical  work-: 
Der  Tod  Abels  (1758,  a  nrose  poem),  beside  dramas,  talt^. 
etc.  His  idyls  were  reaa  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  wi  re 
among  the  most  popular  literary  productions  of  the  tim^. 
His  etchings  are  for  the  most  part  very  fine,  and  he  bad  a 
good  reputation  as  a  landscape-painter.  D.  at  Zurich,  M<ir. 
2,  1788. 

Gesner,  or  Gessner,  Konrad,  von.  M.  D. :  natural  i-^  : 
often  called  the  German  Pliny,  from  his  extensive  knowltsir  ; 
b.  at  Zurich,  Switzerland,  Mar.  26, 1516.   He  was  edacat4Ml  &i 


768 


GESTB 


day,  the  greatest  protrantion  being  one-sixth  of  the  whole 
period,  and  occurring  also  in  neariy  one-sixth  of  the  total 
number.  Even  in  the  incubation  of  the  common  hen,  Tes- 
sier  found  not  infrequently  a  prolongation  of  8  days,  or  one- 
seventh  of  the  whole  period.  Earl  Spencer,  accepting  284  or 
285  days  as  the  average  term  for  the  cow,  found  the  two 
longest  terms  in  764  cows  to  be  306  and  313  days ;  and  also 
that  of  106  calves  bom  between  the  290th  and  the  300th  day, 
74  were  males,  while  all  bom  after  the  300th  day  were  fe- 
males. He  also  found  that  in  75  instances  of  the  offspring 
of  a  particular  bull,  the  average  of  gestation  was  prolonged 
from  284  to  288^  days.  Mr.  C.  N.  Bement  found  the  average 
in  62  cows  to  be  for  males  288  days  and  for  females  282, 
the  longest  period  to  be  836  days  and  the  short^t  213. 
{American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences,  Oct.,  1845.)  The 
extremes  of  duration  lor  the  cow  being  thus  found  by  these 
independent  observers  to  be  321, 313,  and  336  days,  it  might 
be  expected  that  a  similar  prolongation  is  possible  in  human 

fjstation,  which  is  so  nearly  of  the  same  average  duration, 
acts  also  demonstrate  a  possible  prolongation  at  least  be- 
yond ten  months.  Instances  frequently  occur  to  obstetri- 
cians of  parturition  300  days  or  more  after  the  cessation  of 
the  last  preceding  menstrual  flow.  But  such  cases  are  of  no 
value  in  the  present  inquiry,  since  it  is  insemination,  and 
not  menstruation,  that  determines  the  time  of  conception, 
and  therefore  the  beginning  of  gestation ;  and  that  may  have 
occurred  even  20  days  after  the  last  monthly  period,  and  jiist 
before  next  was  due;  and  gestation  therefore  may  have 
been  prolonged  but  slightly,  or  not  at  all.  Obviouisly,  the 
only  reliable  cases  are  those  of  pregnancy  from  a  single  coitus 
or  from  connection  on  a  single  day ;  ana  in  such,  all  the  time 
beyond  275  days  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  prolongation  be- 
yond the  average  duration.  Of  25  cases  given  by  Dr.  Reid, 
the  maximum  of  duration  was  293  days ;  and  of  50  reported 
by  Dr.  Montgomery,  it  was  297  days.  The  last  case  would 
have  been  at  least  302  days  after  the  end  of  the  last  men- 
struation, as  the  calculation  is  usually  made,  and  might  pos- 
sibly have  been  even  20  more  (317  days),  as  before  explained. 
A  case  is  also  known  of  birth  301  days  after  insemination  by 
a  single  coitus.  Dr.  Hodge  mentions  a  case  of  gestation  cer- 
tainly continuing  302  days,  and  probably  not  less  than  322 
to  327  days.  The  French  code  is  therefore  not  too  indulgent 
in  admitting  the  legitimacy  of  children  bom  within  300 
days  after  separation  of  the  parents.  The  Scotch^  law  does 
not  declare  a  child  a  bastard  unless  bom  later'  than  ten 
months  after  the  death  or  departure  of  the  husband.  Eng- 
lish law  is  still  more  complaisant  in  deciding  that  a  child 
bom  within  eleven  months  after  the  death  or  the  possibility 
of  access  of  the  husband  shall  still  be  regarded  as  his.  In 
the  Gardner  peerage  case,  however — which  was  tried  in  Lon- 
don in  1825-26— it  was  decided  that  a  child  bora  811  days 
after  separation  from  the  husband  was  illegitimate;  but 
mainly,  if  not  entirely,  on  the  ground  that  the  mother  had 
lived  in  open  adultery  after  the  separation.  Twelve  of  the 
seventeen  distinguished  medical  witnesses  gave  the  opinion 
that  natural  gestation  might  have  been  prolonged  to  this  ex- 
tent. {Lancet,  vol.  x.,  p.  289,  1826.)  It  has  been  decided  in 
the  U.  S.  that  a  child  bom  817  days  after  separation  was 
legitimate.  {Commonwealth  vs.  Porter,  Amertcan  Journal 
of  Medical  Sciences,  1845.)    Revised  by  William  Peppee. 

Oeste :  the  subject-matter  of  a  mediaaval  French  histor- 
ical epic  poem,  or  chanson  de  geste.  The  word  is  derived 
from  the  neuter  plural  gesta,  used  in  Late  Latin  to  desig- 
nate an  historical  narrative  (e.  g.  Oesta  Begum  Franco- 
rum).  In  Romance  it  became  a  feminine  singular,  and 
gradually  enlarged  its  signification,  so  as  finally  to  be  ap- 
plied to  (1)  historical  epic  matter,  (2)  an  historical  epic 
poem,  (3)  a  group  or  cycle  of  epic  traditions,  (4)  a  family  of 
epic  heroes.  In  England  this  process  went  so  far  that  when 
the  singers  of  epic  poems,  the  jonalenrs,  had  fallen  into 
complete  disesteem,  becoming  simply  jugglers,  geste  (Eng. 
jest)  was  used  of  a  mere  joke,  or  amusing  turn.  The  Way 
m  which  the  chansons  de  geste  came  into  existence  has 
been  described  elsewhere.  (See  Epic  Pootey.)  Chanted  by 
the  JoxoLEUBs  {q.  v.),  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  vielle, 
these  poems  seem  to  have  beg\in  to  assume  the  form  in 
which  we  have  them  as  early  as  the  tenth  century.  (Cf.  G. 
Paris,  Hist,  Poit.  de  Charlemagne,  p.  50.  seq.,  and  Romania, 
ix.,  38,  seq.,  d-propos  of  the  famous  Jjatin  fragment  de  la 
Haye,)  There  are  no  examples,  however,  of  a  period  earlier 
than  the  second  half  of  the  eleventh  centtiry.  During  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the  production  of  chansons 
de  geste  was  enormous ;  then  they  began  to  decline  in  vogue, 


especially  among  the  more  cultivated  classes.    In  the  middle 
class  ana  amone;  the  vulgar,  however,  they  lived  on.  under- 

going  continual  revision  and  transformation,  until  in  tl-^ 
fteenth  century  they  were  reduced  to  prose  and  hail  & 
kind  of  revival  of  their  popularity.  And  in  prose  they  haw 
survived,  though  in  a  constantly  more  debased  form,  uuri! 
the  present  time;  for  from  them  is  derived  much  of  ih^ 
material  of  those  cheap  volumes  sold  lor  a  few  pennies  in  r  Lr 
bookstalls  of  Paris,  and  known  as  the  Bibliotheque  Bleue. 

From  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  to  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  may  be  called  the  great  period  of  the  chnff 
sons  de  geste.  But  this  was  a  time  of  vast  literary  prrnluc^ 
tion  in  France,  and  all  kinds  of  poetry,  both  lyric  and  nar- 
rative, flourished.  It  is  at  first  sight  a  little  difficult  !<• 
determine  which  of  the  numerous  secular  narrative  pu#-r:  :• 
that  have  come  down  are  true  chansons  de  aeste.  As  im.* 
went  on  the  essential  differences  between  these  and  oth>^r 
classes  of  poems  grew  less  and  less  clear,  and  were  fina.  t 
almost  altogether  lost.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  in  ti.t- 
Middle  Ages  a  distinction  was  felt  to  exist  between  them,  ^^ 
well  as  between  poets,  Teouv^ees  {g.  v.),  and  epic  relate  r-. 
jongleurs,  although  later  times  have  constantly  oonfu^^^i 
Doth.  The  chief  line  of  demarkation  clearly  indicated  hx 
mediaeval  writers  themselves  is  that  between  chan^on^  fir 
geste  and  romances,  or  eontts  d'aventure.  These  two  cair- 
gories  do  not,  however,  include  quite  all  the  narrative  work> 
we  have.  A  third  considerable  group  is  of  those  poeras  :r. 
imitation  of  the  chansons  de  geste,  but  based  upon  antiquity. 
As  the  poet  Jean  Bodel  says  in  beginning  his  Ckanaon  dc 
Saisnes  (end  of  twelfth  century) : 

Ne  sont  que  troifl  matdres  k  nul  home  ratendant : 
De  France,  de  Breta^ne,  et  de  Rome  la  grant. 


.f 


That  is,  a  serious  poet  will  use  only  the  traditions 
Prance,  tales  of  Celtic  origin  (Arthurian,  etc.),  or  stories  * ! 
antiquity  (Troy,  Alexander,  CaBsar,  etc.).  Of  these  thr»^: 
"matters,"  that  of  France  was  the  proper  material  f^r 
chansons  de  geste ;  that  of  Britain  was  treated  in  t ; « 
contes  d'aventure ;  that  of  antiquity  was  employed  lei^^  l»y 
the  truly  popular  poets  than  by  persons  of  greater  learn  in ;:, 
mainly  clerks,  like  BenoIt  de  Sainte-More  {g.  v.\  »!.•• 
deliberately  imitated  the  poems  they  found  in  vo^ie.  I'ut 
sought  for  greater  success  through  tfic  use  of  a  less  famili;ir 
material  Nor  were  these  three  the  only  material  <[ 
which  medieval  French  poets  made  use.  A  oonsidemii> 
number  of  poetical  stories  are  based  upon  various  Oneiital 
and  Byzantine  themes,  or  in  some  cases  pure  inventions 
but  these  are  all  to  be  reckoned  among  the  contes  d'ax-r  t- 
tures.  And,  finally,  there  are  the  poems  of  the  Fabliatx 
(y.  V.)  type,  or  of  the  beast-epic  type,  like  the  romancv  lI 
Ketnaed  the  Fox  {q.  v.).  As  has  already  been  indicatt  •!, 
then,  the  cha/nsons  de  geste  proper  were  devoted  to  xh^ 
real  or  supposed  history  of  France.  Of  all  the  forms  ••! 
secular  poetry  this  was  felt  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  be  thr 
most  worthy.  Jean  Bodel,  in  the  passage  above  indicau-iL. 
dweUs  upon  the  fact  that  the  "  matter  of  France  "  is  xtm^- 
{voir),  in  contrast  to  that  of  Britain,  which  is  vain  ami 
pleasant  And  in  the  P^itentiel  of  Thomas  of  i\.\^ 
nam  (end  of  thirteenth  century),  all  classes  of  plaTer>. 
singers,  mountebanks,  etc.,  are  aedared  to  be  damnattlt^, 
except  those  q%ii  dicuntur  joeulatores,  qui  eantant  pt-^ta 
principum  et  vitam  sanctorum,  etc.  It  need  hardly  1* 
said,  however,  that  the  truth  to  be  found  in  the  cAan*'-;.* 
de  geste  is  not  instructive  because  it  is  historical  tni:L 
On  the  contrary,  the  poems  contain  only  the  vagaest  a:  u 
most  confused  reminiscences  of  historical  fact  The  p<>i  u- 
lar  imagination  has  left  little  as  it  actually  happened.  IVr- 
sons  and  events  separated  by  many  generations  are  bn->ui:lit 
into  immediate  connection  with  each  other,  and,  iniit.HL 
often  identified ;  and  great  masses  of  material  having  ro 
historic  basis  whatever  have  been  brought  into  servit^  i  ■ 
meet  the  needs  of  a  novelty-loving  public.  Still,  in  one  v&x 
history  was  an  all-important  factor  in  the  developniem  nf 
the  chansons  de  gestes:  it  did  to  the  end  determine  i It- 
main  themes  and  the  inter-relations  of  the  poems — the  Lif- 
ter a  very  important  matter,  especially  after  what  has  w.l. 
been  called  the  genealogical,  or  "cyclic,"  tendency  mr.ni- 
fested  itself. 

There  are  serious  difficulties  in  the  way  of  any  satisfacti-n 
arrangement  in  groups  of  the  hundred  and  more  chatis'  •.« 
de  geste  that  have  survived  out  of  a  number  indubita^'.\ 
far  greater.  In  some  respects  a  chronological  division  i> 
best  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  poems  as  we  find  them.  Ti  «= 
earlier  monuments,  like  the  Chanson  de  Roland  (the  grt^A?  -: 
of  all),  with  their  assonanced  laisses,  or  long  series  of  w- 


Y70 


GETA 


GETTYSBURG,  CAMPAIGN  AND  BATTLE  OF 


Society) ;  te  Winkel,  Geaehiedenis  der  nederlandsche  Letter- 
kunde  (Deel  i.,  Haarlem,  1887) ;  Vogt,  Miitelhochdeutsche 
lAteratur  (in  Paul's  Orundrias  der  germaniacTien  Philologie 
(Bd.  ii.,  Abt.  1,  Strassburg,  1890,  contains  bibliographical  in- 
formation); E.  du  MeriH  Histoire  de  la  po^^e  sccmdinave 
(Paris,  1839) ;  Grundtvig,  2>rtnmarA»  gamleI^olk€vi8er{5Yo\s., 
Copenhagen,  1853-83);  Cederschi61d,i^om«5^Mr<Stt<iAr/a7wfo, 
etc,  med.  tiuUedning  utgiima  (Lund,  1884) ;  linger,  Karla- 
mctgnus-Sctga,  etc.  (Christiania,  1860):  KSlbing,  Beitrdge 
zur  vergletcJienden  Gesehichte  der  romantiachen  Poesie  und 
Prosa  des  Mittelaltera,  ureter  besonderer  BerUcksichtigung 
der  engliechen  und  nordischen  Liieratur  (Breslau,  lo76); 
Storm,  Sa^nkredsene  am  Karl  den  Store  og  Didrik  af  Bern 
(Christiania,  1874) ;  Castets,  Recherchea  aur  lea  rapporta  dea 
Cho/naona  de  Geate  et  de  VSpopSe  chsvcUereaoue  itatienne,  in 
Jievtie  dea  Languea  Romanea  (t.  xiii.,  1885) ;  Kajna,  Ricerche 
intomo  ai  Reali  di  Francia,  etc.  (Bologna,  1872) ;  id.,  Le 
fonii  delV  Orlando  Furioao^  (Florence,  1876) ;  M.  Mila  y 
Fontanals,  De  la  poeaia  herbico-popula/r  caatella/na  (Barce- 
lona, 1874) ;  P.  de  Canalejas,  De  la  poeaia  herbico-popular 
caatellana  (Madrid,  1876) ;  Braga,  Epopfaa  da  ra^  moadrahe 
(Porto,  1871) ;  Bistrom,  Daa  ruaaiache  Volkaepoa^  in  Ztach, 
f,  Vdlkerpaychologie,  etc.  (vols.  v.  and  vi.) ;  Kambaud,  La 
Ruaaie  ^^'ywe  (Paris,  1876) ;  Gidel,  JStudea  aur  la  Litiirature 
^recque  modeme  (Paris,  1866);  numerous  articles  in  the 
journals  Romania,  Revu€  dea  Languea  romanea,  Zeitachrift 
fur  romaniaehe  Philoloaie,  Herrig's  Archiv  fur  daa  Stuai- 
um  der  neueren  Spraenen  und  Literaturen,  FramSaiacJie 
Studien,  Giomale  atorieo  della  litteratura  italiana,  II 
Propugnatore,  Anglia,  Engliache  Studien,  Germa/nia,  Aua- 
gaben  und  Abhanalungen  aua  dem  Gebiete  der  romaniachen 
Philologie,  Romaniaehe  Forachungen,  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Oeta:  a  son  of  Septimius  Severus;  b.  in  189;  was  pro- 
claimed emperor,  together  with  his  brother  Caracalla,  after 
the  death  of  their  father  in  211,  but  was  assassinated  in  the 
following  year  at  his  brother's  instigation.  G.  L.  H. 

i}eVm  (Gr.  Tirat) :  a  people  of  antiquity,  occupying  in  the 
time  of  Herodotus  the  terntory  between  the  Balkans  and  the 
Danube ;  in  later  times  confused  with  the  Dacians,  a  neigh- 
boring and  related  people.  The  old  belief  that  the  Getae 
were  of  the  same  race  as  the  Goths  {q.  v.)  is  not  now  gen- 
erally received.  G.  L.  H. 

Gethsemane,  geth-sem'a-nee  [=  Gr.  rc4<n}/iai^,  from  Heb. 
GcUIi-ahemen,  liter.,  olive-pressT:  a  garden,  or  orchard,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Mt.  of  Olives,  wnere  our  Lord  spent  a  part 
of  the  night  preceding  his  crucifixion,  and  which  had  been 
a  place  of  frequent  resort  for  him  and  his  disciples  (Luke 
xxii.  89:  John  xviii.  2)  (see  map  of  Palestine,  ref.  10-D). 
The  spot  now  shown  by  Latin  monks  is  a  short  half  mile 
from  Jerusalem,  nearly  opposite  the  Golden  Gate,  just  across 
the  Kedron,  at  the  angle  made  by  the  two  paths  that 
lead  up  over  Olivet.  The  garden  is  nearly  square,  160 
feet  from  N.  to  S.,  and  150  from  E.  to  W.,  contains  eight 
large  olive-trees,  which  are  believed  to  be  at  least  1,200  or 
1,300  years  old,  and,  since  about  1840  or  1850,  has  been  in- 
closed by  a  high  stone  wall.  The  actual  spot,  in  Dr.  Robin- 
son's opinion  (1838),  may  have  been  a  little  farther  up  the 
hill.  Dr.  Thompson  (1858)  pronounced  in  favor  of  a  more 
secluded  locality  several  hundred  yards  to  the  N.  E.  of  the 
present  Gethsemane.  The  Greek  priests  show  their  pilgrims 
a  spot  near  that  appropriated  by  the  Latins  and  tell  them 
that  there  was  the  garden  of  Gethsemane. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Getty,  get  i,  George  Washington  :  U.  S.  general ;  b.  in 
Georgetown,  D.  C,  Oct.  2, 1819 ;  graduated  at  West  Point 
Military  Academy,  July,  1840 ;  entered  the  army  as  second 
lieutenant  of  artillery ;  promoted  first  lieutenant  1845,  cap- 
tain 1853,  major  1863*  colonel  Thirty-seventh  Infantry  1866, 
and  transferred  to  Third  Artillery  1871 ;  served  on  the 
northern  frontier  during  the  Canada  border  disturbances 
1840 ;  in  garrison  1841-46 ;  in  the  war  with  Mexico  1847- 
48 ;  engaged  in  the  battles  of  Contreras  (brevet  captain).  Mo- 
lino  del  Rev,  Chapultepec,  and  the  capture  of  the  city  of 
Mexico ;  in  Florida  1849-50  against  hostile  Seminole  Ind- 
ians ;  in  garrison  1851-56 ;  on  frontier  duty  1857-61.  Dur- 
ing the  civil  war  (1861-65)  he  served  with  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  in  the  Virginia  Peninsula  campaign,  in  the  Rich- 
mond campaign  of  1864,  in  the  defense  of  Washington  (July, 
1864),  and  subsequently  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from 
the  siege  of  Petersburg  to  the  final  surrender  of  Gen.  Lee, 
Apr.  9,  1865.  For  gallant  conduct  in  battles  during  the 
war  he  was  breveted  lieutenant-colonel,  colonel,  brigadier- 
general,  and  major-general  U.  S.  army,  and  commanded  va- 


rious military  districts  till  mustered  out  of  volunteer  }>s«tv:.v 
Sept.,  1866;  transferred  to  the  Fourth  Artillery  Julv,  IHx-i. 
retired  1883. 

Gettysburg :  borough ;  capital  of  Adams  co..  Pa.  (for  If- 
cation  of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-P) ;  on  it.p 
Phila.  and  Read,  and  the  W.  Md.  Railroads;  8  mile:*  X. .' 
Mason  and  Dixon's  line,  28  miles  W.  by  S.  of  York,  36  nii.-> 
S.  by  W.  of  Harrisburg.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  l^ 
built  on  and  surrounded  bv  picturesque  hills,  and  contain- 
several  mineral  springs  of  high  medicinal  value.  It  ha> 
granite-yards  and  several  manufactories,  churches.  h(»tiU. 
and  1  monthly,  1  quarterly,  and  2  weekly  periodicals.  Ir  > 
the  seat  of  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  General  S\ti.-I 
of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (charteiv.1 
1827)  and  of  Pennsylvania  College  (Lutheran,  charterr^j 
1832).  The  battle  of  Gettysburg  occurred  in  and  sLtourA 
the  borough  July  1,  2,  and  3, 1863.  The  National  CeniHen 
here,  dedicated  by  President  Lincoln  Nov.  19, 1863,  contair^ 
the  graves  of  3,580  Union  soldiers,  with  a  central  monum>  r.i 
built  at  a  cost  of  $50,000,  and  a  bronze  statue  of  Gen.  R-  \- 
nolds.  Since  the  close  of  the  war  numerous  Northern  8?^- 
and  regimental  monuments  have  been  erected  on  the  can- 
ons historic  points  on  the  battle-field.  The  Confedm.*- 
dead  have  nearly  all  been  exhumed  from  the  battle-fi^.i 
and  taken  to  Southern  cemeteries.  Pop.  (1880)  2,814 ;  (lv^«' 
3,221.    See  Gettysbueq,  Campaign  and  Battle  of. 

Gettygbunr,  Campaign  and  Battle  of:  the  deci-i^^ 

campaign  and  battle  of  the  civil  war  in  the  U.  S. 

Campaign.— After  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  (^fav  5- 
3, 1863)  the  Union  and  Confederate  armies  maintained  t'hf  '- 
positions  on  the  Rappahannock  near  Fredericksburg  uunl 
early  in  June,  when  Hooker,  seeing  indications  of  a  movenitM 
on  Lee's  part,  sent  his  cav^dry  toward  Culpeper  to  watch  th^- 
fords.    Lee  started  two  corps,  Ewell's  and  Xiongst rent's,  br 
the  Shenandoah  valley,  to  invade  Pennsylvania,  rt'taimni 
Hiirs  corps  at  Fredericksburg  in  front  of  Hooker.     ncx>kr  r, 
learning  of  this  movement  through  Pleasanton's  cavalrv  <  <  ►m- 
bat  at  Brandj;  Station  (June  9),  started  out  to  cover  ^H>b- 
ington,  marching  by  Centreville,  Edwards  Ferry  (June  '2*>- 
27),  and  Frederick,  threatening  Lee's  communications  at  .r 
near  Hagerstown,  by  occupying  Middletown  and  the  jxi'.-rN 
of  the  South  Mountain,  ana  ordering  the  Twelfth  Cor]i<i  i- 
Harper's  Ferry.    Ewell,  marching  up  the  Shenandoah  vai  ,i  t 
defeated  Milroy  at  Winchester  June  14  and  15,  an<i  cn?^-^  • 
the  Potomac  at  Williamsport  on  the  16th,  occupied  Hajn  r^ 
town  and  Sharpsburg,  ana  sent  his  cavalry  to  Cftaml>ersT.un: 
for  supplies.    Following  on,  he  marched  via  Chamlx^rvl'iir,'. 
Rodes^s  division  to  Carlisle,  27th,  and  Earlv's  divisiv.n  T 
York,  June  28 ;  whence,  under  orders  to  loin  Longstret-t  a:  1 
Hill  at  Cashtown,  he  returned  to  Heialersburg,  ab««m  Vj 
miles  from  Gettysburg,  on  June  80,  joining  in  the  battU- 1:  •• 
following  day.    Longstreet,  keeping  to  the  east  of  the  P.  .- 
Ridge,  with  Stuart  on  his  right  flank,  guarded  the  {«*»— 
through  the  ridge  until  Hill's  corps  had  passed  him  on    '^ 
way  to  Shepardstown,  where  it  crossed  on  the  23d,  when  i  ■ 
also  moved  into  the  valley,  and  crossing  the  river  at  W    - 
iamsport  on  the  24th  and  25th,  joined  Hill,  and  marv:  -. 
across  Maryland  into  Pennsylvania,  reaching  Chanil«»r- 
burg  June  27  and  Cashtown  on  the  29th,  whence  Gen.  Hr  •  » 
of  Hill's  corps,  advancing  toward  Gettysbui^  on  the  ^t.. 
discovered  Buford's  advance  and  returned  to  Casht«:w'.. 
Stuart,  with  three  brigades  of  cavalry,  was  detached  fro-^ 
Longstreet  when  he  entered  the  Shenandoah  valley,  and  r: 
dered  to  join  Ewell  on  the  Susquehanna.     In  pursuan<^    : 
these  orders  he  crossed  the  Potomac  below  Edwards  Ft-rrs, 
and  passed  around  the  rear  and  right  of  the  Union  armv  • » 
way  of  Rockville,  Hood's  Mill,  Westminster,  Union   Mi  - 
Hanover,  York,  and  Carlisle,  closely  followed  at  the  !&=<  \ 
the  Union  cavalrv,  and  reached  Gettysburg,  meeting  Gtvjj 
in  the  cavalry  fight  of  July  3  on  the  right  of  the  Union  ij.r . 
Early's  movement  toward  the  east  tlSough  Chambervl'.  '^ 
threatened  Harrisburg  and  Columbia,  and  eventnaUv  B«." 
more  and  Washington,  and  led  Halleck  to  question  t  ht :»- 
priety  of  Hooker's  movement  against  Lee's  communicati*   > 
This  caused  Hooker  to  ask  to  be  relieved  from  coniinai 
His  request  was  immediately  granted  and  Meade  wa^  :  - 
signed  m  his  place,  assuming  command  on  June  28.     Mi-*- 
at  once  directed  the  whole  army  northward  toward  Har:-. 
burg,  in  order  to  force  Lee  into  a  battle  before   he  c«  . 
cross  the  Susquehanna.    Kilpatrick  led  the  advance  cavn 
Buford  following  on  the  left  and  Greg^  on  the  ri^ht.    K 
patrick  reached  Hanover  on  the  30th,  m  time  to  repul>^ 
attack  by  a  part  of  Stuart's  cavalry.    Stuart,  finding  hi-  - 


172 


GEYSER 


GHENT 


were  published  posthumously,  may  be  mentioned  Meta- 
physica  vera  (lo91)  and  rrcMt  ir*aur6¥,  Sive  Ethica,  etc. 
(1696). 

Geyser,  gi'ser  [from  Icel.  Geysir,  name  of  one  of  the  Ice- 
landic geysers  (the  generic  term  being  }i^er  or  laug\  liter., 
the  gusher,  deriv.  of  geyaa^  gush] :  an  eruptive  hot  spring 
from  which  water  is  projected,  at  more  or  less  regular  in- 
tervals, as  from  a  fountain.  Geysers,  hot  springs,  and  mud 
springs  are  associated  in  districts  of  comparatively  recent 
volcanic  activity.  It  is  probable  that  these  different  forms 
of  water  movement  indicate  different  stages  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  springs,  as  changes  have  been  known  from  one 
iform  to  anotoer.  The  water  is  received  by  infiltration 
from  the  surface,  and  the  heat  is  believed  to  be  derived 
from  buried  lava  flows,  not  yet  entirely  cooled.  According 
to  the  relation  of  the  several  elements  concerned — rate  and 
amount  of  water  movement,  temperature  of  underground 
rocks,  arrangement  of  water-passages,  etc. — the  activity  of  the 
springs  may  take  one  form  or  another.  Geysers  are  pro- 
duced when  a  column  of  water  accumulates  in  a  nearly 
Tertical  passage  of  considerable  depth  so  that  it  may  be 
heated  at  the  bottom  to  temperatures  above  the  ordinary 
boiling-point.  When  the  temperature  reaches  such  a  de- 
gree that  the  water  boils  in  spite  of  the  pressure  of  the 
superincumbent  column,  steam  is  formed  rapidly  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  water  is  violently  discharged.  The 
water  issuing  from  geysers  usually  forms  a  siliceous  deposit 
around  the  vent ;  tne  hot  springs  of  ^yser  districts  build 
siliceous  terraces  of  great  beauty,  both  m  form  and  color. 

The  geysers  of  Iceland  have'  been  known  for  seven  cen- 
turies, and  until  the  nineteenth  century  they  were  believed 
to  be  unique.  The  chief  examples  there  are  the  Great 
Geyser,  the  Little  Geyser,  and  the  SDrokhr  or  Churn.  The 
action  of  the  first  endures  five  or  ten  minutes  at  intervals 
commonly  about  a  day  long,  throwing  water  to  a  height  of 
100  or  200  feet.  The  geysers  of  the  Yellowstone  National 
PaJLk  {q,  V.)  are  much  more  numerous  than  those  of  any 
other  field  in  the  world,  over  seventy  being  enumerated,  be- 
sides more  than  2,000  hot  springs,  for  the  most  part  in  four 
"basins,"  within  a  large  area  of  lava  flows.  Among  the 
most  remarkable  are  Old  Faithful,  so  called  from  the 
regularity  with  which  its  eruptions  occur  at  intervals  of  a 
little  more  than  an  hour ;  the  Giant,  from  which  a  great 
volume  of  water  is  thrown  200  feet  into  the  air ;  the  Giantess, 
the  Beehive,  etc.  The  geysers,  hot  springs,  and  terraces  of 
Rotomahana  on  the  north  island  of  New  Zealand  were  de- 
stroyed by  a  volcanic  eruption  in  June,  1886.  See  Peale, 
Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the  Geological  Surveys  of  the 
Territories  (Hayden's  survey).  W.  M.  Davis. 

Gfrdr'er,  August  Friedrich:  historian :  b.  at  Calw,  WUr- 
temberg.  Mar.  5,  1803 ;  studied  at  the  Universitv  of  Tubin- 
gen from  1821  to  1825,  and  in  1828  became  a  kepetent  or 
tutor  of  theologv  in  that  university ;  but  in  1830  gave  up 
that  position  to  become  the  librarian  of  the  royal  library  at 
Stuttgart,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  historical  studies, 
the  result  of  which  w»vs  his  Philo  und  die  Judisch-alexan- 
drinische  Theosophie  (1831).  His  subsequent  works  revealed 
an  anti-Protestant  tendenc^v  which  became  an  avowed  sym- 
pathy with  Roman  Catholicism  in  his  Work  on  churcn  his- 
tory, Allgemeine  Kirchengeschichte  (1841-46),  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  called  to  Freiberg  as  Professor  of  History.  He 
sat  in  the  Frankfort  Parliament  of  1848,  where  he  identified 
himself  with  the  Grossdeutsche  party,  and  was  one  of  the 
bitter  opponents  of  Prussia.  In  1853  he  openly  professed 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  championing  it  with  the  zeal  of 
a  new  convert.  D.  at  Carlsbad,  July  6,  1861.  Among  his 
other  works  are  a  biography  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  Gttstav 
AdolpK  KGiiig  von  Schweden^  und  sein-e  Zeit  (1835-37 ;  4th 
ed.  1863) ;  a  critical  history  of  primitive  -Christianity,  Krit- 
ische  Geschichte  des  Urchristenthutns  (1838) ;  a  historv  of 
the  Franks,  Geschichte  der  ost-  und  west-frdnkischen  liaro- 
linger  (1848) ;  and  a  work  on  Gregory  VII.,  Papst  Gregor 
Vll.  und  sein  Zeitalter  (1859-61).  F.  M.  Colby. 

Ghalcha  Langnages :  See  Iranian  Languages. 

Ghat,  gawt,  or  Ghant  [from  Hind,  ghat,  mountain  pass 
or  path,  mountain-range,  hillside  path] :  in  India,  (1),  a  pass 
through  a  mountain-range ;  (2)  a  landmg-place  or  stairway 
for  people  to  use  in  going  on  or  off  boats  in  the  rivers. 
These  gnats  are  used  also  as  bathing-houses,  and  as  places 
of  rest  and  recreation. 

Ghat8,  or  Ghants,  The  :  two  chahis  of  mountains  in  the 
peninsula  of    Hindustan,  running  respectively  along  the 


eastern  and  western  coasts,  joining  each  other  in  Cape  C**!'.  - 
rin,  and  inclosing  on  the  two  sides  the  table-land  of  ')- 
Deccan.  The  Western  Ghats  form  a  distinct  ranee,  th^u;.': 
internipted  by  the  gap  of  Palghatcheri,  of  a  height  xbtwx.z 
between  4,000  and  7,000  feet.  Their  gold  mines  have  I  m.- 
been  worked,  but  in  1874  gold-bearing  strata  of  extras  n.- 
nary  richness  were  discovered.  The  west  side  of  th--**- 
mountains  is  very  steep,  but  toward  the  interior  they  fj!«'* 
in  gentle  undulations.  The  Eastern  Ghats  are  lower,  Ui-  > 
average  height  being  only  1,500  feet;  they  are  often  inr ir- 
rupted, and  almost  disappear  ere  reaching  Cape  Comonu. 

Ghawazis,  or  simply  Ghawazi  (which  is  both  a  sin<ri.i.ir 
and  a  plural) ;  a  degiaded  class  of  public  dancers  in  V.^  \  \ 
who  amuse  the  populace  with  their  perfonnanoes.  Tht- y  -ir*- 
of  both  sexes,  and  must  be  distinguished  from  the  more  re- 
spectable class  of  Egyptian  singing-girls  called  alin^K- 
bee  Almeh. 

Ghazali,  or  Ghazzall,  Abu  Hamed  Mohammed  :  See  Ai- 
Gazzali. 

Ghazipur,  gaa-zee-poor' :  town  of  British  India  ami  tr- 
capital  01  the  district  of  Ghazipur ;  on  the  left  bank  of  \\x 
Ganges  (see  map  of  North  India,  ref.  6-G).  Roee-cultdr' 
and  the  manufacture  of  rose-water  and  rose-oil  fumisih  tl 
most  conspicuous  articles  in  its  bazaars.  Lord  Comwa.!:- 
is  buried  here.    Pop.  40,000. 

Ghaz'ni  (sometimes  spelled  Ghizni  or  Ghuzitee) :  a  wall -^1 
city  of  Afghanistan,  the  seat  of  two  medieval  dynasties  ai  • 
not  without  importance  in  modem  history ;  oii  the  centri 
table-land  in  Ion.  68"  20'  E.,  lat.  33"  24'  N. ;  7,726  feet  aU  t- 
the  sea,  on  the  direct  road  from  Candi^ar  to  Kabul  (see  im^v 
of  Asia,  ref.  5-D).    Its  history  begins  with  the  tenth  i>u- 
tury,  when  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Ghiznevid  empire.    A  f  t  •  r 
falling  successivelv  into  the  hands  of  the  Sultan  of  Gh..' 
and  of  the  Mongols,  it  was  in  the  eighteenth  centnrv  inr  ' 
porated  in  the  kingdom  of  Afghanistan.    In  1839  the'Bni .-' 
took  the  place  by  assault,  and  having  lost  it  in  1842  reto  >•' 
it  in  the  same  year.    There  are  many  ruins  in  the  vicinr-. 
and  some  structures  of  interest,  as  the  tomb  of  Mahn.i.  I 
the  minaret  of  Mahmud  and  that  of  Massaod,  and  the  t^n  •• 
of  Fatteh  Khan.    The  Gates  of  Somnath,  celebrated  w«  ^A-  \. 
gates  of  deodar  richly  carved  in  geometric  Saiaeeni<^'  \^\- 
terns,  formerly  belonged  to  the  tomb  of  Mahraud,  but  w.> 
carried  off  by  Lord  EUenborough  in  1842,  and  are  nov  in 
the  arsenal  at  Agra.    They  are  11  by  9|  feet  in  size.     Tlu  v 
were  objects  of  veneration,  and,  according  to  prophecv.  •[- 
downfall  of  the  Sikh  dominion  turned  on  their  removal 
There  are  many  holy  shrines  about  Ghazni  to  which  M- 
hammedans  make  pilgrimage.    Pop.  about  10,000. 

M.  W.  HAUatN-GToy. 

Ghee,  gee  [from  Hind,  ghl  <  Sanskr.  ^Ar/d,  ghee,  «ri:- 
inallyperf.  partic.  ot  ghar-,  drip]:  a  variety  of  butter  fr-- 
pared  in  India  from  the  milk  of  the  buffalo  or  the  i  * 
The  milk  is  boiled,  then  cooled,  curdled  with  sour  ni  *. 
churned,  and  after  the  butter  comes  it  is  put  aside  k. 
begins  to  grow  rancid;  then  boiled,  mixed  with  s«>ur  nti.A 
(dhye),  salt,  and  sometimes  with  aromatics,  and  is  th  r; 
ready  for  use.  It  has  a  strong  and  disagreeable  smell  a.!. : 
flavor,  but  is  extensively  used  in  India. 

Gheel,  gal:  town  of  Belgium;  in  the  province  of  Art- 
werp  (see  map  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  9-F).  Si:  -■ 
the  seventh  century  this  town  and  its  surroundings  h.^s 
been  inhabited  by  a  great  number  of  idiots  and  luui%n  - 
who  at  first  sought  a  cure  here  from  the  shrine  of  >: 
Dymphnea,  and  later  from  the  peculiar  and  often  a<iv.»r . 
tageous  treatment  they  underwent  in  the  houses  of  thr  i .'  • 
zens  and  farmers.  The  establishment  is  now  under  ^\kti- 
ment  control.    Pop.  10,800. 

Ghent  gent  (in  Fr.  Gand):  city  of  Bel^um,  and  ti 
capital  of  the  province  of  East  Flanders ;  situated   at  i :.' 
confluence  of  the  Scheldt  and  the  Lys,  and  traversed  w '! 
numerous  canals  and  branches  of  the  rivers,  which  divi  i 
the  city  into  twenty-six  islands,  connected  with  eaeh  ot:-- 
by  about  300  larger  and  minor  bridges  (see  map  of  Houa-  ! 
and  Belgium,  ref,  9-C).    The  general  character  of  the  c/v 
is  that  of  a  town  of  the  Middle  Ages  which  has  larjrelv  U- 
come   modem  ;  dark    and  narrow  streets,  with   sinC"^'.  *' 
houses  towering  like  castles,  alternate  with  open  and  f».i  i 
tiful  quays  lined  with  elegant  edifices.    The  best  vi»'w    : 
the  city  may  be  had  from  the  Belfry  (Beffroi),  which  ix   > 
pies  a  central  position,  is  375  feet  high,  built  1 183-1  :i:i«,  a:  i 
adorned  on  its  highest  point  by  a  golden  dragon  10  Ux^: 
length.    Other  interesting  edifices  are  the  Cathedral  ot  ^ 


774 


GHERKIN 


GHIENEVIDES 


Yessels,  and  on  behalf  of  the  President,  he  visited  the  Cen- 
tral and  South  American  republics  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
senting to  each  an  invitation  to  take  part  in  the  interna- 
tional naval  parade  and  review  in  New  York  harbor,  Apr. 
26-87,  1893.  This  review,  which  was  held  in  honor  of  Co- 
lumbus, was  commanded  by  Admiral  Gherardi,  and  after 
a  series  of  festivities  in  honor  of  the  foreign  naval  visitors 
he  was  specially  commended  for  his  general  management 
of  the  review  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Kavy,  and  appointed 
commandant  of  the  Brooklyn  navy-yard. 

Gherkin,  ger'kin  [loan-word  from  Dutch  ctgurkje;  cf. 
Germ.  Ourke^  introduced  by  way  of  Polish  ultim.  from 
Pers.] :  a  small  cucumber  or  cucumber-like  fruit  used  for 
picklmg.  The  common  form  of  gherkin  is  simply  a  verv 
small  and  immature  cucumber.  There  are  several  small 
.varieties  of  feueumber  grown  for  gherkins.  The  burr  or 
West  Indian  gherkin  is  a  distinct  species  (Cueumis  cm- 
ffiiria),  which  bears  small  prickly  fruit.  This  is  little 
grown.  L.  II.  B. 

Ghlbellines,  gib'e-Ieenz :  See  Guelphs. 

Ghlberti,  gee-bSr'tee,  Lorenzo  :  Florentine  sculptor ;  b.  at 
Pelago  in  1378.  He  learned  the  arts  of  modeling  and  fus- 
ing metals  and  of  architecture  from  his  stepfather,  Bartolo 
or  Bartoluccio  di  Michele,  a  distinguished  goldsmith,  in 
whose  workshop  Brunelleschi  and  Donatello  also  studied. 
Stamina  is  supposed  to  have  taught  him  painting.  In  his 
early  years  Ghiberti  went  by  the  name  oi  Lorenzo  di  Bar- 
tolo, an  appellation  which  gave  doubts  as  to  the  legitimacy 
of  his  birth,  and  would  have  prevented  his  being  elected  as 
magistrate,  had  he  not  appealed  to  the  Signory  and  estab- 
lished the  fact  of  his  beingson  of  Cione  di  Ser  Bonaccorso, 
the  first  husband  of  Mona  Fiore. 

In  1400,  when  the  plague  was  devastating  Florence,  he 
went  to  Rimini  in  company  with  a  painter  of  the  Giottesque 
school  to  decorate  some  rooms  in  fresco  in  the  Gattolo,  the 
palace  of  Carlo  Malatesta.  No  remains  of  his  work  there 
exist.  He  was  recalled  to  Florence  by  Bartolo,  his  step- 
father, to  take  part  in  the  competition  for  the  gates  of  San 
Giovanni  the  Baptistery.  The  seven  most  able  sculptors  of 
Tuscany  were  elected  to  compete ;  the  subject  given  was 
Abraham  about  to  sacrifice  Isaac.  The  judges  wavered  be- 
tween Brunelleschi  and  Ghiberti's  designs,  but  the  prize  fell 
to  Ghiberti,  who  well  merited  it,  as  both  Donatello  and 
Brunelleschi  generouslv  avowed  to  the  judges  that  he  had 
surpassed  them  all.  The  first  pair  of  doors  was  completed 
by  whiberti  after  twenty-one  years'  work.  These  doors  cost 
22,000  florins,  the  metal  alone  weighing  34,000  lb.  This 
pair  of  doors  is  now  in  the  northern  doorway  of  the  bap- 
tistery; it  was  finished  in  1424.  Ghiberti's  fame  having 
spread  during  this  time,  he  had  other  important  works  in 
hand — a  San  Giovanni  in  bronze  for  one  of  the  niches  in 
Orsanmichele,  two  bas-reliefs  for  the  baptistery  of  the  cathe- 
dral in  Siena,  representing  stories  from  the  life  of  St.  John, 
a  St,  Matthew  in  bronze  for  the  Arte  del  Cambio  in  Flor- 
ence, a  reliquary  in  metal  for  the  bones  of  the  martyrs  Pro- 
tus.  Hyacinth,  and  Nemesius,  besides  other  statues  and  deli- 
cate works  in  gold  and  silver  of  exquisite  finish.  The  sec- 
ond pair  of  doors  for  San  Giovanni  was  intrusted  to  him  in 
1424  by  the  priors,  with  the  injunction  to  surpass  himself  in 
this  work,  having  surpassed  all  others  in  the  former  one. 
These  gates,  declared  by  Michaelan^elo  to  be  worthy  of  be- 
ing the  gates  of  Paradise,  are  now  m  the  eastern  doorway, 
facing  the  cathedral ;  they  afforded  so  much  satisfaction  to 
the  Signory  that  besides  the  price  agreed  upon  they  gave  Ghi- 
berti a  farm  near  the  Abbey  of  Settimo.  While  this  impor- 
tant work  was  going  on  he  was  intrusted  with  the  designs 
for  the  stained  glass  windows  in  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore, 
three  of  which  are  in  the  Tribune.  There  is  also  a  Corona- 
tion of  the  Virgin  designed  by  him  in  stained  glass  at  Arezzo 
in  the  basilica.  This  evidently  was  originally  intended  for 
Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  but  Donatello  s  composition  was 
chosen  in  its  stead.  Ghiberti  died  in  Florence  in  1455. 
Although  the  register  affirms  that  Lorenzo  Ghiberti  was 
buried  in  Santa  Croce,  the  site  of  his  grave  is  quite  undis- 
coverable. 


quite 
W.  J.  Stillman. 


Ghlka,  gee'kaa:  the  name  of  a  princely  family  of  the 
Danubian  principalities,  over  which  several  Ghikas  ruled  as 
hospodars,  and  in  which  many  of  them  held  very  high  state 
offices.  In  1657  George  Ghika  wtis  fii-st  appointed  by  Tur- 
key hospodar  of  the  principalities,  and  after  him  eight dther 
members  of  that  family  field  the  s*ime  princely  office  in 
Moldavia  or  in  Wallachia.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  Alexander,  Constantin,  Demetrius,  and  John 


have  been  the  most  celebrated  and  the  most  active  inem^*^-E 
of  the  Ghika  family.  Thev  took  part  in  all  the  conspirai  •• « 
and  political  measures  wtiich  finally  brought  about  in- 
fusion of  the  two  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Wall*  ]-  < 
into  a  single  state,  now  called  Roumania,  and  they  holi  -. 
large  influence  in  that  country.    John  Ghika  died  Apr«,  is^l 

Ghilan,  gee-laan'.  or  Gilan :  province  of  Persia;  on  tl 

northwestern  slope  of  the  Elbruz  and  along  the  CaspiAC  ni. 
The  coast  is  swampy  and  bordered  by  sandbanks  and  :a 
goons,  but  where  the  ground  rises  large  fields  of  rice  nii : 
sugar-canes  appear,  the  former  being  raised  in  such  hWm- 
dance  as  to  be  used  as  food  for  horses.  With  the  hill-  U- 
gin  the  forests — fruit-trees,  especially  figs  and  mulU^rri'^, 
of  a  most  luxuriant  growth  and  intertwined  by  vines  l.» :.  ^^ 
very  top.  After  the  forests  follow  the  pastures;  and  u^  -i 
the  whole  rise  the  naked  snow-clad  peaks  of  the  Elh^.z. 
The  climate  is  marked  by  a  heavy  rainfall  which,  with  la- 
fertility  of  the  soil,  gives  great  luxuriance  to  the  vegetati-  l. 
Area  about  5,000  sq.  miles.  Pop.  estimat<ed  at  2O0.0«X».  ^f 
mixed  race,  but  chiefly  Iranian.  Ghilan  is  a  part  of  anc  ic.it 
Hyrcania.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Uarrixgtok. 

Ghirlandajo,  ge^r-l&n-daa'i-d,  Domenico  Bigo&dl  or.  ^• 
some  say,  Ck)RRADi :  a  Florentine  painter :  called  GniRLvf 
DAJO  after  his  father,  who  derived  the  name  either  fn»m  t> 
manufacture  or  the  sale  of  children's  garlands — wheth^^r  ;r 
metal  or  not  is  doubtful.  He  was  a  goldsmith,  and  umifr 
him  his  distinguished  son  learned  drawing  and  de5?igi.K.c 
Domenico  was  bom  in  Florence,  probably  in  1449.  A>  a 
boy  he  was  remarkable  for  correctness  of  eye  and  hand,  u:.  \ 
used,  says  Vasari,  to  catch  the  likenesses  of  people  a<  t  ''-.•  v 

Cassed  hj  the  shop.  The  chapels  and  churches  of  Floirn - 
ear  testimony  to  the  originality,  freshness,  and  delich^T. 
as  well  as  to  the  exuberance,  of  his  genius.  The  accura-  r 
of  his  portraits,  the  freshness  of  his  nature,  the  livelint-sj^  -  f 
his  grouping,  the  unconventional  ease  of  his  treatment,  at- 
tracted attention  from  the  beginnitig.  He  paint^n]  ui-r, 
and  women  in  the  costumes  of  their  time,  disearde^l  tin"-^- 
ornamentjs,  gilded  scrollwork,  and  plaster  borderings,  ».  ^.- 
stituting  honest  brush-work.  In  his  pictures  the  atrial  f  •  r- 
spective  was  so  wonderful  that  he  is  credited  with  lia\  ti^ 
been  the  discoverer  of  its  laws.  He  painted  in  oil,  but  t  hi.  dj 
in  fresco,  and  very  much  in  places  exposed  to  the  weairivr. 
which  explains  the  ruinous  condition  of  many  of  hi«<  j*;  •- 
tures.  When  about  thirty  years  of  age  he  was  invit«^i  \  j 
Pope  Sixtus  IV.  to  Rome  to  assist  in  decorating  bis  chaj-l 
Of  nis  two  pictures  there,  but  one,  Christ  caliitig  Ptter  iv  d 
Andretc  from  their  iVete,  is  preserved.  Ghirlandajo  paintti 
in  Pisa,  Lucca,  and  Siena,  but  his  best  work  is  seen  in  Fi  r- 
ence,  especially  in  the  Tassetti  chapel,  in  the  Church  of  r. 
Trinity,  and  in  the  choir  of  the  Santa  Maria  Novella.  Iri 
the  first  series  portraits  are  introduced  of  Ijoienzo  de'  Mev:.< 
and  other  eminent  Florentines,  and  in  the  last  series,  in  tL- 
portion  illustrating  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  is  the  eelebn.i  ii 
portrait  of  Ginevra  de'  Renci,  a  young  beauty  of  Flon^i  - 
The  altar-piece  of  the  Tassetti  chapel,  in  which  the  ar  < 
has  introduced  his  own  portrait  as  a  shepherd,  is  in  tht'  cil- 
lery of  the  Academy.  Ghirlandajo's  influence  on  Im'  a-t 
art  was  very  great.  He  was  a  man  of  ideas  as  well  ju*  f 
skill,  of  great  facility  and  boldness  of  conception — ari  iiiL  ^ 
vator  and  discoverer.  Michael  Angelo  is  said  tx>  hu^f 
studied  with  him  as  an  apprentice  for  three  years  whr. 
a  youth.  Ghirlandajo  died  in  Florence,  probably  in  JaL, 
1494. 

Ghirlandajo,  Ridolfo:  son  of  Domenico  Ghir)an<].\  . 
also  an  artist  of  very  great  talent.  He  was  bom  in  U^l 
One  of  his  best  works  represents  St.  Zenobius  raising:  a  <!•  a  1 
boy  to  life.  This  extraordinary^  picture  is  in  the  r  ffi/i  »* 
Florence;  another,  an  Adoratton  of  the  Shepherd^  i>  *: 
Pesth.     D.  in  1561. 

Ghlastendir :  See  Kostendiu 

Ghizeh,  gee'z«,  or  Gizeh  [also  written  Jeezeh]  :  town  .i 
Egypt;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  just  above  Cair*..  ['. 
was  formerly  a  larjje  and  splendid  town,  but  now  it  is  ni  >-'  ' 
in  ruins.  The  principal  pyramids  are  in  its  imnie...  .'• 
neighborhood.    See  Pyramids. 

Qhiznevldes,  giz'nc-vidz:  a  famous  dynast v  of  Af«l 
nioTiarchs  who  reigned  at  Ghazni  (Ghizni  or  dhuzne*"  .» 
at  Lahore  from  961  a.  d.  to  1184.    At  the  time  of  the  M:.-  - 
Mahmoud  (d.  1030)  the  empire  had  its  widest  extent,  «v^  . 

f lying  a  great  part  of  Persia,  Western  Tartary,  a  part    ' 
ndia,  and  the  intermediate  countries.    These  sultans  w- -' 
zealous  orthodox  Mohammedans. 


776 


GIANT  POWDER 


GIBBITES 


two  comedies — one  entitled  Milesia,  probably  written  in  his 
younger  years ;  the  other.  II  Veeehio  Amoroso,  in  imitation 
of  the  Juercator  of  Plautus,  completed  in  1536.  See  the 
Opere  Politiche  e  Letterarie  di  iJonato  Oicmnottif  ed.  Po- 
lidori,  with  biography  by  Vannucci,  2  vols.  (Florence,  1850) ; 
Aleune  Lettere  d%  Jjonato  Oiannotti^  ed.  by  Milanesi.  in 
Giom,  Stor,  degli  Arch,  Tose,,  viL,  155, 222 ;  ijettere  inedite 
di  Donato  Oiannotti,  ed.  by  h.  A.  Ferrai,  in  Atti  del  R. 
Istituto  Veneto,  serie  vi.,  t.  iiL  L.  A.  Paton. 

Giant  Powder :  See  Explosives. 

Giants  [through  F.  and  Lat.  from  Gr.  yiyas,  ytywrros, 

fiant]:  human  lyings  of  extraordinary  size  and  strength, 
'he  term  giant  is  pnmarily  a  mythological  one.  After  Zeus 
had  overthrown  his  father,  Cronus,  some  of  the  Titans  sub- 
mitted willingly  to  him,  though  most  of  them  declined  to 
submit  to  his  supremacy,  but  with  the  help  of  the  Cyclops 
and  Hecatoncheires  (Hundred-handers)  he  subdued  tne  re- 
bellious Titans  after  a  long  war,  and  cast  them  all  down  to 
Tartarus,  the  abyss  beneath  the  earth.  But  Gsea,  who  on  two 
former  occasions  had  conspired  successfully  against  the  su- 
preme rulers  of  the  universe  (i.  e.  against  Uranus  and 
Cronus),  was  enraged  at  this  treatment  of  her  children,  and 
determined  to  he^  still  a  third  rebellion  against  the  high- 
est god — this  time  against  Zeus.  According,  she  begat  by 
Tartarus,  that  most  terrible  of  all  monsters,TyphoBus,  in  or- 
der through  him  to  avenge  herself  and  her  cnildren  upon 
Zeus.  But  after  a  mighty  struggle  TyphoBus  was  finally 
conquered  and  crushed  beneath  Mt.  ^tna,  where  forever 
afterward  he  continued  to  display  his  restless  might  as  he 
struggled  to  free  himself  from  nis  prison-house.  But  Giea, 
still  &nt  upon  unseating  Zeus,  begat  the  race  pf  the  giants 
in  the  hope  that  they  might  prevail  against  the  usurper. 
Some  of  the  ancient-s  claimed  that  the  giants  sprang  from 
the  drops  of  blood  that  fell  upon  the  earth  {0(pa)  from  the 
mutilated  body  of  Uranus.  This  makes  them  older  than 
does  the  version  of  the  myth  given  above,  though  in  any 
event  they  are  the  children  of  Gosa.  The  battle  between  the 
giants  and  the  go^s,  all  of  whom  took  an  active  part  in  it, 
raged  long  and  furiously  in  the  plain  of  Phlegra,  in  Thessaly, 
the  giants  piling  Pellon  on  Ossa,  in  order  thus  to  take  Olym- 
pus by  storm.  But  finally  the  giants  were  conquered  and 
sent  to  keep  their  brethren  company  in  Tartarus.  The 
story  of  the  battle  between  the  gods  and  the  giants  was 
made  use  of  by  the  artists  of  Greece  in  a  variety  of  ways  and 
in  all  periods  of  art.  In  vase-paintings  are  found  not  only 
general  combats,  but  single  combats  also  between  individual 
gods  and  giants.  The  battle  is  a  favorite  subject  on  gems, 
reliefs,  and  for  statues  in  the  round.  In  the  most  ancient 
vase-paintings  the  giants  are  represented  with  human  bodies, 
differing  in  this  respect  in  no  way  from  the  gods,  but  in 
lat«r  times  they  were  figured  as  monsters,  whose  legs  are 
serpents'  bodies  and  end  in  serpents'  heads  instead  oi  feet. 
The  myth  has  been  explained  in  a  variety  of  ways,  but  the 
most  widely  accepted  interpretation  connects  them  with  vol- 
canic eruptions  and  earthquakes,  which  in  the  mind  of  the 
common  man  were  the  results  of  the  efforte  made  by  the 
giante  to  free  themselves  from  their  prison  beneath  the 
earth.  The  giants  were  also  symlwlicai  of  thunderstorms 
and  tornadoes.  The  Norse  mythology  gives  the  giants 
(jotuns,  frost-giants,  etc.)  a  very  prominent  place.  The 
giante  are  held  by  some  writers  to  represent  the  adverse 
forces  of  nature — by  others,  human  enemies  of  foreign  race. 
Thus  Eiiglish  folk-lore  abounds  in  traditions  and  nursery- 
tales  of  Ornish  and  Welsh  giants,  and  Caesar  speaks  of  the 
huge  stature  of  the  ancient  Germans  and  Gauls.  But  in 
authentic  history  there  are  accounts  of  races  of  men  of  verv 
large  size.  TheHebrew  Scrintures  allude  to  giants  (nephi- 
lim)  before  the  Flood ;  in  ana  about  Palestine  there  were,  in 
Joshua's  time,  the  Rephaim,  Anakim,  Emim,  and  Zamzum- 
mim,  all  men  of  great  stature,  and  the  names  of  (Jg,  two  Go- 
liaths,  Ishbibenob,  and  Saph  are  preserved  in  the  same 
writings.  In  comparatively  recent  times  there  was  a  belief 
that  the  Patagonians  and  the  men  of  Guayaquil  were  giants ; 
and  it  is  unquestionable  that  the  former  considerably  ex- 
ceed in  stature  the  average  of  mankind.  Scores  of  Well- 
authenticated  instances  could  be  cited  of  persons  exceeding 
7i  feet  in  height.  Several  are  on  record  of  men  measuring 
9  or  even  9j^  feet,  but  these  examples  are  open  to  some  ques- 
tion. Very  tall  persons,  it  is  observed,  are  much  less  numer- 
ous than  those  who  are  undersized.  As  a  rule  **  giants  "  are 
comparatively  feeble  in  body  and  mind,  and  nearly  all  are 
short-lived.  There  is  on  record  an  account  of  Bishop 
Berkeley's  attempt  to  produce  a  giant.     He  fed  an  orphan 


named  Magrath  on  selected  articles  of  food.  When  MagraLh 
died,  aged  twenty,  his  height  was  7  feet  8  inches. 

Literature.— ^M.  Mayer,  Die  Giaanten  und  Titanen  >  u 
der  antiken  Sage  und  ICufuii  (Berlin,  1887) ;  Wieseler.  r;j^ 
article  Oiganten  in  the  HcdU  Ettcycl^wddie ;  the  articles  in 
Roscher,  Lexicon,  and  Baumeister,  Denkmdier;  K5|>p,  /> 
Oigantomachia  (Bonn,  1883);  Stark,  Oigantomachte  ah^ 
antiken  Relief  en  (Heidelberg,  1869) ;  Roscher.  Die  Goraon^r, 
und  Verwandfes  (Leipzig,  1879,  pp.  36,  79,  103) ;  RincC  Re- 
ligion der  Autochthonen  (i.,  70  f.) ;  Schwartz,  t^dhigiorif^h- 
a/rUhropologische  studien  (Berlin,  1884,  pp.  78,  96). 

Revised  by  J.  R,  S.  Ster&ett. 

Oiant*8  Canseway,  The :  a  promontory  of  colnmnAr  Im- 
salt  on  the  north  coast  of  Ireland.  The  ontpourine  of  la\  i 
in  Tertiary  times  that  formed  the  bc^ls  of  basalt  of  x\r- 
islands  of  Mull  and  Staffa  (on  latter  of  which  is  the  oti* - 
brated  Fingal's  Cave),  off  the  Scotch  coast,  at  the  same  |M^ri<»l 
overwhelmed  extensive  tracts  in  what  is  now  the  count t  <  f 
Antrim,  and  the  coast  for  some  miles  E.  of  Portru>f)  U 
formed  of  dark  volcanic  rocks,  which  by  their  unequal  «!.- 
composition  give  rise  to  a  line  of  cliffs  from  400  to  500  ft^' 
in  height,  remarkable  for  their  boldness  and  wild  pictur- 
esqueness.  The  transition  from  the  snow-white  chalk  ni*  k^ 
which  it  overlies  to  the  almost  black  basalt  give^  addition  i. 
variety  and  beauty  to  the  scenery  around  the  Caasewav 
The  cliffs  consist  of  thick  sheets  of  basalt,  with  intervenij.' 
beds  of  ocherous  clay.  The  lower  layers  of  basalt  are  rii  n 
in  zeolitic  and  other  minerals,  and  in  certain  beds  the  <-<•- 
lumnar  structure  is  very  strongly  developed,  and  in  pU«»'- 
these  are  beautifully  exposed.  The  Causeway  itself  consi-T- 
of  columnar  basalt  that  has  been  laid  bare  by  the  wavf<. 
but  has  itself  resisted  their  action ;  and  here  the  visitor  fnu 
make  his  way  for  a  long  distance  over  an  irregular  tii*>r 
formed  of  perfectly  developed  polyp^onal  columns,  which  re- 
markably illustrate  the  peculiarities  of  this  kind  ot  rxk 
formation. 

Oiaour,  jowr  [from  Turk,  giaur,  infidel,  from  Pers.  gofrr. 
gabr,  infidel,  fire-worshiper,  whence  Kng.  GJteher] :  a  t^n" 
applied  by  Turks  and  other  Mohammedans  to  (Christians;  tuA 
others  not  of  their  own  faith.  Its  use  is  not  always  int^-niiMi 
as  a  reproach,  but  very  commonly  has  that  character.  It  n- 
sembles  the  gentile  of  Jewish  designation,  which  likevi-^ 
may  be  used  m  a  perfectly  innocent  sense. 

Giarre,  jaar'ra:  a  Sicilian  town  of  considerable  comment . 
in  the  province  of  Catania  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  9-0).  It 
lies  near  the  seashore,  and  in  its  neighborhood,  at  CarfM- 
neta,  are  some  of  the  largest,  chestnut-trees  known.  ?«•!•. 
7,819. 

Gibb,  Charles  :  Canadian  horticulturist ;  b.  in  Montn-A! 
in  1845;  graduate<l  at  McGill  University  in  1865.  In  c*tui- 
pany  with  Prof.  J.  L.  Budd,  of  Iowa,  he  made  a  jouni»v 
m  Russia  in  1882,  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  frur^ 
adapted  to  Canada  and  the  cold  prairies  of  the  U.  S.  Ir. 
1886  he  made  a  second  journey  to  Russia.  He  traveled  mu'  u 
in  the  interest  of  pomolojzy,  and  in  1889  left  his  home  si 
Abbotsford,  Quebec,  for  China,  Mongolia,  and  Japan,  to 
study  the  fruits  of  those  countries,  hoping  to  intnuiu'r* 
many  of  them  into  Canada  and  the  U.  S.  He  died  at  Cain>. 
Egypt,  on  his  homeward  voyage,  Mar.  8,  1890. 

L.  H.  Bailey. 

Gibbes,  gibz,  Robert  Wilson,  M.D.:  scientist  and  hi-ti- 
rian ;  b.  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  July  8, 1809 ;  graduated  at  S«>'ii!t 
Carolina  College  in  1827,  where^e  became  assistant  prr»fess  .r. 
and  afterward  Professor  of  Chemistry;  took  his  medi<*al  <!'- 
gree  in  Philadelphia;  became  distinguishetl  as  a  paleont«-;<»- 
gist,  ornithologist,  ichthyologist,  and  antiquary,  as  well  a>  .« 
physician  ;  was  twice  mayor  of  Columbia,  and  for  some  i  irut 
editor  of  Th^  Daily  South  Carolinian  and  The  Weekly  Rnt- 
ner;  became  in  1861  surgeon-general  of  South  Carolina.  Ir 
1865,  when  Columbia  was  burned  upon  it^  occupation  ^^ 
Sherman,  his  mansion,  with  its  treasures  of  art  and  littri- 
ture  and  its  valuable  cabinets,  was  destroyed  by  fire.  Au- 
thor of  an  excellent  Monograph  of  fhs  fSqitalidte :  auv  .f 
grcAt  value  on  Typhoid  /^ctimonia'(1842):  Jtfemoirof  Jn:'.*' 
De  Vemix  {\S45)\  Documentary  History  of  Sf)uth  Arrr//''» 
(3  vols.,  185«i);  Sketch  of  Charles  Frazer;  Memoir  on  J/"*"- 
saurus;  Cuba  for  Invalids  {1860);  and  many  scientific  pap  r^ 
He  was  a  member  of  numerous  leame<l  societies  in  Kur»»|< 
and  the  U.  S.    D.  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  Oct.  15,  1866. 

Gibbites,  gib'its:  a  fanatical  sect  which  arose  in  Scotlai.'. 
in  the  last  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  was  \v*\  '"^ 
a  sailor,  John  Gibb,  whence  the  nickname'    Thev  c<^rabint^ 


778 


GIBBONS 


GIBRALTAR 


cases  in  the  U.  S.  courts  at  Philadelphia.    D.  in  Philadel- 
phia, Aug.  14, 1885. 

Gibbons,  Grinling  :  wood-carver,  statuary  and  decorative 
sculptor ;  b.  probably  in  Rotterdam,  Holland,  in  1648 ;  went 
to  London  after  the  Great  Fire  of  1666,  and  attracted  the 
notice  of  John  Evelyn,  through  whose  influence  he  sold  im- 
portant carvings  to  the  king,  Charles  I.,  and  leading  persons 
of  the  court  and  city.  By  Sir  Christopher  Wren  s  wish 
he  was  employed  upon  the  works  at  St.  Paul's  in  London, 
and  other  London  churches.  The  bishop's  throne  at  Can- 
terbury Cathedral  is  his  work.  Several  of  the  princely 
houses  of  En|;land — Chatsworth,  Petworth,  and  Burghley — 
contain  specimens  of  his  exquisite  work  in  screens,  side- 
boards, cuimney-pieces,  ornamental  panels  with  flowers, 
fruit,  birds,  carved  with  a  precision  and  delicacy  that  en- 
title them  to  the  rank  of  works  of  very  fine  art.  Several 
important  monuments  in  marble  and  bronze  remain  showing 
his  merit  as  a  sculptor.    D.  in  London,  Aug.  3, 1720. 

Gibbons,  James:  cardinal;  b.  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  July 
23,  1834;  graduated  at  St.  Charles  College,  Md.,  1857; 
studied  theology  in  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Baltimore,  Md. ; 
became  pastor  of  St.  Bridget  s  church  in  that  city  in  1861 ; 
in  1868  was  consecrated  Vicar  Apostolic  of  North  Carolina ; 
became  Bishop  of  Richmond,  Va.,  in  1872,  and  in  1877  Arch- 
bishop of  Baltimore,  which  see,  being  the  oldest  in  the  U.  S., 
is  looked  on  as  the  chief  or  primatial  among  the  Roman 
Catholic  dioceses.  He  was  made  cardinal  June  30,  1886, 
with  the  title  of  Santa  Maria  in  Trastevere.  He  is  well 
known  for  his  frequent  valuable  contributions  to  secular 
and  religious  reviews,  and  for  two  important  works,  The  Faith 
of  our  i^athers  and  Our  Christian  Heritage.  The  former 
has  had  about  forty  editions  (about  250,000  copies).  Cardi- 
nal Gibbons  is  also  chancellor  of  the  Catholic  University 
of  America. 

Gibbons,  James  Sloan:  philanthropist;  b.  in  Wilming- 
ton, Del.,  July  1,  1810;  married  Abi^il  Hopper,  daughter 
of  the  philanthropist  Isaac  Tatem  Hopper,  1833 ;  engaged 
in  banking  in  New  York  1835 ;  was  prominent  in  the  anti- 
slavery  agitation;  became  a  friend  of  Garrison,  Wendell 
Phillips,  Theodore  Parker,  Edmund  Quincy,  Horace  Gree- 
ley, and  other  prominent  abolitionists ;  started  the  move- 
ment for  preserving  the  forests  which  became  national  and 
led  to  Arbor  Day ;  author  of  Tfie  Banks  of  New  York ;  77i« 
Public  Debt  of  the  United  States ;  and  of  the  famous  war 
poem  We  are  coming,  Father  Abraham,  three  hundred 
ihoiAsand  more,    D.  in  New  York  city,  Oct.  16,  1892. 

C.  H.  Thurber. 

Gibbons,  William,  M.  D.  :  scientist  and  philanthropist ; 
b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Aug.  10, 1781 ;  educated  by  his  father 
and  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  graduated 
1805 ;  practiced  in  Wilmington,  DeL ;  resident  of  Delaware 
Academy  of  National  Sciences,  of  the  Peace  Society,  of  the 
Delaware  Temperance  Society,  and  a  member  of  the  society 
for  preventing  the  kidnaping  of  Negroes ;  established  and 
conaucted,  1834-28,  a  religious  periodical,  T?ie  Berean,  de- 
voted to  the  principles  of  the  Society  of  Friends ;  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  reli^ous  controversv  which  resulted 
in  a  separation  of  the  society  into  Frienas  and  Orthodox 
Friends  1827 ;  he  wrote,  under  the  signature  of  Vindex,  a 
series  of  letters  entitled  Truth  Vindicated,  replying  to  an 
attack  on  the  Friends  by  a  Presbyterian  clergyman,  one 
of  the  clearest  expositions  of  Quaker  doctrines  ever  pub- 
lished.    D.  in  Wilmington,  Del.,  July  25, 1845. 

C.  H.  Thurber. 

Gibbs,  Alfred:  soldier;  b.  at  Astoria,  L.  I.,  Apr.  22, 
1823 ;  son  of  George  Gibbs,  mineralogist  (1776-1833) ;  grad- 
uated at  West  Point,  and  entered  the  army  as  brevet  second 
lieutenant  mounted  rifles  July,  1846 ;  served  in  the  war  with 
Mexico ;  brevet  first  lieutenant  and  captain  for  gallant  con- 
duct in  battle.  Promoted  to  be  second  lieutenant  of  rifles 
in  1847  and  first  lieutenant  1853.  From  1848  to  1856  served 
on  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  Texas;  and  from  1856  to  1861 
frontier  duty  and  against  hostile  Indians.  He  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  130th  New  York  Volunteers,  Sept.,  1862,  being 
engaged  in  operations  about  and  defense  of  Suffolk,  Va.,  till 
Aug.,  1863,  when  his  regiment  was  changed  to  be  the  First 
New  York  Drajsjoons,  and  organized  by  him  into  a  cavalry 
regiment.  During  Gen.  Grant's  Richmond  campaign  (1864^ 
65)  he  commanded  a  cavalry  reserve  brigade,  participating 
in  various  actions  till  Aug.,  1864,  when  he  resumed  com- 
mand of  his  regiment  in  the  Shenandoah  campaign.  Ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  Oct.  19,  1864,  in 


the  final  conflict  with,  and  pursuit  of,  the  Confederate  arn  r 
of  Northern  Virginia,  he  commanded  a  brigade  of  cavaJr; 
being  engaged  at  Dinwiddle  Court-house,  Five  Fork^  .Si: 
or's  Creek,  etc.,  and  present  at  the  surrender  of  Gen.  l^r  .*. 
Appomattox  Court-house.  He  subse(}uently  commande*!  « 
cavalry  brigade  and  division  in  the  division  of  the  iiulL  a*.  I 
was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer  service  Feb^  1866.  F  .r 
gallant  conduct  during  the  war  he  received  the  varit'ir 
brevets  from  major  to  that  of  major-general  U.  S.  amy. 
Promoted  in  the  army  to  be  major  Seventh  Cavalry  in  Ju.\. 
1866,  he  served  on  frontier  duty  in  Kansas.  DI  al  F^r 
Leavenworth,  Kan.,  Dec.  26, 1868. 

Gibbs,  JosiAH  WiLLABD,  LL.  D. :  philologist ;  b.  at  SalKr!<. 
Mass.,  Apr.  30, 1790;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1809;  was  tut  .r 
there  1811-15 ;  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature  1824-61 :  li- 
brarian of  the  college  1824-43.  He  published  several  phL>>- 
logical  works  and  many  learned  and  valuable  pa|»'^^. 
Among  his  works  are  a  Hebrew  lexicon  1824;  an  abn  ir- 
ment  of  Gesenius's  lexicon  1828;  PhiloUtgical  Siudu* 
(New  Haven,  1856) ;  Teutonic  Etymology  (I860).  D.  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Mar.  25, 1861. 

Gibbs,  WoLCOTT,  M. D.,  LL. D. :  chemist;  brother  -f 
Gen.  Alfred  Gibbs  {q.  v.) ;  b.  in  New  York  city,  Feb.  HI. 
1822;  after  graduation  at  Columbia  College,  1841,  stud:*: 
chemistry  and  physics. in  Giessen  and  Berlin.  Shortly  afitr 
his  return  from  (iermany,  Dr.  Gibbs  was  elected  Prof t•^-.  -r 
of  Physics  and  Chemistry  in  the  College  of  the  City  of  Nr  w 
York  1849;  in  1863  resigned  this  position,  having  Y'^n 
elected  to  fill  the  Rumford  professorship  in  Harvani  Uni- 
versity. Dr.  Gibbs  is  the  author  of  many  elaborate  ar  i 
valuable  chemical  researches;  as,  for  example,  on  the  pla*:- 
num  metals,  on  the  ammonia-cobalt  bases,  on  the  enun  u- 
lent  of  cobalt,  on  niobic  acid,  etc.  Besides  th^^  hf  t.u^ 
made  extensive  contributions  to  analytical  chemistry,  U'th 
organic  and  inorganic.  In  the  department  of  ph^-sic^  h> 
contributions  have  been  equally  valuable  and  almoc^t  a^  r  i 
merous;  among  them  are  nis  elaborate  work  on  the  wftv-- 
len^hs  of  light,  that  on  vapor  densities,  and  his  metluMi^  •  f 
avoiding  the  troublesome  effects  of  temperature  and  p^*-^^L^' 
in  gas  analysis.  His  memoirs  on  these  subject^  alonjg  v^r^ 
those  on  theoretical  chemistry,  are  scattered  among  the  ^  .1- 
umes  of  T?ie  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  of  wKii  n 
he  has  for  many  years  been  one  of  the  editors.  He  is  (lM»^i 
emeritus  professor  in  Harvard,  and  resides  at  Newport,  K.  I. 

Gibel,  gib'el,  or  Pmssia]!  Carp  [Germ.  Oibel,  Ft.  gi^^i- 
etym.  obscure] :  a  small  European  fresh- water  fish,  t  hV  (  y- 
prinus  gibelio.  It  is  prized  for  the  table,  but  is  not  vin 
easy  to  catch,  as  it  seldom  takes  the  hook. 

Gib'eon  [Heb.  Oibhghon,  liter.,  built  on  a  hill,  deriv. .  f 
gibhgha  {Gibed),  hill] :  town  of  Palestine ;  one  of  the  f<  ur 
cities  of  the  Hivites,  5  miles  N.  W.  of  Jerusalem  ;  is  men- 
tioned in  Joshua  ix.  3  as  obtainin|^  by  craft  exemption  tr-^m 
the  destruction  which  overtook  their  neighborsv  ana  in  ji^vr  rv 
other  places  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  was  within  the  t^rn- 
tory  of  Benjamin  (Joshua  xviii.  25),  and  was  one  of  \\' 
cities  given  by  lot  unto  the  Levites  (Joshua  xxi.  17^.  \\< 
site  is  now  occupied  by  a  small  village,  El  Jib,  and  the  mit- 
rounding  district  is  well  cultivated.  Here  in  later  lini--^ 
was  the  Tabernacle  (1  Chr.  xvi.  39).  Solomon  paid  ii  s 
visit  in  state  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  and  it  was  tlu-n^ 
that  he  made  his  momentous  choice  (1  Kings  iii.  4,  5). 

Samuel  Macaui.£t  Jackson. 

Gibraltar,  ji-brftwl't^r :  the  southernmost  promonton  ' 
Sprain;  an  insulated  rock  connected  with  the  mainland  r:  \s 
by  a  low,  sandv  slip  of  land  between  the  Bar  of  Gibni'.:«r 
on  the  W.  ana  the  Mediterranean  on  the  J^.  (see  nia|'  •  f 
Spain,  ref.  2()-D).  This  rock,  together  with  that  of  At'>  v 
now  Ceuta,  on  the  African  coast,  formed  the  so-calU^i  P  • 
lars  of  Hercules,  which  by  the  ancients  were  eonsidenxl  ti  ?• 
western  boundary  of  the  earth.  The  Rock  of  Gibraltar  :> 
1,400  feet  high,  almost  perpendicidar  on  its  southern  :ri' 
eastern  sides,  and  sloping  and  accessible  only  on  iti«  nvr-tr 
em  and  western  sides.  It  is  a  mass  of  limestone^  and.  I.Ij 
most  limestone  formations,  is  honeycombed  by  caT«!  at. : 
caverns,  some  of  which,  besides  their  fantastic  fonn,  ba^- 
an  additional  interest  on  account  of  the  palieontoloeical  a-: . 
archaeological  remains  which  they  contain.  St*  5l  ii-hnr . - 
Cave  is  that  most  frequently  visited  by  strangers,  It^  «^- 
trance  is  on  the  western  side  of  the  rock,  1.100  feet  al*'^ 
the  sea;  it  is  200  feet  long  and  70  feet  high,  and  i>  i'» 
tortuous  fvissages  connected  with  four  other  similar  bt  '^ 
On  the  northwestern  slope  is  situated  the  town  of  Gibrai*  •' 


780 


GIBSON 


GIPFORD 


which  passed  through  nine  editions ;  was  also  the  author  of 
several  lectures,  of  Rambles  in  Europe  (1839),  containing 
biographical  sketches  of  surgeons,  etc.  Ue  was  the  first  to 
penorm  the  Caosarean  operation  twice  on  the  same  patient, 
successful  to  both  mother  and  children.  D.  in  Savannah, 
Ga.,  Mar.  2, 1868. 

Gibson,  William  Hamilton:  artist  and  author;  b.  at 
Sandy  Hook,  Conn.,  Oct.  5,  1850.  Since  1870  he  has  resided 
in  New  York  and  Brookljrn.  His  paintings  and  drawings 
are  mainljr  in  the  field  of  landscape,  natural  histoir,  and 
out-door  life,  and  many  of  them  were  preoared  as  illustra- 
tions of  his  books,  such  as  Camp-life  %n  the  Woods  (1876) ; 
Pastoral  Days  (New  York,  1881) ;  Highways  and  Byways 
(New  York,  1883);  Strolls  by  Starlight  and  Sunshine  (New 
York,  1891) ;  Sharp  Eyes  (New  York,  1892).         H.  A.  B. 

Gibson  City :  town ;  Ford  co..  111.  (for  location  of  coun- 
ty, see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  5-F) ;  on  the  111.  Central,  the 
Lake  E.  and  W.,  and  the  Wabash  Railroads ;  35  miles  E.  of 
Bloomington,  and  113  miles  S.  of  Chicago.  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural region,  and  has  several  churches,  public  schoofi,  2 
banks,  and  1  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,260 ;  (1890)  1,803. 

Giddiness :  See  Sensation. 

Giddings,  Franklin  Henrt,  A.  M. :  Professor  of  Sociol- 
ogy ;  b.  at  Sherman,  Conn.,  Mar.  23,  1855 ;  graduated  at 
Union  College  1877 ;  spent  several  years  on  the  Springfield 
Daily  Union  and  Springfield  Republican ;  continued  in  the 
meantime  to  contribute  economic  studies  for  various  publi- 
cations ;  Professor  of  Political  Sciences  at  Bryn  Mawr  Col- 
lege 1888,  and  since  1891  lecturer  on  Sociology  at  Columbia 
College;  editor  of  the  monographs  of  the  American  Eco- 
nomic Association,  and  for  a  time  associate  editor  of  the  An- 
nals of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Sci- 
ence. Author  of  Report  on  Proflt-sl^aring  in  seventeenth 
annual  report  of  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics  of 
Labor  (1886);  The  Modem  Distributive  Process  (written 
with  Prof.  J.  B.  Clark,  1888) ;  and  numerous  articles  on  his 
special  subject  in  The  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics,  The 
Political  Science  Quarterly^  and  other  periodicals. 

C.  H.  Thurber. 

GiddingiS,  Joshua  Reed  :  statesman ;  b.  at  Tioga  Point, 
Pa.,  Oct.  6,  1795.  Six  weeks  after  the  birth  of  their  child 
his  parents  went  to  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  and  when  he  was 
about  ten  years  old  they  removed  to  Ashtabula  co.,  0.,  a 
part  of  the  Connecticut  Western  Reserve.  His  youth  was 
one  of  severe  toil,  yet  he  became  a  man  of  great  size  and 
stren^h,  as  well  as  of  capacious  mind  and  generous  and  en- 
terprising spirit.  After  Proctor's  retreat  the  troops  with 
which  Giddmgs  served  were  sent  home.  His  education  was 
acquired  from  books,  mostly  borrowed,  and  read  at  night  by 
the  light  of  a  hickory  fire.  He  taught  school,  studied  law 
with  Elisha  Whittlesey,  a  prominent  lawyer,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1821.  In  1826  he  went  as  a  representa- 
tive to  the  State  Legislature ;  declined  re-election  in  1827 ; 
was  defeated  in  running  for  State  Senator  in  1828 ;  devoted 
himself  to  his  profession,  in  which  he  rose  to  the  first  rank. 
In  1839  he  was  sent  to  Congress.  Though  he  was  not  an 
abolitionist  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  yet  he  believed 
that  Congress  had  no  right  to  protect  slavery  in  the  States, 
that  slavery  was  a  great  evil,  and  that  it  waswrong  and  un- 
constitutional to  compel  the  free  States  or  the  general  Gov- 
ernment to  return  fugitive  slaves  to  their  owners.  He  also 
believed  it  was  th€  duty  of  Congress  to  prohibit  slavery  in 
the  District  of  Columbia  and  the  Territories,  and  to  break 
up  the  coastwise  slave-trade.  During  his  membership  of 
Congress  a  large  share  of  his  attention  was  given  to  the 
tracing  out  of  the  constitutional  relations  of  the  Govern- 
ment, the  States,  and  the  people  to  slavery,  and  the  exposi- 
tion of  his  views  thereupon ;  but  he  also  took  a  prominent 
part  in  questions  of  tariff  and  of  appropriations  and  in  other 
important  affairs.  He  opposed  tne  Florida  war  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  an  attempt  to  recapture  fugitive  slaves 
at  the  expense  of  the  U.  S.  In  1841  the  Creole,  a  vessel 
laden  with  slaves,  sailed  from  Norfolk,  Va.,  for  New  Or- 
leans. The  slaves  arose,  seized  the  vessel,  and  finally  found 
the  British  port  of  Nassau,  N.  P.,  where  they  were  recog- 
nized as  free.  Mr.  Webster,  then  Secretary  of  State,  having 
demanded  compensation  of  the  British  Government,  Mr. 
Giddings  introduced  into  the  House  resolutions  declaring 
that  the  slaves  upon  the  Creole  were  guilty  of  no  crime  in 
taking  their  freedom  upon  the  high  seas,  inasmuch  as  they 
were  outside  of  the  jurisdiction  of  Virginia,  that  persons 


held  in  slaveiy  cease  to  be  slaves  when  upon  the  hig-fa 
and  that  the  demand  for  the  slaves  or  for  compensation  fnr 
them  was  not  warranted  by  the  U.  S.  Constitution.     Fi  r 

Presenting  these  resolutions  (which  he  temporarilT  witL- 
rew  at  the  earnest  reouest  of  many  friends)  Mr.  Giddin^^ 
received  the  censure  of  the  House,  without  being  permit!  t-»j 
to  speak  in  his  own  defense.  He  thereupon  resigned,  hw* 
was  at  once  re-elected  without  opposition.  In  his  earl> 
years  in  Congress  his  views  were  shared  by  no  member  ex- 
cept his  friend  John  Quiney  Adams.  In  1843  he  prtMluotHi 
the  famous  Pa4iifi€us  essays  upon  the  slavery  question.  11  ^^ 
zealously  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas.  '  In  1844  he  sac- 
cessfully  opposed  the  bill  to  pay  for  the  Amisted  Ne^rw^. 
He  stronger  favored  the  Wilmot  proviso.  Upon  the  nomi- 
nation of  (Jen.  Taylor  for  the  presidency  in  1848  he  left  tLf 
Whigs  andioinea  the  new  Free-soil  party.  He  declined  to 
vote  for  a  Whig  Speaker  of  the  House  in  1847  and  1849,  aixi 
thus  in  the  latter  year  caused  the  choice  of  a  Democnitir 
Speaker.  In  1850  he  opp<)sed  the  new  compromise,  the  Fur- 
tive-slave Bill,  and  the  Texas  bill.  In  1859,  after  a  serrio 
of  twenty-one  years,  he  closed  his  congressional  ciire<*r.  Hf 
was  twice  assaulted  in  Congress  by  armed  men,  and  wu^ 
once  set  upon  by  a  mob  in  Washington.  In  1853  h<-  puU 
lished  a  volume  of  speeches ;  in  1858  the  ExiUs  of  Florida, 
an  historical  sketch  of  much  interest  In  1861  he  was  ap- 
pointed consul-general  to  British  North  America.  He  wrott- 
a  congressional  history  of  slavery,  and  in  1864  publi<he<i 
The  nebelliony  its  Authors  and-  Causes,  D.  at  Montreal 
May  27,  1864. 

Giers,  Nicholas  CARLovrrcH,  de :  See  De  Giebs,  Sicb*.*- 

LAS  CaRLOVITCH. 

Gie'seler,  Johann  Karl  Ludwio  :  church  historian  ;  K  &t 
Petershagen,  Germany,  Mar.  8, 1792 ;  studied  and  tangrht  ir. 
the  Halle  Orphan-house  1808-13 ;  served  against  Napolertn 
1813-15;  taught  at  Halle,  Minden,  and  Cleves  1815-19;  l>t- 
came  Professor  of  Theology  at  Bonn  1819,  and  at  GStting^eu 
1831.  His  great  work  oii  church  history  {Lehrbuch  lUr 
Kirchengeschichie)  was  published  in  five  volumes  in  1824- 
57,  the  last  two  volumes  being  edited  by  Redepenning.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  impartial  works  of  the  kind 
ever  produced.  The  best  English  translation  is  thai  of  H. 
B.  Smith  (New  York,  4  vols.,  1856,  and  5th  vol.  in  1880  u 
D.  at  Gottingen,  July  8, 1854. 

Giesaen,  gee'sen :  town  of  Germany ;  capital  of  the  t>pi»v- 
ince  of  Upper  Hesse;  on  the  I^ahn;  40  miles  by  rail  >,  oi 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  (see  map  of  Germany,  ref.  5-D).  It 
has  a  university  (founded  in  1607)  and  other  edacational  in- 
stitutions, and  manufactures  of  iron,  machinery,  beer,  and 
tobacco.    Pop.  (1890)  20,535. 

Giesshttbl-Pnchstein,  gees'hnb*l-pooA-h'stin :  the  sourre 
of  the  Giesshtlbler  waters;  near  Carlsbad,  in  Bohemia,  Aus- 
tria. There  is  a  good  Kurhaus  here,  but  the  waters  are  chief- 
ly bottled  and  exported.  M.  W.  H. 

Giffard's  Injector:  See  Steam-enqike. 

Gilford,  Robert  Swain:  landscape-painter;  b.  on  Xau- 
shon  island,  Mass.,  Dec.  23, 1840.  Pupil  of  Alfred  van  Bust, 
Rotterdam,  Holland ;  National  Academician  1878:  memWr 
Society  of  American  Artists  (1877) ;  American  Water-o«  'kc 
Society  and  British  Society  of  Painter-etchers ;  medal.  Cen- 
tennial Exposition,  Philadelphia.  1876;  third-class  nie<iai. 
Paris  Exposition,  1889.  One  of  his  works  which  leoeivetl  & 
prize  of  $2,000  at  the  American  Art  Association  (not  a  p)n- 
fessional  society)  in  1885  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Mnsoun.. 


New  York. 


W.  A.  1 


Gilford,  Sanford  Robinson:  landscape-painter;  b.  nt 
Greenfield,  N.  Y.,  July  10,  1823.  Pupil  of  John  RuK  ns 
Smith  and  National  Academy,  New  York;  graduat^ni  *t 
Brown  University  1842 ;  National  Academician  1854.  H^ 
traveled  and  sketched  in  Europe  in  1855-57  and  in  1868-6i*. 
His  work  was  very  highly  esteemed  in  his  time,  but  ba^ 
greatly  lost  in  popularity  since  his  death.  It  is  not  of  a  vt  rr 
serious  character  artistically  considere<i,  being  without  niuiK 
truth  to  nature  and  not  remarkable  for  color  qualities.  t>r.r 
of  his  principal  works,  Ruins  of  tht  Parthenon^  is  in  the  Cor- 
coran Gallery,  Washington.  He  was  fond  of  painting  glov- 
ing pictures  of  autumn  landscape  in  the  U.  S.  D.  in  New 
York,  Aug.  29,  1880.  W.  A.  (\ 

Gilford,  William  :  author ;  b.  at  Ashburton,  Devon,  Ens:- 
land,  in  Apr.«  1756 ;  went  to  sea  in  childhood ;  was  apprt^n- 
ticed  to  a  shoemaker  in  1772,  and  afterward,  through  the 
kindness  of  friends,  was  sent  to  Exeter  College,  Oxfonl,  ajj<*. 
received  the  patronage  of  Lord  Grosvenor    His  suecess»iul 


782 


GILBERT 


GILDING 


in  Boston.  In  1847  he  went  to  London,  playing  in  the  com- 
pany at  the  Princess's  theater.  His  first  appearance  there 
was  as  Sir  Robert  Bramble  in  The  Poor  Oentleman.  After 
a  short  visit  to  Paris  he  returned  in  1848  to  the  U.  S.,  and 
appeared  under  the  management  of  Hamblin  at  the  New 
York  Park  theater.  After  playing  for  a  long  period  in 
Philadelphia,  in  Boston,  and  again  in  Philadelphia,  ne  joined 
the  company  of  WaUack's  theater  in  New  York  city  in  1862, 
with  which  he  remained  until  it  ceased  to  exist  on  the  retire- 
ment of  Lester  Wallack  in  1888.  Gilbert  was  the  last  of 
that  school  of  actors  able  to  portray  effectively  the  fine  old 
English  gentleman  of  other  aays.  Among  his  most  popular 
personations  were  Sir  Peter  Teazle,  Sir  Anthony  Absolute, 
and  Old  Domton.    D.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  June  17, 1889. 

B.  B.  Vallentine. 

Gilbert,  John  Thomas  :  historian  ;  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland, 
in  1829 ;  was  in  1867  appointed  secretary  of  the  public  rec- 
ord office  of  Ireland,  an  office  he  held  till  its  abolition  in 
1875,  but  is  chiefly  known  to  the  world  through  his  studies 
of  Irish  history  and  archaeology.  By  his  National  Manu- 
acripta  of  Ireland,  of  which  four  volumes  in  large  folio 
have  already  appeared,  he  has  given  a  strong  impulse  to  the 
study  of  the  Celtic  language.  Among  his  other  works  are 
History  of  the  City  of  Dublin  (1854-59,  3  vols.) ;  ffiaton/ 
of  ths  Viceroys  of  Ireland  (1865);  History  of  Affairs  in 
Ireland  16\l-62  (1879-81,  6  parts);  History  of  the  Irish 
Confederation  and  the  War  in  Ireland  1641-49  (7  vols, 
quarto,  1882-90). 

Gilbert,  Joseph  Henry,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  P.  R.  S. :  agri- 
cultural chemist;  b.  at  Hull,  England,  Aug.  1,  1817;  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Glasgow  and  at  University  Col- 
lege, London,  and  later  under  Liebig  at  Giessen ;  devoted 
special  attention  to  chemistry;  in  1843  became  associated 
with  Mr.  (now  Sir)  J.  B.  Lawes,  of  Rothamsted,  in  the  work 
of  agricultural  experimentation.  His  publications  have 
been  published  in  a  large  number  of  papers  and  various 
journals ;  1884  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Rural  Econo- 
my in  the  University  of  Oxford ;  reappointed  1887,  still  re- 
taining his  position  as  director  of  the  Rothamsted  labora- 
tory. Mr.  Gilbert's  work  at  Rothamsted  has  given  him  a 
wide  and  permanent  fame  as  an  investigator.  See  Lawes, 
Sir  John  Bennet  ;  and  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. C.  H.  Thurber. 

Gilbert,  or  Gilberd,  William,  M.  D.  :  b.  at  Colchester, 
England,  in  1540 ;  was  educated  at  St.  John's,  Cambridge, 
and  in  1573  settled  in  London.  He  became  Oueen  Eliza- 
beth's physician,  and  held  the  same  office  under  James  I. 
Author  01  De  magnete  magneticisqtie  corporibus,  et  de  magno 
magnete  Tellure  (1600)  and  De  mundo  nostro  Sublunari 
Philosophia  Nova  (1651),  works  of  surprising  accuracy  of 
statement  and  full  of  profound  thoughts.  He  stood  far  in 
advance  of  his  time  as  a  scientific  observer  and  theorist, 
and  as  a  recorder  of  facts  relating  to  electricity.  His 
De  magnete,  etc.,  anticipates  many  of  the  most  important 
discoveries  in  electricity,  and  is,  in  the  opinion  of  many, 
the  first  comprehensive  treatise  on  that  subject.  Wheweli, 
in  his  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences,  credits  him  with 
having  presented  **  all  the  fundamental  facts  of  the  sci- 
ence.' He  was  the  first  to  use  the  terms  "  electric  force " 
and  "  electric  attraction,"  and  to  point  out  that  the  phe- 
nomena of  terrestrial  magnetism  and  of  electricity  were 
manifestations  of  the  same  force.  Died  at  either  Colchester 
or  London,  Nov.  30,  1603. 

Gilbert,  William  Schwenck  :  dramatist ;  b.  in  London, 
Nov.  18,  1836 ;  educated  in  the  University  of  London,  and 
called  to  the  bar  of  the  Inner  Temple  in  i864,  but  later  on 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  literature,  and  has  become  widely 
known  as  a  dramatic  writer.  His  first  play,  Dulcamara, 
was  produced  in  1866.  His  fairy-comedies — The  Palace  of 
Truth  (1870) ;  Pygmalion  and  Galatea  (1871) :  The  Wicked 
World  (1873) ;  Broken  Hearts  (1876),  etc.— and  his  farces— 
Engaged  (1877) ;  Ne'er-do- Weel  (1878),  etc. — were  very  popu- 
lar ;  and  a  still  greater  measure  of  success  was  achieved  by 
his  comic  operas,  written  in  conjunction  with  Arthur  Sulli- 
van :  The  Sorcerer  (1877) ;  H  if.  S.  Pinafore  (1878) ;  The 
Pirates  of  Penzance  (1880):  Patience  (1881) ;  lolanthe  (1882); 
Princess  Ida  (1883) ;  The  Mikado  (1885) ;  Ruddigore  (1887) ; 
The  Yeoman  of  the  Guard  (1888) ;  The  Gondoliers  (1889) ; 
Utopia  (Limited)  (1893).  Among  other  plays  are  Charity 
(1874);  Comedy  akd  Tragedy  (1884);  and  Brantinghame 
HaU  (1888).  His  Bckb  Ballads  originally  appeared  in  Fun, 
but  were  afterward  printed  separately. 


Gilbertines.  gil'ber-tinz  [from  Mod.  Lat.  Gilbert i  nug^ 
pertaining  to  St.  Gilbert,  deriv.  of  Gilbertus,  Gilbert] :  au 
order  of  monks  and  nuns  founded  about  1135  in  Eng:lan<i 
by  St.  Gilbert,  priest  of  Sempringham  (1083-1189).  The 
nuns  were  Benedictines,  but  in  most  of  their  houses  thf  n- 
were  also  monks  who  were  canons  regular  of  St.  August  in**. 
There  were  also  lay  brothers,  who  followed  the  Cistern  ijiu 
rule.  The  rules  of  the  order  were  very  strict  with  regani  to 
the  separation  of  the  monks  and  nuns.  The  order  waei  fx- 
tingmshed  by  Henry  VIII.  It  then  numbered  twenty-fiv^ 
houses. 

Gilbert  Islands,  or  the  Kingsmili  Group:  the  :=iouth- 

easternmost  group  of  Micronesia,  containing  sixteen  ?rnall 
inhabited  islands  of  coral  formation,  situated  in  the  Pacifii . 
between  lat.  1°  S.  and  2"  30'  N.  and  Ion.  172'  and  174"  :H0  H 
Area,  166  sq.  miles.  The  islands  are  low,  and  coTered  only 
with  a  thin  layer  of  vegetable  mould.  Cocoanuts,  tAro,  anil 
pandanus  are  cultivated.  The  inhabitants,  who  nuiDtifr 
35,200  and  have  some  resemblance  to  the  Malays,  are  very 
barbarous,  and  some  are  cannibals.  Mission.^  are  main- 
tained here  by  the  Congregationalists  of  Hawaii  and  the 
U.  S.  The  group  was  discovered  in  17^,  and  was  taken 
possession  of  by  Great  Britain  in  1892. 

Gilchrist,  ffil'krist,  William  Wallace  :  musician  ;  b.  in 
Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  Jan.  8,  1846.  In  1853  Philadelphia  U- 
came  his  permanent  place  of  residence,  and  there  he  re- 
ceived all  his  education.  His  first  success  was  winnir.;; 
three  prizes  offered  by  the  Mendelssohn  Club  of  New  York 
for  vocal  compositions  of  various  styles.  The  Cincinnati 
festival  of  188^  offered  a  prize  of  $1,000  for  the  be$t  work 
for  solo,  chorus,  and  orchestra.  The  judges  were  Theodoiv 
Thomas,  then  of  New  York,  C.  Saint-Saens,  of  Paris,  aii«i 
Carl  Reinecke,  of  Leipzig.  Mr.  Gilchrist  won  the  jirizt- 
with  his  setting  of  the  Forty-sixth  Psalm,  and  it  wass  fier- 
formed  at  the  festival.  He  has  also  written  a  ballad  for 
alto  solo  and  chorus,  entitled  The  Rose  (1886),  and  a  fc^ 
other  works.  D,  E.  Hkrvey. 

GiPdas,  surnamed  Sapiens  :  the  oldest  historian  of  Brir- 
ain  ;  b.  in  516  a.  d.,  but  the  place  of  his  birth  is  not  knoin  n  ; 
went  to  Armorlca  about  550,  and  wrote  his  History  tlu-rr 
about  560 ;  went  to  Ireland  between  566-569,  and  die^  I  h*» re- 
in 570.  His  De  Excidio  Britannim  Liber  Qutrolus  is  dif- 
fuse and  inflated  in  style,  but  of  great  value.  See  St^'Vf  n- 
son's  edition  (1838) ;  also  Monumtnta  Historic^  Britann  tt-n, 
by  Petrie  and  Sharpe  (1848) ;  and  Council  and  Eecleaxast  ical 
Documents  Relative  to  Great  Britain  (Oxford,  1869). 

Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Gilder,  Richard  Watson  :  poet  and  editor ;  b.  at  Bordeu- 
town,  N.  J.,  Feb.  8, 1844.  From  1864  to  1870  he  was  con- 
nected with  various  journals  in  Newark  and  New  York.  In 
1870  he  was  made  associate  editor  of  Scrihner's  Mttnihlit'. 
of  which,  under  its  later  name,  The  Century  2Iagazint,  he 
has  been  chief  editor  since  1881.  His  published  poems  in- 
clude The  New  Day  (1875) ;  The  Poet  and  his  Master  { 1 87>* . : 
Ilie  Celestial  Passion  (1878);  a  collective  edition^  L,yr\rs 
and  Other  Poems  (1885) ;  Two  Worlds  (1891) ;  The  Orrot 
Remembrance  and  Other  Poems  (1893). 

Gildersleeye,  Basil  Lanneau,  LL.  D. :  classical  scholar :  b. 
in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Oct.  23, 1831 ;  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1849 ;  received  his  Ph.  D.  degree  in  GOttingen  in  1853 ;  Pn- 
fessor  of  Greek  and  Latin  at  the  University  of  VirpiniA 
from  1856  to  1876,  when  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Grv^k 
in  the  newly  founded  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Eiiitor  of 
a  Latin  Grammar,  of  Persius  (1875),  Justin  Martyr  (1ST7;. 
the  Olympian  and  Pythian  Odes  of  Pindar  (1885),  and  ai*- 
thor  of  Essays  and  Studies  (1890).  He  is  also  the  foiin.i..r 
and  editor  of  The  American  Journal  of  Philology^  estat*- 
lished  in  1880. 

Gilding  Fpres.  partic.  of  gild  <  M.  Eng.  gilden  <  O.  Kth:, 
gyldan,  gild  <  Teuton.  *auldan,  deriv.  of  ^guldom^  gt>ldj. 
the  application  of  a  thin  layer  of  gold  upon  the  surface  of 
another  substance.  There  are  various  methods  in  use  for 
effecting  this.  The  ancient  process,  that  of  applyin^^  p^ld- 
leaf,  is  still  the  best  for  many  kinds  of  work.  Gfold-leaf  i* 
made  to  arlhere  by  the  use  of  "  gold-size."  a  tempera  j»rim- 
ing  rendered  adherent  by  an  admixture  of  gtue ;  or  bv 
"  oil-size,"  a  varnish  of  linseed  oil  and  ocher,  the  last  chie<'.> 
used  for  work  that  is  exposed  to  the  weather.  For  eildi'il: 
book-covers  the  leaf  is  made  to  adhere  by  heat  ana  pn  >• 
sure  (if  the  cover  is  of  cloth),  or  by  the  use  of  alhanion  «  • 
gelatin  for  leather- work.  Gold  is  often  applied  to  melM.^ 
by  means  of  an  amalgam,  from  which  the  mercury  is  drivi  r. 


784 


GILLET 


GILMAN 


studied  in  Kurope ;  returned  in  1845,  and  was  Professor  of 
Civil  Engineering  in  Union  College  1845-68;  author  of 
Roads  and  Raihoada  (1845) ;  Philosophy  of  Mathematics, 
after  Comte  (1851);  a  treatise  on  Land-surveying  (1855); 
another  on  Leveling,  Topography,  and  the  Higher  Survey- 
ing (1870).    D.  in  New  York,  Jan.  1, 1868. 

GiPlet,  Ransom  H.  :  b.  in  New  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  27, 
1800 ;  removed  first  to  Saratoga  co.,  and  in  1819  to  St.  Law- 
rence CO.,  N.  Y. ;  studied  law  with  Silas  Wright,  and  became 
a  lawyer  of  Ogdensburg,  where  he  was  postmaster  1830-33 ; 
Democratic  member  of  Congress  1833-37 ;  an  Indian  com- 
missioner 1837-39;  register  U.  S.  Treasury  1845-47;  solici- 
tor U.  S.  Treasury  1847-49 ;  assistant  U.  S.  Attorney-Gen- 
eral 1855-58 ;  solicitor  of  the  court  of  claims  1858-61.  Au- 
thor of  a  History  of  the  Democratic  Party  (New  York,  1868) ; 
The  Federal  Government  (1871) ;  and  a  Life  of  Silas  Wright, 
D.  Oct.  24,  1876. 

Gillett  jil-let',  Ezra  Hall,  D.  D.  :  author ;  b.  in  Colches- 
ter, Conn.,  July  5,  1823 ;  graduated  in  1841  at  Yale,  and  in 
1844  at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  where,  also,  he  spent  a 
fourth  year  in  study ;  was  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  cnurch 
in  Harlem,  New  York  city,  1845-70,  and  professor  in  the 
University  of  New  York  from  1870  till  his  death  in  Harlem, 
Sept.  2, 1875.  He  was  an  indefatigable  student,  and  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  reviews.  His  principal  published 
works  were  Life  and  Times  of  John  Huss  (2  vols.,  Boston, 
1863-64 ;  2d  ed.  1864) ;  Life  Lessons  in  the  School  of  Chris- 
tian Duty  (1864) ;  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1864;  revised  ed. 
1875) ;  God  in  Human  Thought  (2  vols..  New  York,  1874) ; 
The  Moral  System  (1874). 

Ginies,  gil'leez,  John,  LL.  D.  :  historian ;  b.  at  Brechin, 
Scotland,  Jan.  18,  1747;  educated  at  Glasgow,  where  he  was 
for  some  time  (ireek  professor;  became  historiographer- 
royal  for  Scotland  in  1793.  Author  of  a  History  of  Ancient 
Greece^  vols.,  1786-1810} ;  View  of  the  Reign  of  Frederick 
IL  of  Prussia  {yim)\  History  of  the  World  from  Alexander 
to  Augustus  (2  vols.,  1807-10);  published  translations  of 
Aristotle,  Lysias,  and  Isocrates,  and  was  author  of  several 
other  works.  None  of  these  have  any  value.  D.  at  Clapham, 
London,  Feb.  15,  1836. 

GilHflower,  jil'li-flow-er  [(by  analogy  with  flower)  <  M. 
Eng.  gyllofer,  from  0.  Ft.  ailofre,  girofle,  clove-tree  (whence 
Fr.  giroflee,  gilliflower),  from  Gr.  iuifw6^\Ko¥,  clove-tree; 
Kd^wo¥,  nut  +  ^Ww,  leaf] :  a  popular  name  for  the  crucifer- 
ous plants  of  the  genus  Mafthiola,  called  also  by  the  gen- 
eral name  of  stock  or  stock-gilliflower.  They  are  herbace- 
ous or  partly  shrubby.  All  the  common  kinds  are  European. 
Matth%ola  annua  includes  the  ten-weeks  stocks ;  MattMola 
Grmca,  the  Grecian  stock;  Matthiola  incarui,  the  purple 
gilliflowers,  Brompton  stocks,  etc. ;  and  Matthiola  fenestra- 
lis,  the  large  window  stocks.  The  varieties  are  many,  and 
several  species  besides  the  above  are  recognized.  Consider- 
able skill  is  recjuired  in  growing  fine  stocks,  which  are  fav- 
orite flowers  m  cultivation,  especially  in  Great  Britain. 
Formerly,  the  carnation  was  known  as  gilliflower,  and  it  is 
now  sometimes  called  clove-gilliflower.  The  name  gilli- 
flower was  applied  to  the  carnation  (still  sometimes  called 
clove-gilli flower)  because  of  its  clove-like  odor,  and  from  the 
carnation  it  passed  to  the  stock  or  stock-gilliflower,  because 
of  some  resemblance  of  this  plant  to  the  carnation. 

Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Oilliss,  James  Melvin:  astronomer;  b.  in  Georgetown, 
D.  C,  Sept.  6,  1811;  midshipman  U.  S.  navy  1827,  captain 
1862  ;  organized  one  of  the  fli-st  astronomical  observatories 
in  the  U.  S.  at  Washington  1838 ;  organized  the  naval  ob- 
servatory at  Washington  1842-45 ;  was  put  in  charge  of  the 
national  observatory  at  Washington  1861.  Published  a  vol- 
ume of  the  American  Axfronmnical  Obserrations  (1843)  and 
a  Report  of  the  United  States  Astronomical  Expedition  of 
1849-5^  (2  vols.,  1855),  besides  many  scientific  papers  of  im- 
portance. He  also  introduced  important  improvements  in 
the  instniments  emploved^  in  astronomical  work.  D.  in 
Washington,  B'eb.  9,  1865. 

Gillmore,  Gen.  Quincy  Adams:  U.  S.  military  engineer; 
b.  at  Black  River,  Lorain  co.,  O.,  Feb.  28,  1825 ;  graduated 
at  West  Point  at  tlie  head  of  the  class  of  1849.  Early  in  the 
civil  war  he  was  promoted  to  a  captaincv  and  distinguished 
himself  by  the  successful  bombardment  of  Fort  Pulaski. 
In  June,  1863,  he  was  called  to  command  the  department  of 
the  South,  and  in  July  following  the  Tenth  Army-corps. 
It  was  while  holding  this  command  that  he  conducted  the 


famous  operations  against  Charleston,  com  prising  thi-  d'- 
scent  on  Morris  island,  the  reduction  and  capture  of  F.rt 
Wagner,  and  the  bombardment  and  practical  demolitiuu  f 
Fort  Sumter  from  batteries  2  miles  distant.  After  the  war 
he  was  assigned  to  duty  in  charge  of  fortifications  situate-l 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New  York  to  Florida,  and  wa? 
also  intrusted  with  the  improvement  of  rivers  and  harbrv 
on  the  coasts  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida-  F..r 
gallant  conduct  at  Morris  island,  Forts  Wagner  ami  Sun.- 
ter  he  was  breveted  brigadier-general  and  major-generul 
Among  his  published  works  are  the  Siege  and  Reduehon 
of  Fort  Pulaski ;  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Limes,  Hydrtmi^r 
Cements,  and  Mortars ;  Engineer  and  Artillery  Operadnr^ 
against  the  Defenses  of  Charleston  in  1863 ;  Report  on  B^t.n 
Agglomeri,  or  Coigmt-Biton :  practical  treatise  on  Roadu, 
Streets,  and  Pavements,  etc.  D.  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y^  Apr.  7. 
1888. 

Gill-nets :  See  Fisheries. 

Gillott  giri«t,  Joseph:  manufacturer;  b.  in  Warwick- 
shire, England,  Oct.  11,  1799;  became  a  knife-grinder  il 
Sheffield,  and  began  in  early  life  the  manufacture  oi  »1m-1- 
pens  at  Birmingham  in  a  very  small  way.  But  his  impn.v^ 
ments  in  steel-pens  gradually  increaserl  their  popularitv 
and  his  establishment  became  by  far  the  largest  in  til- 
world  in  that  line  of  manufacture.  His  acquired  wt-alrb 
was  great,  and  he  made  a  famous  collection  of  paint  in  "- 
D.  in  Birmingham,  Jan.  6, 1872.  ^ 

Gill-oyer-the-gronnd,  jil'-.  or  Ground-iTj:  a  stn.njr 

smelling,  trailing  plant  {Nepeta  glechoma)  belonging  to  ih»- 
Labiatm;  a  native  of  Europe,  but  naturalized  in  the  U,  S, 
At  one  time  it  was  used  in  medicine,  chiefly  as  a  dome>t:j 
remedy  for  colds,  coughs,  etc. 

Gillray',  James  :  caricaturist ;  b.  at  Chelsea,  England,  ir 
1757 ;  the  son  of  a  Chelsea  pensioner ;  was  a  goldsmith's  aj.- 
prentice;  ran  away  with  a  company  of  strolling  act<'r>; 
studied  art  at  the  Royal  Academy- ;  b^ame  a  good  engra\f  r. 
and  was  distinguished  as  an  unnvaled  political  caricature! 
in  which  line  he  produced  some  1,200  copper-plate  h«  h- 
ings.  His  political  and  social  caricatures  appeared  aim  "-• 
continuously  from  about  1782  to  1811.  ffis  intenij^erarr^ 
habits  brought  on  insanity,  and  he  died  of  delirium  treniei,- 
in  London,  June  1, 1815.  The  political  caricatures,  wh:c  h 
circulated  not  only  throughout  Great  Britain,  but  also  <>\.  r 
the  Continent,  and  exercised  a  powerful  influence,  fonn  a 
most  instructive  series  of  illustrations  to  the  latter  part  ■' 
the  reign  of  George  III.  See  his  Life  and  Times  bv  T 
Wright  (London,  1851 ;  new  ed.  1873).  '     ' 

GillB  [plur.  of  flr»K<M.  Eng.  gylle,  from  Dan.  gjtrlh. 
gill ;  in  Lat.  branchice] :  the  organs  of  respiration  in  wai.r- 
breathing  animals.  In  genei:al  a  gill  may  be  defined  a>  ai. 
expansion  of  the  animal  body,  jjermeated  by  blood-ve>>'-  !- 
and  with  thin  walls  through  which  an  exchange  of  oxxi:- : 
and  carbonic  dioxide  can  take  place  between  the  water  a:,  i 
the  blood.  As  gills  are  thus  physiological  rather  than  nj..r- 
phological  differentiations,  general  statements  com^emii.^' 
them  can  only  be  made  with  diflBculty.  In  the  inverti'braTr^ 
they  may  occur  on  any  part  of  the  body,  but  in  the  vf-n?- 
brates  they  are  invariaoly  developed  in  connection  witi. 
openings  or  gill-slits  u|)on  the  sides  of  the  neck.  For  tht 
various  modifications,  see  Comparative  Anatomy, 

J.  S.  KlXOSLEY. 


Gilman:  city;  Iroquois  co..  111.  (for  location  of  couiiu. 
see  map  of  Illinois,  ret  4-G) ;  on  the  Illinois  Central  Rail- 
road and  the  Tol.,  Peo.  and  West.  Railwav  ;  81  miles  S.  ^v 
W.  of  Chicago,  and  208  miles  N.  E.  of  St,  Louis.  It  is  in  t  fn 
center  of  the  principal  corn  region  of  the  State,  and  has  lar^- 
stock-raising  and  fruit-growing  interests.  It  has  an  ojt-rl- 
house,  public  library,  extensive  nursery,  tile-works,  linse*-i- 
oil  mill,  a  bank,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Art€sian-«t-:i 
water  is  obtained  at  depths  of  from  90  to  200  feet.  Pop.  ( 1  isn  ' 
1,299 ;  (1890)  1,112 ;  (1893)  1,200.  Editor  op  "  Star." 

Gilman,  Arthur  :  educator ;  b.  at  Alton,  111.,  June  ^-J. 
1837 ;  educated  in  New  York,  and  in  1857  engaged  ki  busi- 
ness there  as  a  banker,  but  removed  in  1862  to  Len.  \. 
Mass.,  where  he  engaged  in  literary  pursuits  and  in  laU-- 
in  belialf  of  education  and  religious  instruction.  In  1S71 
he  became  editorially  connected  with  the  publication^  .  f 
the  American  Tract  Society,  Boston,  and  in  1876  be  to-.k 
charge  of  the  Harvard  Annex.  Author  of  First  St etut  •• 
English  Literature  (1870)  and  History  of  the  Amerif 
People  (1883),  and  editor  of  the  Story  of  the  Nations  S^n- 
and  of  an  edition  of  Chaucer.  H.  A.  K. 


If  • 


786 


GILPIN 


GINCKELL 


Gilpin,  Bernard  :  "  Apostle  of  the  North  "  of  England ; 
b.  at  Kentmere,  Westmoreland,  in  1517 ;  a  nephew  of  Tun- 
stall  and  patronized  by  Wolsey ;  educated  at  Queen's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  he  was  induced  to  accept  the  principles  of  the 
Reformation  by  discussions  with  Hooper  and  Peter  Martyr ; 
was  protected  during  Mary's  reign  by  Tunstall,  and  aftep- 
wara  became  rector  of  Houghton-le-Spriug,  Archdeacon  of 
Durham,  and  itinerant  preacher  in  the  Debatable  Land. 
While  he  completely  succeeded  in  gaining  the  hearts  of  his 
rough  parishioners  by  his  bold  sermons,  he  was  twice  in- 
dicted for  his  attack  on  the  vices  of  the  clergy — first  before 
the  Bishop  of  Durham  and  afterward  before  the  Bishop  of 
London.  D.  at  Houghton,  Mar.  4, 1583.  His  Life  (Lonaon, 
1628)  by  Bishop  Carleton,  a  pupil  of  his,  is  found  in  Bates's 
VitcB  aelectorum  aliquot  Virorum  (London,  1681),  and  a  trans- 
lation of  it  in  Wordsworth's  Ecclesiastical  Biography,  vol. 
iii.    See  also  Life  by  W.  Gilpin  (1753). 

Gilpin,  Henry  Dilwood  :  lawyer ;  son  of  Joshua  Gilpin, 
a  resident  of  Philadelphia  and  author  of  two  volumes  of 
verse ;  b.  in  Lancaster,  England,  Apr.  14,  1801 ;  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  in  1819  studied  law, 
and  began  practice  in  Philadelphia  in  1822 ;  became  U.  S. 
attorney  for  Pennsylvania  in  1882 ;  solicitor  of  U.  S.  Treas- 
ury in  1837,  and  was  U.  S.  Attorney-General  1840-41 ;  edited 
Atlantic  Souvenir  (7  vols.,  1826-32) ;  was  president  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Pine  Arts ;  published  Reports  of 
Cases  in  the  United  States  District  Court  for  the  iJastem 
District  of  Pennsylvania  1828-36  (Philadelphia,  1837); 
Opinions  of  the  Attorney- Generals  of  the  Unitea  States  from 
the  beginning  of  the  Oovemment  to  I84I  (2  vols.,  Washing- 
ton, 1841) ;  edited  The  Papers  of  James  Madison  (3  vols., 
1840).    D.  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  29, 1860. 

Gil  Polo,  Gaspar  :  See  Polo,  Gaspar  Gil. 

Gilroy' :  city  (incorporated  1880) ;  Santa  Clara  co.,  Cal. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  8-C) ;  on 
the  S.  Pacific  Company's  railway  system  ;  30  miles  S.  E.  of 
San  Jose,  the  county-seat,  80  miles  S.  of  San  Francisco. 
General  agriculture,  dairying,  fruit-growing,  and  stock- 
raising  are  carried  on  extensively,  and  tobacco  is  being  cul- 
tivated largely  and  cured  locally  by  a  patent  process  which 
makes  it  compare  favorably  with  the  best  Havana.  The  city 
has  a  good  water-supply,  and  contains  a  flour-mill,  tobac- 
co and  cigar  factory,  creamery,  winery  and  distillery,  a  bank, 
and  two  newspapers.  It  ships  an  average  of  1,000,000  lb.  of 
cheese  annually.  Pop.  (1880)  1,621 ;  (1890)  1,694 ;  (1893)  city, 
estimated,  1,800 ;  township,  3,500.    Editor  op  "  Gazette." 

Gilsonite :  an  asphaltic  mineral  that  occurs  in  veins  in 
the  Uintah  Mountains  in  Eastern  Utah.  It  has  also  been 
called  Uintahite.  It  is  more  easily  fusible  than  grahamite 
or  Albertite  (q.  v.).  But  little  is  known  of  the  extent  of 
the  deposits,  and  it  has  scarcely  yet  a&sumed  commercial  im- 
portance. It  is  considered  to  be  a  true  asphalt,  and  in  many 
respects  resembles  the  bitumen  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  a  lus- 
trous, black  friable  solid  with  a  specific  gravity  of  1*065  to 
1*070.  It  is  a  non-conducter  of  heat  and  electricity  to  a  re- 
markable degree.  It  fuses  very  much  like  sealing-wax,  tak- 
ing sharp  impressions,  and  is  decomposed  at  a  temperature 
above  400"  P.  It  is  completely  soluble  in  the  heavy  distil- 
lates of  Pennsylvania  petroleum,  in  carbon  disulphide,  and 
chloroform,  but  not  in  the  lighter  paraffines.  Ninty-ftve  per 
cent,  is  soluble  in  benzole,  86*5  per  cent,  is  soluble  in  ethylic 
ether,  and  9*5  per  cent,  in  absolute  alcohol.    See  Bitumen. 

S.  F.  Peckham. 

Gilthead  :  an  excellent  food-fish  (Sparus  aurafa)  of  the 
European  and  African  coasts,  allied  to  the  American  scup. 


The  gilthead. 

The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  Crenilabrus  melops.    See 
Connor. 


Gil  Vicente,  ^heel'vee-sen't^:  best  of  Portiig:u66e  dmiu- 
atists,  called  "the  Portuguese  Plautus*';  b.  probably  in  Lis- 
bon in  1485 ;  became  an  actor,  and  was  patronized  by  ,1.  :  r. 
III.  Author  of  forty-two  pieces  written  in  several  U.  • 
guages,  consisting  of  comedies,  tragedies,  farces,  and  (.'hri-:- 
mas  pieces.  He  was  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  xnoderD  drsinia- 
A  good  edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  at  Hamburg 
in  1834.    Died  about  1537,  probably  at  Evora. 

Gimbals,  gimbalz  [plur.  of  gimbal  <  M.  Eng.  gemeL  f  n  -^ 
0.  Pr.*^ewM}/,  flrewwflmjtwin.  Mod.  Fr  Jumeau  <Lal.ffem^l  /•, .. 
twin,  dimin.  of  ge'minus,  twin] :  pairs  of  brass  or  copper  riu  j- 
in  which  are  mounted  a  ship  s  compasses,  chronometers,  \r 
barometers.  One  of  the  rings  turns  on  a  horizontal  a\w; 
the  second  ring,  within  the  first,  turns  upon  an  axis  at  hirht 
angles  with  that  of  the  first.  The  object  is  to  keep  tl  • 
instrument  right  side  up  in  spite  of  the  pitching  and  mUu  ^ 
of  the  ship.  To  this  end  the  instrument  is  weighted  hear:^ ". 
The  object  is  attained  in  a  very  satisfactory,  thouj^h  by  rio 
means  perfect,  manner. 

Gin,  or  GeneTa  [gin  is  abbrev.  of  genever.  older  form  "* 
geneva,  or  Geneva  (by  analogy  with  place-name  Genc^-^r  . 
frona  Dut<;h  jenever,  from  0.  Fr.  genevre,  juniper  <  L^- 
juni' perns,  whence  Eng,  juniper^:  an  alcoholic  spirit  «::>- 
tilled  from  grain  and  flavored  with  the  volatile  oil  of  jm..- 
per.  A  principal  seat  of  its  manufacture  is  Schiedam  .r- 
the  Netherlands,  which  has  some  220  gin-diptilleric-s.,  aL . 
hence  the  liquor  sometimes  bears  the  names  of  Hollands  a'  : 
Schiedam  schnapps.  One  part  by  measure  of  harlev-n.  * 
and  two  parts  of  the  best  rye  are  usually  mashed  to'trt-th^r 
for  gin,  but  buckwheat  and  other  grains  have  a  limit^rti  iw. 
The  mashing  (at  165*'  F.)  lasts  until  the  grains  are  brou^h*  \  . 
a  smooth  paste,  when,  after  resting  the  proce^  two  hour-. 
the  whole  mash  is  cooled  to  80"  by  adding  the  spent  w.-f. 
of  a  former  distillation  till  the  worts  show  33  by  Die ;.  ^  > 
hydrometer.  Yeast  is  added,  and  the  grains  and  wort>  f'  r- 
ment  for  two  or  three  days.  Grains  and  all  (whole  v^t.rii 
are  then  put  into  the  still,  and  the  low  wines  are  taken  ..if 
which  are  very  weak.  These  are  then  redistilled  with  nif  i.t 
a  pound  of  juniper-berries  to  every  60  gal.  of  low  wim-  :  n 
little  salt  and  a  pugil  of  hops  may  be  added.  The  resul:  'j  ^ 
liquor  is  gin.  It  commonly  stands  about  17°  below  i.n  .  T. 
and  before  it  reaches  the  consumer  its  proof  is  still  furti  r 
lowered.  Ordinary  gin  is  made  by  rectifving  com-whi-*^ 
with  a  little  oil  of  juniper  or  oil  o'f  turpe'ntine,  while  *^t.r.- 
ander,  grains  of  paradise,  orange-peel,  ete.,  still  further  \v\- 
prove  or  modify  the  flavor.  Gin  is  also  made  in  fin..: 
Britain  from  a  mash  of  malt,  rye,  and  potatoes,  and  rti'i- 
fied  with  oil  of  turpentine.  The  oil  of  juniper  or  of  tur:  ^  n- 
tine  present  gives  gin  a  diuretic  quality  which  causes  it  t.. 
have  a  great  popular  reputation  for  the  cure  of  disea>t-  • ! 
the  kidneys.  It  has  also  a  limited  use  in  regtilar  pracf  > 
but  is  not  officinal  in  the  U.  S.  or  Great  Britain.  Gin  •-  & 
very  popular  stimulant  in  England.  There  is  no  cjue>t:  :: 
but  that  the  abuse  of  gin  in  supposed  kidney  disease  is  a  f  n.r- 
ful  cause  of  diseases  of  the  kind  it  is  intended  to  cure ;  aji  1 
the  so-called  cirrhosis  of  the  liver  (gin-drinker's  liver)',  a- 
the  consequent  ascites  or  dropsy  of  the  abdomen,  are  oti 
produced  by  it. 

Ginckell, gin'kel, or Ginkel, Godart, van :  Dutch  solii  r 
in  the  service  of  William  III.  of  England ;  b.  in  GuehlerUr  • 
about  1630.    In  the  revolution  of  1688  he  showed  couni-- 
and  address  in  dealing  with  the  Jacobite  enemies  of  t" 
Prince  of  Orange,  and  when  the  latter  became  kin^  Gin*  k'i 
proved  himself  the  ablest  of  his  lieutenants  in  Ireland,  ^  h.  r- 
he  fought  a  number  of  successful  battles  against  the  f ortt<  ' ' 
James  11.    He  took  Ballymore  early  in  June,  1691^  s^ton:   .* 
Athlone  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same  month,  and   in  J :  1 . 
attacked  Aghrim,  held  at  that  time  by  Saint-Ruth,  one  of  ' . . 
bravest  generals  in  the  service  of  James.     For  a  tinu  • 
besieged  held  their  own  and  Ginckell  was  twice    rvyni  -.  i 
with  loss,  but  the  death  of  Saint-R^th  demoralizecl   th«-  ,i.- 
fenders,  and  the  British  by  a  vigorous  attack  carrier i  r'  • 
town,  and,  avenging  their  previous  losses  by  a  men  ii.  ^> 
slaughter,  drove  out  the  enemy  in  confusion. '  This  a«U  % 
tage  was  promptly  followed  up  by  GinckeU,  who   re^itj-^ 
Galway  and  besieged  Limerick,  the  last  hope  of  the  jlv-  - 
bites.    This  city  capitulated  in  Octol)er,  and  Ginckell 
afterward  returned  to  England.     Justly  regarded    a< 
conqueror  of  Ireland,  he  received  the  fonniJ  thanks  of  • 
House  of  Commons,  and  was  reward^  by  the  king-  wii  h  ' 
titles  of  Earl  of  Athlone  and  Baron  of  Aghrim.     In  th*-  v 
of  the  Spanish  Succession  he  commanded  the  Dutch  uxv 
Marlborough  as  commander-in-chie^  but  died  at    Vin-* 


^>  • 


788 


GIOJA  DEL  COLLE 


GIOVANNI  DA  PISA 


strongly  favored  the  establishment  of  the  Cisalpine  republic. 
During  the  period  of  French  ascendency  he  held  several  official 
positions,  but  with  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  he  retired  from 
public  life,  supporting  himself  by  his  writings  till  his  death 
at  Milan  in  1829.  He  placed  a  high  value  on  the  statistical 
method  of  study,  and  nis  works  prove  him  to  have  been  a 
man  of  remarkable  learning  and  industry.  Among  them 
are  a  New  View  of  the  Economic  Sciences  {Nuovo  Prospetto 
delle  Scienze  economiche^  6vols.,  Milan,  1815-19);  a  Treatise 
on  Merita  and  Rewards  (Del  Merito  e  delle  Recompense, 
Milan,  1818-19);  and  The  Philosophy  of  Statistics  {Filoso- 
fia  delta  Statistica,  Milan,  1826).  F.  M.  Colby. 

OioJa  del  Colle,  jo'yiik-del-kol'la  fltal.,  jewel  of  the  hill] : 
a  handsome  and  wealthy  commercial  town  of  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Bari,  alx>ut  halfway  between  Bari  and  Taranto 
(see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  6-G).  It  is  believed  to  have  been 
founded  in  the  sixth  centurv,  and  in  its  neighborhood,  espe- 
cially at  Monte  Sannace  and  Santa  Sophia,  ancient  vases  of 
freat  value,  as  well  as  Gneco-Roman  coins,  have  been  found, 
•op.  16,573. 

Giordani,  j5r-daa'nee,  Pietro:  prose-writer;  b.  at  Pia- 
cenza,  Italy,  Jan.  1,  1774.  He  left  the  Benedictines — an 
order  he  had  joined  in  early  youth  to  please  his  parents — 
and  accepted  at  first  civil  employment,  and  afterward  a 
literary  professorship  at  Bologna.  Cardinal  Gonsalvi  de- 
prived'him  of  his  office  as  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  on  account  of  his  liberal  opinions,  and  he  afterward 
suffered  bitter  persecution  in  Florence,  in  Piacenza,  and 
in  Parma,  where  he  died,  and  where,  in  spite  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Austrians,  his  obsequies  were  magnificently  cele- 
brated. Giordani  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  Italian  epig- 
raphy, and  as  the  best  prose-writer  of  his  day,  although  he 
wrote  no  extensive  work,  but  confined  himself  rather  to  in- 
scri^)tions,  eulogies,  critical  articles,  etc.  Gussali,  in  his 
edition  of  Gionlani's  most  valuable  UpistolariOfhas  prefixed 
to  the  first  volume  a  full  life  of  the  author.  It  will  be  a 
lasting  honor  to  Giordani  that  he  was  the  first  to  discover 
and  encourage  the  wonderful  genius  of  Giacomo  Leopardi. 
D.  at  Parma,  Sept.  1,  1848.  His  individual  collected  writ- 
ings ap[>eared  under  the  title  Opere  (3  vols.,  Florence,  1851) ; 
a  complete  edition  of  his  works  in  fourteen  volumes  was 
published  at  Milan  (1854-58).  See  Roraani,  Delia  vita  e 
delle  opere  di  Pietro  Giordani  (Mantua,  1868). 

Giordano,  je)r-daa'nd,  Luca  :  artist ;  nicknamed  Fa- 
Presto  (make  haste)  on  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which 
he  worked ;  b.  at  Naples  about  1632 ;  studied  under  Ribera 
and  subsequently  under  Pietro  da  Cortona  at  Rome ;  became 
a  famous  painter,  distinguished  for  the  variety  of  his  styles 
and  the  surprising  amount  of  his  work,  which  brought  him 
wealth  and  fame.  His  works  are  very  numerous,  and  of 
unequal  merit.  They  include  frescoes  (in  the  Escorial  at 
Madrid  and  elsewhere)  and  easel  pictures,  of  which  may  be 
named  Danid  with  the  Head  of  Goliath  and  the  Rape  of 
the  Sabines,  at  Dresden ;  the  Slaughter  of  the  Innocents^  at 
Munich;  and  Venus  ajid  Mars  with  the  Graces^  in  the 
Louvre.    D.  at  Naples,  Jan.  12,  1705. 

Giorgione,  jor-jo'na  [Ital.,  liter.,  big  George,  deriv.  of 
Giorgio,  George],  proj)erlv  Gioegio  di  Barbarelli  :  painter ; 
b.  in  the  town  of  Castelfranco,  near  Treviso,  Italy,  about 
1477.  He  was  a  fellow  student  with  Titian  in  the  studio  of 
Bellini,  and  has  long  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  having  devel- 
oped the  art  of  his  companion  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  re- 
garded as  his  master  even  more  than  Bellini.  This  is  prob- 
ably one  of  the  traditions  of  his  day,  originated  by  his  having 
made  the  designs  for  the  outdoor  frescoes  which  engaged  the 
talent  of  both  at  an  early  period  in  their  lives ;  but  as  these 
works  have,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  and  faded  frag- 
ment on  the  Fondaoo  dei  Tedeschi,  entirely  perished,  there 
is  nothing  to  determine  the  truth  of  the  conjecture.  The 
authentic  works  of  Giorgione  are  so  few  that  there  has  been 
dilliculty  in  establishing  their  authentic  character ;  but  most 
of  the  j)i(^tures  at  first  attributed  to  him  have  been  assigned 
to  other  painters.  The  onlv  one  of  which  there  can  be  no 
question  is  the  Enthroned  Madonna  with  SS.  Francis  and 
Liberate,  at  his  native  town ;  but  according  to  C.  F.  Murray, 
who  is,  in  identification  of  the  works  of  the  Italian  schools, 
the  highest  authority  now  (1894)  living,  there  are  eight 
others  which  must  be  accepted,  and  by  wliose  character  all 
others  must  be  judged.  Of  these,  four  are  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  viz.,  an  Adoration,  Enthroned  King  and 
Attendants^  a  Nativ^ity,  and  the  study  for  one  of  the  saints 
in  the  Castelfranco  picture.  The  others  are  Ayi  Astrologer, 
at  Vienna,  Figures  in  a  Landscape,  belonging  to  Signor 


Giovanelli,  a  Nativity,  belonging  to  Mr.  Benson,  of  Londia 
and  a  duplicate  of  this  last,  belonging  to  Mr.  Beaum .l*. 
In  addition,  the  Concert^  in  the  Uffizi,  is  regarded  by  all  th> 
best  authorities  as  most  probably  g:enuine.  Nothinj^r  i^ 
known  positively  of  the  lire  of  Giorgione  except  tlie  i>!i  » 
of  his  birth;  that  he  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  one  of  rl.K 
members  of  the  important  family  Barbarelli  by  a  fM^ns.  ^ 
girl;  and  that  he  died  of  plague  at  Venice  in  1511.  it- 
myth  of  his  dying  from  ^ef  at  the  loss  of  his  mistress,  w  .< 
deserted  him  for  his  pupil  Luzzi,  need  not  be  taken  as  hi^ 
tory.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Glottino,  jot-tee'no,  properly  Tommaso  di  Stefan^- : 
painter;  b.  in  Florence  in  1324.  He  imitated  the  mani.-r 
of  Giotto  successfully,  and  was  therefore  called  Ginttir.*. 
The  most  note  worth  v  of  his  paintings  is  that  of  Walter  "f 
Brienne,  Duke  of  Athens,  whom  the  Florentines  expelle*i  ir- 
1343 ;  this  picture  was  ordered  by  the  chiefs  of  the  in>ij-- 
rection  to  commemorate  the  event.  He  introduced  11..1!.} 
portraits  in  this  composition.  He  also  painted  in  A>'«i-l 
where  his  work  seems  inspired  by  the  same  spirit  as  that  •  f 
his  ancestors.    D.  in  1356.  W.  J.  >. 

Giotto,  jot'to  (called  also  Angioletto  di  Bondoxe,  fr  n: 
his  father,  or  di  Vespionano,  from  his  birthplace,  wl  > 
was  14  miles  from  Florence):  Italian  painter;  b.  in  Vzi'*\ 
Of  the  actual  details  of  the  Ufe  of  Giotto  little  is  known. ;  / 
fortunately  of  his  works  many  are  preserved  and  so  auth* .  - 
ticated  that  one  has  a  clear  idea  of  the  powers  of  pn>l<.'  ;. 
the  greatest  genius  that  was  ever  devoted  to  the  arts,     rn. 
story  of  his  having  been  found  by  Cimabue  drawing  sh«-»  f 
on  a  flat  stone  has  probably  no  foundation  whatever.    A 
commentator  of  Dante,  who  was  nearly  contemporary-,  s.nw 
that  the  boy  was  sent  to  a  wool-worker  to  learn  bU  tra.  r, 
but  that,  having  to  pass  by  the  shop  of  Cimabue,  be  u>*il  :• 
stop  and  watch  the  painters  at  work,  and  that  the  father  uf 
the  boy,  learning  that  he  played  truant  a  great  deal,  wa.«  i:^- 
duced  to  watch  him,  and  nnding  how  he  passed  his  time  l>*  n- 
sented,  on  the  advice  of  Cimabue,  to  his  adopting  the  [»n  f-- 
sion  of  art  instead  of  wool-working.    He  is  much  more  t  n- 
titled  to  the  title  of  the  restorer  of  painting  than  his  ma.>*  - 
Cimabue,  for  what  he  introduced  was  the  renovation  of  \\y 
vital  element  in  art,  extinct  with  the  Byzantines  for  c-.u- 
turies.    Cimabue  only  brightened  up  religious  art,  mail'-  it 
more  attractive  to  the  eye  for  color,  and  gave  it  an  ek  ii.«m 
of  decoration  more  vivid  than  that  which  had  prevailt-fi  t-e- 
fore  him,  but  Giotto  made  it  the  vehicle  of  the  most  i-wrr. 
ful  dramatic  story-telling  that  painting  has  ever  known :  it 
destroyed  the  formal  rules  which  had  up  to  his  time  bi-i.n  i 
the  painter,  and  though  his  methods  were  the  same  a^  t}.>  ^^ 
of  Cimabue,  and  to  a  certain  extent  of  Duccio,  he  threw  a-  i.t 
the  canons  of  treatment  of  the  subject  which  had  hith':'^ 
compelled  the  artist  to  follow  certain  prescriptions  a.*i  t*-  ♦  - 
treatment  of  any  story  in  Scripture.  Cimabue  only  enli  vri.  -.. 
the  Byzantine  conception,  Giotto  set  it  aside.   THe  work>  \  • 
which*  he  can  be  best  judged  are  the  frescoes  in  the  chur  r.-- 
at  Assisi,  and  especially  those  in  the  lower  church  when  I- 
displayed  his  greatest  abilities,  probably  owing  to  lii>  y- 
tensely  religious  feeling  which  made  him  more  com  pi .  :■  v 
sympathetic  with  St.  Francis  than  any  other  painter  ha>  t  .• : 
been.    After  the  work  at  Assisi,  that  at  the  Arena  chajK-l .»'. 
Padua  must  be  taken  as  most  fully  indicative  of  his  iinii:  - 
native  powers.    That  at  Santa  Croce  in  Florence  is  n-r 
injured  by  the  whitewasher  and  the  restorer,  jjerhaj**-.  \  : 
is  still  a  splendid  example  of  his  powers,  fine  in  eomi»«r.i: 
and  in  imaginative  treatment.  Invited  to  Rome  by  tne  \-\k 
he  executed  many  works  there,  and  at  Boniface's' •it-nth  re- 
turned to  Florence,  afterward  accompanving  ClennMit  V. : 
Avignon,  returning  in  1306.   He  was  architect,  seulj>t«»r.  y 
painter,  and  designed  the  campanile  of  the  Duomo  in  Y   r- 
ence,  directing  the  work  on  the  lower  story,  and  extvir  •  j 
the  medallions  which  ornament  it.    The  tradition  that    - 
was  condemned  for  having  made  a  mistake  in  the  onn-tr  .  - 
tion  of  the  campanile,  making  its  foundations  too  >!-:.•  \ 
was  probably  only  posthumous  envy,  for  the    foun<l.t*i  '' 
have  never  failed,  and  the  tower  was  only  up  to  tlie  *  - 
story  when  he  died,  in  1336,  of  fever  contracted  at  Mil.n  . 

W,  J.  Sttllman 

Giovanni  Bologna:  See  Bolooka. 

Giovanni  da  Pisa,  jd-vaa'nee-daa-pee'saa,  called  al5    <^ 
PisANo :  sculptor  and  arc<hitect;  b.  in  Pisa,  Italy,  in  lJ4t' 
the  son  and  pupil  of  Nicolti  da  Pisa,    He  construct m1  t- 
famous  Campo  Santo  at  the  order  of  Archbishop  Vi>»-..'; 
called  to  Nanles  by  Charles  I.  of  Anjou,  he  erected  the  C,-- 
Nuovo  and  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova ;  in  Su-na  * 


?90 


GIRARDEAU 


GIRDER 


Girardeau,  John  L.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  a  minister  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  (South) ;  b,  on  James  island,  S.  C, 
Nov.  14,  1825 ;  graduated  from  the  College  of  Charleston 
(1844),  and  from  the  Columbia  Theological  Seminary  (1848); 
preached  as  licentiate  in  Wappetaw  church ;  pastor  of  Wil- 
ton church  1850-53;  labored  among  the  colored  people  of 
Charleston  1853-62  ;  chaplain  of  Twenty-third  South  Caro- 
lina Volunteers  1862  to  close  of  the  war;  preached  in  Charles- 
ton, mainly  to  a  white  congregation.  1865-76:  from  1876 
Professor  of  Systematic  Theology  in  the  Columbia  Theolog- 
ical Seminary.  He  has  published  the  following  works :  A 
Catechism  for  the  Oral  Instruction  of  the  Colored  People 
(1860) ;  Instrumental  Music  in  Public  Worship  (1888) ;  Cal- 
vinism and  Evangelical  Arminianism  Compared  (1890); 
The  Will  in  its  Theological  Relations  (Columbia,  S.  C, 
1891).  Willis  J.  Beech eb, 

Girardet,  -ehee'rakr'da',  Jean:  painter;  b.  at  Lun6ville, 
Prance,  in  1709.  After  learning  the  beginnings  of  his  art  in 
his  native  place  he  spent  eight  years  in  Italy.  Afterward  in 
the  suite  of  Francis  III.  he  went  to  Florence  and  painted  in 
fresco  in  the  gallery  there.  He  became  court-painter  to 
Stanislas  after  a  visit  to  France,  and  in  1762  painted  a 
room  in  the  palace  of  Stutte^art  in  fresco.  He  left  many 
works  in  oil  and  in  fresco  in  Metz,  Commercy,  Verdun,  Lun6- 
ville,  Nancy.    D.  at  Nancy  in  1778. 

Girardin,  zhee'rt&r'dAn',  £mile,  de :  journalist  and  poli- 
tician ;  b,  in  Paris,  France,  June  22, 1806 ;  natural  son  of  the 
Count  de  Girardin ;  bore  the  name  of  Delamothe  until  1827 ; 
in  1847  was  acknowledged  by  his  father ;  entered  upon  jour- 
nalism in  1828  as  conductor  of  Le  Voleur,  a  periodical  com- 
piled from  other  journals,  and  La  Mode,  a  fashion-paper. 
His  Journal  des  Conimissances  utiles  (1831)  and  Journal  des 
Instituteurs  won  great  success  from  their  exceeding  cheap- 
ness. He  also  was  very  influential  in  establishing  sayings- 
banks  and  in  issuing  cheap  and  good  literature  and  maps  for 
the  people.  He  was  concerned  also  in  Le  MusSe  des  Families, 
Le  Jounuil  des  Gardes  Nationales,  and  Le  Gastronome,  a 
highly  successful  journal  treating  of  food  and  cookery.    His 

freat  distinction,  however,  was  gained  as  conductor  of  the 
^resse,  a  cheap  daily,  which  he  edited  most  of  the  time  from 
1836  to  1856.  This  journal  made  him  one  of  the  great  polit- 
ical powers  of  France.  In  1848  he  persuaded  Louis  Philippe 
to  abdicate.  Under  Napoleon  III.  he  was  a  vigorous  mem- 
ber of  the  opposition,  but  in  1870  he  was  made  a  senator,  al- 
though the  decree  to  that  effect  was  never  published.  He 
was  (1866-70)  editor  and  owner  of  La  Liberty,  and  in  1872 
became  connected  with  the  Journal  Officiel.  Among  his  works 
are  many  political  brochures;  Questions  de  mon  temps  {12 
vols.,  1858,  compiled  from  his  political  editorials) ;  Uhomme 
et  la  femme  (1872);  and  Du  droit  depunir  (1871).  De  Gi- 
rardin was  never  constant  to  any  political  principle  except 
hostility  to  Great  Britain  and  friendship  for  Russia.  D.  m 
Paris,  Apr.  27,  1881.— His  first  wife,  Delphine  (b.  Jan.  26, 
1805;  d.  June  29,  1855),  was  a  daughter  of  the  novelist 
Sophie  Gay  (1776-1852);  married  M.  de  Girardin  in  1831; 
was  a  very  talented  poet,  and  author  of  many  clever  novels 
and  higlily  successful  plays,  besides  political  essays  and  ef- 
fective literary  criticisms.  Her  Letires  pari siermes,  pub- 
lished in  the  Presae  under  the  pen-name  of  Vicomte  de  Lau- 
nay,  produced  a  deep  impression.  Her  salon  was  one  of  the 
social  and  political  centers  of  Paris.  Her  beauty,  cleverness, 
and  charming  manners  contributed  much  to  Ker  husband's 
success. 

Girardin,  Francois  Auguste  Saint- Marc;  generally 
called  Marc  Girardin:  journalist  and  professor;  b.  in  Paris, 
France,  Feb.  12,  1801.  He  at  first  studied  law ;  wrote  in 
1827  an  article  in  the  Journal  des  Debats  which  made  a  great 
sensation,  and  after  that  time  participated  in  politics,  both 
as  a  journalist  and  as  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
He  was  not  a  politician,  however.  Very  early  he  turned 
from  the  study  of  law  to  that  of  literature  and  philosophy. 
In  1822  he  received  a  prize  from  the  Academy  for  a  paper  on 
Lesage,  in  1827  another  for  a  paper  on  Bossuet,  and  m  1828  a 
third  for  his  Tableau  de  la  litterature  frafiQaise  au  seizieme 
.Hi^cle;  in  1844  he  became  an  academician.  In  1831  he 
succeeded  Guizot  as  Professor  in  Historv  at  the  Sorbonne, 
w  hich  chair  he  changed  in  1834  for  that  of  French  Literature 
and  Poetry;  and  for  more  than  thirty  years  he  delivered  his 
lectures,  often  to  an  audience  of  3,000  or  4,000  people.  He 
also  took  a  great  interest  in  all  questions  concerning  educa- 
tion, traveled  through  Germanv  to  make  himself  acquainted 
with  its  schools,  and  filled  at  different  times  different  posi- 
tions in  the  Ministr}'  of  Public  Instruction.    His  acquire- 


ments were  enormous.  He  was  thoroughly  familiar  with  all 
the  prominent  languages  and  literatures;  in  philosophy  is- 
was  one  of  the  first,  and  one  of  the  very  few  Frenchmen  «  h-- 
ever  understood  Hegel ;  in  history  nothing  was  foreign,  ir. 
science  nothing  was  strange  to  him.  His  talent,  ^rt^at  l-v 
nature  and  perfect  by  training,  was  that  of  comparative  cnT- 
icism.  His  princijMd  work  is  Cours  de  litterature  drantn- 
tique  (1848;  11th  ed.  1875-77).  In  1869  he  retired  from  fu^ 
chair  at  the  Sorbonne,  but  continued  as  editor  of  the  Jour- 
nal des  Sat^nts,  and  in  1871  was  elected  a  member  of  tUr 
National  Assembly.  D.  in  Paris,  Apr.  11,  1873.  See  Taini- 
sier,  SaifU-Marc  Chira/rdin,  Etude  littSraire  (1876). 

Girardin,  Jean  Piebbe  Louis:  chemist;  b.  in  PariN 
France,  Nov.  16,  1803;  Professor  of  Chemistry  at  Rou^ti 
1838-58,  and  since  then  in  other  French  towns.  Author  of 
numerous  handbooks  of  science  for  popular  use,  lieside*  Z^- 
ffons  de  chimie  6lementaire  {ISSS} ;  Melanges  d'agriculiurf. 
etc,  et  de  sciences  physiques  appliquies  (1853):  Ghimit  g^- 
mrale  et  appliquie  (4  vols.,  1868,  1889);  and  other  works*.* 

Girasole,  jir'a-s51  [=  Ital.,  sun-flower,  fire-opal,  liter.,  ^i^.- 
turner;  girare(<  Lat.  gyra're,  whence  Eng.  gyrate),  turn  -r 
sole  (<  Lat.  sol,  whence  Eng.  solar),  sun]:  a  precious  sti.tjr 
of  various  colors  and  qualities,  but  all  distinguished  by  a 
strong,  deep-reflected  li^^ht.  The  fire-opal  and  quartz  rv-in- 
ite  are  among  its  varieties.  Fine  specimens  bring  verj-  hi-:h 
prices.  This  stone  is  found  in  many  countries,  but  g^^-ti 
specimens  are  rare.  The  same  name  is  given  to  several  othtr 
minerals  which  afford  bright  tints  in  a  strong  sunlighL 

Girder :  a  beam  or  a  truss.  A  simple  girder  is  one  sup- 
ported at  it«  two  ends,  while  a  continuous  girder  is  <uj- 
ported  at  its  ends  and  at  one  or  more  intermediate  points. 
Wrought-iron  and  steel  I-beams  are  extensively  used  it> 
girders  in  sizes  up  to  20  inches  in  depth  and  40  feet  in  len^  L 
Plate  girders  are  made  by  riveting  four  angle-irons  upon  t» 
vertical  plate,  and  then  generally  adding  two  narrower  c*>vtr 

?lates;  these  are  much  employed  for  bridges  of  from  3ii  x*> 
00  feet  span.  A  box  girder  has  two  web  plates  which  in- 
close a  rectangular  suace  between  them  ;  these  are  less  frr- 
quently  used  than  piate  girders.  Solid  I-beams  and  pla'" 
girders  are  extensively  employed  in  the  construction  of 
buildings  and  bridges.  For  bridges  from  100  to  200  feet  in 
length  the  lattice  girder  is  a  favorite  form ;  this  consist?  . >f 
angles  and  cover  plates  like  the  plate  girder,  but  the  web  i» 


Box  girder. 


Plate  girder. 


made  up  of  diagonal  members  instead  of  a  solid  plate.  In 
Europe  lattice  girders  or  trusses  are  frequently  us^  for  h  a  <: 
span  bridges,  v^ile  in  the  U.  S.  pin-connected  trusj«e?  ?% re- 
employed, and  to  these  the  word  girder  is  not  generally  aj- 
plied.  In  a  plate  girder  the  covers  and  angles  const  It  «):*? 
the  flanges,  while  in  a  lattice  girder  these  are  genernilj 
called  the  chords.  When  the  girder  is  supported  at  it^  tv* 
ends,  as  is  generally  the  case,  the  top  flan^  is  in  eoin}»rf>- 
sion  and  the  lower  flange  is  in  tension,  while  a  solid  wtl*  15 
under  shearing  stress. 

The  design  of  a  girder  is  effected  by  the  applicatitm  cf 
principles  of  mechanics,  some  of  which  are  set  forth  in  iht* 
articles  Bridges,  Flexure,  Moment,  and  Strength  «>f 
Materials.  The  cross-section  of  the  flange  or  chord  is  d*^ 
termined  by  dividing  the  bending  moment  by  the  di  pt'^ 
of  the  truss.  Thus  the  deeper  the  girder  the  less  the  male- 
rial  in  the  chords  and  the  ^eater  the  material  in  the  v«rl'- 
The  economic  depth  of  a  girder  is  that  for  which  the  total 
amount  of  material  is  a  minimum,  and,  in  general,  this  wi!l 
occur  when  the  flanges  weigh  about  as  much  as  the  i?'  l- 
The  books  mentioned  at  the  end  of  the  articles  just  refer^  '- 
to  treat  in  general  of  beams  and  girders,  but  on  the  sf  h  r  .i 
topic  of  plate  girders  Hiroi's  Plate  Girder  Constntcti  ^ 


792 


GISBORNE 


GIUSTI 


14-E).    Weaving  was  formerly  carried  on  extensively.    The 
harbor  is  small.    Pop.  (1891)  4,081. 

GiBborne,  Francis  Newton  :  Canadian  telegrapher ;  b.  at 
Broughtoi^   Lancashire,    England,  Mar.  8,   1824    He  re- 
moved to  Canada  in  1845 ;  entered  the  service  of  the  Mon- 
treal Telegraph  Company  in  1847 ;  and  from  1849  to  1851 
was  superintendent  of  the  Nova  Scotia  Government  lines  at 
Halifax.    In  1850  he  submitted  to  the  authorities  of  Nova 
^cotia  a  scheme  for  telegraphic  communication  between 
Newfoundland  and  Ireland ;  and  in  1853  laid  the  first  ocean 
cable  on  the  American  side  of  the  Atlantic,  connecting 
ft-ince  Edward  island  with  New  Brunswick.    He  was  one 
of  the  charter  members  of  the  New  York,  Newfoundland 
and  London  Telegraph  Company,  and  in  1856  became  the 
compan V  s  chief  engineer,  and  completed  the  construction 
of  the  land  line  across  Newfoundland.    He  was  commis- 
sioner for  Newfoundland  at  the  International  Exhibition  in 
London  m  1862 ;  again  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  in  1865 ;  and 
was  London  agent  for  mines  and  minerals  of  Nova  Scotia, 
bince  1879  he  has  been  superintendent  of  the  Dominion 
Government  Telegraph  Signal  Service.    Neil  Macdonald. 

GIsco  (in  Gr.  rivicwy) :  the  name  of  three  Carthaginian 
generals:  (1)  a  son  of  Hamilcar,  who,  in  consequence  of  the 
defeat  of  the  Carthaginians  by  Gelo  (g.  v.)  at  Himera  in  480 
^•i5"  7^  forced  to  go  to  Selinus,  where  he  established  him- 
self;  (2)  a  son  of  Hanno,  who  distinguished  himself  in  340 
B.  cm  the  war  against  Timoleon ;  (3)  the  commander  of  the 
Carthaginians  at  Lilyb^um  (q,  v.).  J.  R.  s.  S. 

Giti'adas  (in  Gr.  r»T«te«) :  a  bronze-founder,  architect, 
*K    ^L^^  ^P*^r?  "^^^^  according  to  Hermann,  flourished 
about  536  B  c.    He  erected  the  temple  and  fashioned  the 
statue  of  Athene  Poliouchus  (city  protector),  also  called 
ChalcioBcus  (Athene  of  the  brazen  house),  in  Sparta.    The 
walls  of  the  temple  were  ornamented  with  bronze  reliefs 
similar  to  the  marble  reliefs  now  in  the  Palazzo  Spada  in 
Kome  representing  the  deeds  of  Hercules,  Castor  and  Pol- 
lux, though  the  most  celebrated  relief  depicted  the  freeing 
of  Juno  from  the  hidden  chains  of  the  golden  throne  pr^ 
sented  to  her  by  Vulcan  in  revenge  for  her  unmotherly  ejec- 
tion of  him  from  heaven  because  of  his  ugliness.    He  also 
fashioned  bronze  tripods  ornamented  with  reliefs  for  Amv- 
clffi,  and  for  the  throne  of  Apollo  at  that  place  a  bronze  re- 
lief representing  the  chaining  of  Juno.    He  composed  a 
hymn  in  honor  of  Athene  of  the  Brazen  House,  as  well  as  a 
few  other  ooems  in  the  Doric  dialect.    See  Brunn,  Gesckichte 
der  Gnechischen  Kunstler,  p,  150 ;  Pauly,  ReaUncyclopd- 
t^\^     T;»  T/iiersch  E^chm  der  Bildenden  Kumt,p,  1&; 
^lig^Catalogus  Artificum;  Hirt,  in  Amalthea  (x„  p.  261) 


Welcker,  Hyperhoredach-R&mische  Studien  (i.,  p.  262)  The 
locm  dasstcus  is  Pans.,  iii.,  17,  2,  which  must  fce  compared 
with  Pans.,  IV.,  14,  2.  j.  r.  s.  Sterre^tt. 

Girschln:  town  of  Bohemia;  50  miles  N.  E.  of  Prague 
(see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  3-D) ;  noted  for  the  en- 

F.a5^J  t  n^*"  ^i'^''  f^^""^  ^F®  ^^'^""^  2^»  ^^)  between  Prince 
Fredenck  Charles  oi  Prussia  and  the  Austrian  general  Clam- 
l^allas,  m  which  the  latter  was  defeated.    Pop.  (1890)  8,457. 

Gludicl,  ioo'dee-chee,  or  Emlllani-Gindicl,  o-mee-Iee- 
aa  nee-joo  dee-chee,  Paolo  :  historian ;  b.  at  Mussomeli  in 
Sicily,  June  13,  1812.  At  the  age  of  sixteen,  anTr|ainst 
his  own  will  he  entered  a  Dominican  convent,  where  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  design  and  of  literature. 

3.^^/{!"T^  ^"i^i^^  5^  patriotism,  and,  as  a  first  symp- 
tom of  his  love  of  freedom,  he  quitted  the  convent  and  a^ 
plied  for  a  chair  in  the  University  of  Palermo.    Not  only 

Ti^^  k'  fl  !5T^^  ^"i-  '^f  ^^  P"*  ""^^^  surveillance,  where- 
fr^Zl-  ^''V^.u  ^''^'^y^'}^o  Tuscany.  There  he  formed  a 
^lendship  with  the  poet  Niccolini,  and,  encouraged  by  him 
began  his  principal  work-^iforia  della  Letteratura  Itali- 
T^  ;«^"t!^en  from  a  critical  and  political  point  of  view. 
About  this  time  he  received  a  handsome  legacy  from  his 
friend  Emihani-whose  name  he  then  took-^nd  was  thus 
enabled  to  prosecute  his  studies  at  leisure.  In  1849  he  be- 
liT.H  t u  ^r^-  m  the  University  of  Pisa ;  in  1851  he  pub- 
^^u2i^'''%^^y  ^unic^i«u'  ItaUani,  then  Storia  dlelle 
Belle  Arh  '^^Jtalta  In  1861  he  succeeded  Niccolini  as 
secretary  to  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Florence.  In 
1854  he  resigned  his  professorship,  and  passed  much  of  his 
f?iVJ!fn  P^  r^'  in  England  In  1867  hi  was  elected  to  tJie 
Italian  Parliament.    1).  at  Hastings,  England,  Sept.  8,  1872. 

Ginliani,  joo-lee-aa'nee,  Giambattista  :  philologist  and 
commentetor  on  the  Bivina  Commedia;  b.  at  Canelli  in 
Piedmont,  June  4,  1818.    He  entered  the  religious  order  of 


the  Somaschi,  and  between  1837  and  1847  he  held  v^- 
professprships  m  different  schools  of  learning,  occtii  ^ 
i^^l  u  t^«  !*me  time  with  the  profound  study  of  ll  - 

{Trattato  elementare  di  algebra);  in  1845 his  celebrHt^.i  v 
0X0  di  un^uoyo  Commento  della  Cammedia  di  Dan^r 
Mim ;  m  1846,  before  the  Scientific  Congress*  of  ?;  - 
he    declared    that    the  Divitui  Cammedia  em\HAiJi 
earli^and  most  authentic  material  for  ItiUian  hSton 
1847-48,  while  orofessor  m  the  University  of  Genca.  h,  . 

the  duties  of  which  office  he  performed  with  CTeat  <i  ^ 
and  hberaUty.  In  I860  he  bicame  Prefer  Kit  !;;• 
FWnoi"''A  ^'^  '^\^orks  of  Dante  at  the  Unive;.;'. 
Florence  Among  the  works  of  Giuliani  the  Tolumc  . 
tied  /.e«cr6  «wZ  mvepte  Linguaggio  della  Toaeana  .]. . 
be  mentioned  as  having  contributed  largely  to  his  nr 

r^J^)l^  ""f^r^v  ^  ^^"""^  ^^  Comnintare  la  D. 
^^^^o,.  troite  dalV  Epiatole  di  DanU  a  Cangran- 
most  important  work,  which  was  followed  by  his  IJ/  / 
commentare  la  Divina   Commedia  (mi)/ n   rlrrJuu 
Dante  remtegrato  nel  testo  con  nuovi  commenti  (1874)  •  n, 
187^2?  ^r^' .r^^^rate  nel  testo  con  nuiv^lLj. 

IR^V^oiS     .K*'**''*  'i''''"'*  '■  l^  ^«^^^*^c  di  Dante  ,:;    . 
1883),  and  other  volumes  of  a  similar  character     \^ 
Florence,  Jan.,  1884.  «"«^t«r,    i 

Giulio   Romano,  joo'lee-5-r6-maa'no   (properly   Gi" 
GiANUzzi  or  DEI  GiANUzzi;  called  also  G    PiWi    a.«  U 

b  atX^^Tnf  Jf  PPa^  or  "Pippo'O:  painter and'ar.h:V 
b  at  Rome  m  1492.    As  a  painter  much  of  his  rpnut: 
has  been  due  to  his  associatfon  with  Raphael,  who  h.-    V, 
T^^'t  f^«™j  intrusted  to  him  the  execution  of    n    ' 
tant  work^and,  dying,  confided  to  him,  along  with"... 

the  Battle  between  Consta/ntine  afid  Max^ntius,  in  tht-  J' 

m  the  Church  of  S.  Stefano  at  Genoa^^^  MartvrJon 

Stephen,  an  important  work,  and  still  regarded  L  a  rr.i-.- 
piece  of  composition  and  drawing.    GiiJio  ^mam/'  ' 
rests  more  on  his  capacities  as  an  architect  and  enn  / 
than  on  his  genius  as  a  painter,  though  his  arehite<'tui  i 
the  same  general  charfwjteristics  with  his  painting     hU 
and  Clement  VII  employed  him  on  the  ^ican,^;nd  .  >, 

Ort^r^  nfh!f  f  ^i-"^^  paJaces  the  Chureh  Madonna  ■  . 
Orto,  and  other  buildings.    CaUed  to  Mantua  by  it^  d-  - 

w^rkT  ^nJ^f^V""  ^^^'  ^"  ^^  *^  ^"^"^^^^  ^^^^^^^^''■'' 
PaLzzo  delTl^^^^^^^      *"^  .reconstruction,   of    which  r- 
raiazzo  del  le  is  the  crowning  achievement.     His  n>r..  • 
became  so  great  that  the  pope  invited  him  to  return  .. 
Rome  and  undertake  the  construction  of  St.  Peter"    .  • 
death  prevented.    His  most  important  works  are  the  A', 
or  the  Otants^nd  Life  of  Psyche,  in  the  Palazzo  delt. . 

^r^ntr^  ^^»^%^«'^«  ^i^y  his  paintings  in  theCorte  1.  J 

or  old  ducal  palace  are  remarkable.    His  easel    oicti  r« 

hough  formerfy  admired,  are  not  imnort^nt.  Tin^Manl. 

^^^'  Revised  by  Russexl  STURbi?. 

Ginrgevo,  joor-ia'vo :  town  of  Wallachia  •  on  the  D^-  - 

ube;  40  miles  S.  \tr  of  Bucharest  (see  map  of  Turkey  n^ 

ube.^*  Vo^^Xl         ^""""'^  trading-p£ces  on  th.Bn-.- 

Ginsti,  joos'tee,  Giuseppe  :  political  poet  and  satirist  •  .. 
at  Monsummanno,  near  Pescia,  Italy/Mav  13    im)     W 
studied  fir^t  at  Pistoja  and  LucJa,  then  in  tL  Univ^it^    ' 
Pisa,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  law,  and  then  rem^<l  ^ . 
Florence,  where  he  practiced  his  profession  for  a  time     T'  > 
revolutionary  attempts  of  1831  reused  the  patriotic'  srir. 
whi?h"?a;  t'!i  'i  •  ^""^  .t^Pression  in  adriirHble  Ju^. 
hrnnoi;     J     T  ^^'"^  imitations,  are  a  new  form  of  ri. 
branch  of  poetry— popular,  graceful,  and  biting.     He  i^. 
merits  the  name  of  "the  Tuscan  B^ranger,"  afthoueh  a-- 
cording  to  the  judgment  of  It^ians,  and  even  of  m«m  r   - 
eigners,  Giusti  far  surpasses  the  French  poet  in  dS  '  -  ' 
teste  m  elegance,  and  richness  of  thought.    The  satirt-^    ' 
m^f /hlT"'!/"  ^^""^'^Pt  »intil  1848;  but  imme<li;t.i- 
thCiAnnf  T?''i^^''**J''''  they  obteined  a  wide  cin-ubt.., 
throughout  Italy,  and  everywhere  excited  great  enthuf.ia- 

policy  of  Gmo  Capponi,  whom  he  had  already  taken  f.^r  ^^ 
kerary  adviser.  Jv^hen  the  fin^t  Tuscan  nation^  ^.i^.^ 
was  convoked,  Giusti  was  elected  deputy,  and  h^  y.xv.: 

7hX^rJ''^T''^'T  ?^  ««tturally  brought  upo/him.. 
the  hatred  of  the  radicals.    The  grand  duke  bei^  restonnJ, 


794 


GLACIERS 


GLADDEN 


blue  ice,  thus  producing  a  blue-veined  structure.  These 
veins  stand  at  right  angles  to  the  compression  forces,  and 
dip  steep  up  stream  in  the  middle  course  of  descent,  but  be- 
come flatter  nearer  the  end.  Where  tension  stretches  the 
mass  it  breaks,  forming  crevasses.  There  is  usually  a  deep 
chasm  of  this  origin,  c^led  a  Bergschrundy  at  the  head  of  the 
nivi  reservoir.  Transverse  crevasses  are  produced  wherever 
the  slope  of  descent  increases,  and  the  ice  may  thus  be 

freatly  shattered,  the  disordered  blocks  being  called  siraea. 
'he  transverse  crevasses  are  closed  again  when  the  slope  de- 
creases ;  but  their  place  is  marked  by  a  slight  depression  in 
which  dust  and  sand  accumulate,  forming  a  slightly  dis- 
colored transverse  band.  As  the  ice  advances,  the  middle 
progressing  much  faster  than  the  margin,  the  band  is  bowed 
more  and  more  sharply  down  stream.  When  viewed  from 
an  adjacent  eminence,  the  surface  of  the  glacier  below  a 
point  of  steeper  descent  is  therefore  seen  to  be  marked  by  a 
series  of  curved  dirt  bands,  convex  downward.  When  two 
or  more  glaciers  join,  the  combined  dirt  bands  become 
crenulateo.  When  a  new  series  of  transverse  fractures  is 
formed  on  another  steeper  slope,  the  first  series  of  dirt  bands 
is  obliterated  and  replaced  by  a  new  series,  again  beginning 
as  nearly  transverse  bands,  and  becoming  bowed  downward 
as  they  advance.  If  crevasses  are  filled  with  snow,  their 
subsequent  closing  compresses  the  snow  into  a  band  of 
bubbly  white  ice,  easily  seen  in  contrast  with  the  bluish  ice 
of  the  glacier,  and  still  more  in  contrast  with  the  clearer 
blue  of  the  compression  veins.  As  the  margin  of  the  ice 
moves  slower  than  the  middle,  tension  strains  are  exerted 
obliquely  inward  and  downward,  and  hence  marginal  crev- 
asses are  opened  pointing  up  stream.  At  the  end  of  the 
glacier  there  is  sometimes  a  spreading  by  which  radial 
crevasses  are  produced. 

Melting  of  Glaciers. — The  melting  or  ablation  by  which 
glaciers  are  consumed  begins  on  the  nSve  fields,  where  the 
mflltering  water  aids  in  the  consolidation  of  the  n4vS  ice, 
but  little  of  it  escapes  down  the  valley.  Farther  down 
stream  much  water  melted  by  sunshinej  rain,  and  warm 
winds  sinks  through  crevasses  and  forms  sub-glacial  streams, 
which  unite  in  a  torrent  that  flows  out  of  an  ice-cave  at  the 
end  of  the  glacier,  clouded  milky  white  by  the  fine  rock 
flour  that  has  been  ground  by  the  glacier  from  its  bed. 
Much  melting  is  accomplished  by  the  latent  heat  liberated 
from  dew  condensed  on  the  icjr  surface  from  moist  winds, 
the  weight  of  the  ice  melted  being  seven  times  that  of  the 
dew  condensed.  Surface-streams  descending  by  crevasses 
form  funnels,  and  when  widened  at  the  mouth  these  are 
called  moulins.  Descending  currents  of  air  aid  the  water 
in  melting  the  ice.  The  moulins  are  carried  slowly  along, 
and  abandoned  by  the  streams  when  a  new  crevasse  opens 
higher  up  in  their  course.  The  discharge  of  water  at  the 
end  of  the  glacier  is  grreatest  late  in  the  evening,  and  least 
in  the  middle  of  the  morning. 

Moraines. — A  largo  amount  of  detrital  material  is  carried 
in  or  upon  a  glacier,  or  dragged  along  beneath  it,  or  washed 
by  the  sub-glacial  streams.  The  detritus  beneath  the  ice, 
called  the  ground  moraine,  is  heavily  pressed  on  the  valley- 
bottom,  and  both  the  loose  material  and  the  rocky  floor  are 
sin(X)thed  and  striated.  The  material  that  is  earned  within 
or  upon  the  ice  is  not  subjected  to  strong  mechanical  action, 
and  therefore  frequently  retains  an  angular  form  ;  but  it  re- 
mains exposed  to  weathering  so  long  that  it  may  become 
disintegrated  before  it  is  dropped  at  the  termination  of  the 
glacier.  The  loose  material  that  falls  from  the  valley-slopes, 
including  rock  masses  of  great  size,  is  carried  or  dragged  in 
a  long  train,  called  a  lateral  moraine.  When  two  glaciers 
become  confluent  their  adjacent  lateral  moraines  unite  into 
a  single  medial  moraine.  Much  of  the  material  of  lateral 
moraines  may  be  beneath  the  ice  surface  at  their  point  of 
union  into  a  medial  moraine ;  it  appears  farther  down  stream, 
not  by  rising  through  the  ice,  but  by  the  wasting  away  of  the 
overlying  ice.  Medial  moraines  thus  become  more  distinct 
toward  the  end  of  the  glacier.  If  the  two  confluent  glaciers 
are  of  unec^ual  size,  the  ice  from  the  smaller  one  melts  be- 
fore reaching  the  end  of  the  main  glacier,  and  the  medial 
moraine  then  becomes  a  lateral  moraine  again.  A  terminal 
moraine  is  formed  by  deposition  at  the  end  of  the  glacier ;  it 
frequently  takes  the  form  of  a  ridge  transverse  to  the  val- 
ley. Near  the  end  many  glaciers  are  well  covered  with 
morainal  material :  in  the  Iliinalavas  sufficient  vegetation 
sometimes  grows  on  the  soil  upon  the  ice  to  afford  pastur- 
age ;  on  the  Malaspina  glacier  in  Alaska  large  forests  grow 
over  the  ice-sheet.  The  protection  from  melting  afforded 
by  a  morainal  cover  retards  ablation ;  and  thus  a  medial 


moraine  comes  to  be  perched  on  a  ridge  of  ice  even  W^ 
or  more  feet  in  height  above  the  adjacent  more  detj]^ 
melted  surface.  Kodcs  are  shattered  by  rolling  down  sui  L 
ridges,  and  the  moraine  is  thus  widened.  Large  tabu  J  a- 
rocks  shield  the  ice  beneath  them,  and  may  thus  come  tt>  U 
perched  on  a  pedestal  several  feet  above  the  adjacent  si.r- 
lace.  They  at  last  fall  toward  the  noon  sun  so  regular h 
that  their  slanting  attitude  may  then  be  used  to  detenniin 
a  north  and  south  line.  Smaller  rock  particles  or  •*«ii<l 
grains  conduct  the  heat  that  they  acquire  from  sunshine  !•• 
the  ice  beneath,  and  thus  melt  vertical  cavities  a  foot  lt 
more  in  depth  into  which  they  sink. 

Periodic  Oscillations  of  &laciers, — Long-continue<i  ''^^- 
servation  of  Swiss  glaciers  has  discovered  a  comparativ^-ly 
regular  fluctuation  of  volume  and  length,  believed  ti)  <\*^- 
pend  on  a  variation  in  their  supply  of  snow.  During  th- 
years  of  increasing  snowfall  the  niv4  reservoir  fills  to  h 
greater  height,  the  slope  of  the  glacier  increases,  it  thi<'k»-n< 
and  moves  faster,  and  therefore  advances  farther  down  il » 
valley  before  melting  away.  The  larger  the  glacier  U.»* 
longer  the  time  required  for  a  change  of  supply  in  the  n^^r- 
voirtomake  itself  felt  at  the  lower  end.  During  certu.i; 
years  of  a  long  period  of  fluctuation  all  the  glaciers  of  & 
region,  large  and  small,  may  be  affected  in  the  same  way. 
even  the  largest  having  begun  to  retreat  under  diminish»^i 
supply  before  the  smallest  begin  to  advance  under  the  nixt 
increase  of  supply.  Thus  from  1815  to  1818,  from  1S4> 
to  1850,  and  from  1871  to  1875  all  the  glaciers  of  the 
Alps  were  retreating;  while  from  1822  to  1825  and  from 
1875  to  1880  all  were  advancing.  During  the  retn»atir.c 
period  from  1850  to  1885  the  relatively  short  and  steep  trui- 
ciers  were  the  first  to  recede,  while  the  longer  glaciers  tli<l 
not  begin  to  shorten  until  1860  to  1871.  Then  for  ft-ur 
years,  1871  to  1875,  all  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps  were  re- 
treating without  a  single  exception  ;  but  in  1875  the  shorter 
and  steeper  streams  began  an  advance,  which  the  lar«rtr 
ones  adopted  in  later  years. 

The  many  varied  features  of  glaciers  are  of  particular  in- 
terest, partly  because  of  their  curious  unlikeness  to  c»ur 
usual  surroundings,  partly  because  of  their  association  wi:h 
grand  mountain-scenery  which  inspires  outdoor  olnservation 
and  study.  Nearly  every  feature  mentioned  in  the  alM.xe 
account  of  Alpine  glaciers  may  be  recognized  by  the  olijt^rv- 
ant  traveler  auring  a  summer's  tour  in  Switzerland.  Th- 
study  of  glaciers  is  of  especial  value  to  the  geologist  arnl 
geographer  because  of  the  great  extension  of  glaciers  l>e- 
yond  tneir  present  limits  in  Pleistocene  time,  and  their  tN*- 
currence  then  over  large  regions  where  no  vestige  of  i'>' 
now  remains.  Many  of  the  minor  topographic  featan»5  -f 
the  Northern  U.  S.  and  of  Northwest  Europe  are  explaiuei 
by  former  glacial  action.  The  most  extended  account  «•! 
existing  glaciers  may  be  found  in  Heim's  Gletscherkufiru 
(Stuttgart,  1885),  from  which  much  of  the  above  statenii-nT 
is  condensed.  Other  works  of  importance  are  L.  Agu^-^i?. 
IJtudes  sur  les  Glaciers  (1840) ;  Charpentier.  Essai  sur  hjt 
Glaciers  (1841);  A.  Mousson,  Die  Gcetseher  der  Jefst:"* 
(1854);  Seue,  Xo  NevS  de  Justedal  et  ses  Glaciers  (ISTo.; 
Sexe,  Om  Sneebraeen  Folgefond  (1864).  For  Greeniuni. 
see  the  accounts  of  Nansen,  Nordenskiold,  and  Peary :  v<t 
Alaska,  see  accounts  by  Reid  of  the  Muir  glacier,  anti  ly 
Russell  of  the  Malaspina  glacier,  both  in  The  ^^fitiopfil 
Geographic  Magazine  (Washington,  1891-92);  see  alst>  JUiy 
sell.  Existing  Glaciers  of  the  United  States,  Fifth  Ann. 
Rept.  U.  S.  (Jeol.  Survey.  W.  M.  Davis. 

Gladden,  Washington,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  Congregati"n«I 
minister  and  author;  b.  at  Pottsgrove,  Pa.,  Feb.  11,  l>ci>>: 

fraduated  at  Williams  College  in  1859;  on  the  staff  of  T*n 
ndependent  1871-75,  and  editor  of  Sunday  Aftenm-jft 
1878-80;  became  pastor  of  Congregational  churches  m 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1860;  Morrisania,  N.  Y..  1861;  Nortn 
Adams,  Mass.,  1866;  Springfield,  Mass.,  1875;  and  Coluin- 
bus,  O.,  1883.  Author  of  Plain  Thoughts  on  the  Art  .' 
7/i:?^:n^  (Boston,  1868);  From  the  Huh  to  the  fffulson  (18^*': 
Workingmen  and  their  Employers  (1876);  Being  a  Chn*- 
tian  (1876);  The  Christian  Woy  (New  York,  1877);  T>' 
Lord's  Prayer  (Boston,  1880);  The  Christian  Leaguf  o^ 
Connecticut  (New  York,  1883);  Things  Kev  and  Old  iC.- 
lumbus,  0.,  1884);  7%e  Young  Men  and  the  Chttrch^s  (B'l"?- 
ton,  1885);  Applied  Christianity  (1887);  Parish  I^hl--^* 
(New  York,  1888) ;  Burning  Questions  ^the  Life  that  .V'  -r 
is  and  that  which  is  to  Come  (18^);  Who  Wrote  the  ^•'  ' 
(Boston,  1891);  Tools  and  the  Manx  Property  and  Indu^*^ 
under  the  Christian  Law;  and  7%e  Cosmopolis  City  (.Vut- 


796 


GLAGOLITIC  ALPHABET 


GLAND 


the  reform  of  the  Irish  land  laws  immediately  followed. 
The  principle  of  the  measure  was  the  claim  that  the  landlord 
had  not  absolute  and  unlimited  right.  The  bill  reco^ized 
a  certain  partnership  of  the  tenant  in  the  land  which  he 
tilled.  If  the  tenant  was  to  be  dispossessed  he  could  claim 
compensation  for  improvements.  On  Aug.  1, 1870,  the  bill 
became  a  law.  This  was  followed  by  a  succession  of  ener- 
getic reforms,  such  as  the  Ballot  Act  for  the  protection  of 
voters,  the  abolition  of  the  purchase  of  commissions  in  the 
army,  and  the  creation  of  a  national  system  of  education. 
The  defeat  of  the  Ghovemment  on  the  Irish  Educational  Bill 
caused  the  downfall  of  the  Gladstone  ministry.  Mr.  Disraeli, 
however,  declined  to  undertake  the  formation  of  a  ministry, 
and  Mr.  Gladstone  had  to  remain  at  the  head  of  the  Govern- 
ment. It  was  soon  evident  that  the  cry  for  reform  had  spent 
itself  and  that  a  reaction  had  set  in.  Mr.  Gladstone  deter- 
mined suddenly  to  dissolve  Parliament.  At  the  new  election 
the  Conservatives  were  victorious,  and  Mr.  Disraeli  returned 
to  power  in  1874  Mr.  Gladstone  not  only  retired  from  the 
premiership  but  also  from  the  leadership  of  his  party. 

For  the  next  six  years  he  occupied  nimself  very  largely 
with  literary  and  historical  studies.  But  in  1880  the  pen- 
dulum swung  back  again,  and  the  Liberal  party  came  in 
with  an  overwhelming  majority.  Mr.  Gladstone  became 
Premier  a  second  time.  The  conditions  were  not  propitious 
for  a  peaceful  or  popular  administration,  for  tnere  were 
embarrassing  troubles  in  South  Africa,  in  the  Sudan,  in 
Egypt,  and  in  Ireland.  But  these  numerous  embarrassments 
did  not  prevent  the  (Jovemraent  from  dealing  with  domestic 
concerns.  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1885  succeeded  in  carrying  a 
vast  scheme  of  parliamentary  reform  by  which  the  constitu- 
encies were  arranged  in  more  nearly  proportionate  divisions, 
a  number  of  insignificant  boroughs  were  extinguished,  and 
a  near  approach  to  universal  suffrage  was  adopted.  But  the 
Irish  members  were  an  element  of  constant  turbulence  and 
uncertainty.  At  length  they  joined  with  the  Conservative 
party  on  one  of  the  clauses  of  the  budget,  and  the  Govern- 
ment was  defeated.  Though  Mr.  Gladstone  resigned  and 
Lord  Salisbury  became  Prime  Minister,  a  few  weeks  were 
enough  to  show  that  the  new  Government  had  not  a  working 
majority.  At  the  general  election  in  1885  the  Liberals  were 
overwhelmingly  victorious,  and'  for  the  third  time  Mr.  Glad- 
stone was  called  to  the  head  of  affairs.  Although  the  Irish, 
under  the  leadership  of  Mr.  Pamell,  had  pursued  a  policy 
of  the  fiercest  opposition  and  obstruction  during  a  large 
part  of  the  period  between  1880  and  1885,  Mr.  Gladstone  ap- 
peared to  be  convinced  that  further  changes  in  the  same 
direction  were  now  imperatively  demanded.  On  coming  into 
power  he  shocked  and  alienatea  a  large  number  of  his  friends 
oy  introducing,  in  Mar.,  1886,  a  bill  for  the  establishment  of 
an  Irish  Parliament.  This  measure  opened  one  of  the  most 
violent  periods  of  parliamentary  agitation  in  the  history  of 
the  British  Government.  The  defection  of  Mr.  Gladstone's 
former  friends  and  the  formation  of  the  Liberal-Unionist 
(g.  r.)  party  caused  the  defeat  of  the  Government.  For  six 
years  Mr.  Gladstone  was  the  leader  of  the  opposition  •  and 
the  persistent  advocate  of  Irish  autonomy  as  against  the  co- 
ercive policy  of  the  Conservatives,  but  the  election  of  1892 
returned  him  to  power  for  the  fourth  time,  and  on  Feb.  13, 
1893,  he  introduced  the  measure  for  Irish  self-government 
with  a  masterly  speech.  The  bill,  after  various  modifica- 
tions, passed  the  House  of  Commons  Sept.  1,  1893,  by  a  ma- 
jority of  34 ;  but  on  Sept.  8  it  was  thrown  out  of  the  House 
of  Lords  by  a  vote  of  419  to  41.  His  political  career  during 
this  period  has  been  so  closely  linked  with  the  history  of  the 
Irish  movement  that  it  can  best  be  treated  under  the  title 
Home  Rule  (q.  v.). 

The  most  important  of  Mr.  Gladstone's  literarv  works  are 
The  State  in  %ta  Reiations  mith  the  Church  (lS38) ;  Stud- 
ies on  Homer  arul  the  Uomeric  Age  (3  vols.,  1858) ;  Juventus 
Mundi  (1869);  The  Vatican  Decrees  (1874);  Oleanii^s  of 
Past  Years  (7  vols.,  1879) ;  The  Irish  Question  (1886).  The 
most  important  Lives  of  Mr.  Gladstone  are  those  of  G.  Bur- 
net Smith  (2  vols.,  1879);  Thomas  Arc'her  (4  vols.,  Ift83). 
See  also  J.  H.  McCarthy,  England  under  Gladstone  (1884). 

C.  K.  Adams. 

Gla^ollt^ic  Alphabet  [OlagoUtic  is  deriv.  of  GlagoL 
Glagohtic  alphabet,  from  0.  Bulg.  glagolu,  word] :  one  of 
the  South  Slavic  alphabets.  According  to  Schaiarik,  it  is 
older  than  the  so-called  Cyrillic,  and  was  itself  the  inven- 
tion of  St,  Cyril  (see  Cyrillic  Alphabet),  while  the  so-called 
Cyrillic  is  a  corruption  of  this.  Others  make  the  Glagolitic 
much  older  than  tne  time  of  Cyril.    Still  others  regard  the 


present  Glagolitic  as  a  corruption  of  the  so-called  Cyrilli:. 
There  is  a  small  Glagolitic  literature. 

Olalsher,  glfi'sher,  James,  F. R. S.:  meteorologist:  b.  'f 
Scotch  parente  in  London  in  1809;  in  1829  served  on  th*- 
Ordnance  Survey  of  Ireland;  from  1833  to  1836  was  a&::w- 
ant  at  the  Cambridge  Observatory ;  in  1836  became  assist&nt 
in  the  astronomical  department  of  the  Royal  Observalorr : 
from  1840  to  1847  was  superintendent  of  the  ma^etitu 
and  meteorological  department ;  founded  the  Boy^  M^r^ 
orologic€il  Society  :  became  F.  R.  S.  in  1849,  in  consequtn.v 
of  his  meteorological  observations  made  in  balloons:  at- 
tained in  1863  the  height  of  37,000  feet  above  the  eanh  .- 
surface ;  became  in  1865  president  of  the  meteorological  >1^ 
partment  of  the  British  Board  of  Trade;  has  a&o  Ix^n 
president  and  secretary  of  the  Meteorological  Society.  ar.>i 
18  president  of  the  Aeronautical  Society.  Author  of  v.w- 
inerous  works  on  astronomy,  meteorologv,  and  the  scienct-  'if 
numbers,  including  Hygrometrical  Tables  (1845) ;  Repi.r' 
of  the  Meteorology  ^  Irhdia  in  Relaiion  to  the  UecUthof 
the  Troops  (1863) ;  Travels  in  the  Air  (1870) ;  an  edition  -J 
Flammarion's  Atmosphere^  and  of  Guillemin's  The  Won  •J 
of  Comets ;  and  the  completion  of  the  Factor  Tables  bt^ur. 
by  Burckhardt  in  1814  and  continued  by  Dase  in  1862-^> 
(3  vols.,  1879-83). 

Glaize,  Pierre  Paul  L6on  :  historical  and  genre  paint,  r ; 
b.  in  Paris,  Feb.  3, 1842.  Pupil  of  his  father,  Auguste  liar- 
th^lemy  Glaize,  a  genre-painl^r,  and  of  Gerome ;  fir<t-<::ii.>'« 
medals,  Paris  Expositions,  1878  and  1889 ;  Legion  of  Hon-r 
1877.  His  Conspiracy  in  Early  Rome  (1875)  is  in  il*- 
Luxembourg  Gallery,  Paris.  His  decorative  work  is  «f 
good  quality.    Studio  in  Paris.  W.  A.  C. 

Glamorganshire,  gla-mor'gan-shir  :  the  southemm<  ^r 
countv  of  Wales ;  bounded  S.  and  W.  by  the  Bristol  ChaL- 
nel,  E.  and  N.  by  the  counties  of  Monmouth  and  Breokn<  ^  »l. 
Area,  856  sq.  miles.  The  southern  part,  the  Vale  of  irLt- 
morgan,  is  a  plain,  very  fertile,  and  well  adapted  to  wbtai- 
growing.  The  northern  part  is  mountainous,  and  conta"\> 
some  of  the  richest  coal-fields  in  the  kingdom.  Pop.  (lbi*l» 
467,875. 

Gland  [from  Fr.  glande,  gland  <Lat.  glanSy  glari.f*^ 
acorn  (>  Fr.  gland,  acorn),  but  with  meaning  from  I^t. 
glandulay  gland,  liter.,  small  acorn,  dimin.  of  glans:  r.i 
Germ.  DrUse] :  a  term  which  should  be  limited  to  ciTtiry. 
vegetal  and  animal  organs  concerned  in  the  fancti<m  if 
secretion.  In  plants,  glands  are  integumentary  eell-mav-."^ 
sometimes  found  depressed  at  the  bottom  of  pits,  at  viIvt^ 
elevated,  or  even  stalked,  above  the  surface  of  the  plan*. 
Some  vegetal  glands  secrete  poisonous  principles  (the  net!  I  . 
while  others  contain  essential  oils  (orange  leaf).  In  arii* 
mals,  glands  vary  greatly  in  their  arrangement  and  vi  -i.- 
plexity ;  in  the  simplest  form,  represented  by  the  unicviiu- 
lar  glands  of  the  lower  animals,  the  entire  or^an  con>i>f>  •  f 
but  a  single  microscopic  cell ;  more  complicated  are  ti >• 
simple  depressions  or  follicles  lined  by  a  single  layer  •: 
secreting  epithelial  cells;  while  in  the  highest  developrnti  t. 
great  numoers  of  these  simple  divisions  are  assoeiat^ni  a:.  1 
grouped  to  form  such  glands  as  the  liver,  kidney,  ct<.. 
whicn  rank  foremost  among  the  organs  of  the  body. 

The  glands  of  man  and  the  higher  animals  are  anatomy - 
ally  divided  into  two  groups — the  tubular  and  safest  f-ir: 
the  former  are  single  or  branched  cylindrical  depre^ioii^  •  r 
pits  which  form  modified  extensions  of  the  surface  of  *:• 
mucous  membrane  with  which  they  are  connected.  Sii<  r. 
tubular  glands  are  found  throughout  the  stomach  and  in- 
testinal tract,  and  supply  important  digestive  juices:  ^'^ 
kidney  and  testicle  are  examples  of  the  highly  devel-  j«  I 
branched  or  compound  tubular  type.  The  saccular  pia:  '-. 
as  found  in  man,  consist  of  numerous  little  sacs  or  a*  . . 
gi'ouped  around  small  ducts ;  the  latter  join  to  form  lure  r 
canals,  which,  in  tuni,  unite  into  a  single  large  excn  i  r> 
tube  opening  upon  the  free  mucous  surface  and  discharj"  .' 
the  secretion ;  such  glands  are  usually  designated  as  r.> 
mose,  from  the  resemblance  of  the  arrangement  of  ti.'i- 
acini  and  ducts  to  that  of  a  bunch  of  grapes. 

The  majority  of  glands  possess  certain  structures  in  f\  c- 
mon ;  the  typical  construction  includes  (1)  the  linir.s:    ' 
modified  secreting  epithelial  cells,  which  n?5>tt  upon  (2)  a  <i  :- 
cate  hyaline  basement  membrane,  outside  of  which   j  - 
(3)  the  network  of  capillary  blood-vessels  fumishinc  " 
generous  blood  supply  essential  for  the  secretory  fun«ti  '^' 
The  epithelial  cells  are  the  active  elements  in  seen*:  • 
since  it  is  their  living  cell-substance  or  protoplasm  * 
possesses  the  power  of  separating  and  taking  up  cera:< 


798 


GLASGOW 


some  quays  and  spanned  by  nine  bridges,  six  used  for  or- 
dinary traffic  and  three  by  railways  approaching  the  city 
from  the  south. 

Streets, — Glasgow  is  substantially  built,  with  streets  for 
the  most  part  wide  and  regular.  Argyle  Street,  the  main 
thoroughfare,  running  parallel  to  the  river,  continues  under 
various  names  in  one  unbroken  line  for  about  5  miles.  At 
its  eastern  end  stands  the  beautiful  tower  of  the  old  town 
jail  or  tolbooth.  This  tower  was  spared  at  the  demolition 
of  the  jail,  and  is  now  known  as  the  Cross  Steeple.  Here  is 
the  site  of  the  Old  Town,  with  High  Street  to  the  N.,  ris- 
ing to  the  cathedral  and  the  once  aristocratic  quarter  of  the 
Drygate,  the  Gallowgate  and  Trongate  leading  E.  and  W., 
ana  the  Saltmarket  and  Bridgegate  southward  to  the  river. 
Trongate,  now  a  part  of  Argyle  Street,  bears  in  its  name 
the  memory  of  the  privilege  of  a  free  "  Tron  "  or  weighing- 
place,  granted  by  James  I V.  in  1489  to  the  Bishops  of  Glas- 
gow. Buchanan  Street,  leading  X.  from  Argvle  Street, 
and  Sauchiehall  Street,  running  westward  from  the  head  of 
Buchanan  Street,  are  the  handsomest  thoroughfares.  They 
contain  manv  fine  shops,  the  Art.  Galleries,  and  two  of  the 
theaters,  and  together  form  the  fashionable  promenade. 
The  other  principal  streets  are  either  parallel  or  at  right 
angles  to  Argyle  Street,  and  are  all  well  paved,  cleansed, 
and  lighted.  Tramway  lines  run  through  tne  city  in  every 
direction,  the  southern  suburbs  are  connected  with  the 
center  by  district  railways,  and  there  is  one  underground 
railway  in  use  and  another  in  process  of  construction.  A 
subway  traversing  the  whole  city,  and  crossing  under  the 
Clyde  at  two  points,  will,  when  completed,  form  a  uniq^ue 
engineering  achievement,  and  will  immensely  facilitate  m- 
tramural  traffic. 

Parks  and  Squares. — The  Green  is  the  oldest  and  largest 
of  Glasgow's  five  beautiful  parks.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the 
common  lands  of  the  burgh,  and  lies  along  the  riverside  in 
the  heart  of  the  city.  Its  chief  ornament  is  the  Nelson 
Monument,  erected  in  1806.  The  Kelvingrove  or  West  End 
Park  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Kelvin,  opposite 
to  the  university.  The  park  contains  a  fine  fountain  and 
the  old  mansion-house  of  Kelvingrove,  now  used  as  a  mu- 
seum. The  Queen's  Park  lies  about  H  miles  S.  from  Glas- 
gow bridge,  close  to  the  battle-field  of  Langside.  From 
the  fiag-staff  on  its  summit  there  is  on  a  clear  d&Y  a  mag- 
nificent view  of  the  city.  The  plain  of  the  south  side  is  in 
the  foreground,  then  comes  the  line  of  masts  and  shipping 
that  marks  the  Clyde,  then  th«  steep  central  and  old  town, 
rising  to  the  heights  of  the  cathedral,  St.  RoUox  and  the 
university,  and  finally  the  blue  background  of  the  Campsie 
and  Kilpatrick  Hills,  flanked  by  Ben  Lomond's  peak  to  the 
N.  W.  The  Alexandra  Park,  a  breathing  space  in  the  grimy 
east  of  the  citv,  includes  a  golf-course  and  an  open-air  swim- 
ming-pond. The  Botanic  Gardens,  N.  of  Kelvingrove  Park, 
and  also  on  the  Kelvin,  are  now  owned  by  the  city.  They 
contain  a  winter  garden  and  a  collection  of  plants  of  con- 
siderable scientific  and  educational  value.  Ruchill  estate 
in  the  extreme  N.  W.,  and  the  Cathkin  Braes  to  the  ex- 
treme S.  E.  of  the  city,  are  the  latest  additions  to  its  park- 
lands.  Open-air  instrumental  concerts  are  given  during  the 
summer  months  in  all  the  city  parks.  Among  the  other  open 
spaces  are  George  Square,  with  its  fine  buildings,  flower- 
beds, and  statues,  ana  Cathedral  S(juare,  dominated  by  the 
cathedral  and  rich  in  memories  of  the  Old  Town. 

Public  Buildings. — The  city  chambers,  the  new  official 
residence  of  the  corporation,  stand  in  George  Square.  The 
style  is  the  Italian  Renaissance,  and  the  material  freestone 
and  granite,  with  rich  interior  of  marble  and  alabaster. 
The  building  is  lighted  throughout  with  electricity,  and 
cost  £520,000.  The  post-office  in  George  Square  covers  an 
area  of  half  an  acre.  It  employs  845  officers,  and  deals  an- 
nually with  about  184,000,000  packets,  of  which  120,653,884 
are  letters  or  post-cards. 

The  Royal  Exchange  in  Queen  Street  is  chiefly  notable 
for  its  handsome  news-room,  130  feet  by  60.  which  serves 
as  a  merchants'  exchange.  The  finest  monument  in  the 
city,  an  equestrian  statue  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  by 
Marochetti,  stands  in  front  of  the  building,  whose  Corin- 
thian portico  makes  a  fine  background.  The  Stock  Ex- 
change has  a  commodious  building  of  its  own  in  Buchanan 
Street.  Glasgow  possesses  4  theaters,  and  3  fine  halls  for 
concerts  and  public  entertainments.  St.  Andrew's  Halls, 
the  largest  ana  newest  of  these,  contain  a  suite  of  rooms, 
each  capable  of  seating  from  100  to  4,000  persons.  In  the 
main  hall  the  Glasgow  Choral  Union  and  the  Scottish  Or- 
chestra Company  nold  their  concerts  during  the  winter 


months.  The  Institute  of  the  Pine  Arts  is  in  Sauchit-liAl! 
Street,  as  are  also  the  Corporation  Galleries  with  their  valu- 
able collections  of  old  paintings.  A  magnificent  art  ^«ki- 
lery  is  about  to  be  erected  in  the  West  End. 

Churches. — As  befits  a  community  whose  ancient  morr./ 
is  "Let  Glasgow  flourish  by  the  preaching  of  the  Wifni," 
the  city  is  well  supplied  with  places  of  worship.  The  Pn^^ 
byterian  churches  number  233,  those  of  other  Prot«»tuni 
denominations  77,  Roman  Catholic  19,  with  2  Jewish  »>  n- 
ago^ues.  Few  of  these  ecclesiastical  edifices  have  any  pre- 
tensions to  architectural  beauty.  Glasgow  Cathedral,  graiid- 
ly  situated  on  a  commanding  height,  is  believed  to  hav.- 
been  founded  on  the  site  of  an  older  building  by  Bi^h<>i> 
Bondington  in  or  about  the  year  1238.  The  first  holy  j»la<  - 
on  the  same  site  was  a  Culdee  cell  founded  by  St,  Kenli^t-m 
or  Mungo,  Glasgow's  patron  saint,  in  560,  oh  the  bank>  •  f 
the  then  beautiful  Molendinar.  The  architecture  of  tii»- 
present  building  is  Early  English.  The  nave  is  155  feet  Ir.n^r 
and  30  feet  wide  between  the  aisles ;  behind  the  choir  ar»- 
the  Lady  Chapel  and  Chapter- house.  The  crypt  is  the  gt- m 
of  the  cathedral,  and  the  finest,  of  its  kind  in  the  kingdom. 
It  is  divided  into  three  portions — Joceline's,  Laudor*s,  ai>i 
Blackadder's  crypt.  The  cathedral  contains  147  pillars,  an  i 
its  157  windows  are  almost  all  of  stained  glass.  The  Nr^- 
cropolis,  the  principal  cemetery,  is  opposite  the  cathe<]raL  *n 
the  east  side  of  the  Molendinar  ravine,  A  Doric  column, 
surmounted  by  a  statue  of  John  Knox,  crowns  the  buryin:?- 
ground. 

Colleges  and  Schools, — The  university,  a  splendid  pile  •  if 
buildings,  stands  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Kelvin.  op(Xi«i*M 
the  West  End  Park.  It  is  built  round  a  central  ouadrani:!-^. 
and  is  crowned  by  a  tower  and  spire  278  feet  nigh,  Th^ 
style  is  Early  Pointed.  The  principal  gateway  is  formeil  «f 
the  ancient  archway  and  part  of  the  front  of  the  old  coUt^t? 
in  the  High  Street.  There  are  over  2,200  students.  >:, 
Mungo's  College,  in  connection  with  the  Royid  Iniirmarv  : 
the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  College,  an.l 
Queen  Margaret  College,  with  its  recently  founded  sth-  -  1 
of  Medicine  for  Women,  can  only  be  named.  The  prin- 
cipal schools  are  the  High  School,  the  Glasgow  Academy  t.r 
Boys,  the  High  School  for  Girls,  and  Hutcheson*5  Gran- 
mar  Schools  for  both  sexes.  The  public  schools  are  und.  r 
the  charge  of  a  school  board  elected  by  the  ratepayers. 

The  city  is  exceptionally  well  supplied  with' hotels  r.? 
every  rank,  and  is  not  surpassed  in  Great  Britain  for  ttj*- 
number  and  cheapness  of  its  restaurants  and  tea-rooms. 

Infirmaries  ana  Charities, — Glasgow  has  three  large  and 
well-appointed  infirmaries,  a  fever  hospital,  and  nun]ert»u> 
smaller  institutions  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  tn-ar- 
ment  of  special  diseases.  The  Royal  Infirmary  is  in  C'astlr 
Street,  near  to  the  cathedral ;  the  Western  Infirmary  mt^t? 
the  needs  of  the  western  districts,  and  the  Victoria' Infirm- 
ary those  of  the  south.  Belvidere  Fever  Hospital,  isolat*^] 
from  the  city,  stands  on  the  eastern  outskirts.  The  old  in- 
corporations of  the  Merchants'  House  and  the  Trades*  IIou>e 
are  active  in  deeds  of  benevolence  to  citizens  in  need  of  th»'ir 
assistance:  William  Quarrier's  Orphan  Homes  deser\-e  >}«*- 
cial  mention  for  their  noble  work  among  destitut^e  aud 
neglected  children:  and  there  are  numerous  other  in^ititu- 
tions  noted  for  active  benevolence. 

Libraries, — ^Glasgow  has  not  yet  adopted  the  Free  Libra- 
ries Act.  It  has,  however,  three  free  consulting  librarit-x 
one  of  which,  the  Mitehell  Library,  contains  nearly  90,l»<>> 
volumes. 

Oovemment, — The  municipal  government  is  conducttni 
by  a  town  council,  consisting  of  75  councilors,  of  whom  fi.e 
is  lord  provost  and  16  are  bailies  or  magistrates.  The  oity 
returns  seven  members  to  Parliament. 

Finance. — The  corporation  revenues  for  1891  amount ^^l 
to  €1,286,265,  an  increase  on  the  revenue  of  1881  of  £261,- 
658.  The  City  Improvement  Trust,  instituted  in  1865,  h;.« 
pulled  down  many  of  the  old  "  rookeries"  that  were  a  «]i- 
grace  and  a  danger  to  the  community,  and  erected  dei»-iii 
house>s  in  their  stead.  It  has  widened  old  streets  and  nia«!i- 
new  ones,  improved  the  drainage  system,  and  carried  out  .^:: 
efficient  and  self-supporting  scheme  of  model  lodging-ho»«H--. 
To  meet  the  expenses  incident  to  such  thoroughgoing:  oj>er-i- 
tions  the  citizens  have  taxed  themselves  to  the  extent  of  ovt  ' 
€500,000,  the  improvement  tax  now  standing  at  the  rat*  «•! 
one  penny  per  pound  of  rental. 

Oas  ana  Water. — Gas  is  still  the  almost  universal  illu- 
minant,  though  the  electric  light  is  in  process  of  intrt>lu<  - 
tion,  and  is  now  used  in  several  of  the  principal  thoroucJi- 
fares,  railway  stations,  and  public  buildings.   The  citr  is 


Mi:- 


perfect  pieces.  Throughout  the  Roman  dciminion  Egyj 
was  a  great  glass- producing  country,  and  h&a  never  lost  tl.E 
srt.  It  has  oeen  observed  la  Egvp't  that  the  common  blue 
glaze,  duch  as  waa  used  in 
the  earliest  ages,  is  still 
made  for  inkstands,  buttons. 
and  other  articles  among 
the  peasants.  The  curious 
glass  beads  called  Offgry, 
which  &re  valued  in  Asnan- 
tee  like  diamonds,  and  which 
are  found  in  the  Dinkira, 
Akiin,  Ashantee.  Fanti.  and 
other  countries,  are  sup- 
posed to  be  of  ancient  Egyp- 
tian manufacture.  "Tne 
variegated  strata  of  the  a^- 
gry  beads  are  so  firmly  unit- 
ed and  BO  imperceptibly 
blended  that  the  perfection 
seema  superior  to  art.  The 
surfaces  of  some  are  covered 
with  flowers  and  regular 
patt«ma  so  very  minute,  and 
the  shades  so  delicatoly  soft- 
ened one  into  the  other  and 
into  the  ground  of  the  bead, 
that  nothing  but  the  finest 
touch  of  the  pencil  could 
equal  them.  The  agstized 
parts  disclose  flowers  and 
patterns  deep  in  the  body  of 
the  bead,  and  thin  shafts  of 
opaque  colors  run  from  the 
center  to  the  surface."  It  is 
remarkable  that  these  bea<ls 
bear  some  resemblance  to 
the  celebrated  glain  ntidyr, 
or  Druid  holy  snake  beajls 
of  glass,  found  in  Wales. 
The  Sidonians  and  the  Tyr- 
ians  also  made  very  elegant 


The  Phceticians  at  a  very 
early  age  hod  made  and  ex- 
ported, even  to  Britain,  much 
V8PBii«.  drtokiD8-gl«,,  BlBsa.  and  Aioiander  Nesbitt 

thinks  that  the  aggry  beads 
Are  of  Phanician  make — a  theory  which  would  account  for 
their  identity  with  the  British  glatn  ntidyr.  Greenish  glass 
waa  mode  in  Abyssinia  n.  c.  723,  but  probably  the  colored 
gliuis  discovered  at  Nineveh  by  Liayard  ia  Roman.  Ac- 
cording to  Labarte,  the  beautiful  little  glass  vases  called 
Greek,  so  often  found  in  tombs  on  the  Mediterranean, 
are  really  PhccnictaD,  though  of  Greek  (or  more  rarely 
Egyptian)  form.  Those  in  the  British  Museum  are  very 
elegant. 

Gloss  for  windows  was  not  much  in  demand  in  antiquity 
because  ol  the  plan  and  arrangement  of  the  houses,  but  Ro- 
man window-glass  has  been  found  even  in  England,  and  in 
the  House  of  the  Faun,  at  Pompeii,  a  small  pane  remains  in 
a  bronze  sash.  A  beautiful  industry  in  glass  among  the  Ro- 
mans consisted  in  the  imitation  of  gems,  seals,  and  cameos 
for  jewelry.  A  part  of  these  imitations  were  east,  but  many 
were  cut  by  hand  with  great  eare. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  glass-making  de- 
cline<l,  but  not  so  rapidly  as  other  arts.  Glass  mosnies  of 
good  quality  were  made  at  Rome  from  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine  until  that  of  Charlemagne.  Window-glass  for  churches 
was  made,  according  to  Lactantius,  in  the  fourth  century  ; 
it  is  alluded  to  by  St.  Jerome  early  in  the  fifth,  and  by 
Gregory  of  Tours  and  Fortunatua  in  the  sixth.  In  the 
seventh  century  workmen  were  ^nt  from  Rome  to  glaze  a 
church  in  England.  As  the  art  declined  in  Rome  it  flour- 
ished in  Constantinople,  and  there  m  e\cry  reason  to  believe 
that  it  waa  cultivated  to  a  ccinsiilerablc  extent  among  the 
pagan  Suxons,  the  Picts,  and  In'h,  as  all  had  their  own 
|>eculiarly  formed  eobleta  and  ornaments  of  glass  Beads 
were  made  by  all  the  Celts,  even  in  the  earlicit  times,  with 
great  skill,  after  the  style  of  the  Egyptian  or  Phcenuian 
aggry  type,  and  it  is  possible  that  Ireland  learned  the  art. 
like  Rome,  from  Egypt.  A  large  bead  from  an  old  Irish 
grave  near  the  Giant  s  Causeway  consists  of  terra-^otta  with 


inlaid  glass.  Very  little  remains  of  early  Bvzantine  an  : 
it  is  Roman  imperial  ^laas  with  a  new  spirit  In  the  desitTi. 
akin  to  the  other  manifestutions  of  the  Greek  spirit  un<i'r 
its  new  conditions.  In  the  eleventh  century  gMss-mBkn  : 
was  practiced  with  great  success  in  Persia  and  Alexsudnu 
and  in  1163  Benjamin  of  Tudela  says  there  were  at  N.-. 
Tyre  400  Jews,  "  ship-owners  and  manufacturers  of  the  <■■ 
■     -    '  "     ■         ■       ^'     p  


Theophilus,  a  German,  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cfii''.- 
ries,  contain  full  details  for  making  glass  in  great  varic-;!. 
both  for  windows  and  vessels.  The  art  of  glass-makiDg  «s; 
never  lost  either  in  France  or  En^-land.  In  the  former 
country  it  was  extonsivelv  practiced  in  the  seventh  centun. 
and  the  records  of  Colchester  {England)  show  that  tlif'^'- 
verrera  or  glass-makers  were  taiedin  that  town  in  VM*y 
Glass  for  such  mosaics  was  made  in  Ravenna  U>  the  sin;; 
century,  in  Rome  to  the  ninth,  and  again  tn  the  twelfth  arl 
thirteenth.  Glass-making  in  Venice  is  asserted  lu  dai*- 
from  the  seventh  century.  The  immense  labor  of  covering 
the  interior  of  St.  Mark's  with  glass  mosaic  in  the  elevi-iiT  h 
and  twelfth  centuries  probably  attracted  to  Venice  skill. ■) 
Byzantine  workmen  ;  and  as  fine  sand  and  plants  yi<-1<liii:; 
good  alkali  abounded  there,  glass-making  sain  b<K.-aniir  a 
national  art.  It  is  evident  that  not  only  were  the  proifs>-.-i 
extant  in  the  East  speedily  transferred  to  Venice,  nut  tdi- 
careful  study  of  all  the  Roman  devices  of  the  nilleflori.  lili- 
gree.  and  ribbon  work,  never  perhaps  entirely  lost.  Kuon  ri^ 
vived  nearly  all  that  was  known  of  old. 

About  the  year  1S60  several  persons  interested  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  industries  of  the  Venetian  provincrs  at- 
tempted to  revive  the  then  dormant  art  of  glass-making  \'r. 
the  Island  of  Murano,  where  its  traditions  still  ling^rvd.  a:>'l 
where  lived  the  descendants  of  the  glass-blowers  of  tht  -ii- 
teenth  century.  The  persons  to  whom  the  merit  of  ihL-  «t- 
tempt  is  due  were  Murcnese  ;  but  the  attempt  nearly  fai''-'! 
for  lack  of  capital,  a  large  amount  of  which  wae  lost  b<*f>.r< 
the  business  became  self-supporting. 

Glass  was  made  during  the  Middle  Ages, especially  Ut 
windows,  in  all  European  countries.  In  the  beginning  "t 
the  seventeenth  century  the  Bohemians  began  lo  priidii'-v 
fine  crystal  glass,  and  developed  the  art  of  engraving  on  ii. 
Then  Henry  Schwanhard  invented  engraving  with  liydri- 
fluoric  acid.  Bohemia  has  always  been  able  to  produiv  rtrr 
cheap  glass,  and  even  when 
coarse  it  has  a  certain  odd 
character  which  commands 
a  sale.  More  than  3U,000 
persons  are  engaged  in  ita 
glass  -  works.  In  France 
oiide-of-lead  flint-glass  was 
made  in  1TB4  at  St.-Cloud, 
and  other  factories  were 
soon  after  established.  Glass- 
casting  and  plate-works  had 
Ereviously  been  established 
yThevart  The  ptate-glass 
made  in  France  is  the  best 
known.  In  1465  English 
window  -  glass  cost  much 
more  than  any  other.  Yet 
the  art  greatly  declined  until 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  when  a  revival  took 
place,  and  in  15S7  window 
and  coach  glass  nearly  equal 
to  the  Venetian  was  pro- 
duced. In  158»  there  were 
flfteen  glass-houses  in  Eng- 
land, and  about  this  time 
the  manufacture  rose  to  im- 
nortaneo.  The '  influx  of 
French  Huguenot  glass- 
workers  in  1685  gave  an  im- 
pulse to  the  manufacture, 
and  in  IT36  English  glas.'j  v 

to  be  superior  to  that  of  Bohemia,  and  only  inferior  .. 
made  in  Prussia,  under  royal  patronage,  at  unlimiliM 
lay.  Plate-gloss  was  ma<le  in  ITTl  at  Prescot,  I^anca^' 
the  patent  plate  was  introduced  in  1840.  Perfecllv 
gla.ss,  free  from  specks  or  striw,  is  made  in  Gre«t  fir 
better  than  in  any  other  European  countr;'  except  Fn 


a  driokiug-glajK. 
isidered  by  Dr.  Pix.v  1,^ 


sunplTing  the  melted  glass  from  the  pots  in  which  it  is  con- 
tainea ;  of  the  others,  one  is  the  annealing-furnftce,  in  which 
the  wares  are  annealed  or  tempered  when  made  or  while 
making ;  and  the  other  is  employed  for  baking  the  mw  ma- 
terials combined,  «id  called  frit  or  baleb.  Having  to  fur- 
nish a  teroperHture  between  1,800"  and  2,700°  P.,  these  fur- 
naces are  entirely  constructed  of  fire-brick  made  of  infusible 
clay  and  a  cement  obtained  from  the  fusion  of  old  pots  made 
from  the  same  clay.  In  addition  to  these  is  the  flashing-fur- 
nace, where  articles  being  made  are  rewarmed  or  restored  to 
BuQicieiit  softness  as  they  cool.  The  furnace  for  baking  and 
partly  fusing  the  frit  is  called  a  calcar.  and  that  for  anneal- 
ing a  leer.  For  window-glass  there  is  also  the  spreAding- 
tumace,  in  which  cylinders  while  soft  are  expanded  into 
plates,  while  in  a  crown-glass  factory  the  blowing-furnace  is 
the  principal.  A  flint-glass  furnace  is  between  an  alr-fur- 
nace  and  an  oven — i.  e.  it  must  not  have  too  much  draught, 
and  yet  must  be  very  hot.  A  large  cave  extending  through 
the  subterranean  area  uf  the  glass-house,  connected  with  the 
open  air  at  eacli  end,  under  the  bars  of  the  furnace,  receives 
the  fallen  cinders,  and  supplies  the  oxygen  for  the  combus- 
tion of  the  fuel.  At  right  angles  from  the  large  cave  are 
smaller  caves,  communicating  so  as  to  catch  the  wind  from 
as  many  aspects  as  possible,  A  llint-giass  furnace  is  rever- 
tieratotj — i.  e.  with  no  heat  or  flame  issuing  from  its  center. 
If  the  furnace  contains  ten  pots,  it  will  have  as  many  flues 


or  chimneys,  and  the  flames  escape  through  "  linnet-holes," 
of  which  there  is  oho  in  each  flue.  The  smoke  passes  into 
the  outer  brick  dome  of  the  building,  and  thence  through  the 
funnel  and  great  chimney.  The  biittom  part  of  the  furnace 
is  called  the  siege,  or  seat.  The  Are  never  goes  out  in  a  kIbss- 
house ;  if  a  part  of  the  arch  or  crown  of  the  furnace  is  de- 
stroyed by;heat,  the  repairs  are  made  by  cramming  the  entile 
furnace  with  coals  and  cinders,  which  stops  the  draiight,  and 
on  this  the  workmen  rebuild  with  artli-bricks  and  fireproof 
clay.  A  furnace  in  England  lasts  from  three  to  ten  years; 
in  Prance,  but  one  or  two  years.  Between  every  two  adja- 
cent flues  in  the  furnace  is  an  aperture  called  the  working- 


hole,  opposite  to  and  a  little  above  each  pot,  for  the  puq-~ 
of  putting  in  raw  material  or  taking  out  melted  glass.  ~.  -. 
pais  are  from  18  inches  to  3  feet  hieh.  2  or  3  inches  thj  ^ 
the  bottom  4  inches.  They  are  either  round,  oral,  or  r  — 
tAQgular.  Por  crystal  made  at  the  coal  mine  thev  an  >)>di  -  - 
like  a  retort  with  a  very  narrow  neck,  or  are  hoode.)^,;.,- 
ine  a  mouth  in  front.  Large  pots  cost  £10  =  ^%.  t&i  -. 
when  a  pot  wears  away  or  sputa  in  the  furnace,  it  is  rtfiiu.--  i 
as  it  remains  by  diSerent  methods,  and  may  thus  bt  j>r'- 
served  for  several  weeks.  The  breaking  away  of  kti  fiiii  i  - 
aud  setting  a  new  is  a  very  difficult  and  sometimes  diuiL-.  :- 
ous  process.  After  being  kept  for  nearly  a  year  frer  tr  ci 
change  of  air,  the  pot  is  annealed  or  tempered  at  a  nrd  h>  ii 
for  five  da'TO,  and  then  carried  to  and  placed  in  the  ni...-, 
furnace.  This  requires  much  skill.  lulling  the  pot  «::). 
new  glass  is /oufkfin^.  It  requires  constant  skimining— *■, 
operation  confided  only  to  a  very  skillful  woitanan.  T-- 
process  of  making  up  the  hot  gloss  or  metal  is  called  bj<  -- 
ney  (French,  toumee,  a  day).  It  is  from  thirty  to  f-r--. 
hours.  The  snorter  the  time  for  preparing  the  glasf.  i:.' 
better.  It  is,  if  good,  quite  liquid.  If  by  delay  it  beeiui.t- 
thick,  it  is  spoiled,  and  must  be  turned  into  cold  water  t,:  ■. 
used  aa  cuUet;  that  is,  must  be  broken  up  to  be  tvm>-l1.^i. 
In  Great  Britain  the  men  generally  work  from  Monday  ■■■ 
Friday  by  piece-work.     In  France  their  labor  is  by  the  I'in;, 

Annealing  is  an  important  process  with  glass-ware.  If  i,  : 
well  done,  the  articles  will,  it  may  be  months  afi*rwar  I 
break  suddenly.  Ad  unannealed  tiottle  will  be  shivere-l  f 
a  bit  of  flint  or  gmins  of  sand  are  shaken  within  it.  Tt  ;> 
results  from  a  different  arrangement  of  the  moteiu  — 
through  the  whole  mass,  caused  by  a  sudden  cooling.  T:.< 
furnace  for  anneatiiig-is  fed  for  p/o/e  with  coke,  aud  !..-■ 
different  degrees  of  heat.  The  time  required  is  from  six  ■ 
siity  hours,  according  to  the  size  of  the  articles.  Much  'U- 
pends  upon  the  wind.  Great  losses  result  when  a  sudii- :. 
contrary  current  drives  back  the  heated  air.  Very  Urgt  ■  L- 
jects  are  annealed  in  heated  sand. 

A  very  important  invention  was  announced  in  lt*T5  l.v 
M,  de  !a  Bastie.  It  consists  of  [ilungine  hot  glass,  mar.u- 
factured  in  any  form,  into  hot  oil  or  a  heated  oleagim  li; 
compound.  When  cooled  it  becomes  (it  was  claimed)  aim  ~: 
as  tough  as  metal,  so  that  a  cup  or  mirror  made  of  it  mat  '<e 
thrown  violentlymany  feet  or  dropped  on  a  stone  floor  wV:i- 
out  breaking.  When  very  violently  broken  it  separate  in:-- 
granulated  fragments,  without  sharp  edges,  so  that  the  dnr- 
ger  of  being  cut  by  it  is  much  diminished.  The  process  c. » 
not  affect  the  transparency  or  beauty  of  the  glass  in  any  wx? 

Coloring  or  Staining  (?ia««.— This  is  a  very  imporl*.-,; 
part  of  the  manufacture,  involving  much  skill.  At  iHie  t.ri'- 
dark  maaaitt-eolortd  glasses  were  generally  uaed.  Bv  (m!  r 
en  matae  is  meant  that  which  is  tinted  all  through.  Ar 
present  hues  are  conveyed  by  covering  a  body  of  pure  Il,r,' 
glass  with  one  or  more  thin  coatings  of  inten^lv  ool.r-. 
glass,  whether  of  blue  from  cobalt,  green  from  iron  and  <■  :- 
per,  or  ruby  from  gold.  The  more  metallic  coloring  <■!..'■  ■■ 
IS  employed  the  less  lead  must  be  used,  so  as  to  equal;  - 
the  com^iositinn.  Massive  colore  produce  a  sfaadowv  tiln.  k- 
ness,  which  was,  however,  turned  to  account  by  the  an:-:- 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  by  leading  their  tints  of  bine.  red.  v-  - 
low,  amethyst,  and  ^en  into  windows,  cither  thicker  .-r 
thinner  of  solid  or  cased  glass  as  the  required  eflfecif  ?;;;- 
gested.  The  following  are  approved  recipes:  Prepaiv  \ 
very  flue  flint  gloss — e.  g.  carbonate  of  potash.  1  owr  : 
minium  or  htharge,  2  cwt. :  sand,  washed  and  bumi--i,  A 
cwt. ;  saltpeter,  14-28  lb. ;  oxide  of  manganese,  4-12  oz.  Ac: 
to  this  for  ruby  red.  to  6  cwt.  of  the  bat«h  or  frit,  4  oz.  .  f 
oxide  of  gold  ;  ancient  red,  use  protoxide  of  copper.  T:- 
art  of  maKing  this,  though  known  to  Neri  and  KuockeL  «t> 
entirely  lost  until  revived  in  1828  by  Enselhart,  of  Zn.r- 
weiler.  Ked  schmels,  or  araalt,  is  prepared  by  a  very  l<  ;  ,- 
and  intricate  process,  given  by  Laboutaye.  Azure  bluf :  : 
6  cwt,  of  batch  add  S  lb.  of  oxide  of  copper ;  cobalt  blu--.  : '. 
adding  oxide  of  cobalt  or  smalt  The  cobalt  forms  a  tni:  - 
parent  glass.  Amethyst  or  purple:  6  cwt.  of  batch,  ^ii  ■. 
of  oxide  of  manganese  (and  a  little  niter — Li^ioitlayej.  \<  ,- 
low  common  topaz,  add  to  the  glass  charcoal  in  jiowi-  -. 
t'ommon  orange,  6  cwt.  of  tiatch.  12  lb.  of  iron  ore,  ami  4  ' 
of  manganese.  Gold  topaz,  6  cwt.  of  tiateh,  3  lb.  of  oxii!-  ' 
uranium.  Gold  yellow,  to  a  composition  for  dark  ti.  . 
(peroxide  of  manganese)  add  a  little  oxide  of  iron,  givii  .  t 
brown  violet;  increase  the  iron,  it  will  become  a  fine  vvi.  • 
such  as  is  used  to  spin  into  gold  threads  in  woven  £..■- 
Green  (grass),  chromic  oxide,  or  a  mixture  of  antimonv  ;:  :■  - 
and  oxide  of  ool>alL    Emerald,  to  6  cwt.  of  batch  ailii  12  . 


804 


GLASS 


Venice ;  Howells's  Familiar  Letters  from  Venice ;  Alexan- 
der Neflbitt,  Notes  on  the  History  of  Olass-making ;  Ar^  In^ 
iroduction  to  the  CcUalogue  of  the  Collection  of  Glass  formed 
by  Felix  Slade  and  presented  to  the  British  Museum  (pri- 
vately printed,  1871) ;  C.  Beurath,  Die  Olasfabrikation 
(1875) ;  Wagner,  Die  chemische  Technologie  (1888) ;  Wagner, 
Manual  of  Chemical  Technology  (translated  br  Crookes 
from  the  thirteenth  German  edition;  remodeled  by  F. 
Kscher,  1892) ;  Gerner,  Die  Glasfabrikaiton  (1880) ;  Graeger, 
Handbuch  der  Glasfdbrikation  (1868) ;  Dictionary  of  Ap- 
plied Chemistry^  Thorpe,  article  Glass,  by  W.  Ramsay 
(1891).       Charles  G.  Leulnd.    Revised  by  Iba  Remsen. 

Glass  in  Artistic  Use. 

(1)  Glass  Vessels, — Phials,  small  plates  and  saucers,  open 
jars  of  small  size,  and  similar  objects  are  found  in  ancient 
graves  in  all  the  lands  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 
The  pieces  found  in  Egypt  are  certainly  the  oldest;  and 
besides  those  actually  found  intact,  large  quantities  of  frag- 
ments of  broken  vessels  have  been' collected,  and  also  paint- 
ings of  what  are  certainly  glass  vases  are  to  be  seen  on  the 
wSls  of  tombs  and  temples.  It  is  then  certain  that  as  early 
as  3000  B.  c,  and  probably  1,000  years  earlier,  the  Egyptians 
were  using  vessels  of  glass  both  plain  and  ornamental. 
Some  of  these  have  the  most  varied  colors  fused  together 
into  the  solid  mass  of  opaque  material,  the  colors  arranged 
in  zigzags,  *'  comb  "  patterns,  and  spirals.  Plain  uncolored 
glass  was  used  also,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  Egyp- 
tains  had  perfectly  transparent  glass.  The  Phoenicians 
used  similar  glass  vessels  at  least  as  early  as  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.  c,  but  these  need  not  have  been  of  Phoenician  manu- 
facture. The  Phoenicians  were  rather  merchants  than  arti- 
sans. It  is,  however,  certain  that  glass  was  one  of  their 
manufactures  at  a  later  time,  and  that  this  industry  was 
active  in  Syria  and  Palestine  from  the  sixth  century  b.  c. 
The  glass  found  in  tombs  of  the  Graeco-Roman  period  is 
rarely  ornamented  with  color,  but  is  exquisite  in  form.  And 
it  must  be  noted  here  that  peoples  who  were  especially  care- 
ful about  form,  as  the  Greeks  were,  would  not  have  been  very 
eager  to  secure  perfect  transparency  for  their  glass.  A  very 
transparent  object  has  no  form,  or  none  that  can  be  seen 
and  enjoyed.  The  glass  of  even  the  smallest  and  most  deli- 
cate vases  and  phials  was  left  full  of  bubbles  and  flaws  and 
slight  wavy  ana  ropy  irregularities  of  texture,  and  places  of 
uneven  thickness  and  of  non-uniform  color,  and  assuredly 
this  was  better  liked  by  the  Greeks,  and  is  immeasurably 
more  beautiful  than  the  clear  and  almost  invisible  glass  pro- 
duced in  modern  times. 

The  Roman  dominion  over  the  Mediterranean  brought 
with  it  the  palmy  days  of  decorative  glass.  Plain  glass  ves- 
sels of  the  loveliest  Greek  forms,  jars  of  coloring  as  rich  as 
the  Egyptians  had  ever  made  in  tne  days  of  their  own  antiq- 
uity, more  remote  for  the  Roman  rulers  than  Roman  antic}- 
uity  is  for  us,  and,  with  these,  larger  and  more  splendid 
vessels,  adorned  in  fantastic  ways  with  colored  material  in 
the  mass  or  added  in  twisted  cords  and  spirals,  buttons, 
bosses,  and  masks,  were  all  in  use.  What  we  suppose  to 
have  been  a  discovery,  new  at  this  time,  gave  to  the  Romans 
objects  of  clear  glass'  perhaps  half  an  inch  thick  in  the  very 
body  of  which,  and  seen  through  the  transparent  medium, 
were  flowers  and  rosettes  of  vivid  color.  Tablets,  slabs,  and 
tiles  were  made  in  molds,  with  delicate  bas-relief  decora- 
tion of  even  elaborate  figure  compositions.  Vessels  were 
made  with  an  outer  shell  or  ca.se  of  delicate  laoe-work,  or  of 
slender  bars  of  glass  forming  a  net  or  lattice,  through  which 
the  inner  and  solid  shell  shows  in  a  prettily  contrasting 
color.  Solid  opacjue  glass  was  made  in  close  imitation  of 
porphyry  and  other  valuiible  stones.  And  the  richest  manu- 
facture of  all,  and  that  involving  the  most  elaborate  and 
costly  process,  though  not  strictly  (me  peculiar  to  glass- 
making,  is  that  caineo-work  of  which  the  most  famous 
specimens  are  the  Portland  or  Barberini  vase  in  the  British 
Museum  and  the  lovely  amphora  in  the  National  Museum 
at  Naples.  In  these  and  similar  pieces  layers  of  glass  of 
different  colors  are  superimposed,  imich  as  the  layers  of 
onyx  occur,  alternately  blue  and  white,  or  black  and  white, 
or  dark  brown  and  white;  the  outer  shell  is  then  cut 
through  by  engraving,  with  the  wheel,  etc.,  as  is  done  in  the 
case  of  natural  gem-cutting  on  a  large  s<'ale,and  the  result  is 
a  raised  design  in  one  color.  Jis,  for  instance,  in  white,  on  a 
smooth  background  of  another  color.  In  the  two  instances 
named  above  the  raised  pattern  is  an  elaborate  design  of 
human  figures,  conventionalized  trees,  etc.,  in  a  channing 
Grseco-Roman  manner. 


« ' 


i**  J. 


Apart  from  these  rarities,  the  glass  vessels  in  daily  n^ 
and  those  buried  or  deposited  in  columbaria  with  the'as:^ 
of  the  dead,  are  of  wonderful  beauty  of  form,  and  an   . 
excellent  lesson  to  the  modems  whose  taste  is  led  astrav 
the  constant  presence  all  around  them  of  gla^s  madv  - 
manufacturing  firms  in  uninteresting  and  even  ugly  sha  •  - 
The  ancient  plain  glass  when  taken  out  of  the  ^^umi     .• 
often  a  lovely  iridescent  surface  which  is  the  result     '  ; 
curious  decay  in  its  substance :  the  solid  and  partly  t  rar  • 
parent  glass  has  turned  to  thin  films,  one  upon  an<»th4  r.  - 
as  to  have  lost  much  or  all  of  its  translucencj.  and  ! 
same  change  in  its  substance  gives  to  it  the  beautiful  :  .- 
of  color  mentioned  above.      In   many  pieces   wherv   ♦  •  .• 
change  has  not  gone  so  far,  and  some  translucency  rt*nM 
one  combination  of  color  is  to  be  seen  when  it  is'lo<»kt-:  » 
by  transmitted  light  and  another  when  light  falls  u|^»m  : 
in  the  usual  wavs.    The  color  effect  may  oe  generally  •   , 
in  one  light  and  perhaps  orange  in  the  other,  having  aU  ./- 
beautiful  gradations  and  veinings  and  an  opaline  |>la>    ' 
color.    But  this  is  not  a  result  of  the  glass-maker^s  art,  .- 
only  to  be  compared  with  the  color  of  natural  minerals,  t.r  r  • 
haps  the  patina  of  bronze.    Imitations  of  this  double  i-rT 
of  color  and  of  iridescence  have  been  made  in  modem  x-.w- 

In  antiquity^  these  glass  vessels  and  slabs  or  tih-^  v^  r 
made  decorative,  first,  by  the  facility  with  which  rich 
delicate  colors  can  be  combined  in  patterns  by  mean>  *  t 
plasticity  and  adhesiveness  of  the  glass  when  hot ;  st^* 
by  its  tenacity  when  in  thin  sheets  and  slender  ri«i' 
threads,  so  that  goblets  and  vases  could  be  made  as  th  - 
desired,  and  could  be  adorned  with  the  most  airv  an<l  fnij 
appendages  in  the  way  of  network  and  the  Ufce ;  tliir  i    . 
its  fitness  to  be  cast  or  pressed  in  a  mold,  when  hot,  f«  r  • 
keeps  the  form  of  the  mold,  not  indeed  as  perfectly  a^  -^ 
metals,  but  still  suflHciently;  and  fourth,  by  iti^geni-.  • 
hardness  when  cold,  fitting  it  to  be  cut  like  rock  cry>r...    • 
chalcedony.    But  it  was  left  for  the  latest  days  of  the  K-.'    - 
empire,  or  even  for  the  Bvzantines,  to  bring  out  other*  *  f 
virtues.    Thus  what  is  called  enameling  on  gla^  i»  nit).>  r 
Byzantine  than  a  Roman  art ;  the  workmen  of  the  sixrh  .«- 
following  centuries  brought  it  to  great  perfection,  and  :: 
Saracens  took  this  as  they  took  their  other  decorative  ^"' 
ready  made,  from  their  Romano-Greek  neighbors  whom  t 
were  gradually  displacing  or  subduing.    Enameling  oa     - 
done  upon  glass  as  well  as  upon  metal,  and  in  the  U  ac:i 
Byzantine  vases  and  so-callea  "  Arab  "  haiiging  l&mp>  (>f  ' 
mosques  in  Damascus  and  Cairo  very  transparent  ena"..  - 
are  generally  used,  so  that  a  translucent  pattern  of  c" 
beauty  and  richness  of  color  is  obtained  by  very  m'.. 
means.    Another  way  of  adorning  glass  is  in  a  curioL.s  v  ,• 
identified  with  the  Cfiristian  tom£  of  the  fourth  and  r  •  • 
centuries,  where  many  pieces  or  large  fragments  havt   N- 
found.    This  is  the  insertion  of  a  piece  of  ^old-leaf  W* >  ■  • 
two  thicknesses  of  glass  while  still  hot  and  partly  ad:.—  - 
and  plastic ;  the  pieces  of  glass  being  joined  the  gt  >ld  :^ 
permanently  brilliant  in  the  interior  of  the  mass.     Xt  :      . 
IS  easier  than  to  engrave  or  cut  the  thin  film  of  c«  •' 
characters  before  the  glass  is  joined.    This  process!  wu*-  .  - 
also  for  making  the  tesserae  of  mosaic-work.     See  Mi^^na- 

In  the  Middle  Ages  Damascus  had  a  name  for  >p^ 
glass  vessels,  as  it  had  for  rich  stuffs  and  for  swonl-l 
but  some  of  the  cups  called  Damascene  may  well  havr    •  • 
either  Byzantine  or  Persian.     The  Persians  deveK-i-  i  . 
specialty  of  opaque  enameling  upon   glass,  so   that    ^.- 
elaboratc  subjects  were  given  m  panels  with  pattern^ 
traceries  between.    And  in  the  fifteenth  century  ear.- 
great  days  of  Italian  supremacy  in  art,  and  all  the  a**^ 
glass  of  the  ancients  and  of  the  Orientals  were  taken  ui 
uschI  freely  and  boldly  by  the  Venetians.    Glas^-makt  r^ 
followed  their  trade  for  several  centuries  in  the  citv  h\ 
neighlx)ring  islands,  and  especially  in  Murano,  wlu  r 
chief  seat  of  the  industry  has  always  been,  but  thf  ^i- 
of  wealth  in  Venice  came  with  the  growth  of  the  <1«  -»- 
splendor  in  decorative  appliances,  and  the  fifteen  r: 
sixteenth  centuries  saw  the  greatest  development  of  n-*  . 
industry  in  glass  that  we  know  of  since  the  time  of  i\  - 
man  empire.     It  seems  even  that  certain  ways  of  onu.  : 
ing  the  nearly  transparent  and  very  thin  elass  of  lx>^ '.-  . 
l)eakers  were  actually  invented  by  the  \enetians.  n: 
some  of  these  unknown  or  rare  among  antique  \  »'s>. 
fragments  are  common  in  the  more  modem  work. 
the  powdering  and  clouding  with  gold-dust,  one  of  t*  ►• 
effective  of  all  these  ornamental  processes,  the  wt»ll-K 
aventurine  or  gold-stone,  in  which  particles   of  t».|.r. 
brass  are  thickly  diffused  in  a  brownish-yellow  tr»r< 


806 


GLASS 


darker  figures  on  a  lighter  ground  or  on  a  gold  ground,  as 
in  St.  Mark's  at  Venice.  Tne  window,  on  the  other  hand, 
must  not  have  dark  figures  on  a  light  ground.  It  is  and 
must  always  be  the  figures  which  are  relieved  in  brightness 
on  a  darker  ground  if  any  such  distinction  at  all  is  to  exist, 
for  how  else  would  the  details  of  the  figures,  the  lineaments, 
the  ornaments,  and  the  folds  of  drapery  be  visible!  But 
as  the  very  subject  of  the  design,  whether  a  story  with  hu- 
man figures  or  a  merely  ornamental  pattern,  must  itself 
transmit  light  freely,  another  very  important  and  in  a  sense 
very  surprising  limitation  is  found  to  exist  in  the  power  of 
certain  colors  to  spread  or  extend  in  appearance  beyond 
their  actual  limits,  somewhat  as  bright  light  seems  to  eat 
up  the  outline  of  an  object  seen  from  the  side  awav  from 
the  source  of  light.  Blue  is  much  the  most  powerful  color 
in  this  respect.  If  a  piece  of  vividly  blue  glass  is  surrounded 
by  red  glass  with  no  separation  except  the  strips  of  lead, 
the  blue  will  invade  the  red  on  every  side  and  will  turn  it 
to  a  brownish  purple  of  no  great  beauty,  while  wholly  de- 
stroying the  apparent  shape  of  the  pieces  of  glass  and  there- 
fore the  character  of  the  design,  similar  phenomena  exist 
in  the  opaaue  color  of  a  painting,  but  much  less  noticeable 
and  much  less  important.  (See  Faintino.)  In  glass  it  is  so 
formidable  that  it  has  been  wisely  said  that  the  mediaeval 
development  of  glass-painting  has  been  a  constant  study 
"  to  control  the  blue,"  blue  being  much  the  most  rayonnant 
of  colors  as  well  as  the  most  important  element  of  light  in  a 
translucent  color-design.  It  appears,  then,  that  no  primary 
and  obvious  reason  exists  for  painting  a  window  as  one 
would  paint  a  picture  on  plaster  or  canvas  or  wood.  The 
essential  conditions  are  different.  There  are  some  restric- 
tions which  this  art  shares  with  other  kinds  of  decoration, 
such  as  the  absence  of  cast  shadow,  which  it  shares  with  the 
painting  of  miniatures  in  manuscripts  (see  Illumination) 
and  with  the  mosaic  of  the  great  times ;  and  the  prohibition 
of  elaborate  perspective  with  distance  and  middle  distance, 
etc.,  which  prohibition  applies  equally  to  bas-relief,  to  inlay, 
and  to  wall-painting  where  the  architectural  surroundings 
require  the  wall  itself  to  retain  its  solid  individuality.  But 
the  other  limitations  mentioned  above  are  peculiar  to  orna- 
mental windows.  If  a  figure  of  life  size  is  to  be  introduced 
into  a  window  the  first  necessity  is  that  the  colors  of  all  the 
drapery  and  the  fiesh  and  hair  shall  act  together  in  har- 
mony with  each  other  and  with  the  surroundings ;  and  the 
second  necessity  is  that  the  different  parts  shall  be  so  de- 
signed that  the  radiating  power  of  the  colors,  as  this  will 
appear  at  the  average  distance  of  the  window  from  the  spec- 
tator, shall  help  rather  than  hinder  the  effectiveness  of  the 
drawing.  As  to  this  second  re(|uiremcnt,  it  may  be  exem- 
plified in  this  way :  A  limb  will  be  drawn  more  slender 
than  the  truth,  because  the  light  pouring  through  the  more 
translucent  glass  which  stands  for  that  limb  will  eat  away 
the  outline  and  the  darker  surface  all  around  and  give  the 
limb  its  proper  size ;  moreover,  the  articulations,  as  the 
knee,  the  Knuckles,  etc.,  will  be  strongly  indicated  by  a  few 
touches  and  the  more  delicate  details  ignored,  because  the 
li^ht,  transmitted  and  not  reflected,  would  not  allow  a  more 
minute  rendering  to  be  seen.  A  fine  window  seen  at  a  dis- 
tance of  6  feet  ought  to  look  strangely  exaggerated  and 
even  distorted  in  the  drawing  of  its  figures,  and  the  cartoon 
for  it  should  look  still  more  exaggerated.  No  doubt  much 
is  done  by  the  artist  in  the  posing  of  his  figures,  the  avoid- 
ance of  the  relief  of  a  slender  light  member  on  a  darker 
ground,  and  the  like,  to  avoid  great  seeming  oddity  of  de- 
sign, and  this  the  more  carefully  that  the  window  will  inev- 
itably be  seen  from  more  points  than  one  and  also  from  dif- 
ferent distances. 

Such  work  as  remains  from  the  later  years  of  the  twelfth 
century  and  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  shows  an  al- 
most perfect  understanding  of  the  problem,  and  is  in 
many  respects  the  most  admirable  of  all  ancient  glass.  Be- 
sides the  pieces  named  above,  there  remain  others  of  the 
twelfth  century  at  St.  Remi  of  Reims,  in  the  choir,  some 
panels  at  the  cathedrals  of  Strassburg  and  Le  Mans,  and 
three  windows  in  the  west  front  of  Chartres.  That  of  the 
later  years  of  the  thirteenth  century  is  sometimes  fine; 
but  colored  windows  were  then  the  most  popular  of  all  the 
means  of  interior  decoration,  and  an  immense  number  were 
made  of  a  very  inferior  style.  The  Cathedral  of  Chartres 
contains  the  most  splendid  group  of  windows  of  the  best 
character  of  this  peiiod — there  are  fifty-five  of  them,  and 
repairs  and  restorations  have  not  greatly  marred  their  orig- 
inal beauty.  At  Reims  cathedral  the  northern  rose-window 
and  many  of  the  clerestory  windows  are  of  this  epoch,  as 


are  a  large  number  at  the  cathedral  at  Bourges ;  the^^- 1  \r 
are  very  famous,  but  are  perhaps  of  a  less  perfect  *!;,*- 
The  celebrated  windows  of  the  Sainte  Chapelle  at  Pari^  a-- 
peculiar  in  being  composed  of  a  multitude  of  ^mali  f^r*-  - 
with  diminutive  figures,  not   more  than  20  inches  hi^' . 
each  panel  is  a  most  interesting  study  of  conventional]/^! 
action   and  incident,  an   admirable    school  of  decnnt::v»- 
composition,  but  the  general  effect  of  the  window?;  is  .  -^ 
tranquil  and  dignified  than  in  other  pieces  of  the  "sfi-  • 
epoch.    The  early  part  of  the  fourteenth  century  brr.fi,  :i* 
with  it  a  great  increase  in  the  number  of  oncolorMi  dct  •  m- 
tive  windows,  windows  in  grisaille,  as  they  are  often  ca.1  -i. 
that  is,  those  in  which  the  uncolored  but  rough  and  not  j.-  r- 
fectly  translucent  glass  is  arranged  with  its  lead  SAsh-i!^  .-^^ 
in  patterns  of  some  significance,  and  is  then  paint-ed  witli  ri- 
usual  pigments  of  negative  and  pale  color  in  such  a  way  i^ 
to  produce  leaf- patterns  and  the  like  in  the  spirit  of  t-. 
decoration  of  the  time,  but  all  in  a  pale-gray  or  milky  t*  »r  -. 
These  grisaille  windows  are,  however,  often  adome<i  w::{ 
small  patches  of  bright  color.    There  are  instances  al>' .  l' 
this  time  of  a  style  which  l)ecame  very  prevalent    Ul<r 
where  panels  of  fiipre-subject  in  full  color  are  set  in  UriT'-r 
surfaces  of  grisaille.    In  the  fourteenth  century,  and  >*ra 
more  in  the  fifteenth,  designing  in  glass  followed  iiin  qh^u- 
ral  course  to  agree  with  the  arts  of  the  time.     It   had  U^r 
taken  up  in  ItAly  as  a  part  of  the  Gothic  art  brou«;bt  r, 
from  the  north ;  and  at  a  time  when  full  colored  gLi<«?  u  v« 
rare  in  Prance  splendid  windows  were  made  in  Italy.  ^.  r:  - 
of  them  with  all  the  signs  of  the  reviving  classic  ta>tn  -f 
the  Renaissance.    Examples  of  this  stvle,  dating  fivm  th 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Florence.    But  in  the  north  there  is  rather  to  i,  ♦- 
a  growing  desire  for  moi-e  light  in  the  interiors,  and,  f  r   u 
this  reason  and  for  economy,  less  strong  color  and  mt»rv  y-i*.-: 
tints  in  the  glass.    With  this  came  the  demand  for  f  4 :    * 
than  biblical  or  legendarv  subjects,  and  for  a  realistic  tn-  «!- 
ment  of  all  subjects  alike,  somewhat  in  the  spirit  of  !  •  - 
book-decoration  of  the  time.    Admirable  artistic  judgn**    r 
was  shown  by  the  glass-workmen:  they  had  to  reprt— lIi: 
scenes  with  many  figures  and  a  good  deal  of  incident  ;{-!■- 
traits  of  the  donors  of  the  glass  and  of  dignitaries  of  *h-^ 
time,  and  imaginary  portraits  of  kings  and  saints  of  f<»m.'  r 
times,  had  to  be  included,  and  in  ordinary  picture-i»aintir  j 
this  would  involve  the  use  of  perspective  and  of  di^taii*  .- 
seen  in  the  background,  in  a  way  not  to  be  followed  in  ^la.?-. 
So  the  difficulty  was  settled  by  treating  the  whole  as  a  t^-.'- 
relief  is  treated — that  is,  by  design  in  one  plane.     The  tiz- 
ures,  in  a  generally  light  tone  of  color,  and  most  skill fnl/i 
painted  in  semi-transparent  gradation,  are  seen  upon  a  l.tt 
ground,  sometimes  painted  with  an  elaborate  pattern  iikt  & 
piece  of  brocade,  sometimes  architectural,  and  often  n  y  - 
resenting  the  interior  decoration  of  a  hall  with  pillars  nn  s 
paneling,  and  even  open  windows  through  which  tnH^i*  :^ 
and  sky  are  shown.     Windows  of  this  style  are  to  U^  ^-  • 
in  the  Cathedral  of  Troyes,  in  St.-Ouen  at  Roaen,  in  >i,- 
Nazaire  at  Carcassonne,  and  at  Fairford  church  in  Gloiur^- 
tershire.    Sometimes  in  simpler  work  the  single  stanti.i  j 
figures  of  saints  or  princes  are  in  a  mosaic  of  pale.  Itriv^-.  ! 
colors,  with  very  little  painting,  and  incrusted  in  an  a^  -  - 
lutely  unadomea  surface  of  light-gray  or  pale-green   r\'j.^> 
glass,  set  in  a  simple  diaper  pattern  of  squares  and  lozei.  j--. 
When  the  efforts  to  revive  the  art  of  glass  began.  «1 .  /. 
1840,  very  false  ideas  about  decorative  art  prevaileii.  ar. 
little  of  the  work  done  since  that  time  has  l>een  8uoee>^f 
In  France  some  excellent  work  has  been  done  sint-t»  l'^**. 
in  the  way  of  direct  imitation  of  the  ancient  giasss  as  vr:..  i. 
a  window-opening  has  been  filled  with  new  gia^s  Xo  i-tr re- 
spond with  the  old  glass  in  the  next  one.     In  Great  Brit;.  i 
the  efforts  to  regain  the  feeling  of  the  mediaeval  an^--, 
made  necessary  by  the  Gothic  Revival  {q,  t*.),  re5ult»-»i  s^ 
length  in  some  very  interesting  work  or  strictly  archaic  iKi-- 
acter,  the  legends  and  personages  of  church'  history  U-..i« 
shown  in  a  style  as  nearljr  like  that  of  the  fourteenth  vn:- 
tury  as  was  possible  to  artists  of  greater  knowledge  t»f  an  j 
omy  and  greater  technical  skill,  although  of  inferior  j*-  «r.  r 
of  ornamental  design.     It  seems  to  have  been  res?ent'i  :"  - 
some  artists  in  the  U.  S.,  during  the  period  from  1S?»  * 
1893,  to  make  a  serious  advance  in  this  art.     No  ven-  Urc* 
amount  has  been  produced  as  yet;  and  visitors  to  the  Lar,: 
cities  of  the  U.  S.  might  fail  to  meet  with  any  examples  of :  ^  ^ 
the  best  decorative  work  that  has  been  done,  but  even  a  >"  '- 
or  two  of  very  elaborate  windows  and  a  hundred  or  i* 
minor  examples  suffice  to  show  the  importance  of  the  i    ^ 
departure.  The  principles  involved  are  perhaps  these :  Fir-'. 


808 


GLAUCIAS 


GLEE 


Glan'eias  (in  Gr.  TKauidas) :  a  bronze-founder  of  ^gina ; 
flourished  about  490-470  B.  c. ;  celebrated  for  his  statues  of 
combatants  in  the  games.  He  cast  the  chariot  and  a  statue 
of  Gklo  {q.  v.),  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse  and  conqueror  in  the 
chariot-race  at  Olyinpia  in  485  b.  c.  ;  made  statues  of  the 
wrestlers  Philo  of  Corcyra,  and  Glaucus  of  Carystus  (the 
exact  date  can  not  be  fixed),  and  also  of  Theagenes  the  Tha- 
sian,  conqueror  at  the  Olympic  games  in  480  B.  c.  See 
Brunn,  deachichte  der  6riechi9chen  Kunstler,  i.,  p.  83 
(Brunswick,  1853). — A  physician  of  the  Empiric  scnool: 
teacher  of  Heraclides  oi  Tarentum,  and  one  of  the  earliest 
interpreters  of  the  writings  of  Hippocrates,  the  difficult 
words  in  which  he  arrangwl  in  a  sort  of  lexicon,  in  alpha- 
betical order,  but  too  much  in  detail,  as  Eeotian  (q,  v.) 
implies  in  referring  to  the  work  in  his  own  glossary,  still 
extant.  J.  R.  S.  Stereett. 

Glanco'ma  [Gr.  yXA^w/ia,  glaucoma,  deriv.  of  yKauK6s, 
bluish  green,  light  blue,  gray — so  called  from  the  greenish 
or  bluish  tint  of  the  pupU  in  this  disease] :  a  disease  charac- 
terized by  incrcAsea  mtraocular  tension,  caused  by  the 
augmented  volume  of  the  vitreous  and  aqueous  humors. 
It  is  marked  by  a  gradual  loss  of  sight  ana  by  pain,  often 
very  intense.  It  is  acute  or  chronic.  The  ophthalmoscope 
affords  the  surest  tests  of  its  existence.  It  is  a  disease  of 
advanced  life,  and  very  frequently  leads  to  complete  blind- 
ness. The  be^t  treatment  begins  in  the  early  performance 
of  iridectomy,  which  sometimes  arrests,  and  almost  always 
palliates,  the  symptoms.        Revised  by  Willllm  Pepper. 

Glanconite  [deriv.  of  Gr.  yXovic^f,  bluish  green,  gray] :  a 
mineral  of  green  color  occurring  abundantly  in  S^oiiaary 
and  Tertiary  greensands  and  chloritic  marls,  and  composed 
of  silica  4^  to  56  per  cent.,  ferrous  oxide  20  to  25  per  cent., 
potash  5  to  13  per  cent.,  alumina  4  to  14  per  cent.,  and  wa- 
ter 0  to  10  per  cent. 

Glaucus  (in  Gr.  TXjoBkos)  :  the  name  of  several  personages. 

(1)  A  bronze- founder  of  Chios,  according  to  Herodotus, 
though  others  assign  him  to  Samos.  He  was  said  to  have 
invented  the  art  of  soldering  bronze  and  of  tempering  it  by 
fire  and  water.  His  most  famous  work  was  the  celebrated 
bronze  base,  on  which  was  placed  a  silver  vase,  dedicated  by 
Alyattes  II.,  King  of  Lydia  (617-561  B.  c),  to  Apollo  at  Del- 
phi. The  work  was  spoken  of  with  admiration  by  Herod- 
otus, and  Pausanias  (x.,  16, 1)  gives  an  accurate  description 
of  it  (the  silver  vase  had  disappeared  in  his  time — 180  a.  d.). 
The  base  was  of  such  superior  workmanship  that  it  ^ve 
rise  to  the  proverb  T\a6Kou  r4xvii'  (See  Brunn,  GescJnchte 
der  Oriechischen  Kunstler,  i.,  pp.  29-30,  Brunswick,  1853.) 

(2)  A  sea-god,  who  followed  after  the  ship  Argo  and  prophe- 
sied to  the  heroes  on  board.  Originally  he  was  a  fisherman 
of  Anthedon  in  Boeotia,  and  was  one  day  assorting  his  fish 
on  a  grassy  bank  that  had  never  been  trodden  by  man 
nor  grazed  by  cattle.  Suddenly  the  dead  fish  leaped  up  and 
sprang  into  the  sea.  This  was  due  to  a  life-givmg  weed  of 
which  Glaucus  had  no  sooner  eaten  than  he  too  sprang  into 
the  sea.  The  gods  of  the  sea  purified  him  from  mortality 
and  made  him  immortal.  He  fell  in  love  with  the  mortal 
maiden  Scylla,  who  repulsed  him.  He  consulted  Circe,  who 
fell  in  love  with  him,  and  to  rid  herself  of  Scylla  mixed 
poisons  in  the  water  of  the  sea  where  Scylla  bathed  daily. 
Scylla  wa(led  in  only  up  to  her  thighs;  her  legs  were 
changed  by  the  poisoned  water  into  horrid  dogs,  while  her 
upper  body  remained  that  of  a  beautiful  maiden.  (See  Gft- 
dechens,  Glaukos  der  Meergott,  G^5ttingen,  1860;  Vinet, 
Recherches  et  conjectures  aiir  le  Mythe  de  GlaucxiS  et  de 
Scylla,  Paris,  184^^ ;  lioscher.  Lexicon  under  Olaukos.)  (3) 
Son  of  Minos,  King  of  Crete,  who  when  a  child  fell  into  a 
vessel  of  honey  and  was  drowned.  Minos  compelled  the 
seer  Polyidus  to  restore  Glaucus  to  life,  and  to  instruct  him 
in  the  art  of  prophecy.  Polyidus  did  this  under  compul- 
sion, but  he  also  caused  Glaucus  to  forget  his  instructions. 
(See  HSck,  Kreta,  Gottingen,  1829;  Roscher.  Nektar  und 
Ambrosia,  Leipzig,  1883 ;  Gadechens  in  Arch.  Zeitung,  1880, 
p.  69  f.)  (4)  Son  of  Sisvphus,  King  of  Corinth  and  father 
of  Bellerophon,  who  in  defiance  of  the  laws  of  Venus  tried  to 
make  his  norses  strong  by  preventing  them  from  copulating. 
Venus  caused  him  to  be  torn  in  pieces  by  his  horses,  whom 
she  had  made  mad  by  the  water  of  a  siicred  fountain,  or  by 
a  weed.  The  spirit  of  Glaucus  afterward  made  horses  shy 
during  the  Istnmian  games.  Tlie  myth  was  treated  by 
-/Eschylus.  (See  nermann,^)?  ^-Eschyli  (ilaucis  disseriafio, 
1812;   and  Welcker,  Die  Awhylische  Trilogie  Prometheus, 

.  561;  Volcker,  Mythologie  ties  Jap.  Geschlfchte.%  p.  V2Q 
.)    (5)  A  companion  of  Sarpedon,  nephew  of  IJellerophon, 


I 


leader  of  the  Lycians  and  one  of  the  bravest  of  the  allies  of  th<' 
Trojans.  When  Glaucus  and  Diomedes  were  about  to  fizY' 
they  discovered  that  ancestral  ties  of  hospitality  bound  t  r.^r. 
together,  so  that  they  separated  in  peace  siter  having  ri- 
changed  their  armor,  Glaucus  giving  hj^  priceless  guhhz 
armor  in  exchange  for  the  bronze  armor  of  Diomedes,  a  <  :r- 
cumstance  which  gave  rise  to  the  words  of  Homer,  xp**^^ 
xa\icc£«y,  words  destined  to  become  proverbial  for  all  Xiii.--. 
Glaucus  is  finally  killed  by  Ajax.  (6)  Glaucus,  the  aanh  r 
of  six  small  poems  in  the  Greek  Anthology.  (7)  A  famo  > 
athlete  of  Carystus,  who  won  numerous  victories  in  all  {<  nr 
of  the  games  of  Greece.  He  made  such  a  record  in  eeriam 
kinds  of  boxing  that  he  could  only  be  imitated  by  those  v  h  - 
came  after  him.  The  exact  date  of  his  victories  is  n<it  v.rr 
certain,  the  chief  determining  factor  being  the  fact  that  L.- 
statue  as  Olympic  victor  was  made  by  Glaucias  (q.  r. ). 

J.  R.  S,  Sterrett. 

Glanx  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  glaux  =  Gr.  yXm^^.  used  h> 
analogy  of  yAo^l,  owl,  instead  of  the  more  correct  yXai. 
milk- vetch] :  a  genus  of  primulaceous  plants,  represent*Mi .  l 
the  North  Atlantic  shores  of  Europe  and  America,  by  thr 
G.  maritima,  a  little  fleshy  perennial,  which  also  grow'S  lu- 

f^ond  the  Mississippi,  to  tne  northwestward.      Its  fles^bf 
eaves  make  good  pickles. 

Gleason,  Frederick  Grant:  musician:  b.  at  MiiMU- 
town.  Conn.,  Dec.  17, 1848.  He  early  developed  a  talent  f.  .r 
music,  and  by  his  sixteenth  year  he  had  written  two  work-, 
an  oratorio.  The  Captivity,  and  a  Christmas  oratorio,  whii ! . 
though  crude,  showed  talent.  He  studied  at  Hartf«jri. 
Conn.,  under  Dudley  Buck,  and  then  went  to  Leipzig,  m  i 
in  1870  to  Berlin.  He  also  studied  English  music  in  L«  i- 
don.  Returning  home,  he  became  an  organist  in  Ilartfor:. 
Conn.,  and  in  1876  went  to  Chicago,  where  he  has  sinc^  re- 
mained, teaching,  composing,  and  acting  as  music  critic  f^r 
2^  Tribune  of  that  city.  His  compositions  include  t».' 
operas,  Otho  Visconti  and  Montezuma;  three  cantaTa-. 
God  our  Deliverer,  Ths  Culprit  Fay,  and  Praise  of  Ihtr- 
mony ;  several  trios,  sonatas,  and  other  works,  as  well  21^ 
many  songs  and  other  smaller  pieces.  D.  E,  Hekvey. 

Glebe  [from  0.  Fr.  glebe,  glebe  <  Lat.  gle'ba,  clod,  lump 
of  earthj:  in  English  and  Scottish  ecclesiastical  law.  tV^ 
land  which  belongs  to  a  church.  It  constitutes  a  part  •  f 
the  revenue  of  a  benefice,  and  is  vested  in  the  incumKii!. 
By  statute  certain  commissioners  have  power  to  asi*»'rt<i^i 
and  define  the  boundaries  of  the  glebe-lands  of  any  benefiLv. 
or,  with  consent  of  the  ordinary  or  patron,  to"  exchanir- 
them  for  other  lands,  either  in  the  same  or  an  adjouiJLu: 
parish. 

Glede  [M.  Eng.  glede  <  0.  ^ug.glida  ( :  Icel.  gleda).  kit^^. 
deriv.  of  glidan,  glide] :  a  bird  mentioned  in  the  aut hurlz-eJ 
English  version  of  the  Bible  under  this  name ;  generally  i  re- 
lieved to  be  the  common  kite  {Milvus  regcUis)  of  the  <.»Id 
World,  though  some  authorities  make  it  some  species  «-f 
vulture. 

GlediVsia,  or  Gledifschia  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  for  the 
German  botanist  J.  G.  Gleditsch  (1714-86)] :  a  genus  of  tn-e-^ 
of  the  family  Leguminosce,  represented  in  the  U.  S.  by  :.':♦• 
honey-locust  {G.  triacanthos)  and  the  water-locust  Wr. 
aquatica).  Although  it  shares  the  name  of  locust  with  ilj-r- 
Kobinia  pseudO'Cacia,  it  differs  widely  from  that  tree,  e<Tv~ 
cially  in  its  more  compound  leaves,  small  leaflets,  oonipouril 
thorns,  large  flat  pods  filled  when  ripe  with  a  sweet  hoiu  y- 
like  substance,  and  its  inconspicuous  flowers.  It  is  a  ):i.*  n' 
hedge-plant  and  an  ornamental  tree.  Its  timber  is  xt-ry 
heavy,  resembling  that  of  the  common  locust,  but  cx->ai>i'r. 
The  water-locust  is  a  small  tree  growing  in  swamps  in  t:i- 
West  and  Southwest.  There  are  one  or  two  North  Asinf  :i 
species.  (See  Locust.)  Linnieus  spelled  the  name  as  giu'ii 
first,  but  many  botanists  follow  the  second  spelling. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Besset. 

Glee  r^f .  Eng.  glee,  gleo  <  0.  Eng.  gle'o,  jov,  mirth,  mu-^ 
<  Indo-Eur.  g)UeU'>  Gr.  x^'^*  jest,  joke:)iuss.  ghttrn!'. 
to  jest;   Lith.  glaudas,  amusement]:   a  species  of  musurt- 
composition  in  three  or  four  parts,  and  usually  of  two  -^r 
more  movements  ;  originaUy  written  for  voices 'without  in- 
strumental accompaniment.    It  is  of  English  ori|rin.  and  a|- 
f)ears  to  have  s])rung  from  the  old  part-songs  and  madricv  -j 
which  were  furnished  in  abundance  by  the  composers  of  th^ 
vsixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  and  were  commoni'^ 
used  on  occasions  of  joy  and  festivity,  as  well  as  for  s^t  ni^ 
entertainment  in  private  circles.    By  degrees  the  distinrti^t* 
marks  of  these  several  classes  of  compositions  have  Ui 


IV.. 


810 


GLISAN 


Olla'an,  Rodney,  RI.  D.  :  b.  at  Lio^nor?,  Freilerictc  ca., 
Hd.,  Jan,  39,  1827;  KTEuiuated  Id  the  racdicul  ilepaninent 
ot  the  University  of  Maryland.  Baltimore,  Md..  Mar..  1649 ; 
aasistant-surgeon  U.  S.  array  in  Maj;,  1850;  ten  years'  seri-- 
ice  in  the  army — Ave  being  on  plains,  and  five  in  Oregon 
during  her  territorial  Indian  wars ;  practiced  medicine  in 
Portland.  Ore. ;  delegate  to  Seventh  International  Meil- 
icd  Congress  in  London  1881 ;  member  Ninth  Interna- 
tional Modical  Congress  1887 ;  emeritus  Professor  of  Obstet- 
rics, Willamette  UniverHity.  Author  ot  Journal  of  Army 
Life  (1674);  Texl-bookof  Modem  Midwifery  (Philadelphia, 
1881) ;  Two  Years  in  Buropf.  (New  York.  1887). 

9Hs'B0II,  PftANcia,  M.  D, :  physiologist;  h.  at  Ramiii- 
abam,  Dorsetshire,  England,  1587 ;  took  the  master's  degree 
at  both  Cambridge  and  Oxford;  took  the  degrees  in  medi- 
cine at  Cambridge  (M,  D.  1634);  in  1(136  became  Professor 
of  Physic  there;  and  in  1639  Professor  of  Anatomy  in  the 
College  of  Physicians,  London.  He  wrote  learned  Latin 
treatises  on  the  anatomy  of  the  liver  (1654),  on  rickets 
(1650),  on  the  intestines  (1677),  and  other  works;  practiced 
at  London  and  Colchester ;  bad  a  wide  fame  as  a  subtle  and 
profound  philosopher  and  a  skillful  anatomist.  His  fame  is 
perpetuateil  in  "  Glisson's  capsule."  a  constituent  of  the  liver 
first  discovered  by  him.    D.  in  London,  Oct.  14,  1677. 

Oloas,  glog,  Paton  Jaues,  D.  D.  :  a  minister  and  scholar 
in  the  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  in  Perth,  Scotland,  May  17, 
1823;  educated  at  Perth  Academyand  the  Universities  of 
Edinburgh  and  of  St.  Andrews.  He  was  minister  of  Dun- 
ning 18-^-60,  of  Blantyre  1860-71,  and  of  Galashiels  1871- 
93,  and  living  in  Edinburgh  180S.  He  published  Assurance 
of  Salvation  (Edinburgh.  18.13 ;  ad  ed.  Glasgow,  1860) ;  Jue- 
(ilficoiion  (Edinburgh.  1856):  Primeval  World,  or  Relations 
of  Geology  to  Theology  (1859);  The  Remtrrection  (London, 
1862);  translation  of  Leehler's  CommeHtary  on  the  Ads 
(Lange  Series,  New  York  and  Edinburgh,  1864);  Practical 
Chrietianily  (Glasgow,  1868) ;  Commeniary  on  the  Aef»  of 
the  Apostles  (3  vols..  Edinburgh,  1889) ;  Introduction  to  the 
Paultne  Episths  (1874);  translation  of  Meyer  on  the  Acts 
(Edinburgh,  1877);  The  Messianic  Prophecies  (Baird  Lec- 
tures, 1879) ;  translation  of  LUnemann  on  the  Thessaloninns 
SLange  Series,  1880);  translation  of  Huther  on  James  and 
ude  (1881) ;  Life  of  Paul,  Bible  Primer  (Edinburgh,  1881) ; 
ComTOentiay  on  the  Epistle  of  James,  in  Schafl's  Popular 
Commentary  (New  York  and  Edinburgh,  1883);  Exegetical 
Studies  (Edinburgh,  1884);  Introduction  to  the  Catholic 
Episilea  (1^7) ;  Introduction  to  the  Johannine  Wrilinge 
(Condon.  1891);  Sulnetts  and  Mode  of  Baptism  {,\%%\)\  The 
Life  of  St.  John  (Edinburgh,  1892).    Willis  J.  Beecubb. 

Ulobe  Amaranth :  the  Qomphrena  globasa,  an  annual 
flowering  plant  of  the  Amaranth  family,  well  known  in  cul- 
tivation for  its  globose  purple  or  white  beads  ot  imperish- 
able flowers — one  of  the  kinds  known  as  immortelles.  This 
species  is  East  Indian.  Many  of  the  South  American  spe- 
cies (herlm  or  shrubs)  are  prized  for  their  medicinal  virtues, 
eapecially  Oompkrena  officinalis  and  macrocephala. 

Cllobe.  Artificial  [vift  Fr.  from  Lat.  globus,  ball.sphera] : 
a  sphere  on  which  Is  a  Map  (g.  r,).  (Jlobcs  set  forth  the 
earth  or  heavens,  and  are  terrestrial  or  celestial.  On  the 
latter  the  stars  appear  as  they  would  if  seen  from  the  center 
of  the  earth,  while  the  former  is  a  literal  copy  of  the  earth 
itself,  with  the  addition  of  lines  or  circles  to  enable  one  to 
determine  the  position  of  places  and  the  movements  of  the 
sun  and  planets.  In  schools  globes  are  invaluable  as  a  step 
in  object  teaching,  since  by  familiarity  with  them  young 
people  obtain  far  better  ideas  of  general  geography  than 
they  can  from  plane  charts,  as  appears  from  the  spherical 
map.  The  oldest  globe  in  existence  is  that  in  the  Museum 
Borgia  at  Vclietri,  prolwbly  from  the  year  1335.  Celestial 
globes  ot  gold,  on  which  the  stars  were  represented  by 
pearls,  were  made  by  the  Arabs.  But  the  impetus  whicn 
the  Arabs  gave  to  astronomy  and  geography  was  discour- 
aged by  the  Church,  which  opposed  the  theory  that  the 
world  was  round.  The  first  modem  g]o1)e-raaker  was  Jo- 
hann  SchCner  (b.  1477  at  Karlstadt,  in  Franconia),  a  distin- 
guished mathematician  and  astronomer.  Tycho  Brahe  also 
made  many  globes;  one  of  these,  4  ft.  7  in.  in  diameter. 
made  o(  copper,  was  seen  by  Picanl  at  Copenhagen  in  1671. 

The  process  of  making  globes  is  simple,  but  requires  great 
accuracy.  A  ball  of  iron  or  of  wood,  to  serve  as  a  Ibso  on 
which  to  make  the  globe,  is  first  made,  with  stout  wires  pro- 
jecting from  the  poles.  It  is  covered  with  a  coating  of  dry 
Eaper.  and  on  this  are  laid  as  many  sheets  of  coar«>  soft  or 
ard  paper,  damped,  as  are  necessary  to  the  requisite  thich- 


GLOBIGERINA 


ir  le«E,  accord  in; 

es  a  bolliiT  In. 
ot  papier  maeh4  or  thick  pasteboard.  When  dry  it  is  hi:-.,- 
by  the  wires  in  sockets,  and  made  to  turn  rapidly,  and  wl.:.- 
so  revolving  the  edge  of  a  shari)  knife  cuts  the  globr  ii:-. 
two  hemispheres.  A  round  slicK  for  an  axis  and  supjiir  :- 
placed  witnin,  and  a  stout  wire  projecting  from  either  <:.  i 
forms  the  poles.  The  two  segments  are  then  nniteil  an.l 
joined  with  glue.  This  is  placed  in  a  semicircular  di-k  .,! 
band  of  steel,  and  being  coated  with  whiting  and  sitc  I- 
made  to  revolve.  The  edge  of  the  steel  band  removes  uiii 
excess  of  size,  the  process  oeing  in  fact  turning.  The  i-^iuj- 
tor  and  ecliptic  and  lines  of  latitude  and  longitnde  art-  tri  i: 
marked  with  great  care.  The  two  crossings  of  the  eomt  r 
and  ecliptic,  or  the  points  of  the  equinoxes,  are  usuallv  <h< 
line  of  tue  first  meridian,  and  from  the  [mint  of  the  Trn.i.1 
equinos  the  degrees  on  the  equat^ir  and  ecliptic  begin.  T.i.- 
maps,  which  are  generally  made  in  twenty-four  pi€<'e*i,  wit-i 
two  circular  pieces  for  the  poles,  are  now  fitted  and  pa-^;'--! 
on.  They  are  then  dried  and  highly  sized  before  beinc  var- 
nished. The  brass  circle  in  which  most  globes  hang  l.v 
their  poles  is  called  the  universal  meridian,  since  anv  giv,-!' 
place  on  the  earth's  surface  may  come  within  it,  TTiis  bra.-s 
meridian  is  held  within  the  broad  flat  circle  of  irood  c-niiid 
the  horizon  by  sliding  in  two  grooves.  The  horiic-ti  it 
some  globes  is  so  constructed  as  Ur  revolve  with  ease.  Tt:i- 
horizon  is  supported  by  two  arms  and  a  base  formiiti:  % 
stand,  on  which  it  rests.  By  sliding  the  meridian  the  [■'!i~ 
of  the  globe  can  of  course  assume  any  point  from  the  li-.n- 
ZOD  to  the  vertical.  The  brazen  meridian  is  divided  in:  - 
360  equal  parts  called  degrees.  On  one  side  of  the  roeridiiiT 
or  the  lower  semicircle,  they  are  numbered  from  1  I"  «.i 
from  the  poles  to  the  equator,  to  give  the  elevation  of  ilit 
former.  In  the  upper  semicircle  the  same  numbers  In-- 
the  equator  to  the  poles  are  used  to  ascertain  the  latituili;  "1 
any  point  on  the  earth's  surface.  An  interesting  featim- ' ! 
the  U.  S.  Government's  exhibit  at  the  World's  CoIombinTi 
Exposition  was  a  model  of  the  earth,  63  feet  in  circnuif--r- 
ence,  believed  to  be  the  largest  globe  ever  construct iil.  Ii 
was  designed  and  constructed  by  A.  L.  Pitnev,  of  Wit-h- 
incton,  D.C.,  as  an  exhibit  of  the  General  Land'Oflice.  wr.i. 
which  he  was  long  connected. 

Revised  by  George  J.  Hauae. 
Globeflsh :  a  name  apjilied  to  several  marine  fishes  ot  :1j^ 
family  Telraodontidte.    Like  other  fishes  of  the  family.  iL<'( 
have  the  power  of  puffing  themselves  up  by  swaliotring  lur. 


OkitMllA. 

In  this  condition  they  sometimes  lose  their  balance,  and  fl<  it 
in  a  helpless  state  upon  the  water.  The  belly  is  pr<i[i-<i'-ii 
by  sharp  spines.  There  are  many  species  in  the  Ir^ipiial 
seas  one  of  them  is  found  as  far  north  as  Cape  Cod.  Tin' 
one  figured,  Lagocephalus  lagocephatits,  is  Euroiiean. 

Uloheflower  [so  named  from  the  almost  spherical  f1i.ii-- 
of  the  blossom] :  the  common  name  of  perennial  herfx  .<! 
the  genus  TroUiut,  family  Ranuneulaeetr.  Tmtlius  t<ir- 
paua  and  asialieus  are  cultivated  ornamental  plants^  T. 
faxus  is  a  rather  rare  plant  of  the  U.  S..  and  the  only  Ain'-ri- 
can  species.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  rertaiu  ainaniii'.i- 
oeous  plants  of  the  genus  Gomphrena,  sometimes  useil  I  r 
the  same  purposes  as  "everlastii^''  or  immorleltei. 

Revised  by  L.  U,  Bailet. 

Uloblgeri'na  [Mod.  Lat..  deriv.  of  Lat.  globus  ball  +  g-  ■ 
rere,  carry]:  &:^en'asat  Foraminifwa^Relicularimt  Prot'iiiai. 
which  receives  its  name  from  tile  roughly  globular  shaj>f  •>! 
the  organism.    The  different  members  of  the  genus  abounJ 


812 


GLOUCESTER 


GLOVES  AND  GLOVE-MAKING 


carried  on  in  the  villages  of  Lanesville  and  Bay  View.  Other 
industries  are  ship-building  and  fish-canning,  and  the  raan- 
ofacture  of  cotton  goods,  clothing,  cigars  and  cigarettes, 
grease  and  tallow,  and  awnings,  tents,  and  sails.  The  city 
contains  a  city-hall,  court-house,  U.  S.  custom-house,  public 
library,  several  handsome  church  and  public-school  ouild- 
ings,  mcluding  one  newly  erected  for  the  high  school,  water- 
works, gas  and  electric-light  plants,  5  banks,  and  1  weekly 
and  2  daily  newspapers.  The  city  is  also  noted  as  a  popular 
summer  resort,  having  an  excellent  beach  2  miles  long, 
about  600  feet  wide  between  tides,  and  very  hard.  There 
are  large  hotels  and  many  boarding-houses  for  summer 
guests.    Pop.  (1880)  19,329 ;  (1890)  24,651. 

Editoe  op  "  Times." 

Gloaeester:  city;  Camden  co.,  N.  J.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref.  6-C);  on  the  Delaware 
river,  and  on  the  Phi  la.  and  Read,  and  the  W.  Jersey  Rail- 
roads ;  5  miles  S.  of  Camden.  It  is  connected  with'  Phila- 
delphia by  a  steam-ferry,  has  manufactories  of  cotton,  iron, 
ana  tcrra-cotta  goods,  and  contains  several  churches  and 
schools,  a  bank,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (1880)  5,347 ; 
(1890)  6,564. 

Gloucestershire:  county  of  England;  situated  around 
the  estuary  of  the  Severn.  Area,  1,258  so.  miles.  The  east- 
ern part  is  occupied  by  the  Cotswold  Hills.  Here  the  soil 
covering  the  rocks  is  thin,  yet  affords  excellent  pasturage, 
especially  for  sheep.  The  central  part  is  a  valley  formed 
by  the  ^vem,  with  very  rich  soil  and  a  peculiar  climate, 
which  ripens  all  fruits  very  early.  The  western  part  is 
the  Forest  of  Dean,  of  which  23,015  acres  (11,000  of  which 
are  inclosed)  belong  to  the  crown.  The  Forest  division  is 
now  limited  to  the  Forest  of  Dean,  but  anciently  included 
all  Gloucestershire  W.  of  the  Severn.  Besides  agricul- 
ture and  dairying,  many  branches  of  manufacture,  espec- 
ially that  of  woolen  goods,  are  pursued.  Coal-mining  and 
the  iron  industry  are  also  extensively  carried  on.  The 
county  returns  five  members  to  Parliament.  Pop.  (1891) 
384,487. 

GloversTiUe :  city  (incorporated  a  village  1851 ;  made  a 
city  1890);  Fulton  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  New  York,  ref.  4-1);  on  the  Cayadutta  branch  of  the 
Mohawk  river,  and  on  the  Fonda,  Johnstown  and  Glovers- 
ville  Railroad ;  44  miles  N.  W.  of  Albanv.  It  derives  its 
name  from  the  extensive  manufacture  of  gloves,  and  it  is 
the  center  of  the  glove-trade  of  the  U.  S.  In  1892  it  had  111 
glove-manufactories,  whose  output  for  the  year  was  valued 
at  $10,000,000.  For  the  manufacture  of  shoe  leather,  a 
comparatively  new  industry,  there  were  25  factories,  which 
yielaed  products  valued  at  $3,000,000.  Other  manufac- 
tures had  an  aggregate  value  of  $2,000,000.  The  city  has 
electric  and  horse  railways,  gas  and  electric  plants  for 
light  and  power,  water-works  with  supply  by  gravity  from 
the  Mayfleld  mountains;  city-hall,  public  library,  12 
churches,  8  public  and  several  private  scnools,  newly  erected 
Littauer  Hospital  (named  after  the  founder),  opera-house, 
2  banks,  and  1  monthly,  2  daily,  and  2  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1880)  7,133 ;  (1890)  13,864 ;  (1892)  16,?25. 

D.  C.  DURFEE. 

GloYes  and  Glove-making  [M.  Eng.  glove  <  0.  Eng. 
glof^  akin  to  Icel.  glofi^  glove,  prob.  deriv.  of  Ibfi^  palm  of 
the  hand] :  articles  for  covering  the  hands  and  the  processes 
of  their  manufacture.  A  glove,  as  distinguished  from  a 
mitten,  is  a  covering  for  the  hand  in  which  each  finger  is 
separately  inclosed,  with  the  length  above  the  hand  varying 
in  len^h  according  to  fashion  or  convenience.  In  remote 
historic  times  they  were  used  only  for  protection  against 
cold,  or  thorns  in  harvesting  crops.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  their  use  became  more  diversified,  and  consequently 
quite  common.  They  were  worn  by  knights,  priests,  and 
ladies,  and  expressed  different  symbolical  significations, 
of  love,  challenge,  submission,  etc.  During  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.  the  glove  came  to  be  considered  an  article 
necessary  to  a  complete  toilet,  and  during  his  reign  special 
laws  were  enacted  for  the  protection  and  benefit  of  Paris 
glove-makers. 

Gloves  are  now  an  article  of  general  commerce  and  every- 
day use  in  every  walk  and  vocation  of  life,  and  are  made  of 
a  variety  of  materials — viz.,  leather,  wool,  cotton,  silk,  fur, 
linen  thread,  worsted,  woven  or  knitted,  and  sometimes 
fulled.     Leather  is  the  more  common  material  used  in  their 

Eroduction.     Developments  in  the  process  of  tanning  have 
rought  into  use  the  skins  of  many  animals  heretofore  re- 
garded as  of  no  value  to  the  glove-trade.    Deer,  sheep,  kid 


Fio.  1.— Caliber  or  glove 
pattern. 


and  calf  skins  at  one  time  were  used  exclusively ;  now  the 
list  embraces  the  skin  of  the  dog,  cat,  rat,  fox,  and  bear,  be- 
sides that  of  the  horse,  cow,  colt,  kangaroo,  hog.  and  alra^!^t 
every  hair  animal.  Some  of  the  finest  gloves  are  ma<ie 
from  real  kidskin  and  from  ratskin,  while  coltskin  ha.«s  & 
prominent  place,  the  fine  grain  deceiving  everyone  but  an 
expert.  The  wide  range  of  skins 
used  enables  the  glove-manufac- 
turer to  draw  his  supply  from  every 
country  of  the  globe."  Australia 
furnishes  nearly  all  the  kangaroo 
skins,  many  of  which  are  used  in 
the  shoe-leather  trade.  Calfskins 
are  exported  from  Europe,  and  the 
U.  S.  also  yield  large  numbers; 
lambskins  are  supplied  by  many 
parts  of  the  world,  including 
France,  Spain.  Austria,  Turkej, 
and  compete  with  the  real  kidskm 
which  comes  largely  from  the  same 
localities,  but  also  from  the  East 
Indies,  Switzerland,  and  Ireland. 
The  general  t«rm  "  kid  glove  "  does 
not  any  longer  convey  the  idea  of 
a  real  kid  or  the  young  of  a  goat, 
but  any  leather  **  kid  dressed."  In 
the  dressing  of  skins  great  im- 
provement nas  been  made;  less 
time  is  consumed,  and  with  the 
modem  improvements  and  the  use  of  electricity  the  same 
work  is  done  in  less  time  and  more  satisfactorily.  The  ma- 
chinery now  employed  enables  one  man  to  do  work  whh  h 
formerly  required  the  services  of  several.  The  advantau^ 
derived  has  been  very  great,  for  the  cost  of  production  haj^ 
been  materially  reduced,  and  the  glove  industry  has  bevn 
proportionately  increased.  In  the  U.  S.  especially  are  the-t- 
results  clearly  seen. 

The  dressing  of  the  raw  skin  into  leather  is  the  work  «il 
an  expert,  and  involves  several  changes  which  must  It- 
made  at  just  the  right  time  to  procure  the  best  re*ulu 
After  being  thoroughly  soaked  in  clear  water  the  skins  are 
bathed  in  lime-water  to  loosen  the  hair,  which,  with  any 
particles  of  flesh,  is  then  removed  by  a  process  of  **  beam- 
ing "  and  "  frizzing  " ;  finally,  a  "  tan  "  is  used  which  con- 
verts the  "  skin  *'  into  **  leather."  The  cold  liquor  proees> 
formerly  used  has  been  superseded  by  hot  liquor,  which  is 
quite  as  satisfactory.  To  produce  the  finish  large  quantiii»*> 
of  eggs  (the  yolks  only),  alum,  salt,  flour,  and  white-lead  art- 
used,  the  latter  mostly  in  producing  undressed  kid  or  eastur. 
During  the  several  processes  of  dyeing  the  skins  are  stakeil 
or  stretched,  rubbed  with  pumice-stone  to  remove  irregular- 
ties,  and  "  mooned,"  doled,  or  split  to  reduce  them  to  uni- 
form thickness.  Every  shade  or  tint  obtainable  in  any  fat»ric 
is  produced  in  skins  tor  gloves.  France  claims  superic^rity 
in  color  and  fiber,  but  finds  sharp  rivals.  Yeovil,  Taun- 
ton. Worcester,  and  other  places  m  England  furnish  lar^re 
quantities,  and  Gloversville,  N.  Y.,  produces  most  of  the 
domestic  supply  in  the  U.  S. 


Fio.  2.— Punch  (empor/«-pt^oe). 

Glove-making  has  developed  wonderfully  since  1884,  but 
the  greatest  progress  luis  been  made  since  1850,  for  prior  to 
that  time  the  art  was  not  studied,  and  the  article  produte^i 
was  coarse  and  ill-fitting.  The  cutting  was  done  with  linif 
shears,  and  a  fit  was  largely  accidental,  depending  s<.>me- 


814 


GLUCOSE 


favorable  auspices.  A  Lombard  prince,  hearing  him  there 
at  his  patron  8  house,  took  him  to  Milan  and  placed  him 
under  the  tuition  of  the  then  celebrated  Sammartini.  He 
was  only  twenty-six  years  old  when  he  received  an  order  to 
compose  an  opera  for  the  court  theater.  This  was  the  Arta- 
serse^  and  it  was  a  triumph  in  spite  of  the  innovations  of 
style  which  the  author  introduced ;  for  the  new  spirit  which 
later  effected  a  complete  reform  in  operatic  compositions 
was  already  bom  in  the  young  master.  Other  operas  fol- 
lowed— Demofoonte,  Demetrio,  Ipermnestra^  Ariamene,  Si- 
face^  Fedra,  Poro—aH  for  Italian  cities.  Invited  to  the 
Haymarket,  London,  he  produced  there  in  1746  La  Caduta 
del  Qigantiy  which  was  not  a  flattering  success.  In  London 
he  became  acquainted  with  English  composers  and  with 
HSndel.  In  Paris  he  was  attracted  to  the  works  of  Jean 
Philippe  Rameau,  then  at  the  height  of  his  fame.  Full  of 
new  ideas,  Gluck  gave  his  whole  mind  to  his  new  theory  of 
opera,  and  after  producing  many  nieces  more  or  less  signifi- 
cant at  Paris,  Vienna,  Rome,  Naples — two  of  which,  II  tri- 
onfo  di  Camillo  and  Antigono,  won  for  him  from  Pope 
Clement  XIII.  the  order  of  Knight  of  the  Grolden  Spur — ^ne 
returned  to  Vienna  and  established  himself  as  Capelimeiater 
of  the  imperial  opera.  During  the  whole  of  this  period, 
lasting  till  1762,  Gluck's  genius,  though  copiously  and  vari- 
ously productive  and  widely  recognized,  had  not  fully  un- 
folded its  powers  or  justified  itself  to  its  possessor.  He  was 
forty-eight  years  old  when,  from  a  libretto  by  a  new  author, 
Calzabigi,  poet  and  statesman,  he  composed  the  Orfeo  ed 
Euridice,  which  was  first  performed  in  Vienna  Oct.  6, 1762. 
This  opera  marked  a  new  era.  The  fame  it  acquired  at 
once  it  has  never  lost.  It  was  followed  in  1767  by  the 
AlcestCj  and  in  1769  by  the  Paride  ed  Elena,  the  texts  for 
the  three  being  by  the  same  author.  Still  Gluck  was  not 
satisfied  without  tne  ratification  of  the  judgment  of  Paris. 
This,  after  great  effort,  he  was  able  to  secure  in  1774.  On 
Apr.  19  of  that  year  the  Iphigenie  en  Aulide,  finished  at 
Vienna  in  1772,  was  brought  out  in  Paris  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  composer  himself,  who  had  bestowed  immense 
labor  on  all  the  details  of  its  scenic  production.  A  contro- 
versy rag^  over  it  between  the  champions  of  the  old  and 
new  schools.  Gluck  carried  the  day,  and  in  1779  he  en- 
joyed the  triumph  of  witnessing  the  successful  representa- 
tion of  his  great  opera,  the  IphigSnie  en  Tauriae,  in  the 
French  capital.  He  was  sixty-four  when  he  wrote  it,  but  it 
ranks  among  the  foremost  of  his  compositions ;  by  manv  is 
deemed  his  very  best,  as  being  the  most  complete  and  splen- 
did vindication  of  the  new  scnool.  The  aim  of  this  school 
was  to  make  music  expressive  of  the  emotions  implied  in 
the  action  of  the  drama.  Gluck,  though  possessing  immense 
industry,  energy,  and  determination,  the  mind  of  a  critic, 
and  the  soul  of  a  reformer,  lacked  the  affluence  of  genius 
that  distinguished  his  successors  in  operatic  composition, 
Mozart  and  Beethoven.  His  aims  were  lofty,  his  ambition 
was  great.  He  demanded  a  theme  of  deep  sentiment  and 
elevated  character.  A  tender  dignity  and  pathos  were  na- 
tive to  his  mind,  and  were  enhanced  by -the  simplicity  and 
singular  purity  of  his  method.  His  greatest  compositions 
are  penetrated  with  a  feeling  religious  in  its  character,  yet 
his  religious  compositions  are  very  few  and  of  small  ac- 
count. His  last  opera,  produced  in  Paris,  was  Echo  et  Nar- 
cieae  (1779).  D.  in  Vienna,  Nov.  15,  1787.  See  the  Life  in 
French  by  Desnoiresterres  (1872),  and  in  German  by  Marx 
(1863)  and  Reissmann  (1882).   Revised  by  Henry  Baldwin. 

Glu'cose  [deriv.  of  Gr.  yKwcOt,  sweet] :  in  chemistry,  the 
name  of  a  number  of  isomeric  sugars  having  the  composition 
CsHisOs ;  in  commerce  in  the^U.  S.,  the  name  given  to  the 
liquid  varieties  of  the  sugar  made  from  corn-starch,  the 
solid  varieties  being  known  as  grape-sugar.  The  different 
glucoses  are  fully  described  under  Sugar. 

The  manufacture  of  dextro-glucose,  or  dextrose,  from 
corn-starch  has  Ixjcome  an  important  industry  in  the  U,  S., 
and  in  1884  a  Report  on  Glucose  was  published  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, giving  the  testimony  of  a  committee  appointed  by 
the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  to  investigate  the  proc- 
esses employed  in  the  manufacture,  as  well  as  the  commer- 
cial products,  to  ascertain  whether  there  is  anv  danger  at- 
tending their  use  as  articles  of  food.  From  the  report  of 
this  committee  the  following  statements  are  taken : 

"The  Manufacture  of  Starch-suoar. — In  France  and 
Germany  potato-starch  constitutes  the  only  available  mate- 
rial for  the  manufacture  of  this  sugar,  but  in  the  U.  S.  the 
starch  of  Indian  com,  or  maize,  is  invariably  employed. 
The  process  consists,  first,  in  extracting  the  starch  from  the 


com  in  a  state  of  sufficient  purity,  then  transforming  this 
into  sugar  by  treatment  with  dilute  acid,  and  sab6ec|ueiitiy 
neutraUzing  the  acid,  purifying,  and  then  concentratug  tbl: 
product.  The  details  of  the  various  steps  differ  in  different 
establishments,  but  the  general  character  of  the  process  is 
the  same  as  when  first  proposed  in  1811  by  Kirehhoff. 

"A.  Extracting  the  Starch.  1.  Steeping, — ^The  a.»nj 
is  placed  in  lar^  wooden  vats  or  tanks  holding  from  500  to 
1,000  bush.  It  is  covered  with  hot  water  having  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  leO*"  F.  in  summer  and  IBS*  F.  in  winif-r. 
The  com  immediately  reduces  the  temperature  of  the  wattr 
to  about  140"  or  145 **  F.  Every  six  hours  the  water  i-* 
dravm  off  and  replaced  with  fresh  water  at  about  130'  or 
135°  F.  If  signs  of  fermentation  appear,  the  water  is 
changed  oftener,  the  object  being  to  soften  the  com  with- 
out permitting  it  to  become  sour.  From  two  to  four  days* 
steeping  is  required,  the  time  depending  on  the  hardnei^  of 
the  corn.  Some  manufacturers  add  to  uie  water  a  little  sul- 
phuric acid,  sulphurous  acid,  or  caustic  soda. 

"2.  Grinding, — The  softened  com  is  next  sround  be- 
tween buhrstones,  a  stream  of  water  continuouSy  running 
into  the  eye  of  the  mill.  As  it  is  ground  the  thin  paste  is 
carried  by  the  stream  of  water  upon  the  shidcers  or  sieves. 
Some  manufacturers  pass  the  paste  through  a  seoond  mill 
before  it  is  sent  to  the  shakers ;  others  send  it  from  the  fir<t 
mill  to  the  shaker,  and  submit  the  husks  to  a  seoond  mill, 
employing  a  second  shaker. 

"  8.  Separation  of  the  Starch, — The  paste  or  pulp  from 
the  mill  is  passed  over  shakers  or  starch-separators.  The^e 
are  inclined  sieves  of  silk  bolting-cloth,  which  are  kept  in 
constant  motion  and  sprayed  with  jets  of  water.  The 
starch  passes  through  the  bolting-cloth  with  the  water  a»  a 
milky  fluid,  while  the  coarser  cellular  tissue  or  husk  of  the 
com  is  left  behind.  This  residue  is  pressed  to  remove  wattr 
and  sold  as  cattle-food. 

"  4.  Cleanaing  the  Starch, — The  water  ^m  the  shakers, 
holding  the  starch  in  suspension,  is  run  directly  upon  thnr 
tables,  or  it  is  run  into  wooden  vats,  where  the  starch  set- 
tles, and  the  water  is  drawn  off  and  discarded.  The  stanh 
is  next  thoroughly  agitated  with  fresh  water,  to  which  & 
small  quantity  of  caustic  soda  or  carbonate  of  soda  has  bet* d 
added.  The  object  in  adding  the  alkali  is  to  dissolve  and 
remove  the  gluten  and  other  albuminoids,  oil,  etc. 

"6.  Collecting  the  Starch, — The  mixture  of  starch  and 
alkaline  water  is  allowed  to  flow  upon  long  wooden  nms 
or  tables  which  are  from  1  to  2  feet  wide  and  125  feet  long. 
Twenty-flve  or  fifty  of  these  runs  are  required  for  the  treat- 
ment of  1,000  bush,  of  com  daily.  These  runs  have  a  slight 
incline,  and  as  the  stream  flows  slowly  upon  the  upper  end 
the  starch  is  deposited, while  the  alkali-wash,  bearing  lighter 
particles  of  cellular  tissue,  gluten,  etc.,  flows  off  mm  the 
lower  end.  Some  manufacturers  prefer  to  treat  the  starch 
with  alkali  after  it  has  been  collected  on  the  nins;  some 
both  before  and  after. 

"  6.  Washing  the  Starch, — The  starch  is  next  shovele<l  m» 
from  the  runs  and  mixed  with  water,  and  then  again  al- 
lowed to  settle.  The  water  is  drawn  off  and  the  washinf: 
repeated,  sometimes  with  a  slight  addition  of  hydrochloric 
acid ;  flnally  the  thoroughly  purifled  starch  is  mixed  with 
the  proper  amount  of  water  for  the  converter.  The  }ield 
varies  with  the  quality  of  the  com ;  a  fair  average  would  l>e, 
per  bushel,  starcn,  30  lb. ;  cattle-food,  14  lb. ;  waste,  12  lb. : 
total,  56  lb. 

"B.  Transforming  the  Starch  into  Sugar.  7.  (V/»- 
vereion,  as  it  is  tenoed,  is  accomplished  in  either  open  or 
closed  converters,  and  in  some  establishments  the  procts? 
is  partially  executed  in  open  and  finished  in  elosc<i  con- 
verters. "The  open  converters  are  wooden  vats,  generally  cf 
3,000  or  4,000  gal.  capacity,  sufficient  for  the  treatment  of 
the  starch  from  1,000  bush,  of  com.  They  are  provi<led 
with  banks  of  copper  steam-coils,  either  closed  or  i>erfi>- 
rated.  The  closed  converters  are  generally  of  copper.  They 
are  provided  with  safety-valves,  and  are  made  oi  sufficient 
strength  to  withstand  with  safety  a  pressure  of  six  atm<rj- 
pheres.  Sulphuric  acid  is  generally  employed  in  the  con- 
version, though  other  acids  nave  been  used.  The  quantity 
of  acid  employed  varies  with  the  object  of  the  roanuftic- 
turer.  For  the  production  of  'glucose' — a  liquid  prodiui 
which  contains  much  dextrin — a  smaller  quantity  is  u.H>«i 
than  when  solid  *  grape-sugar  *  is  to  be  produced,  in  whitJi 
the  conversion  into  dextrose  is  much  more  complete.  Tho 
proportion  varies  from  \  lb.  of  oil  of  vitriol  to  1^  lb.  per  ltH» 
lb.  starch.  When  the  open  converter  is  used  a  few  inche>  tf 
water  are  introduced  and  the  acid  is  added,  or  half  the  acid 


816 


GLUE 


GLYCERIN 


ferments)  glucose  or  a  sugar  of  similar  composition,  and 
another  substance  not  belonging  to  the  group  of  carbohy- 
drates. They  occur  in  various  plants,  most  frequently  m 
the  bark.  Among  the  more  important  glucosides  are  arbu- 
tin,  found  in  the  leaves  of  wintergreen  and  of  arbutus  uva 
iwr^n:  ruberythrin,  in  madder  root;  salicin,  in  willow  bark; 
lesculin,  in  the  bark  of  horse-chestnut ;  amygdalin,  in  the 
oil  of  bitter  almonds ;  sinalbin,  in  white  mustard  seed :  my- 
ronic  acid,  in  bl^k  mustard  seed.  Helicin,  which  is  obtained 
by  oxidation  of  salicin^  can  also  be  made  artificially  by 
treating  salicylic  aldehyde  with  acetochlorhydrose,  a  com- 
pNOund  derived  from  glucose  by  treating  it  with  acetyl  chlo- 
ride, and  tannic  acid,  which  yields  glucose  and  gallic  acid. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Glue  [M.  Eng.,  from  0.  Fr.  glu  <  Lat.  glus,  gluten,  glue : 
Gr.  yXMdSj  gum,  oily  substancej :  a  hard,  brittle,  glassy  form 
of  dried  gelatin,  containing  impurities  which  give  it  a  brown- 
ish color.  It  is  the  most  important  of  the  animal  cements, 
and  is  usually  obtained  from  the  scraps  of  hides,  the  hoofs 
of  animals,  etc.,  by  first  thoroughly  cleansing  with  lime,  then 
washing  and  airing  so  as  to  slaEe  the  remainnig  caustic  lime, 
and  then  boiling  in  rain-water,  by  which  the  albuminoid  ele- 
ments of  the  animal  matter  are  changed  into  gelatin.  The  lat- 
ter is  removed  and  carefully  dried  in  nets,  care  being  taken 
to  avoid  too  much  or  too  little  heat,  for  the  first  will  melt  the 
glue,  while  cold  may  cause  the  pieces  to  crack.  Bone-glue 
(Done-gelatin)  is  prepared  from  fresh  bones,  either  by  digest- 
ing them  with  superheated  steam,  or  with  dilute  hydrochlo- 
ric acid,  followed  by  boiling,  the  latter  process  affording  the 
best  results.  "  Fish-glue  "  is  an  inferior  isinglass  made  from 
the  offal  of  the  fisheries.  Glue  is  used  in  joinery,  cabinet- 
making,  in  preparinp^  size  for  dressing  paper,  silk  goods,  etc., 
in  cahco-printing,  m  making  rollers  for  inking  type,  in 
fresco-painting,  in  paper-hanging,  in  stiffening  hat-bodies, 
and  for  many  other  uses  in  the  arts.  For  use  as  a  cement, 
glue  is  generally  dissolved  with  a  gentle  heat  in  a  water-bath, 
and  is  then  fit  for  use.  "  Prepared  "  or  liquid  glue  is  the 
ordinary  solution  kept  liquid  by  the  addition  of  a  fluid 
ounce  of  strong  nitric  acid  for  every  pound  of  dry  glue ;  or 
commercial  acetic  acid,  3  parts  to  1  of  the  dried  and  pow- 
dered glue  is  used,  for  this  acid  will  dissolve  the  glue  with- 
out heat.  Six  parts  glue,  16  parts  water,  1  part  hydrochlo- 
ric acid,  and  li  parts  sulphate  of  zinc  also  give  excellent 
results  as  an  imputrescible  liquid  glue.  Mabine  Glue  is  a 
cement  formed  by  dissolving  1  lb.  of  india-rubber  in  5  gal. 
of  oil  of  turpentine,  or  preferably  in  coal-naphtha,  and  then 
adding  after  some  days  a  quantity  of  shell-lac  equal,  or  some- 
times much  exceeding,  the  previous  solution  in  weight.  The 
mixture  is  heated  over  a  gentle  fire  and  thorouglfly  mixed 
by  stirring.  It  is  then  run  into  plates  and  dried.  When 
used,  it  is  melted  bv  heating.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  and 
will  hold  pieces  oi  tough  wood  together  so  strongly  that 
they  may  be  broken  across  the  grain  sooner  than  parted  at 
the  place  where  glued.  Glass  and  metals  may  also  be  glued 
with  it. 

Glnme :  See  Grasses. 

Gln'ten  [Lat.  for  glue] :  a  nutritive  subtance  obtained  by 
kneading  flour,  especially  wheat  flour,  in  a  stream  of  water, 
when  the  gluten  remains  behind  as  a  sticky,  adhesive  mass. 
Gluten  as  such  probably  is  not  contained  in  flour,  for  when 
this  is  washed  with  cold  water  {2°  C.)  no  gluten  is  formed. 
The  flour  contains  two  substances — vegetable  mvosin  and 
an  albumose — which  undergo  changes  when  mixed  with 
water  and  are  converted  into  gluten.  It  is  believed  that 
these  changes  are  brought  about  by  the  action  of  a  ferment, 
though  the  ferment  has  not  been  isolated.  The  quantity  of 
gluten  in  wheat  flour  varies  somewhat,  but  in  general  it  is 
present  to  the  extent  of  11  to  13  per  cent.  Rye,  oats,  and 
barley  flour  contain  very  little  gluten.  The  chief  value  of 
gluten  in  bread-making  is  as  a  means  of  retaining  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  thus  of  facilitating  the  process  of  "  rais- 
ing." But  little  is  known  in  regard  to  the  nutritive  value 
of  gluten.  It  appetirs,  however,  to  rank  with  the  other  al- 
buminoids. To  some  extent  a  bread  is  made  from  gluten 
alone,  after  its  separation  from  the  starch  contained  in  the 
flour.  Such  bread  is  made  for  use  by  diabetic  patients,  the 
object  being  to  diminish  the  amount  of  starch  in  the  food  of 
these  patients.  Ira  Remsen. 

Olatton,  or  Wolverene  [from  Fr.  glouion  <  Lat.  glutfOy 
gluto,  glutton,  deriv.  of  gJyffus,  gluffi  re,  gulf]:  the  largest 
member  (Oulo  luscn^)  of  the  weasel  family  {Mustelidcp) ;  dis- 
tinguished from  its  relatives  by  its  greater  size,  mtu^sive 
build,  and  bear-like  appearance.    The  glutton  is  from  3  to 


nearly  4  feet  long,  clad  in  shaggy,  dark-brown  fur.  with  « 
much  lighter  band  beginning  just  behind  the  shoulders  anM 
running  along  the  side  upward  to  the  base  of  the  tail  I' 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  wooded  northern  portions  of  y.\.' 
rope,  Asia,  and  North  America,  and  prevs  upon  the  small  r 
mammals,  although  it  will  attack  and  till  sick  or  w(>und»^i 
deer.  It  is  savage,  gluttonous,  crafty,  and  persevering,  ar^l 
is  the  pest  of  the  trapper,  stealing  the  animals  caught  in  ru> 
traps  and  often  destroying  or  carrying  off  the  trajis  thern- 
selves.  A  complete  hillory  of  the  animal,  including  mai^x 
interesting  anecdotes,  may  be  found  in  Coues\s  Fur-i^^nrn-^ 
Animals,  p.  A.  LL-rA>. 

Gly'cas  (in  Gr.  rxuncas).  Michael  :  a  Bvzantine  historian : 
flourished  in  the  flrst  half  of  the  twelfth'  century.  Author 
of  a  chronological  history  of  the  world  (BT/SXot  ypovur^i  iii 
four  books,  comprising  the  period  from  the  creation  to  t'.. 
death  of  the  Emperor  Alexios  Komnenos  (1118).  He  w*- 
thrown  into  prison  and  blinded  in  1156.  The  work  w?i- 
flrst  published  in  a  Latin  translation  by  Leunclavius  (Ba^  I. 
1572);  then  the  flrst  part  in  Greek  by  Meursius  (161«)-  t/i- 
whole  Greek  text  by  Labbe  (Paris,  1660);  best  edition  Iv 
Bekker  (Bonn,  1836);  and  in  Migne,  Patrol.  Or.  CLVJI! 
(1866).  Cf.  K.  Kruml>acher,  Gesehichte  der  Byzant.  LiUm- 
tur,  p.  146  ff.  (Munich,  1891).  Alfred  Gudema>\ 

Glycerin  [deriv.  of  Gr.  y\we€p6t,  sweet,  deriv.  of  yXvicvs. 
sweet] :  a  substance  belonging  to  the  class  of  alcohols  «•!- 
tained  by  the  decomposition  of  ordinary  Fats  (q.  i*.).  Fai- 
are  ethereal  salts  (see  Ether)  of  the  so-called  fatty  a*i.i-. 
especially  palmitic,  stearic,  and  oleic  acids.  When  tht^ 
ethereal  salts,  or  the  fats,  are  treated  with  alkalies,  suoii  .j- 
caustic  soda  or  caustic  potash,  thev  are  decomposetl.  ar.  1 
one  of  the  products  formed  is  glycerin.  So  also  superheat. -^  i 
steam  decomposes  the  fats,  the  products  being  glycerin  ai.«l 
the  free  fatty  acids.  The  decomposition  of  the  fats  steann 
by  caustic  potash  takes  place  as  represented  in  the  en  tui- 
tion : 

(  O.CeHa.O      KOH  (  on 

C.HJ  0.C,«H„0  +  KOH  =  C.H.^  OH  +  3C,tH„0.<)K. 
O.C»bH.»0      KOH  OH 


Stearin  or  glyceryl 
Rtearate. 


Glycerin, 


The  decomposition  with  water  is  represented  thus  : 
(O.CeHa.O      HOH  (OH 

ChJ  o.c»aHa.o  +  mm  =  c»Rj  oh  +  3c„h,«o,. 

(0.Cx«Ha.0      HOH  I  OH 

Stearin.  Glycerin.         Stearic  Acid 

While  glycerin  is  always  made  from  fats,  it  can  be  made  l.v 
other  methods  that  have  a  scientific  interests  It  is  fomitHl. 
for  example,  in  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  sugar  <S4-.- 
Fermentation),  and  is  therefore  always  contained  in  fer- 
mented liquors.  Pure  glycerin  is  a  colorless,  inodorous,  vi- 
cid  liquid  with  a  marked  sweet  taste.  Its  specific  gravity  i-. 
1*2665.  It  solidifies  to  an  amorphous  mass  when  kept  for  a 
time  at  a  temperature  below  that  of  freezing  water,  and  tl  i- 
mass  gradually  becomes  crystallized  if  kept  for  a  long  tnur 
at  or  below  the  freezing-point  of  water.  The  crystals  nir  1: 
at  from  62°  to  97**,  according  to  different  observers.  Wh- n 
free  from  water  it  boils  at  554°  F.,  but  the  addition  of  h 
little  water  changes  the  boiling-point  very  markedly.  It  i> 
an  excellent  solvent.  It  mixes  with  water  in  all  proportit»ii-. 
and  if  freed  from  water  and  exposeii  to  the  air  it  al»s4.rf  < 
half  its  weight  of  water  again.  When  heated  alone  or  wj- 1. 
a  dehydrating  agent,  glycerin  vields  the  pungent  sub?vtfl:i.  * 
Acrolein  {q.  v.).  Treated  with  a  cold  mixture  of  fiiinin_: 
nitric  and  concentrated  su^huric  acid,  glycerin  is  convtrt-l 
into  nitroglycerin.  (See  Explosives  and  Nitroolv«'eri\. 
At  a  temperature  of  820''  F.  glycerin  dissolves  two-thini-  ••! 
its  weight  of  boric  acid,  forming  a  compound  of  the  form  iin 
CsHftBOa,  or  glyceryl  borate,  which  has  been  i>atenteti,  a-.i 
finds  application  as  a  preservative  agent  unuer  the  iiai:it 
" borogiyceride."  Glycerin  is  necessarily  formed  as  a  Iw 
product  in  the  manufacture  of  candles  and  of  soap.  F.  V- 
merly  all  the  glycerin  that  came  into  th^  market  was  .  I- 
tained  from  the  candle-factories,  but  now  much  coin<>s  fr  n 
the  soap-factories.  In  the  candle-factories  the  metltoii  <-fn  - 
monly  employed  for  the  separation  of  the  glycerin  ct»n'-i-T- 
in  heating  the  fat  in  a  closed  vessel  with  one-tliird  ii^  \. 
ume  of  water  and  2  per  cent,  of  lime  to  a  pressure  nf  8  :«t- 
mospheres  for  four  hours.  The  liquid  that  separates,  whi 
is  largely  a  solution  of  glycerin  in  water,  is  known  as  -  sv  m:  • 
water."  This  is  concentrated  by  evaporation  until  it-s  s}^:- 
cific  gravity  is  1-22.    The  product  thus  obtained  is  sold  *- 


818 


GNATHOSTOMA 


GNOSTICS 


Western  U.  S.,  and  occurs  at  times  in  countless  m3rriads,  be- 
coming a  great  sconce  of  cattle,  rendering  them  frantic 
by  its  persecutions.    For  the  gall-gnat,  see  Gall  Insects. 

Kevised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Onathos'toma :  See  Copepoda. 

Gneisenan,  August  Wilhelm  Anton,  Count  Neidhart 
von,  nit'hakrt-f6n-gnrze-now :  soldier;  b.  at  Schildau,  Sax- 
ony, Oct.  27, 1760;  served  for  a  short  time  with  the  German 
mercenaries  in  the  American  Revolutionary  war ;  became  in 
1789  a  captain  of  Prussian  troops;  in  1807  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  fortress  of  Col  burg,  which  he  held  against 
the  French  till  the  Peace  of  Tilsit;  was  dismissed  in  1809  at 
the  suggestion  of  Napoleon  I. ;  was  chief  of  staff  and  chief 
quartermaster  to  Bliicher ;  conducted  the  retreat  after  LUt- 
zen  1813,  and  after  the  Leipzig  campaign  was  made  lieu- 
tenant-general ;  served  in  France  1814,  and  was  made  a 
count ;  contributed  much  to  the  final  success  at  Waterloo 
by  his  strategic  skill  after  the  affair  at  Ligny;  was  made 
governor  of  Berlin  1818 ;  general  field-marshal  1825 ;  led  an 
armv  in  Prussian  Poland  during  the  Polish  insurrection  of 
183f.    D.  in  Posen.  Aug.  24,  1831. 

Gneiss,  nis  [Germ.] :  a  foliated  or  banded  holocrystalline 
feldspathic  rock — i.  e.  a  rock  of  granitic  composition,  but 
with  a  more  or  less  pronounced  parallel  arrangement  of  its 
constituent  minerals.  As  most  Granite  {q.  v.)  shows  some 
tendency  to  such  a  banded  structure,  gneiss  must  be  re- 
garded as  the  oldest,  most  widespread,  and  most  funda- 
mental of  all  the  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust.  There  is  a 
difference  of  opinion  among  geologists  as  to  how  far  the 
banded  structure  of  gneiss  represents  original  stratification. 
Some  maintain  that  such  a  parallel  arrangement  of  con- 
stituents is  always  proof  of  sedimentation,  and  therefore 
that  gneiss  is  always  a  metamorphosed  aqueous  deposit. 
Conclusive  evidence,  however,  shows  that  the  gneissoid 
structure  may  originate  in  igneous  rocks,  either  primarily 
as  the  result  of  movement  in  a  partly  solidified  magma,  or 
secondarily  as  the  result  of  shearing  in  a  mass  already  solid. 
Without  doubt  some  gneisses  have  originated  by  the  meta- 
morphism  or  recrystallization  of  former  sediments,  but  since 
it  has  been  shown  that  similar,  if  not  identical,  rocks  may 
also  be  produced  from  igneous  rocks,  the  gneissic  structure 
can  no  longer  l)e  regarded  as  a  proof  of  sedimentation. 
Each  occurrence  must  be  studied  for  itself,  as  no  single 
theory  can  account  for  the  origin  of  all  gneisses.  This  fact 
removes  one  of  the  strongest  arguments  for  the  metamor- 
phic  origin  of  granite,  inasmuch  as  a  gradation  of  this  rock 
into  gneiss  implies  no  definite  proof  of  sedimentary  origin 
for  either  rock.  There  is  a  tendency  to  employ  the  term 
gneiss  for  feldspathic,  holocrystalline  rocks,  purely  as  a 
structural  term,  and  to  have  it  imply  nothing  m  regard  to 
either  constituent  minerals  or  genesis.  In  this  way  other 
rock-naiiies  implying  definite  mineral  composition  may  be 
united  with  it,  and  one  may  speak  of  granite-gneiss,  syenite- 
gneiss,  diorite-gneiss,  gabbro-gneiss,  etc.  Gneiss  is  the  most 
abundant  and  most  widely  distributed  member  of  that  group 
of  rocks  known  as  the  Crystalline  Schists  (q.  v,\  which  are 
for  the  most  part  of  pre-Cambrian  age  and  quite  universally 
developed,  at  the  lower  horizons,  over  the  entire  earth's  sur- 
face. George  H.  Williams. 

Gneist,  gnist,  Rudolph,  von,  Ph.D.,  LL. D. :  Professor 
of  Jurisprudence  in  the  University  of  Berlin ;  b.  in  Berlin, 
Aug.  13,  1816;  became  professor  in  the  university  1844; 
member  of  the  Prussian  Chamber  of  Deputies  1867-84;  of 
the  Imnerial  Parliament  1875-77 ;  appointed  instructor  to 
Prince  William  in  matters  of  political  science.  Author  of 
English  (Constitutional  History  (1882);  Administrative 
Law  in  England  (1884);  History  of  the  Eiiglish  Parlia- 
mejit  (1886);  and  numerous  other  important  historical  and 
constitutional  publications.     He  was  ennobled  in  1888. 

C.  H.  Thurber. 

Gnesen,  gna'z^n :  town  of  Prussia ;  in  the  province  of 
Posen:  31  miles  by  rail  E.  N.  E.  of  Posen  (see  map  of  Ger- 
man Empire,  ref.  3-1).  It  has  a  sf)lendid  cathedral,  and  is 
the  residence  of  the  Archbishop  of  Gnesen- Posen  (Roman 
Catholic).  Polish  kings  were  crowned  here  till  1320.  Pop. 
(1890)  18,088. 

Gnetacea),  ne'e-ta  st»e-ee :  See  Plants,  Fossil. 

Gnoli,  DoMEXico :  Italian  poet  and  critic ;  b.  in  Rome  in 
1839.  In  1870  he  published,  under  the  pseudonym  of  Da- 
rio .Gaddi,  a  volume  of  verse  entitled  Poesie,  Becoming  a 
teacher,  he  was  made  Professor  of  Italian  Literature  in 
Turin.    Later  he  went  to  Home,  where  he  is  (1893)  prefect 


of  the  National  Library  Vittorio  Emmanuele,  and  ¥  . 
in  1888  he  founded  the  Archimo  Storico  delC  Art< 
which  he  is  editor.    He  published  in  1879  his  (td>  J 
rine;  in  1885  Nuow  Odi  Tiberine,    He  has  trans'larni  • 
the  German  and  published  various  critical   essa\\    ■. 
among  which  are  his  Studi  letterari  (Bologna.  18SV). 

A.  R.  Mae-- 

Gnomic  (nom'ik)  Poets  [givomic  is  from  Gr.  y^iuwis.  :• 
ing  in  maxims,  sententious,  deriv.  of  71^1},  judgment.  ■ 
im,  deriv.  of  Trdrai,  observe,  judge,  know]:  in  Grwk  1 
ture,  a  name  applied  to  those  didactic  poets  whose  « 1 1 
sitions  are  characterized  by  aphorisms  and  short,  pm^ 
like   moral  precepts   {gnomai).     Pre-eminent   aru'ii::  ■ 
gnomic  poets  are  Theognis,  Solon  the  lawgiver,  Pht^  \m 
and  Simonides  of  Amorgos.     Among  the  best-knciwi: 
tions  of  the  gnomic  poets  (of  some  of  whom  con^idt  ^ . 
fragments  remain)  are  those  of  Boissonade  (1832),  B..» 
(1815),  Brunck  (1784),  and  Sylbui^  (1651). 

Gnosticism,  nos'ti-sizm :  the  religious  and  metapln^ 

system  of  the  Gnostics  (^.  v.). 

Gnostics,  nos'tiks  [from  Gr.  T¥wrruc6t,  Gnostic,  lit.  r..  - 
who  knows,  noun  use  of  yvwrriK6s,  knowing,  deriv.  ..f  y,..f 
Tijf,  knower,  deriv.  of  yv&poi^  know,  judge  <  Indo-Eur. 
>  Lat.  (g)no8'cere  :  Eng.  know] :   a  name   applied  t(   : 
adherents  of  numerous  schools  of  heretics   in  the  *. 
Christian  Church.     In  the  Xew  Testament  yn<WM  i>  -i' 
(as  in  1  Cor.  xii.  8)  the  more  profound  apprehension  of  i     • 
tian  truth.    In  Pseudo-Barnabas  (107-120  a.  d.)  it  r  - 
allegorical  interpretation.     Finally,  it  came  to  d.M 
system  of  excessive  and  fanciful  religious  speeulati(  n     1 
to  its  origin,  it  was  in  part  a  reaction  of  the  fncr  { .1: 
mind  against  the  narrowness  and  poverty  of  Ebi(»ni-ii.. 
also,  and  more  essentially,  an  inevitable  pnxluct  •{ 
speculative  genius  of  the  Gentile  world  in  its  first  ex      . 
contact  with  the  stupendous  facts  and  doctrines  of  (     - 
tianity.     Its  elements  were  derived  from    three  ?- ./  - 
Hellenistic  idealism,  Oriental  pantheistic   naturalism.  .. 
the  Christian  revelation.    It  did  not  begin  as  a  her^v 
soon  became  such  in  undertaking  to  answer  u nan-*,  r 
Questions.    These  questions  are  suggested  by  Tertull:;i: 
PrascriptioneUa^reticorumiOn  prescription  against  ht !  ' 
§  7) :  "  Unde  malurp,  et  quaref  et  unde  homo,  et  quonu-i 
(juod  proxime  Valentinus  proposuit,  unde  Deus  f     c  \V  1 . 
is  evil,  and  why  is  it  i  and  whence  is  man,  and  how 


Valentinus  pr-  {■ 
grand  leading 


(I'jf 


he?  and  then  there   is  the  question 

the  other  day,  whence  is  God  ?*')    Its  g p, ., . 

was  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  evil.    But  this  que^ti.  r- 
only  one  of  several.    Its  theme  was  reallv  the  whole  -  vi 
process."    This  process  embraces  the  three  problems  if  <  r 
tion,  sin,  and  redemption.     The  solutions  offered  w.n  _ 
form  exceedingly  diversified,  the  systems  inanv  and  vj.:  > 
In  cla^ssifying  these  systems  the  ingenuitv  of  critics  h;i-  - 
severely  taxed.     The  more  noted  classifications  an- a«  1 
lows  : 

I.  Gieseler's.— (1)  The  Alexandrian  Gnostics:  B;imi' 
Valentinus,  Ophites,  Antitactes,  Prodiciani ;  (2)  Syrian :  >  ■ 
urninus,  Bardesanes,  Tatian ;  (3)  Marcion   and  liis  ^ ..  ■ 
This  geographical  classification  is  not  at  all  felicitous. 

II.  Ritter's.— (1)  Dualistic :  Saturninus,  Basili«le>.  I:  ' 
mogenes,  and  others;  (2)  Idealistic:  Valentinus  M^  >' 
Ptolemanis,  and  others. 

III.  Xeander's.— Originally,  (1)  Judaistic:  (2)  Anti-' 
daistic.     Subsequentlv  modified  bv  sub-dividing  N <».  '^ 
as  to  stand.  (1)  Judaistic:  Cerinthiis,  Basilides,  V.-ilrni:--- 
and  his  school,  Hcracleon,  Ptolemieus,  Marcus,  and  R'^r 
sanes;  (2)  Anti-Judaistic :  {a)  in  svmpathy  with  jwi^in  • 
the    Ophites,    Pseudo-Basilidians.'Cainites,   CarixKr.'     - 
Prodicians,  Antitiictes,  Nicolaitans,  Siinonians:  {b)^\>-  • 
ered  from  all  earlier  systems,  Saturninus,  Talian.  th^l 
cratites,  Marcion  and  his  school, 

IV.  Baur's.— <1)  Those  who  brought  Christiaiiitv    ■ 
closer  connection  with  Judaism  and  heathenism  :  Ih-u    -. 
Valentinus,  Saturninus,  Bardesanes,  the  Ophitcj::  i2in  - 
who  made  a  strict  separation  of  Christianitv  fn)m  .Inii  ' 
and  heathenism:   Marcion  and  his  school";  (3)  t)jo<t  « 
identified  Christianity  with  Judaism,  and  opjiosiMl  l-th  t 
heathenism  in  the  form  of  gnosis:  the  Pseud o-Cleirm;i:^ 

V.  Niedner's.— (1)  Those  who  gave  Christianitv  »\ 
a  place,  and  the  highest  place,  among  the  religions  < ' 
world:  (a)  in  its  original  form.  Basilides.  the  ()|iliit.-  •' 
the  closelv  allied  Cainites  and  Sethites;  (A)  in  its  {'♦rf-^ 
form,  Valentinus,  Heracleon.  Ptolemanis,  and  Mari'iv  .* 
those  who  separated  Christianity  from  its  historic  O'Vir^ 


g2o  GOAT  ISLAND 

ferldr  to  mutton,  but  the  hides  make  good  leather  and  tor 
„l.h  a  P  ol  the  Md  glovo.  ol  oomm.roe.  Tte  ■"*.;],"■• 
Boat  is  sweet  and  nutritious.  ■     ■    '         " 

|j«>t  Island  ■  an  island  whieh  divideb  the  current  of  the 
Ni™  river  a  the  PalU.  It  belongs  U.  Ni«;^«  '■>"?- 
,  re  ,,"  V  V      Athpn  7(1  rtcrps.     It  IS  000  feet  rtia- 

a  substantial  briiige. 


js  europrruB)  of  the  Old 

r  Pieoriw  tr  3r<KrMA;—  "■" 


Goatsncher :  a  bird  (Caprimulg' 


'"» °^r.£riSck"K".Tdr  rsrha^'and  „.- 

latter  nam.  coming  trom  .  i.rrlng  or  P"™S  """J,!!"."^; 
it  oltore.  It  1.  the  .uhjoet  ol  many  popnlar  .nperatit^-™  ■" 
the  folk-lore  of  many  nations. 

Uol/ellnii  Tapestrj:  a  kind  of  tapestry  (see  Tapestkv) 
mSiC""  3r  in  [he  Gobelin.  faeW,.  "^tt'^'J^S 
Hf   Mun^pl  Paris   in  the  Rue  Mounetsrd.    f>oiue  uo">eiins 

Sp.«'S  »rf^m  »««.  to  wtK»,.jd  »n™  f^'^; 

^\  Lfe/or"i  ran°:Shtl';^rS.™  bS 
bfa''£*an"i*er'K.  Sfteenik  eintnry  one  Jetar 
Goliilm  In  1682  Uds  XIV.  ma.le  it  a  royal  manulao- 
{Sr  In  IbS  Zlbor  royal  ear|..t-Iaetory.  La  Sa.onn.ne, 
establlshetl  in  1615,  was  joined  to  !t. 

Oo'lil  Tji'M  or  Sha'mo:  a  wide  tract  in  Central  Asia; 
h.?.„n  M.  «•  and  so"  S  and  ion.  OO'  and  IZO"  E.  It 
Smfa  tlweind  8  m  leet  above  th.  lo.el  of  the  «n  b» 
W™n  the  inonntaln-,.nBe.  of  Altai  and  Kuen-Lun  w.th 
"ivsmall  depression,  and  eleYations.lta western  i»rt  IS 
Sly"" vereJ  with  line  »md,  drifting  before  tb.  wind,  and 
KmSs  an  undulating  .ntl«:e  wbieh  n,m.nds  lb«  traveler 
of  the  waves  of  the  oc?an.  The  eastern  part  eonsists  chiefly 
rf  SiSZS.  It  is  .  deflate  fgion,  -h.»  tta™'" 'J 
nine  month,  long;  frost  and  snow  may  oeeur  In  Ji^ly.  and 
ft,  short  sumin.;.  with  It.  Intense  beat,  create,  but  an  op- 
pros.™  atmosphere.  Kjtcn.lv,  .t.p,«»  "™S  »~"J  J' 
mountalnou.  border.,  alord  pajture  •""f'f ,?,',,'' 
nomadle  tribes  of  Mongolians  wbo  wander  m  the»;  wilds. 

Goblet.  B.»i :  polltioian  i  b.  at  Alr.-.ni--la-Lyi|,  Fmnee 
Nov.  28,  1828  ;  was  admitted  to  tiie  liar  at  Amien. .  auled  m 
the  founding  of  a  liWal  newspaper  under  tb,  empire ;  atid 
wi  ZointJd  tJoeureur-gfu/ral  in  th.eontef  •„«.!. n 
that  eftv  Sept.  ?,  1870.  but  reigned  in  th,  following  year 
that  ™yMpt.^|<y^|^^  Salional  Aoenibly.wber,  he  voted 


GOD 

burrow  in  holes.  Some  of  them  build  nests  for  their  yonii;. 
The.,  fi.be3  are  prized  for  the  aouarium.  m  which  lli.  ir 
nesting  can  be  realidy  obairved.  More  than  100  .peci.*  er- 
known.  wnie  of  them  being  found  on  aU  temperate  an.l 
tropical  leasts. 

eod  [O.  Eng.  joJ  (entirely  dlstlncl  from  0  Eng  j5,l  ^ 
Eng  BiiJi) :  O.ll  Gem.  jo( (>  Mod.  Gerpi.  UM) ;  O  -N . .o"i: 
GotVjr.l.  (n..™.  »««I  of  Chri.tian  (W),  plur  j.rfo  in.;.i. 
used  o?  hUhen  god.)  <  Indo-Eur.  j»5/o-m  called  W».  - 
yoked,  past  partlc.  neut.  of  gha-.  cM  -.  of.  Nmskr.  1  ■  ■.  c  .1  . 
kSiar-,  priest  (perha[».  also  connects!  with  Ao-.  poun,  rff"i. 
S(-,  sipplica&u  to  the  gals.  If  Ibe  Indo-Eur  Ungu.^v 
isod  a  generic  worf  for  ■'  go.1,"  it  was  probably  rf. .  ko.. 
irom  the  root  rfiu-,  .bine ;  cf  Saliskr.  rfei«.« :  LaL  rfew  : '  ■. 
Ir.  dia  :  Lith.  dilm,  :  O.  N.  Kmr  The  Brock  word  ».<.  ™i 
not  be  directly  compared,  a.  Indo-Liir.  ri««o«  would  hai^ 
appear«l  In  (fr.  u  *!..(..  This  woij  h«,  b»n  apparoni  y 
dlspteed  by  M,  <  Indo-Enr.  dJ|W^.  breath  •PM-gf'^  ■ 
cf  &Ar*ffo..Lltli.<fiTsfi,  breathe,  dc3.f,br,atli.gbostl:  the 
... Z;  and  Alisolute  Being,  the  CniaUir  of  Ibe  univers.'.  t 


and  was  elected  to  the  National  Assenimy,  w.ie.,  ..e  . 
with  the  ri'publican  left  and  distmgui.hed  biniself  s 
orator     In  Feb,  1879,  be  was  anoolllted  Under^wcreta 


id  distingui.neu  nnoscn  no  a.. 
(  1879,  be  wa.  appointed  Under-Secretary  of 
SUM'for'jristicc  ami  in  the  iabinet  of  M.  d,  Freycincl 
Ked  ;,;."  1,  1882  he  was  Minister  ?'  th'J"«™  Ic  In" 
Brisson'3  ininisln-  ho  was  made  Mm  ster  of  fut^lio  in 
^V^tion..nd  hclU  the  same  office  under  de  F-y^'-J^" 
whose  downfall  he  formed  a  ministry  h''"*^''  I^«^' "•  '™- 
lie  wa«  overthrown  on  the  question  of  the  budget  May  17, 
1887.     In  1801  he  was  elected  to  the  senate. 

RohT  rfrcim  lifit.  giibii'*.  another  form  of  ffo'tio,  gobw  ni« 
(wbeneVFr.  ;,..>/ En^-  ffm/j.^n)  =  Or.  ™fl.is.  gudgeon. 


Tbe  black  goliy. 
tenchl  ■  a  marine  fish  of  the  genus  Oobiiis  and  family  Oo- 
S!  which  live  mostly  upon  muddy  bottoms,  where  they 


Supreme  ana  ADsniuieuciiig,  i.uv'-"."'r':  ""  ,,-l.  .  ■  i  .. 
infinite,  eternal,  and  unchangeable  Spirit.  Vrhal  is  tnoMf, 
of  Uod  may  be  sUted  briefly  under  tf.e  following  h™d>:  .1 
Definition  of  the  term;  (2) origin  of  the  idea;  (.fl  pr.«f>  -1 
his  existence :  (4)  attributes:  (3)  existence  as  1  hree  j:^r>->'  - ; 
(6)  relation  to  the  world;  (7)  works;  (8)  prevalent  anttlhei.iK- 

'''T'ln  consequence  of  the  predominance  of  Christian  id,. i^ 
in  the  literature  of  civiliied  nations  for  the  last  eight^.r, 
centuries,  the  word  Ood  has  attained  the  i>ermam'nt  -t.^l 
definite  «nse  of  a  self^sistent,  eternal,  and  absolu  ely  [«  r- 
tectfree  peraonal  Spirit,  distinct  trom  and  sovereign  o^.r 

the  world  he  has  created.  

II.  08101N  OF  THE  IDEA.-Thc  word,  novcrthel^  *^"i"'  ;  * 
to  be  used  with  a  wide  latitude  of  meaning.  The  full  l-i.- 
eeiition  associated  with  it  by  Chnsliana  is  ot  couree  lari:.i,> 
the  product  of  revelation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  p-n^fi. 
idea  of  God  as  a  beinp  upon  whom  man  deiM^nds  «n.l  ^. 
whom  he  is  responsible,  and  for  whose  communion  he  lonL-. 
teinnatin  human  natural,  e,  it  is  ""j'^X.^f,""? 'i 
and  sustained  in  human  consciousness  by  the  laws  .f  .Mf 
nature.  This  fact  is  by  «>rae  attnbutea  to  a  •<;■»'-;■■.: 
Piousness"  (Schleiermachcr);  ^.v  othera  to  an  imm<^l  - 
knowledge  or  direct,  intuition  of  God  (Schelling.  Cou-m  -. 
and  by  others  to  a  constitutiona  tendency  or  '|;n'''i^-;;^  ■,"• 
innate  religious  sentiment  or  instinct..  It  bear?  all  ■..■■ 
narks  of  an  intuitive  truth  or  first  principle  of  reasm— .■. :: 
universality  and  neccssity-ance  il  reappeare  ami  ,ht-:-  - 
in  all  normal  conditions  ot  consciousnK*.  (h<*  I  uyr..,  (■■ 
N<Uura  Dtomm.  and  OiUett.God  rn  Human  ?*";"?'''■;'■ 
This  general  idea  ot  Ood.  native  to  the  human  sou  .  ha-  I- . .. 
moulded  into  various  forms  by  tradition  and  speculat  i.  -ei.  ;..  ■  - 
rierfeetcd  by  revelation.  ,  n  j      ti,  ....  .,r. 

'    Theories  cf  the  Origin  of  the  Idea  "/.''•"J-tJ.''  "  ''^, 
generieallv  fhree  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the  id^«  ■■( 
hod    (1)  -fhe  firet  assigns  it  toaprimdol  rivrM>on[\\n^~; 
Uland.  Gladstone),  and  accounts  for  lU  persistence  I.;  i'.- 
force  ot  tradition  and  education     (2)  The  sec,.nd  as^^^-i- 
to  inffrence,  and  takes  two  specific  forms:  (i>)  the  loriu-  r .  - 
these  derives  Ihefirst  notion  ot  God  trom  imalid  lo'.r..,.- 
o/^rimili,%Ln,  from  dreams  (Lubbock.  Darwin.  S,.--,. .  r . 
an^nistie  ideas  (Tylor). crude peT^n'R™;!""'  '""."V'h.,  '■!.  ' 
feorlM    J.  Savage.  SeJiffion  of  Evolution),  and  the    !.■  . 
1^  icconma  forThe  more  purified  and  higher  cgnc.Ti ,.  ,  - 
asan  age-long  development  ot  thoucht  from  thcsi-  cr..  .. 
liecinnings.     (6)  The  latter  form  of  this  theory  ai^^i^i^  ■'■■ 
S"n  of^he  idea  of  God  to  a  ,WW  o«d  ropid  ../-r-..;. 
whTeh  the  human  mind  inevitably  '"«''«<  fn>m  tl.^   t.i 
brought  before  it  as  to  its  own  nature  aiid  that  of  the  «■  .   . 
atout  it  (Flint,  McCosh).    (3)  The  third  «^'S"«  '     •■  "■';/: 
don.  hut  Ukes  divergent  forms  acconlinc  »«''"»;';  '- , 
l,v  this  is  the  immediate   knowledge  ot  the  Alw-.l  .t-  ■- 
Sehellingand  Cousin,  the  God-eonsi'iousness  of  Jac..l.i  .ii  . 
ScEmacher.or  merely  the  mnatec.,.^^^^ 
otCalderwood  and  Ho.lge.    Both  the  first  of  \hc,^-^>i.<. 
\  views  and  the  former  form  of  the  second  neglii-i  lb.-  i. 
point  to  be  explained.    The  primitive  revelation,  whi-'h  -  ■- 
Hact   was  necessarily  addresswi  to  a  precedent  r>-l:^.  -• 
nature'  without  whiei;  it  could  not  have  been  rw'ci' '  -■  ■ 
wa'  ot  importance  in  developing  the  idea  of  t-xl.  '"ii  ■ 
7v>X.  first  pmluce  it.     So  the  inference  from  dream*  a>,.l 
like  to  supernatural  beings  presupposes  a  prt-exist.-nt  . 
encv  to  such  a  notion,  without  which   such  an   inf.-r. 
I  woiild  l>e  inexplicalile.    The  immediate  hnowl.-lg.-  ol  '■   ■ 


822 


GOD 


inBtinct  of  prayer  and  worship,  the  longing  for  and  faith  in 
divine  love  and  help,  are  inseparable  from  human  nature 
under  normal  conditions  as  known  in  history.  4.  The  en- 
tire history  of  the  race,  as  far  as  known,  discloses  the  pres- 
ence and  influence  of  a  wise,  righteous,  and  benevolent  moral 
ruler  and  educator  of  men  and  nations.  5.  The  compact 
and  mutually  supporting  system  of  divine  interventions  and 
culminating  revelations  recorded  in  the  Christian  Scripture, 
reaching  through  2,000  years,  is  the  true  vertebrate  column 
of  human  history,  upon  which  all  human  progress  in  civil- 
ization or  science  rests. 

Literature  of  the  Theistic  Argument. — (1)  Cicero,  De 
Natura  Deonim ;  Anselm,  Monologium  and  Proslogium  (E. 
T.  in  the  Bihlioth^ca  Sacra,  1851) ;  Raymond  of  Sabunde, 
Theologia  Naturalia ;  Descartes,  Discourse  on  Method  and 
Meditdtiones;  Leibnitz,  TheodicSe  and  De  la DSmonstration 
Cartisiennc;  Samuel  Clarke,  Demonstration  of  the  Being 
and  Attributes  of  God;  Kant,  Critique  and  Religion  within 
the  Boundary  of  Pure  Reason, — (2)  Flint,  Theism  and  Anti- 
theistic  Theories ;  Janet,  Final  Cause ;  Tvszka,  Oeschichte 
der  Beweise  fUr  d,  Dasein  Gottes;  Krebs,  Geschichte  d. 
Beweise  fur  d,  Dasein  Gottes;  Runze,  Der  ontologisch^ 
Gottesbeweis ;  Saisset,  Modern  Pantheism;  Diman,  The 
Theistic  Argument;  Harris,  The  Philosophical  Basis  of 
Theism,  and  The  Self -revelation  of  God ;  Bowne,  Studies 
in  Theism  and  The  Philosophy  of  TTieism;  Cocker,  The 
Theistic  Conception  of  the  World  and  Christianity  and 
Greek  Philosophy. 

IV.  The  attributes  of  God  are  to  be  distinguished  (1) 
from  "  predicates  "  of  God  in  the  concrete,  marking  his  rela- 
tion to  his  creatures,  as  Creator,  Preserver,  etc. ;  (2)  from 
"  properties,"  which  belong  to  each  divine  Person  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  others.  The  attributes  are  the  modes  of 
existence  and  of  action  of  his  substance.  They  are  the  very 
substance  itself,  existing  and  acting  in  the  various  modes 
determined  by  its  nature.  They  differ  among  themselves, 
not  as  distinct  things,  but  as  distinct  tendencies  and  modes 
of  existence  and  action  of  the  same  thing. 

The  sources  of  our  idea  of  God  are  found  in  his  revelation 
of  himself  in  the  human  soul,  in  physical  nature,  in  history, 
and  in  the  Scriptures.  From  these  materials  we  construct 
our  idea  (1)  by  the  way  of  negation,  denying  all  imperfec- 
tions; (2)  by  the  way  of  eminence,  affirming  of  him  the 
possession  of  every  excellence  in  absolute  perfection  ;  (3)  by 
way  of  causation,  attributing  to  him  all  the  perfections  dis- 
covered in  his  works.  The  attributes  of  God  have  been 
variously  classified:  (1)  According  to  the  order  in  which 
we  arrive  at  the  knowledge  of  them — e.  g.  by  way  of  nega- 
tion, or  bv  way  of  eminence,  or  by  way  of  causiility,  etc. ; 
(2)  according  fl^  they  pertain  to  the  substance,  the  intellect, 
or  the  will  of  God ;  (3)  according  to  their  nature  as  moral 
or  natural  (non-moral) ;  (4)  as  communicable  or  incommu- 
nicable ;  (5)  as  absolute  or  relative.  The  most  useful  classi- 
fication (6)  discriminates  between  two  primary  classes,  which 
may  be  called  respectively  (a)  physical  and  (b)  personal  (so 
Thorn  well,  Steenstra,  etc.).  (a)  The  physical  are  attributes 
of  God  considered  as  necessary  existence,  and  underlie  and 
characterize  all  the  personal  attributes.  They  may  be  sub- 
divided into  classes,  relatively  to  degree  (intensive  being),  to 
space  (extensive  being),  and  to  time  (i^rotensive  being),  and 
tnus  bring  into  view  in  turn  God's  innnite  reality,  unity,  in- 
dependence, God's  immensity  and  omnipresence,  and  God's 
eternity  and  immutability  (so  Dr.  W.  L.  Alexander).  (6) 
The  personal  attributes  would  fall  into  classes  according  to 
mental  faculty,  relatively  to  intelligence  (understanding, 
omniscience),  to  action  (will,  omnipotence),  and  to  conduct 
(truth,  righteousness,  holiness,  goodness).  The  following 
are,  in  any  scheme  of  classification,  the  most  important  of 
the  divine  attributes : 

1.  The  divine  unity.  Monotheism,  the  primitive  religion, 
soon  gave  place  through  nature-worship  to  pantheism  and 
polytheism.  It  has  been  recovered  only  imperfectly  by  phi- 
losophers of  the  first  rank  like  Plato,  and  has  been  estab- 
lished as  a  popular  faith  only  through  the  Mosaic  and  Chris- 
tian revelations.  It  is  proved:  (1)  There  can  be  but  one 
necessarily  existent  Being,  and  but  one  infinite  and  absolute 
of  the  same  order.  (2)  The  unity  of  the  cosmos  proves  the 
unity  of  presiding  intelligence.  (3)  Our  moral  consciousness 
testifies  tnat  the  source  of  all  moral  authority  must  be  single 
and  unique.  2.  God  is  Miinfinite  and  absolute  Being.  The 
transcendentalists,  on  the  one  hand,  and  Sir  W.  Hamilton, 
Mansell,  and  H.  Spencer,  on  the  other,  understand  by  these 
predicates  a  Being  including  all  Being,  and  excluding  all  re- 
lation to  other  being.    Hence  the  innnite  and  the  absolute 


can  neither  be  a  person,  nor  conscious,  nor  a  cause  nor  an 
object  of  knowledge ;  all  of  which  imply  limitation  and  r^ 
lation.  But  the  true  idea  of  the  "  absolute  "  is  the  fini^he'l, 
and  that  which  exists  in  no  relation  to  anything  not  det«r- 
mined  by  its  own  will.  And  the  true  idea  of  the  '*  infinit*  " 
is  that  which  admits  of  no  increase  after  its  kin<L  (Sir  W. 
Hamilton,  Discussions  and  Lectures ;  Mansell,  lAnu  of  R^l. 
Thought;  McCosh,  Intuitions;  Mill,  Review  of  Hamilton; 
Porter,  Human  Intel.,  pt.  4,  ch.  viii. ;  Hickok,  Creator  and 
Creation,  ch.  iii.)  Anthropomorphism  is  right  and  nece**arT 
when  limited  to  the  application  to  God  in  an  infinite  desrnv 
of  the  spiritual  excellences  of  man.  But  it  is  used  in  a  b<-iri 
sense  when  we  attribute  to  God  any  likeness  of  our  bodily 
part«  or  passions,  or  conceive  of  him  as  subject  to  our  irn- 
perfections  or  limitations.  3.  God  is  an  al^lute,  perf«N't, 
personal  Spirit.  This,  as  shown  above,  is  the  result  of  tlie 
whole  convergent  testimony  which  establishes  the  fai-t  '^f 
his  existence.  If  not  this,  we  have  no  evidence  tJiat  he  is^ 
anything.  4.  He  is  eternal.  His  existence  transcends  all 
the  limits  of  time.  Eternity  conceived  of  by  us,  as  either  a 
parte  ante  or  a  parte  post,  is  really  una,  indivxdua,  tt  to  fa 
simul,  5.  Absolutely,  God  is  infinite  in  his  immeru'ify, 
transcending^  all  the  limits  of  space;  relatively,  he  is  omni- 
present in  his  essence,  as  well  as  nis  knowledge'and  power  to 
all  his  creatures.  6.  He  is  immutable,  as  to  his  esence.  his 
perfections,  and  his  will.  7.  His  knowledge  has  no  limits. 
He  knows  himself  and  all  things  possible  by  the  light  i>f  his 
pure  reason.  He  knows  all  things  actually  existent  whet  h*^r 
past,  present,  or  future,  in  the  light  of  his  purpose.  He 
knows  all  things  in  their  essential  being,  and  in  all  their  re^ 
lations,  by  one  all-comprehensive,  timeless  intuition.  Wl*^ 
dom  is  the  perfect  use  which  he  makes  of  his  knowh-^Li? 
and  his  power  to  effect  his  ends.  8.  He  is  omnipotent — 
that  is,  the  causal  efficiency  of  his  will  has  no  limit  other 
than  his  own  perfections.  Second  causes  are  necei«sary  tf> 
him  onlv  relatively  to  his  own  purpose.  9.  The  goodn*-w  of 
God,  existing  in  the  forms  (1)  of  benevolence  to  all  sentiMit 
creatures,  (2)  love  to  persons,  (3)  mercy  to  the  miserable,  ami 
(4)  grace  to  the  ill-deserving,  has  no  limit  outride  of  his  tiwn 
perfections.  This  is  as  ^o(S  a  world  as  was  consistent  with 
the  end  God  had  in  view.  (Pascal,  Thoughts;  Leibniiz, 
Theodicee.)  J.  S.  Mill  in  his  Essay  on  Theism  objects  that 
if  God  is  infinitely  good,  he  can  not  in  consistency  wirh 
facts  be  infinitely  powerful.  But  he  forgets  (1)  the  glory  i.f 
the  Creator,  and  not  the  good  of  the  creature,  mast  be  the 
last  end ;  (2)  the  ultimate  reasons  of  facts  known  to  us  lie 
out  of  our  reach,  except  they  are  revealed;  (3)  the  jrr»iir 
fact  of  sin,  when  once  admitted,  overthrows  all  his  c»bj»'*- 
tions.  1(K  God  is  absolutelv  true — i.  e.  self -consistent  ai  l 
reliable.  11.  He  is  absolutely  n^r/i/eotta.  This  involvp^JtU 
holiness,  or  absolute  subjective  moral  perfection ;  (2)  ju<ti«t', 
when  he  is  regarded  as  standing  to  his  intelligent  cn^atnn-s 
in  the  relation  of  moral  governor.  It  is  distinguished  as 
rectoral  and  distributive,  and  is  the  immutable  ground  <'f 
rewards  and  punishment.  12.  God's  will  is  the  organ  of 
his  infinite  perfections.  It  is  free,  in  the  sense  of  iK-inir  & 
rational  spontaneity.  It  is  sovereign,  inasmuch  as  it  is  «.i  n- 
ditioned  upon  nothing  save  his  own  all-perfect  natur*:-. 
Hence  God  is  an  absolute  sovereign,  having  an  nnct>n«li- 
tioned  right  to  dispose  of  and  command  his  creatures  a;*  his 
own  perfections  recjuire.  His  expressed  will  is  to  theiu  an 
ultimate  rule  of  right,  in  his  "positive"  commandnionT>^ 
creating  obligation,  and  with  respect  to  essential  m«»nil:'v 
expressing  and  giving  effect  to  the  law  of  absolute  ri^hi 
resident  in  his  own  nature.  See  Cumberland,  De  Legif'tiS 
Naturcp  ;  Cud  worth's  Intellectual  System. 

On  the  attributes  of  God,  see  especiallv  Chamock,  Dis- 
courses upon  the  Being  and  Attributes  of  God  ;  S.  Clark»v 
A  Discourse  concerning  the  Being  and  Attrihute^  of  (I'.J : 
Bruch,  Lehre  von  den  Gottl.  Eigenschaften ;  Moll,  De  Ju-^^o 
Attributorum  Dei  Discrimine. 

V.  The  One  God  Exists  as  Three  Htpostases  or  Pkr- 
soNS. — The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  purely  a  revealed  d«*^ 
trine.  There  are  no  natural  analogies  to  it,  and  no  proofs  nf 
it  derived  from  natural  phenomena  or  from  pur©  thou>rht. 
The  triads  of  heathen  conception  rest  on  a  pantheistic  \*a- 
sis,  and  have  no  analogy  with  the  Christian  doctrine  of  thtr 
Trinitv.  Thus  when  Schelling  says,  "The  philosophy  i»f 
mythology  proves  that  a  trinity  of  divine  potentiabties  is 
the  root  from  which  have  grown  the  reli^ous  ideas  cvf  all 
nations  of  any  importance,"  e.  g.  the  Hindu  Trimuni, 
Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Shiva,  he  does  not  show,  as  has  U^n 
sometimes  misconceived,  that  the  Christian  doctrine  of  )/'• 
Trinity  has  a  basis  in  man's  religious  nature,  but  exhilr5 


824 


GOD 


moral  order.  "In  him  we  live  and  move  and  have  our 
being "  (Acts  xvii.  28) :  "  Of  him  and  through  him  and  to 
him  are  all  things"  (Rom.  xi. 36);  "Thou  madest  man  to 
have  dominion  over  the  works  of  thy  hands;  thou  hast  put 
all  things  under  his  feet "  (Ps.  viii.  6). 

VII.  The  Works  op  God. — As  an  eternal,  immutable 
Spirit,  God  is  essentially  active.  His  actions  are  distin- 
guished as — 

A.  Those  which  are  Immanent — These  are  (1)  his  pur- 
poses, technically  called  decrees,  which  relate  to  all  events, 
and  are  infinitely  wise,  righteous,  and  certainly  efficacious ; 
and  they  subordinate  all  nis  works,  and  all  their  forces, 
laws,  and  historical  development  in  time,  to  a  purpose  or 
final  end.  (2)  The  actions  peculiar  to  each  person  of  which 
the  other  persons  are  the  objects — e.  g.  eternal  generation, 
procession,  etc. 

B.  His  Emanant  Actions,  or  those  which  terminate  ad 
extra, — These  are — 1.  Creation,  which  is  a  free  act  of  God 
in  time,  executing  an  eternal  purpose.  Some,  as  Origen 
among  theologians,  and  Cousin  among  philosophers,  have 
held  that  creation  is  a  necessary  and  eternal  (timeless)  act 
of  God.  The  latter  says  {Psychol.,  p.  44) :  "  God  is  no  more 
without  a  world  than  a  world  without  God."  The  Church 
has  always  held  otherwise.  Creation  is  of  two  kinds:  (1) 
Creatio  prima  seu  immediafa,  the  "  immediate  creation  "  by 
God  of  the  elements  of  things  from  nothing.  This  was  de- 
nied by  the  ancients  and  by  pantheists,  and  first  taught  by 
revelation.  (2)  Creatio  secunaa  seu  Tnediata, "  mediate  crea- 
tion," or  the  origination  by  God,  out  of  and  by  means  of 

E re-existing  material,  of  new  genera  and  species — e.  g.  the 
ody  of  man  (Gen.  ii.  7).  This  distinction  was  admitted  by 
St.  Augustine  (De  Oenesi  ad  Lit.,  v.,  45),  and  by  all  theo- 
logians since.  In  the  method  of  this  "mediate  creation" 
God  has  been  evidently  executing  law,  creating  according  to 
types  in  an  ascending  series.  Argyle's  Reign  of  Law.  ch.  v. ; 
McCosh,  Typical  Forms;  Mivart,7?e».  of  Species,  ch.  xii. 

2.  Providence^  which  includes  (1)  Preservation.  This 
some  make  identical  with  a  continual  creation.  By  some, 
as  Strauss  and  other  pantheists,  preservation  is  regarded  as 
a  necessary,  unconscious,  eternal  act.  By  others,  as  by  Hei- 
degger {Corp.  Theol.,  7, 32)  and  by  President  Edwards  {Orig. 
Sin,  pt.  4,  en.  iii.),  the  design  of  such  language  is  only  to 
emphasize  the  dependence  of  the  creature.  The  Scriptures 
teach  that  while  second  causes  have  real  l)eing  and  effi- 
ciency, "  they  have  their  being  in  God."  (2)  Government, 
(a)  This  extends  to  all  creatures  and  all  their  actions.  (6) 
Its  method  is  consistent  with  the  perfections  of  God,  and 
congruous  to  the  nature  of  each  creature  and  action  con- 
cerned, {c)  Its  end  is  God's  glory  through  the  execution 
of  His  purpose,  {d)  It  comprehends  every  particular  as  a 
means  to  a  general  end ;  it  is  therefore  for  the  same  reason 
both  general  and  special,  {e)  It  extends  to  the  sinful  acts 
of  men,  to  forbid,  control,  punish,  and  overrule  them  for 
good.  (/)  This  universal  government  God  accomplishes 
partly  by  means  of  the  original  properties  of  second  causes 
and  their  primal  adjustments,  and  partly  b^  a  present 
concursus  of  his  own  energy  with  them,  guiding  tnem  in 
the  direction  predetermined  by  his  purpose.  Leibnitz  {New 
System  of  Nature)  taught  tlie  doctrine  of  pre-established 
harmony,  whereby  all  events  were  predetermined  from  the 
creation  by  fixed  sequences,  alike  in  the  separate  spheres 
of  the  physical  and  spiritual.  All  theories  of  pantneistic 
tendency  imply  the  sole  agency  of  the  Oeator  in  all  ac- 
tions, the  second  cause  being  only  the  mode  in  which  God 
appears,  or  the  instrument  by  which  his  energy  is  imme- 
diately exerted.  This  is  the  tendency  of  Emmons,  of  certain 
ultra-Calvinists  of  a  former  age,  and  of  the  extreme  wing 
of  the  school  of  Schleiermacher. 

8.  Redemption  of  course  involves  from  beginning  to  end 
supernatural  intervention  with  the  physical  order  for  the 
sate  of  the  moral  order  perverted  by  sin.  It  includes  (1)  the 
incarnation;  (2)  expiatory  sacrifice  ;* (3)  resurrection ;  (4)  dis- 
pensation of  the  Holy  Ghost,  including  inspiration  of  Scrip- 
ture, the  regeneration  and  sanctification  of  individuals,  and 
the  preservation  and  historical  development  of  the  Church. 

4.  Miracles.    See  separate  article  on  Miracles. 

VIII.  Various  prevalent  Antitheistic  Theories. — A. 
Atheism,  according  to  its  etymology,  signifies  the  denial  of 
the  being  of  God.  It  was  applied  by  the  ancient  Greeks  to 
Socrates  and  other  philosophers  to  indicate  that  they  failed 
to  conform  to  the  popular  religion.  In  the  same  sense  it  was 
applied  to  the  early  (IJhristians.  Since  the  usage  of  the  term 
"  theism  "  has  been  definitely  fixed  in  all  modern  languages, 
"  atheism  "  necessarily  stands  for  the  denial  of  the  existence 


of  a  personal  Creator  and  Moral  Governor.  Notwithstand- 
ing a  belief  in  a  personal  God  is  intuitive,  atheism  is  pK>issil>lf«, 
as  an  abnormal  state  of  consciousness  induced  by  sophistical 
speculation  or  animal  indulgence,  as  subjective  idealism  is 
possible.  It  exists  in  the  following  forms :  1,  practical ;  2, 
speculative.  Again,  speculative  atheism  may  be— 1.  I>og- 
matic,  as  when  the  assertion  is  made  either  (1)  that  (xud 
does  not  exist,  or  (2)  that  the  human  faculties  are  posi- 
tively incapable  of  ascertaining  or  of  verifying  his  exist- 
ence, in  which  case  it  is  called  Agnosiieismr—e,  g.  Hert>ert 
Spencer  {First  Principles,  pt.  1).  2.  Skeptical,  as  when  it 
simply  doubts  the  existence  of  God,  and  denies  the  otin- 
clusiveness  of  arguments  generally  relied  upon.  3.  Vir- 
tual, as  when  (1)  principles  are  maintained  essentially  incon- 
sistent with  the  existence  of  God,  or  with  the  possibility  of 
our  knowing  him — e.  g.  by  materialists,  positivista,  abM>iute 
idealists:  (2)  when  some  of  the  essential  attributes  of  the 
divine  nature  are  denied,  as  by  pantheists,  and  by  Stuart 
Mill  in  his  Essays  on  Religion ;  (3)  when  explanations  of  the 
universe  are  given  which  exclude  {a)  the  a^ocy  of  an  in- 
telligent creator  and  governor,  and  {b)  the  moral  government 
of  God  and  the  moral  freedom  of  man.  Such  explanations 
are  made  by  Darwin,  H.  Spencer,  and  by  necessitarians 
generally.  In  ancient  times  Epicurus  (341-S70  b.  c.)  and  his 
school  were  really,  though  not  professedly,  atheists,  and  Lu- 
cretius (95-52  B.  c.)  was  openly  so.  In  modem  times  the  tie- 
ism  of  Voltaire  and  the  Encyclop^distes  degenerated  into 
the  atheism  of  d'Holbach;  while  such  thinkers  as  Moie- 
schott,  Feuerbach,  the  English  secularist  Holyoake,  the  dis- 
ciples of  Comte,  and  the  naturalistic  extreme  of  the  evolu- 
tion school  generally,  together  with  those  who  have  assumed 
the  name  of  agnostics,  are  atheistic  in  principle — either  in 
a  virtual,  skeptical,  or  dogmatic  sense.  See  Ulrici,  Ood  and 
Nature,  God  and  Man,  and  Review  of  Strattss;  Strauss;. 
Old  and  New  Faith ;  Buchanan,  Modem  Atheism ;  Tulloch, 
Theism,  etc. 

B.  Dualism  is  used  in  two  senses,  which  must  be  discrimi- 
nated. As  the  opposite  of  Monism  in  philosophy,  it  i^  the 
doctrine  that  there  are  two  generically  distinct  essences, 
matter  and  spirit,  in  the  universe :  in  this  sense  the  common 
doctrine  of  Christendom  is  dualistic.  All  the  ancient  pagan 
philosophers,  on  the  other  hand,  held  the  eternal  inde|>eDd- 
ent  self-existence  of  matter,  and  consequently  all  am<.»n2 
them  who  were  also  theists  were  strictly  c-osmohgteal  dual- 
ists. The  religion  of  Zoroaster  was  a  mythological  dualism 
designed  to  account  for  the  existence  of  evil :  Ormuzd  and 
Ahriman.  the  personal  principles  of  good  and  evD,  sprang 
from  a  supreme,  abstract  divinity,  Akerenes.  Some  of  ihr 
sects  of  this  religion  held  dualism  in  its  absolute  form,  and 
referred  all  evil  to  hyle,  self-existent  matter.  This  princi|'le 
doi^iinated  in  the  various  spurious  Christian  Gnostic  sect>  in 
the  second  century,  and  in  the  system  of  Manes  in  the  third 
centurv,  and  its  prevalence  in  the  Oriental  world  is  mani- 
fested in  the  ascetic  tendencies  of  the  early  Christian  Church. 
John  Stuart  Mill  considered  that  the  assumption  of  a  c<»«- 
mological  dualism  would  solve  some  difliculties.  Dualis:ic 
tendencies  in  modem  times  assume  a  very  subtle  form,  s^tenk- 
ing  of  "  the  nothing  "  out  of  which  tilings  are  creatini  as 
exerting  a  dull  and  inert  opposition  to  creative  force*  See  J. 
F.  Clarke,  Ten  Religions;  Hani  wick,  Christ  and  other 
Masters;  i^eAnder,Churc?i,  History ;¥ressensiL Early  Ye^rs 
of  Christianity;  Tennemann,  Manual  of  the  History  of 
Philosophy. 

C.  Polytheism  (Gr.  in\6s,  manv,  and  Ms,  god)  distribute« 
the  perfections  and  functions  of  the  infinite  God  among  many 
limited  gods.  It  sprang  out  of  that  nature- worship  se<»n  in 
the  earliest  Hindu  Veuas,  so  soon  and  so  generally  sujv 
planting  primitive  monotheism.  At  first,  as  it  long  r^ 
mained  in  Chaldfea  and  Arabia,  it  consisted  in  the  worship 
of  the  elements,  especially  of  the  stars  and  of  fire.  8ul>- 
sequently  it  took  special  forms  from  the  traditions,  the 
genius,  and  the  relative  civilization  of  each  nationality. 
Among  the  rudest  savages  it  sank  to  fetishism,  as  in  West- 
ern and  Central  Africa.  Among  the  Greeks  it  was  ma<le  tiie 
vehicle  for  the  expression  of  their  refined  humanitarian  i>rc 
in  the  apotheosis  of  heroic  men  rather  than  the  revelation  of 
incarnate  gods.  In  India,  springing  from  a  pantheistic  phi- 
losophy, it  has  been  carried  to  the  most  extravagant  extrvnif . 
both  in  respect  to  the  number  and  the  character  of  its  doit  i«?. 
Whenever  polytheism  has  been  connected  with  speculatior^ 
it  appears  as  the  exoteric  counterpart  of  pantheism.  Sf^ 
Carme,  Hero-worship;  Keightley,  Mythol.  Greece  arui 
Italy;  Max  MUller,  Compar.  Mythol.,  in  Oxford  Essays 
(1856) ;  Prof.  Tyler,  Theology  of  Greek  Poets. 


826 


GODFREY  OP  STRASSBURG 


GODWIN 


behalf  of  Henry  IV.  against  the  pope ;  slew  Rudolph,  the 
rival  emperor,  with  his  own  hand,  ana  was  the  first  to  mount 
the  walls  of  Rome  on  Henry's  successful  attack  1084 ;  suc- 
ceeded as  duke  1089 ;  took  the  cross  for  the  Holy  Land 
1095,  in  order  to  expiate  his  sin  of  fighting  against  the  pope 
(first  crusade),  and  in  order  to  pay  his  expenses  pledged  his 
duchy  to  the  Bishop  of  Liege,  and  thus  raised  1,800  marks, 
with  which  he  furnished  80,000  infantry  and  10,000  cav- 
alry; led  his  men  to  the  East  by  way  of  Constantinople; 
captured  Nicwa  1096 ;  defeated  Soliman  at  Doryheum  1097 ; 
took  Antioch  1098,  and  stormed  and  took  Jerusalem  July 
15,  1099 ;  was  declared  King  of  Jerusalem,  but  declined  to 
wear  a  crown  of  gold  where  his  Lord  had  woni  a  crown  of 
thorns,  and  refused  the  title  of  king,  preferring  that  of 
Defender  and  Baron  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher ;  defeated  the 
Egyptians  at  Ascalon ;  conquered  Galilee  ;  promulgated  the 
Assizes  of  Jenisalem^  a  system  of  feudal  law.  Cf.  treatise 
by  F.  Monnier  (Paris.  1874).  D.  at  Jerusalem,  July  15, 1100, 
and  was  succeeded  bv  Baldwin  I.  In  1244  the  Carismians 
exhumed  and  burned  his  remains.   Godfrey's  strength,  valor, 

Siety,  and  virtue  were  favorite  themes  of  mediftival  poetry. 
le  IS  the  central  figure  of  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered,  See 
his  Life  by  A.  Vetault  (Paris,  1874)  and  that  by  J.  Froboeso 
(Berlin,  1879).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Godfrey  of  Strassbarg :  See  Gottfried  of  Strassburo. 

Godi'va,  The  LAdj :  wife  of  Leofric,  Earl  of  Mercia  and 
Master  of  Coventry  m  England,  who  about  1040  imposed 
upon  that  town  heavy  exactions,  by  retison  of  whicn  the 
people  all  complained.  The  Lady  Godiva  entreated  her 
lord  to  spare  the  town,  and  he  consented  on  condition  that 
she  should  ride  naked  by  daylight  through  Coventry,  to 
which  proposal  she  agreed,  notwithstanding  her  well-known 
and  extreme  modesty.  The  people  were  ordered  to  keep 
within  their  houses  and  not  look  out.  This  (so  the  story 
^»s)  they  all  did  excepting  one  tailor  or  baker,  the  Peep- 
ing Tom  of  Coventry,  who  looked  out  at  a  window  as  the 
lady  rode  by  veiled  with  her  flowing  hair;  but  he  was 
at  once  struck  blind,  and,  accordinj?  to  one  version,  was 
shortly  after  hanged  by  the  earl.  The  earliest  version  of 
this  legend  occurs  in  a  chronicle  of  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century.  A  pageant,  in  which  a  young  woman  enacted  the 
part  of  Godiva,  continued  at  intervals  at  Coventrv  until 
1826,  and  was  revived  in  1848.  See  the  Folklore  Journal 
for  1890. 

Godkin,  Edwin  Lawrence:  journalist;  b.  at  Moyne, 
County  Wicklow,  Ireland,  Oct.  2,  1831 ;  e<lucated  at  Queen's 
College,  Belfast;  war  correspondent  in  Turkey  and  the 
Crimea  for  the  London  Daily  News  1854-56;  traveled  in 
the  U.  S.  as  a  correspondent  of  the  same  journal ;  admitted 
to  the  New  York  bar  1858 ;  corresponded  with  The  Daily 
News  and  the  New  York  Times  during  the  civil  war  in  the 
U.  S. ;  became  editor  of  The  Nation  1865,  and  its  proprie- 
tor 1866.  In  1881  The  Nation  was  made  the  weekly  issue 
of  Th^  Evening  Post^  and  Mr.  Godkin  became  one  of  the  ed- 
itors and  proprietors  of  the  joint  publication.  Author  of 
History  of  Hungary,  a.  d.  300-1850  (London,  1856) ;  Govern- 
ment (New  York,  1871).  Revised  by  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Godman,  John  D..  M.  D.  :  medical  writer  and  tejicher ; 
the  son  of  a  soldier  in  the  Revolutionary  war;  b.  at  An- 
naix^lis,  Md.,  Dec.  30,  1794.  At  the  bombardment  of  Fort 
McHenry  in  1814  he  fought  as  a  common  sailor.  In  1815 
he  began  the  study  of  medicine,  removing  to  Baltimore  to 
finish  his  studies.  After  taking  his  first  course  of  lectures 
in  the  University  of  Maryland  he  was  unanimously  appointed 
by  the  faculty  to  take  the  place  of  the  Professor  of  Anatomy, 
who  was  incapacitated  by  illness.  On  the  organization  of 
the  Ohio  Medical  College  in  Cincinnati  he  became  its  first 
Professor  of  Anatomy,  1824.  Subse(|uently  he  was  called  to 
the  same  chair  in  Rutgers  Medical  College/New  York,  where 
he  became  the  ass(x;iate  of  Mott  and  Elosack.  Dr.  Godman 
contributed  largely  to  The  Western  Quarterly  Reporter, 
Philadelphia  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  Physical  and 
Pathological  Anatomy,  Encyclopcvdia  Americana,  etc.  Au- 
thor of  American  Natural  History  (3  vols.,  182:W28) ;  Ram- 
bles of  a  Naturalist^  and  other  works.  1).  at  Gennantown, 
Pa.,  Apr.  17,  1830.  Revised  by  Henry  Baldwin. 

GodoKphin,  Sidney  Godolphin,  Earl  of:  b.  near  Ilel- 
stone,  in  Cornwall,  in  1645;  took  the  master's  degree  at  Ox- 
ford 1663;  became  a  Secretary  of  State  1664,  and  first  com- 
missioner of  the  treasury;  was  envoy  to  the  Netherlands 
1678  ;  a  lord  of  the  treasury  and  one  of  the  chief  ministers 
1679;  a  Secretary  of  State  1684;  chamberlain  to  the  queen 


1685;  commissioner  of  the  treasury  1686-90;  first  lord  nf 
the  treasury  1689-96, 1700-01 ;  lord  hi^h  treasurer  170^10 : 
was  made  a  baron  1684;  K.  G.  1704;  \iscount  Rialton  ar.i 
Earl  Godolphin  1706.  Godolphin  was  a  man  of  few  worK 
and  decided  talents  for  public  business,  but  had  no  politit  a! 
or  moral  principles.  When  chamberlain  to  James  II.  s 
queen  he  conformed  to  the  Roman  Catholic  rites ;  wa.^  in 
turn  Tory  or  Whig  as  best  served  his  interest  in  times  wh»n 
these  party  names  carried  meaning  with  them.  His  r>iiiy 
conspicuous  vices  were  gambling  and  inordinate  fondne^^ 
for  the  turf.  He  was  exceedingly  modest  and  retiring.  I>. 
at  St.  Albans,  Sept.  15,  1712.  See  Elliot,  Life  of  Sidney, 
Earl  Godolphin  (1888). 

Godoj  (Span.  pron.  go-do'^),  Manuel,  de:  Duke  of  Al- 
cudia,  Albufera,  and  Soto-Roma,  and  Prince  of  the  Pear-*' ; 
b.  at  Badajoz,  Spain,  May  12, 1767,  of  a  noble  but  redm*4 
family  ;  entered  the  body-guard  at  Madrid  1TO7;  became  un 
oflicer  1790 ;  major  and  adjutant-general  and  Knight  Gmi-'i 
Cross  of  Charles  in.  1792.  His  beauty  had  by  this  time  wod 
him  the  favor  of  the  queen  and  her  ladies,  and  with  th«' 
former  he  lived  in  most  intimate  relations  under  the  vf-n 
eyes  of  the  king,  who  nevertheless  loaded  him  with  hon^-rs. 
In  1795  he  was  made  a  grandee  of  the  first  rank,  having  in 
1792  been  made  first  Secretary  of  State,  and  in  1793  caj»tH in- 
general.  His  treaty  of  Basel  {1796)  won  him  the  title  l^^n«f 
of  the  Peace.  In  1797  he  married  Maria  Theresa,  the  kiriir's 
niece,  although  he  was  already  secretly  married  to  another 
wife.  In  1798  he  was  declared  grand  major-domo,  and  m 
1799  grand  admiraL  In  1801  he  reassumed  the  rH>w<r 
which  in  1798  the  popular  will  had  fon^ed  him  to  abai<'MN'. 
and  soon  after,  by  the  treaty  of  Badajoz,  he  agreed  to  di- 
vide Portugal  between  France  and  Spain,  for  which  ser^i-  ♦» 
he  received  a  lar^  sum  from  France.  In  1804  he  was  dt^ 
clared  generalissimo.  He  assisted  Napoleon  in  gaining  f*r,«^ 
session  of  Spain,  and  Napoleon  in  tuni  released  him  (Iwihi 
from  the  prison  into  which  the  nobles  and  people  hui 
thrown  him.  Godoy  never  again  returned  to  power.  Hatoi 
by  nobles,  priests,  and  people,  all  of  whom  he  despised  ar'-i 
had  braved  so  long,  he  followed  the  fortunes  of  the  kin;: 
and  queen,  who  still  clun^  to  him.  In  1835  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  lived  a  pensioner  of  the  French  Goveninit-nr. 
In  1842  the  Spanish  Government  cunfirmed  to  him  hi> 
former  honors.    D.  at  Paris,  Oct.  4,  1851. 

God  Save  the  King  !  (Domine  mlvum  fac  RegewS) :  & 
formula  repeated  upon  occasions  of  solemnitv  and  api)endt>«l 
to  state  proclamations  in  Great  Britain.  The  same  wonl* 
give  name  to  a  well-known  British  national  air,  the  authi>r- 
ship  of  which  was  long  ajscribed  to  Dr.  John  Bull  (15*i;:J- 
1622),  but  it  is  generally  considered  that  his  God  ^ir 
great  James,  our  king  !  was  not  the  national  anthem  of  tl..' 
present  day.  The  authorship  of  both  words  and  mu>i'' 
of  this  piece,  nearly  as  it  now  stands,  is  generally  assigitf^i 
to  Henry  Cary,  who  died  in  1743;  but  some  antiquaht^ 
claim  that  it  was  adapted  from  Jacobitic  words  and  mel'tlT 
of  that  day.  The  expression  *'  God  save  the  king !  "  oiH-ur«» 
several  times  in  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  TestanitTii. 
The  "  God  save  the  king  !  "  of  the  oublic  proclamations  ha> 
lx?en  changed  to  "  God  save  the  (;ommonwealth  of  Ma^^^Nit- 
chusetts  I  in  that  State,  and  to  "  Grod  save  the  Common- 
wealth !  "  in  Pennsylvania. 

God's  Truce :  See  Truce  of  Gk)D. 

Godt'haab :  the  first  Banish  colon^r  in  Greenland ;  estab- 
lished in  1721  by  Hans  Egede  on  Davis's  Strait ;  in  lat.  6o 
N.     Pop.  946. 

Godwin  :  Earl  of  the  West  Saxons  and  the  most  power- 
ful noble  in  England  during  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor; b.  toward  the  end  of  the  tenth  century;  stoo<i  hiarS 
in  the  favor  of  King  Canute,  whose  policy  ^e  siipp<>rt<>i 
with  energy,  but  in  the  reign  of  Hardicanute  abandone<i  tlu- 
Danish  cause  and  was  foremost  in  bringing  about  the  t-U- 
vation  of  Edward  the  Confessor  to  the  throne  in  1042.  Ya\- 
ward's  incapacity  left  the  government  in  the  hands  of  th»» 
earl,  whose  administration,  though  marred  by  his  unscrupu- 
lous ambition  in  promoting  the  interests  of  his  family,  main- 
tained a  high  degree  of  oi5er  and  security.  He  ha^  given 
his  daughter  Editha  to  the  king  in  marriage,  but  his  dis- 
like of  the  Norman  favorites  of  the  king  led  to  a  quarreL  in 
which  Godwin,  failing  of  popular  support.,  was  worsted  an<i 
obliged  to  leave  the  country,  1051.  Tne  Witenagemot,  how- 
ever, outlawed  the  Nonnan  favorites  in  the  following  year 
and  restored  Godwin  to  his  home.    D.  Apr.  15,  1052. 

F.  M.  COLBT. 


S28 


GOETHE 


1852 ;  i-emoved  to  the  U.  S.  in  1857 ;  resided  for  a  time  at 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and  since  1869  has  been  Professor  of  Chem- 
istry in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  at  Amherst. 
In  1873  was  appointed  chemist  to  the  State  board  of  agri- 
culture ;  in  1882  elected  director  of  the  Massachusetts  State 
agricultural  experiment  station  at  Amherst,  Mass.  Author 
of  many  valuable  papers  upon  chemical  subjects,  among 
which  his  nine  articles  on  salt  and  the  chemistry  of  natural 
brines,  those  on  sugar  and  sugar-manufacture,  and  his  an- 
nual reports  on  commercial  fertilizers  and  on  the  work  of 
the  Massachusetts  State  agricultural  experiment  station 
have  special  interest. 

Goe'the,  Johann  Wolfoano,  von :  the  foremost  poet  in 
Germany ;  b.  at  Frankf ort-on-the-Main,  Aug.  28,  1749,  of  a 
wealthy  and  highly  respected  family ;  enjoyed  a  careful  and 
very  varied  education,  rich  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
and  rich  in  impressions.  The  father  was  a  peremptory  and 
somewhat  pedantic  character,  proud  of  his  family  connec- 
tions and  personal  acquirements ;  he  held  no  office,  but  had 
an  imjjerial  title.  Tne  mother  was  a  bright  and  quick- 
witted woman,  with  very  decided  opinions  and  very  vivid 
sympathies ;  she  stood  greatly  in  awe  of  her  husband,  and 
Wolfgang  and  she  formed  a  little  group  of  their  own  within 
the  family.  Under  the  father's  superintendence  the  boy  was 
taught  drawing,  music,  grammar,  rhetoric,  foreign  tankages 
— Latin,  Italian,  French,  Hebrew — and  natural  history; 
from  the  mother  he  learned  to  judge  character  as  it  pre- 
sented itself  in  social  intercourse,  to  understand  life  as  it 
appeared  in  the  streets,  and  to  make  small  excursions  into 
fairyland.  But  his  religious  impressions  were  defective; 
he  knew  the  Bible  very  well,  but  it  was,  and  always  re- 
mained to  him,  an  object  of  intellectual  and  aesthetic  inter- 
est only.  It  had  no  authority  over  his  heart,  and  when,  in 
his  great  novel,  Wilhehn  Meister^  he  tried  to  bring  the  de- 
velopment of  a  human  soul  to  a  final  and,  so  to  speak,  typ- 
ical close,  the  hero  was  made  to  find  refuge  in  a  cheerful 
pagan  resignation,  content  to  expend  his  energies  in  prac- 
tical usefulness  to  his  fellow  men,  and  leave  tlie  riddles  of 
life  unsolved.  Far  more  genuine  and  truly  pro<luctive  of 
great  ideas  was  the  influence  he  received  from  the  political 
events  of  the  Seven  Years'  war — on  the  one  side,  the  old 
idea  of  the  emperor,  so  deeply  rooted  in  the  feeling  and  im- 
agination of  the  German  people,  so  magnificent,  and  at  this 
moment  represented  by  a  beautiful  young  woman ;  on  the 
other  side,  the  new  idea  of  the  unity  of  the  German  nation, 
awakened  by  a  young  hero  who  stood  unconquered  among 
the  heaviest  calamities,  and  who  had  wrung  from  fate  what 
Germany  had  not  seen  for  centuries,  a  victory  over  a  foreign 
nation,  the  battle  of  Roslnich.  During  one  period  of  the 
war  Frankfort  was  occunied  by  French  troops,  and  young 
Goethe  learned  to  speak  French,  to  look  at  pictures,  and  to 
feel  the  strange  charm  of  theatrical  representations.  In 
1765,  m  the  sixteenth  year  of  his  age,  he  went  to  the  Uni- 
vei-sity  of  Leipzig,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Gott- 
sched  and  Gellert;  in  1770  he  went  as  a  student  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Strassburg,  where  he  formed  intimate  friendships 
with  Herder,  Jung  Stilling,  and  Lenz.  After  taking  the 
degree  of  licentiate  in  law  at  the  latter  university,  he  returned 
in  1771  to  Frankfort,  and  began  to  write  lyrical  poems  and 
minor  critical  essaj's  for  neriodicals,  incited  to  do  so  by  his 
intercourse  with  Merck.  While  in  Leipzig  he  had  written 
two  dramas,  Die  Laune  des  Verliebfen  &udDie  Mitschuldi- 
gen,  which  were  published  then,  but  anonymously  and  with- 
out any  effect.  In  the  spring  of  1772  he  obtained  leave  to 
practice  at  the  iniiK»rial  chanceilery  at  Wetzlar,  but  returned 
home  in  the  fall,  utterly  disgusted  with  diplomatic  affairs, 
and  determined  to  concentrate  himself  on  some  poetical 
subject. 

Pei-gonally,  the  young  Goethe  made  a  most  extraordinary 
impres.sion.  His  bearing  in  his  student  days  was  reserved, 
ana  at  times  a  little  haughtv.  But  the  beauty  of  his  coun- 
tenance  was  so  irresistible,  and  the  impression  of  courage, 
independence,  nobleness,  and  kindness  so  powerful,  that 
when  he  entered  an  inn  conversation  would  stop  and  the 
guests  look  surprised  at  each  other.  And  on  nearer  ac- 
quaintance, in  spite  of  some  occasional  rashness  and  arro- 
gance, he  quite  intoxicated  people  with  the  richness,  origi- 
nality, and  grasp  of  his  ideas,  and  with  the  wonderful  fresh- 
ness and  enchanting  enthusiasm  of  his  feelings.  Every bcxiy 
expected  that  something  great  would  come  from  him,  and 
yet  everybody  was  surprised  when  in  1773  he  published  his 
drama,  Gdtz  von  Berltchingen,  and  in  the  following  year  his 
famous  novel,  Werthers  Leiden,    They  not  only  opened  a 


new  period  in  the  German  literature,  but  they  inaugnrate^i 
a  new  epoch  in  the  German  civilization.  The 'most,  strikiui; 
quality  of  these  two  great  works  is  their  artistic  truth,  thf 
magical  vividness  of  their  pictures,  their  objectivity.  In 
order  to  represent  any  character  or  event  with  such  perf«ft 
truth  it  is  necessary  that  the  poet  shall  paint  nothing  but 
that  which  falls  within  his  own  consciousness,  and  which  ut 
least  as  a  possibility,  as  a  danger,  forms  part  of  his  own  snul. 
Goethe  fulfilled  this  condition,  and  the  secret  of  the  im- 
mense success  of  his  works  was  that  in  writing  out  of  }ii- 
own  heart  he  wrote  out  of  the  heart  of  his  time.  Shaksfieur^ 
has  painted  greater  characters  than  Goethe,  but  the  exu Us- 
ance of  his  style,  which  was  the  style  of  his  time,  thrown  a 
veil  over  his  characters  which  aggrandizes  the  figure,  but 
weakens  the  outline.  No  poet  has  ever  reached  Goethe  in 
the  magic  of  his  representations.  Every  senl«nce  in  hi-* 
dramas  is  charged  with  color.  But  although  his  method  i.f 
reproducing  his  personal  life  in  his  poetical  creations  i«  a 
question  of  the  highest  interest,  it  requires  too  minute  bif»- 

Graphical  and  psychological  researches  to  be  treated  here, 
'he  absolute  objectivity  of  his  descriptions  raises  othf-r 
questions,  however,  which,  through  Werthers  Leiden^  l«t- 
came  of  historical  consequence.  W erther  is  a  man  who  can 
do  nothing  ignoble,  but  the  noble,  that  which  is  bis  dutv. 
he  can  only  half  do.  Halfness,  however,  in  the  fulfil lm«rit 
of  duties  (ieprives  a  man  as  absolutely  of  his  moral  frctNlt.rn 
and  spiritual  happiness  as  a  total  denial  of  duty  throuirh 
crime  and  vice.  It  only  conceals  the  fact  to  the  person  him- 
self by  entangling  his  soul  in  a  morbid  feeling  oi  being  mis- 
underst(X)d  and  wronged  by  the  world.  Such  halfnes-^  w&? 
the  disease  of  the  time,  produced  partly  by  an  imperfect  en- 
lightenment which  furnished  no  motives  to  the  voliticn. 
partly  by  a  sentimental  pietism  which  represented  resitnia- 
tion  as  the  highest  form  of  the  will.  Every  one  who  rtad-v 
Werthers  Leiden  reads  something  about  himself,  but  oiil\ 
those  in  the  first  stages  of  the  disease  understand  the  jh^  i. 
To  them  the  book  becomes  a  help,  a  cure.  Xapoloon  rt-ad 
it  over  and  over  again.  Those,  on  the  contrary,  who  are 
very  far  advanced  in  the  disease  understand  only  the  hen., 
and,  like  him,  they  blow  out  their  brains.  The  bo*»k  wa^ 
prohibited  by  law  in  several  countries,  and  although  we  iu  w 
may  lau^h  at  such  measures,  the  Question  still  remains,  1> 
objectivity  the  highest  goal  of  artT  or  shall  there  be  son.*- 
thing  behind  the  picture  which  shines  tibrough  it  and  t  s- 
plains  it  ? 

In  1775  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar,  Charles  August  u-. 
invited  Goethe  to  take  up  his  abode  at  his  court.  Afi«r 
some  hesitation  the  invitation  was  accepted,  and  from  ITTrt 
Weimar  became  Goethe's  residence.  A  warm  and  iu>Mr 
friendship  sprang  up  between  the  duke  and  the  poet;  nn.i 
as  Goethe  possessea  much  practical  administrative  taltnt 
and  great  business  tact,  he  occupied  at  different  times  ni.snv 
different  positions  in  the  ducal  government;  at  last  that  if 
a  minister  of  state,  which  he  held  from  1815  to  the  death  of 
the  duke  in  1828,  when  he  resigned  all  his  oflBces  and  n- 
tired  to  private  life.  A  house  was  built  for  hini,  snihll 
enough  according  to  the  ideas  of  our  times,  but  raagnifioui 
for  those  days,  and  containing  an  excellent  library,  a  fine 
collection  of  scientific  instruments,  and  many  precious  fl- 
iects  of  art.  During  the  first  two  years  of  his  residenci-  il 
Weimar  the  court  life  seems  to  have  occupied  his  wli^.j- 
time,  but  by  degrees  he  began  to  take  part  in  practical  busi- 
ness and  to  engage  in  severe  scientinc  studio  of  U>tan\, 
comparative  anatomy,  mineralogy,  and  optics.  Great  nun. 
such  as  Wieland,  Herder,  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Scliltirtl, 
gathered  around  the  court  of  Weimar,  and  made  it  a  <i»T- 
man  Athens.  And  in  spite  of  all  its  easy  grace  and  ir^ 
somewhat  Epicurean  aspect,  Goethe's  life  during  thi^  }»e- 
riod  contains  both  efforts  and  results.  W^ith  respei't  to 
poetry,  the  results  were  small  enough.  For  the  twelve 
years  after  the  publication  of  Werthers  Leiden  nothintr  but 
^Stella  (1776),  Ciavigo  (1778),  and  some  other  still  less  im- 
portant works  were  produced.  But  much  was  pre|»anMl, 
and  after  his  journey  to  Italy  (from  1786  to  1788)  master- 
piece followed  after  masterpiece  in  rapid  succession :  Ko- 
wont  (1785),  Iphigenia  (1786),  RSmische  Elegien  (ITs^i, 
T(M80  (1780),  Fauk  L  (1790),  Wilhelm  Meisier  and  //rr- 
mann  und  Dorothea  (1796).  The  variety  of  these  work«  is 
not  more  astonishing  than  their  perfection.  In  Tas^ 
Goethe  reached  a  simplicity  and  limpidity  of  form  which 
makes  the  words  disappear  l)ehind  the  ideas  they  convry. 
and  transforms  the  metrical  movement  of  the  language 
into  a  melody  of  the  thoughts ;  and  thus  he  succeeded  in 
representing' the  most  refined  and  delicate  movements  tf 


830 


GOGRA 


GOLD 


pression  by  a  comedy  called  Revizor^  or  government  inspec- 
tor, in  which  he  hela  up  to  contempt  the  corruption  of  Rus- 
sian officialism.  This  was  followed  by  the  adventures  of 
Chiehctgov,  or  Dead  Souls  (1842),  considered  by  many  his 
masterpiece.  Like  the  Revizor,  it  had  -a  political  and  moral 
purpose,  its  aim  being  to  throw  ridicule  upon  the  institution 
of  serfdom,  in  the  hope  of  causing  its  abolition.  From  1842 
to  1848  he  lived  chiefly  in  Italy,  and  during  this  period 
lunderwent  a  change  of  convictions,  becoming  in  his  polit- 
ical principles  a  partisan  of  absolutism,  and  in  his  religion 
a  gloomy  and  mystical  ascetic.  After  a  journey  to  Jerusa- 
lem in  1848,  he  returned  to  Russia,  and  died  at  Moscow  in 
1852.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Gogra,  or  Ghogra :  a  river  of  Hindustan ;  one  of  the 
largest  affluents  of  the  Ganges ;  rises  in  lat.  30"  28'  N.,  Ion. 
^0°  40'  E.,  at  an  elevation  of  between  17,000  and  18,000  feet, 
in  the  glaciers  of  the  Ilimalayas ;  enters  the  plains  of  Hin- 
dusten  in  lat.  29"  6'  N.,  Ion.  80°  13'  E.,  at  an  elevation  of 
798  feet,  and  joins  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  25°  46'  N.,  Ion.  84°  40' 
E.,  150  miles  below  Benares,  after  a  course  of  about  600 
miles.  After  its  descent  into  the  plains  it  is  navigable  for 
large  boats  in  all  seasons,  though  its  navigation  is  some- 
what difficult  on  account  of  shoals. 

Goiana :  See  Gotanna. 

Goitre,  goiter,  Bronchocele,  brong'ko-seel,  or  Derby- 
shire Neelt  [goitre  is  from  Fr.  goitre  <  Lat.  guttur,  throat, 
whence  Eng.  guttural ;  bronchocele  is  from  Gr.  $poyxoK^^% 
liter.,  windpipe-tumor :  fip6yxos,  windpipe  +  ic^Xi},  tumor]  : 
An  enlargement  of  the  thyroid  gland,  which  lies  across  the 
front  of  the  windpipe.  There  may  be  simply  hypertrophy  of 
the  gland  structure,  or  there  may  be  enlargement  of  blood- 
vessels and  formation  of  cysts  filled  with  gelatinous  ma- 
terial in  the  connective  tissue  of  the  gland.  The  disease 
has  been  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  drinking  of  snow-water, 
but  it  occurs  where  there  is  no  snow.  Although  manifest- 
ing itself  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  it  is  more  prevalent  in  the  chalky  parts  of  England, 
especially  Derbysnire  and  Nottingham,  and  in  mountain- 
ous districts,  among  which  may  be  named  the  Himalayas, 
Andes,  Alps,  the  Tyrol,  and  the  valley  of  the  Rhone. '  It 
is  seen  upon  almost  all  cretins.  Goitre  is  also  a  symptom  of 
the  affection  known  as  Graves's  Disease  or  Basedow's  Dis- 
ease {a.  v.),  which  consists,  besides  the  enlargement  of  the 
thyroid  gland,  of  an  unusual  prominence  of  the  eyeballs  and 
A  very  rapid  action  of  the  heart.  Unless  it  be  very  large, 
goitre  causes  but  little  inconvenience,  but  it  often  attains  to 
5uch  a  size  as  to  produce  serious  trouble  by  pressure  on 
the  neighboring  important  parts — the  large  veins,  trachea, 
<Bsophagus,  etc.  Occasionally  goitre  may  cause  sudden  death, 
but  no  satisfactory  explanation  can  be  given  for  this  occur- 
rence. The  treatment  usually  adopted  is  iodine,  both  ap- 
plied externally  and  administered  internally,  to  cause  ab- 
sorption. Extirpation  is  sometimes  performed.  In  India, 
powerful  mercurial  inunctions  are  successfully  employed. 

Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Golcon'da :  fortress  and  decaved  town ;  7  miles  W.  of 
Hyderabad,  Nizam's  Dominion,  British  India  (see  map  of 
South  India,  ref.  4-E).  It  was  long  famous  for  its  dia- 
monds, which,  however,  were  only  cut  and  polished  here ; 
and  it  was  the  treasury  of  the  Nizam,  and  as  such  fortified 
And  jealously  guarded ;  these  two  circumstances  have  given 
it  an  almost  fabulous  fame.  In  its  neighborhood  are  the 
mausolea  of  its  former  sovereigns,  stupendous  buildings  of 
granite,  with  roofs  of  porcelain  tiles  of  the  most  brilliant 
blue  color. 

Golconda :  village ;  capital  of  Pope  co..  III.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  ma|)  of  Illinois,  ref.  11-F) ;  on  the  Ohio  river: 
80  miles  N.  E.  of  (.'airo.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  min- 
eral region ;  contains  lead  and  kaolin  mines ;  has  a  court- 
house, several  churches  and  public  schools,  flour,  saw,  and 
wix>len  mills,  hotels,  2  banks  and  2  weekly  newspapers,  and 
is  the  shipping- point  for  a  large  region.  Pop.  (1880)  1,000  ; 
(1890)  1,174. 

Gold  [0.  Eng.  gold  :  Germ.  Gold  :  Icel.  goll :  Goth.  gul\> 
<  Teuton,  guldo-  :  O.  Bulg.  zlato,  gold,  from  root  Indo-Eur. 
ghel-j  meaning  yellow,  from  which  also  the  Indo-Iran.  devel- 
oped a  word  for  gold  independently;  cf.  Sanskr.  hiranya-, 
A  vest,  zaranya.  Distinct  names  are  (1)  Lat.  nuru?n,  which 
passed  into  Celtic,  Ir.  or,  and  Baltic,  Lith.  arikfias;  (2)  Gr. 
Xfiwr6s,  loan-word  from  Semitic;  cf.  Ileb.  chdruz.  An  Indo- 
Eur.  word  for  gold  does  not  exist]  :  one  of  the  heaviest,  soft- 
est, and  the  most  malleable  of  metals.    It  is  widely  distrib- 


uted, being  found  in  the  metallic  state  in  nearly  all  the  gn^^it 
mountain-chains  of  the  globe,  and  in  solution  in  minute  quan- 
tity in  sea- water.  It  was  probably  the  earliest  known  metal, 
and  it  has  been  prized  through  all  ages  for  its  beauty  ami  in- 
destructible qualities.  It  is  rarely  found  pure,  being  allo>v.i 
with  silver  in  varying  quantities  in  different  regi<ms.  Th<r 
silver  ranges  from  0*16  to  16  per  cent,  of  the  native  nutjil. 
California  gold  averages  88  per  cent,  of  pure  gold  and  1*2 
per  cent,  of  silver.  Australian  gold  contains  on  an  avemjv 
92*5  of  gold  and  7*5  of  silver.  New  Zealand  gold  has  aUnit 
the  same  average  of  fineness.  The  percentage  of  sOvir 
varies  at  different  localities  in  the  same  gold-region,  in 
Nova  Scotia  gold  is  found  nearly  pure.  The  gold  found  <  -n 
the  Chaudiere  in  Canada  contains  from  10  to  15  per  e*-nt. 
of  silver.    Alloys  are  found,  however,  with  a  much  lari:-r 

?uantity  of  silver.  The  electrum  of  the  ancients  containi-l 
rom  2o  to  36  per  cent,  of  silver.  A  mass  of  this  naturv 
weighing  25  lb.  was  found  at  VSr&patak,  Transylvania,  hi  A 
contained  25  per  cent,  of  silver.  A  pale-yellow  allov  <h-<-ui> 
in  the  rich  ores  of  the  Comstock  lode  in  Neyada.  an. I 
according  to  an  analvsis  bv  Attwood,  contains  55'37  {>er 
cent,  of  gold  and  42*87  of  silver.  In  U.  S.  gold  coin  thvrv 
are  90  parts  of  pure  gold  and  10  parts  of  auoy,  which  con- 
sists chiefly  of  copper,  with  a  little  silver.  J^ilver  give>  a 
lighter  yellow  color  or  whiter  shade  to  the  gold,  and  coi^ 
per  imparts  a  reddish  color.  The  red  gold  used  for  wutrh- 
chains  and  jewelry  is  alloyed  with  copper.  The  mixtui>;'. 
whether  formed  by  the  addition  of  silver  or  of  copper,  or  <4 
both,  is  harder  than  pure  gold,  which  is  too  soft  and  easily 
worn  away  to  be  used  for  coin  or  ornaments.  In  j«»we]n- 
the  quantity  of  alloy  added  to  the  gold  varies  from  12  to  oi« 
per  cent.,  or  even  more.  The  ratio  of  the  quantity  of  g«  M 
to  the  other  metals,  called  the  fineness,  is  usually  expres^t^i 
in  "  thousandths  "  or  "  carats."  Pure  gold  is  *1,W)0  Hux  : 
half  ^old  and  half  silver  would  be  500  fine.  California  cM 
as  mmed  averages  880  thousandths,  being  880  parts  of  p  M 
in  1,000.  It  ranges  from  870  to  890  thousandths.  U.  S. 
^old  coin  is  900  fine.  The  expression  of  fineness  by  caT-^w 
IS  an  older  form,  and  is  still  in  general  use  by  jewelers  luui 
at  the  British  mint.  Pure  gold  is  said  to  lx''24  carat >  tii.' . 
When  there  are  equal  parts  of  gold  and  of  other  metals,  t  K- 
mixture  is  said  to  be  12  carats  fine.  Six  parts  of  alloy  ci\e 
18-carat  gold,  and  so  on.  Common  gold  jeweli-y  is  ofton  14 
carats  fine,  but  the  superior  qualities  are  18'  carats.  In 
Great  Britain  bullion  accounts  are  rendered  in  carats,  <antT- 
grains,  and  eighths  or  thirty-seconds  of  a  carat,  the  rarat 
being  divided  into  thirty-two  equal  parts.  One  carat  i> 
equivalent  to  41|  thousandths.  The  U.  S.  standani  g«'M, 
900  fine,  is  equivalent  to  21*6  carats.  The  British  standani 
is  22  carats,  equivalent  to  916J  thou.sandths.  The  rantrv  of 
gold  above  the  standard  is  designated  in  Great  Britain  a** 
"  bettemess"  and  below  the  standard  as  "  worsene^stC" 

The  specific  gravity  of  native  gold  and  of  artificial  all.»\-5 
of  the  metal  varies  with  the  fineness.  Native  gold  ran^rW 
from  15  to  19.  When  quite  pure  and  after  pressun^  in  u 
die,  the  gravity  is  19*34.  One  cubic  inch  of  pure  *:<  -A 
weighs  10-12883  oz.  troy,  and  is  worth  $209.38.  In  the  » ;ti- 
culation  of  tables  of  value  387  oz.  troy  are  considen-ti  !♦• 
be  worth  $8,000;  hence  an  ounce  is  worth  $20*6718-1-.  The 
metal  is  not  so  hard  as  silver,  being  from  2*5  to  3  ujM^n  rK*- 
mineralogical  scale,  but  its  hardness  is  slightly  increast^i  by 
hammering.  Its  extreme  malleability  is  best  shown  by  tr.o 
thinness  of  gold-leaf  as  used  in  gilding.  One  ounce  f»f*£:.ld 
may  be  beaten  out  so  as  to  cover  189  sq.  feet  of  surtax, 
but  the  leaves  are  seldom  made  so  thin,  100  sq.  fett  t»» 
the  ounce  troy  being  the  usual  extent.  The  averajere  thitk- 
ness  of  common  leaf  is  YirsWxjth  of  an  inch:  thus  *282,<h«i 
sheets  would  be  required  to  make  a  pile  an  inch  in  hei>:ht. 
When  so  thin,  green  light  is  transmitted.  One  grain  wjll 
yield  leaf  sufficient  to  cover  56*75  sq.  inches,  or  may  I* 
drawn  into  a  wire  500  feet  long. 

The  value  of  gold  in  the  arts  for  ornamentation  an<l  f.-r 
money  rests  in  great  part  upon  its  imalterability  bv  any  or- 
dinary agencies.  It  can  not  be  easily  ruste<l  orc\iss*:>ht'il, 
nor  does  it  tarnish  bv  exposure  to  the  weather  or  to  f.  u. 
ga-ses  for  ages.  Gold  ornaments  found  in  Egyptian  aiitl 
other  ancient  tombs  are  unchanged.  The  proper  solv*«ui  .  f 
gold  is  chlorine,  and  fluids  containing  free  chlorine  or  t*^  liv- 
ing chlorine  will  dissolve  it.  The  mixture  of  the  two  a«-iii^. 
nitric  and  hydrochloric,  known  as  aqua  regia,  is  c<minn)n!> 
employed,  ^^elenic  acid  acts  upon  it.  Its  solution  in  *«ta- 
water  is  referred  to  the  presence  of  iodate  of  calcium.  It  is 
attacked  by  alkalies  ana  the  nitrates.  A  sulphate  may  I  »• 
formed  by  heating  gold  with  solid  permanganate  of  jx>ii>L 


832 


GOLD-BEATING 


by  the  master  in  rolling  the  ribbon.  The  square^s  are  laid 
precisely  in  the  center  of  the  kutch,  and  with  their  edges  in 
an  exact  vertical  line.  Two  envelopes,  also  of  kutch,  are 
drawn  over  the  lx)ok  in  oppt^site  directions,  so  as  to  inclose 
it  on  all  four  sides.  It  is  then  placed  on  a  solid  stone  anvil, 
and  the  workman  beats  it  with  a  sixteen-pound,  round  ham- 
mer with  a  broad  and  slightly  rounded  face.  At  first  the 
blows  are  all  directed  toward  the  center,  but  as  the  gold 
flattens  out  the  hammer  is  first  struck  u{>on  the  center  and 
then  a  little  toward  the  edge  which  is  farthest  from  the 
workman.  The  book  is  then  turned  one-fourth  round ;  the 
center  is  struck  again,  and  the  second  blow  towartl  the  far- 
ther edge  follows.  This  is  repeated,  the  kutch  being  turned 
one-fourth  round,  until  eight  blows  have  been  struck — four 
on  the  center  and  four  toward  the  edge.  The  book  is  then 
turned  over,  and  the  same  process  is  repeated  on  the  other 
face.  When  the  gold  has  spread  so  as  nearly  to  fill  the 
whole  book,  the  workman  strikes  one  blow  on  the  center, 
one  between  the  center  and  the  edge,  one  on  the  edge  in  its 
middle  line,  one  on  the  edge  toward  the  right,  and  finally 
one  on  the  upper  right-hand  comer.  These  five  blows  are 
repeated  at  each  one-fourth  turn,  and  the  other  face  of  the 

book  is  treated  in  the  same  way.  The  cir- 
cles in  the  accompanying  diagram  indicate 
the  position  of  the  fiammer  at  each  blow. 
Sometimes  a  different  succession  is  chos- 
en, but  whatever  system  is  pursued  must 
be  continued  until  the  book  is  finished,  or 
the  expansion  of  the  gold  between  the 
leaves  of  kutch  will  not  be  uniform.  The 
workman  is  careful  not  to  strike  on  the 
extreme  margin,  and  also  to  moderate  the  force  of  the  blow 
as  he  nears  the  margin,  the  object  being  to  keep  the  center 
of  the  leaf  thinner  than  the  edge.  In  the  final  operation  of 
"  booking  "  the  edge  is  cut  off  and  returned  by  the  beater  as 
scrap.  If  ho  has  carelessly  made  the  edge  thin  and  the  cen- 
ter tnick,  the  result  may  be  the  loss  of  his  week's  wages  in 
"  short  gold."  Every  three  minutes  the  book  is  taken  out  of 
its  covers  and  "  riffled."  Riffling  consists  in  shaking  up  the 
leaves,  so  as  to  loosen  the  whole  and  prevent  the  gold  from 
clinging  to  the  parchment,  which  would  cause  an  uneven 
spread  of  the  metal.  The  kutch  is  l>eaten  about  half  an  hour, 
and  is  then  "  skewed."  This  consists  in  taking  out  the  gold, 
and  lasts  another  half  hour.  The  leaves  are  then  cut  into 
quarters  and  laid  in  a  "  shodar."  The  shcxlar  is  a  lx)ok  made 
up  of  leaves,  prepared  from  the  ctiKJum  (one  oi  the  intestines) 
of  the  ox.  This  is  stretched  and  cleaned,  and  the  mucous 
surfaces  are  pressed  together,  adhering  stnmgly.  It  is  then 
treated  with  some  preparation  which,  so  far  Jis  the  best  mak- 
ers are  concerned,  is  a  secret,  though  isingla^is,  w^hite  of  egg, 
and  similar  substances  have  been  mentioned  as  dressings  of 
more  or  less  excellence.  It  is  then  cut  into  leaves  5  inches 
square,  and  made  up  into  molds  of  900  leaves.  The  avcti  of 
nearly  600  oxen  are  required  to  form  one  mold,  which  is  of 
course  very  expensive.  These  membranes  have  a  perfectly 
smooth,  even  surface,  free  from  veins  and  knots,  and  their 
fineness  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  a  **  mold  "  of  900 
membranes,  containing  also  900  sheets  of  gold-leaf,  is  only 
an  inch  in  thickness.  The  membranes  become  dry  and  stiff 
bv  use,  and  are  also  sensitive  to  the  hygrometric  condition 
of  the  atmosphere.  When  too  dry,  they  are  moistened ; 
when  too  moist,  they  are  heated  to  dry  them,  both  opera- 
tions requiring  great  care.  The  shodar,  which  is  4  inches 
square,  is  not  made  of  fresh  membranes,  but  of  old  molds 
cut  down.  The  filling  of  the  shodar  requires  one  hour,  and 
it  is  then  beaten  two  hours  with  a  lighter  hammer,  say  7  lb. 
in  weight,  and  with  the  same  precision  as  before.  The  leaves 
of  gold  are  then  cut  into  quarters  and  transferred  to  the 
'*  niold,"  which  is  mtwle  of  new  membranes  in  good  condi- 
tion. The  leaves  have  now  only  i^th  the  thickness  of  the 
ribbon,  are  partially  trunsparent,  and  very  fragile.  The 
succeeding  operations  consociuently  must  be  performed  with 
great  care.  The  tilling  of  the  mold  occupies  two  hours,  and 
it  is  then  beaten  one  hour  with  a  five-pound  hammer,  after 
which  it  is  annealed.  Annealing  is  performed  in  a  small 
screw-press  of  iron  which  is  heated  on  a  fire.  After  its  re- 
moval from  the  fire  the  mold  is  j)laced  between  two  plates, 
shoved  into  the  hot  press,  and  screwed  down.  It  is  evident 
that  the  least  excess  of  temperature  will  ruin  the  delicate 
membranes  of  the  mold,  and  this  is  the  most  hazardous 
part  of  the  beater's  work,  for  the  mold  is  far  more  costly 
than  the  gold  it  contains.  Beating,  annealing,  and  cooling 
are  performed  four  times  in  all.  The  whole  operation  of 
reducing  50  pennyweights  of  gold  to  leaf  occupies  twenty- 


four  to  thirty  hours,  average  twenty-seven,  or  nearly  thr-^ 
working  days.  After  the  last  beating  the  gold  is  tnk.  :i 
from  the  mold  by  girls  and  **  booked,*'  while  the  mem  bra  u.^ 
are  nibbed  with  "  brime "  or  burnt  talc,  laid  on  wit  h  . 
hare's  foot,  to  preserve  their  smoothness.  Booking  i"«»  t}., 
operation  of  placing  the  gold-leaf  in  books  of  tissut-iui- '. 
the  leaves  of  which  are  nibbed  with  red  ocher  to  keep  xt-- 
gold  from  sticking.  The  girl  lifts  the  leaf  by  mean^  < ' 
light  wood  pincers,  lays  it  on  a  leather  cushion,  and  hh.^N  t 
flat  with  her  breath.  She  then  cuts  a  piece  3 J  inchesi  <4j(;;ir.' 
from  the  center,  by  pressing  down  a  wocnlen  framt-  «ii! 
sharp  edges,  and  transfers  the  leaf  to  the  book.  Each  •  f 
these  holds  25  leaves  or  5^  grains  of  gold.  In  this  extn-iL*  • 
attenuated  condition  gold  exhibits  the  phenomenon  nf 
malleability  in  the  cold.  Torn  leaves  are  mendeti  by  la>  :i!j 
a  second  torn  leaf  on  top  of  the  first  and  cutting  theii)  "i 
two  near  the  center  by  means  of  a  thin  and  sbarpent^l  ?inp 
of  reed.  The  leaves  unite  perfectly  along  the  line  of  !i:. 
cut,  the  scrap  is  removed,  tne  double  leaf  blown  out  ti.st. 
and  the  center  is  cut  out  as  usual.  Sometimes  no  trac'c  •-* 
the  welding  is  visible.  Holes  are  patched  by  merely  pn— 
ing  a  bit  or  scrap  on  them.  The  malleability  of  the  onli- 
nary  leaf  is  not,  however,  sufficiently  perfect  for  the  pur- 
poses of  dentistiy.  Dentists'  foil  is  accordingly  ann<-a.>^i 
by  floating  the  leaf  for  an  instant  over  the  flame  ''f  ;iri 
alcohol  lamp.  A  gas-flame  will  not  answer,  a^  it  K^j-  i.- 
rather  than  neightens  the  malleability  of  the  leaf,  prrLal  !\ 
by  depositing  a  film  of  sulphur  over  it.  After  tbis  prcK-^*- 
the  leaves  unite  with  the  slightest  touch,  and  adhere  lo  ai.y 
rough  substance,  as  the  finger. 

It  costs  about  |500  to  stock  a  workman,  of  which  ii- : 
more  than  $150  is  represented  by  gold,  and  the  rest  by  I  - 
tools,  books,  etc.  lie  must  account  by  weight  for  all  v.  - 
gold  he  receives,  the  books  of  25  leaves  being  taken  at  C-* 
grains,  and  all  the  scrap  cut  from  his  leaves  l^ing  n*tnri..  •: 
to  him  for  melting  down.  Allowing  that  he  cutt»  his  ril-t  ». 
uito  170  pieces,  tliis  number  is  increased  by  4,  or  to  t;"** 
leaves,  in  the  shodar,  and  this  again  to  2,720  in  the  m-  .  ; 
Were  he  able  to  return  this  number  of  whole  leaves.  Ins  j  i.\ 
would  be  very  good,  but  the  waste  is  such  that  the  nit**  •  • 
wages  is  based  upon  the  return  of  2,000  whole  leaves,  i.r  •*•.' 
books  of  the  standard  weight  of  17  pennyweights.  Thi^  -- 
really  under  the  average  return  of  a  good  hand.  If  he  U mN 
his  leaves  beyond  the  standard  thinness  he  will  of  coun-- 
have  an  excess  of  gold,  for  which  he  receives  pay  as  m  r.ti 
Slight  variations  are  found  in  different  establishment *«  m  : 
different  countries,  but  the  art  appears  to  have  been  ]'ni'- 
ticed  in  a  very  similar  way  to  that  given  above  for  th-  .- 
sands  of  years.  Even  the  more  peculiar  details,  such  a^  \\  > 
use  of  the  ca?ca  of  oxen,  have  been  in  use  so  long  that  tl . 
date  of  their  introduction  is  not  known.  Gold-leaf  is  fnui- . 
on  ancient  monuments  of  Eg\'pt  and  other  countries.  Ai 
increasing  skill  appears  to  have  been  used  in  its  manufi  - 
ture,  for  the  thinnest  leaf  mentioned  by  the  an<'ient^  w  j- 
fully  three  times  the  thickness  of  what  is' now  onlinary  !  iT 
The  reduction  of  the  gold  from  a  foil  yiirth  of  an  inch  tM-  • 
to  a  leaf  nr^nTth  of  an  inch  thick  is  the  common  wtirk  ■  f 
the  gold-beater.  But  this  is  by  no  means  the  limit  of  *  - 
skill,  for  sheets  have  been  made  of  which  867.500  wt.nld  j 
to  the  inch.  Though  the  gold-beater  receives  creiiit  f^r  .".♦ 
grains  on  every  25  leaves  he  turns  in,  the  real  weight  i>  n* : 
more  than  5T^,y  grains;  and  as  the  book  contains  264  -v;. 
inches  of  leaf,  1  grain  of  gold  has  been  beaten  out  to  a  >;ir 
face  of  52  sq.  inches.  Though  gold-beating  as  an  art  n  - 
mains  almost  as  simple  as  it  was  centuries  ago,  the  jiuhU  r 
use  of  gold  by  dentists  has  given  rise  to  a  number  <.»f  p,.*- 
ented  articles  which  are  prepared  by  gold-lieaters.  *-<  .ir- 
bonized  foil"  is  one  of  these.  It  is  made  by  interleavi:  ,- 
gold-foil  of  more  than  usual  thickness  with  eoarse-gniir  • 
paper,  and  setting  fire  to  the  latter  while  the  lKx>k  is  p.;i 
m  a  press.  In  burning  it  contracts,  and  gives  the  ;:».'<:  \ 
peculiar  and  very  beautiful  cornigated  apj)earanoe.  '"  l\*i.  n'> 
crystal  pellets  "  are  made  of  ordinarv  leaf  made  into  a  in:*- '. 
by  stirring  the  leaves  in  alcohol,  ancl  pouring  them  liLjiiTi* 
into  a  mold.  The  alcohol  remaining  on  the  gold  is.  tl-  i 
fired,  and  the  heat  causes  the  whole  to  weld  to  a  very  j »*  r-  -x  - 
mass,  which  is  cut  into  small  square  blo<»ks.  **  Ki»»r^i»'j - 
bl(K'ks"  are  made  of  carbonized  gold,  the  sheets  beiiitr  p  -• 
one  above  the  other  and  the  mass  then  cut  into  V»l«>«k-- 
Dentists'  gold  is  known  by  the  name  of  *•  foil/' which  .- 
heavier  than  the  leaf.  Machines  have  been  invente<l  ti»  t:i'. 
the  gold-boater's  place,  but  they  have  not  engine  ii»to  -i-  . 
Simple  as  the  work  appears,  it  requires  the  exercise  of  di- 
crction.    Other  metals  than  gold  are  beaten,  a^^  silver,  aim- :- 


834 


GOLD-EYE 


GOLD  MINES  AND  MINING 


explained  aa  dcaipned 
rofereni^e  to  Christ  and  Cliria- 
tisn  graces.  The  eastern  seems  to  be  very  old,  but  to  hase 
developed  gradually.  Gngoij  the  Great  used  to  send  fllings 
of  the  chains  ot  St.  Peter  set  in  gold  Icejs  or  gold  crosses  to 
persons  with  whom  he  wanted  to  be  on  good  terms.  The 
first  one  presented  was  sent  by  Urban  V.  in  1886  to  Queen 


a  golden  ri 


18  Henry  VI] 


Ij  Engli 
II.,  who 


had  three  bestowed  upon 


Gold-eye:  the  name  of  certain  North  American  fresh- 
water fishes  ot  the  genua  Ilyodon,  toinWy  Byodonlidce,  hav- 
ing teeth  on  the  jaws,  palate,  and  tongue.  The  fishes  are 
small,  and  will  rise  to  a  fly  like  the  trout  or  grayling. 

tioldUneh :  a  favorite  European  song  bird  (Carduelia  ele- 
gant j,  prettily  colored  with  yellow,  white,  black,  and  a  little 
red.  It  is  reaililv  domesticated,  sings  fairly  well,  and  breeds 
freely  with  the  linnet  and  canary,  the  hybrids  being  prized 
for  their  song.    It  ranges  over  Europe  and  North  Africa, 


The  oomraeii  Roldflncb  ot  Europe, 
extending  castwardly  to  Persia.  The  American  goldflnch 
is  a  distinct  bird  {Spinu»  irislisj,  and  much  more  "golden" 
than  its  namesake,  the  breeding  plumage  of  the  male  bein 
bright  yellow,  wings,  tail,  and  top  of  head  black,  with  som 
white  markings.  The  fall  and  winter  plumage  of  bot 
sexes  is  much  alike,  being  mainly  a  delicate  palelirown. 
F.  A.  Lucas, 
Goldflnnj,  or  tioldslnnj;  the  Symphodm  melopa. 


GDldnDO^. 

small  EuroDMn  fish  of  the  family  Labridre.     It  is  brilliantly 
colored,  and  is  found  in  kelp  and  about  rocks. 

0«lllHsli :  the  CnmsniKs  auratua.  or  golden  carp  a  Chi- 
nese fish  naturaliwjil  in  many  stniains  and  lakes  of  Europe 


and  the  U.  S.     Prom  its  Iwauliful  oma^  color  anrl  its  te- 
nacity of  life  it  is  often  kept  in  gla^s  glob**  an,!  .^lari^    A 


Gold  Flax :  See  Avektitbisb  GhAsa. 
Gold  HiU,  Nev.:  See  ViROisu  Crrr. 
Gotdmarb,  gdlfmaark,  Caol:  composer;  b. at  KraiiWv 
Hungary.  May  18,  1830;  studied  at  Vienna;  began  oote;- 
sition  at  an  early  ace,  and  has  produced  many  fine  mrl- 
araong  which  may  be  mentioned  the  overture  SninnAr.'.i' 
the  operas  Oue«n  of  Sfieba,  Merlin,  the  symphonv  /.,; 
landlicne  Soeheetl.  He  has  also  composed  some  rtarnl-r 
music.  D.  E.  U. 

Gold  HIneBBnd  Mining:  pUces where  gold  is obTsiii.i 
and  the  method  of  separating  it  from  the  rocky  anil  eanht 
substances  in  which  it  is  found.  Gold  mines  niav  W 
grouped  in  two  broadly  marked  divisions:  (1)  vein  nu-,.. 
and  (2)  placer  mines.  Gold-bearing  reins  are  gpnm:;\  ■' 
quartz,  and  they  penetrate  solid  rocks  to  considcralde  rl,.,  t|.,. 
Placer  mines  are  the  comparatively  superficial  delrilal  il.t.~ 
Its  formed  by  the  action  of  rivers  and  floods  upon  the  v,.ii,.. 
In  veins  the  gold  is  firmly  fixed  in  the  gangue  or  vMn-i^  !v 
and  is  in  irregular,  rag^  masses  or  crysUlline  i»n:.  ;■»! 
but  in  placere  the  gold  is  detached  from  the  ganeue,  mi.l  i- 
worn  and  rounded  by  attrition,  having  been  ri'llnl  ai-i 
tumbled  in  the  beds  ot  creeks  and  torrents  together  hit'i 
pebbles  and  bowlders  until  all  the  asperities  have  Iwr.  rr- 
moved.  Placer  gold  can  thus  be  easily  distinguish*. I  fr. -i 
vein  gold.  The  gold  so  broken  out  from  veinsi3di.trlnj--.i 
through  the  gravel  and  sand,  but,  owing  to  its  high  si.^if- 
gravity,  it  gradually  finds  its  way  down  to  the  lowest  luy,  ^ 
ot  gravel,  and  accumulates  upon  the  surface  of  the  un.|<-'riv- 
ing  rock,  eenerallv  known  among  miners  as  the  -bed-r.;' 
There  is  thus  a  kind  of  concentration  of  the  gold  in  a  Im.r 
under  the  gravel  and  soil,  having  more  or  less  laterd  ^^li  r,- 
sion,  and  comparatively  near  the  surface;  while  in  vein:- 1!:' 
gold  is  distributed  through  a  layer  of  quartz  traversinir  iL- 
rocks  in  a  vertical  or  nearly  vertical  plane  to  great  dc|.ilj-. 
This  great  difference  in  the  mode  of  occurtenoe  of  th*  ni--  ; 
ot  course  necessitates  a  great  difference  in  the  melhiJ'  ■ ' 
mining.  The  operation  of  collecting  the  gold  is  in  l«  'i 
cas*s  essentially  a  mechanical  one,  based  upon  the  suivn-- 
gravity  of  the  gold,  which  permits  it  to  be  rcadilv  sepsratic 
from  the  rocks,  gravel,  or  soil  in  which  it  occurs.' 

Gold-bearing  veins  are  found  in  rocks  ot  Tarioos  i--^ 
and  kinds:  argillaceous,  talcose,  and  chloriLic  slates  w.i-i.r. 
however,  to  be  peculiarly  favorBbJe  to  the  occurrence  ..f  rh> 
nietAl.  In  some  regions  homblendic  slates  are  more  hi;!  ii 
auriferous  than  the  other  rocks.  Veins  vary  in  width  [n.iii 
a  few  Inches  or  less  to  several  feet.  As  a  general  rule,  vhii;, 
are  larger,  broader,and  more  extensive  in  slate-reginnsiliaa 
m  granite  or  the  hani  rocks.  This  seems  to  nvult  fmin  'i- 
fact  that  slates  are  more  readilv  and  deeply  fissured  in  w 
diHK'tion  than  in  any  other.  This  direction  is  the  plan,  ^f 
stratification  or  ot  highly  developed  cleavage,  and  v../,. 
generally  conform  to  it  in  their  direction  and  depth.  Tii." 
IS  a  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  characteristics  of  Ui  if- 
beanng  veins  all  over  the  world.  The  veinstone  is  c^h<j:- 
ally  the  opaque  or  translucent,  milky-white  varielv  A 
quartz,  without  distinct  crystallization  or  cleavage,  lii  i-in: 
veins,  however,  it  is  very  much  harder  than  in  other  v,-  ;i-. 
and  requires  great  labor  and  much  powder  to  break  it  .rar. 
Sometimes  it  is  readily  excavated  by  the  pick&z:  as.  fnr  'i- 
•""pie,  in  some  parts  of  the  great  Cbmstock  lode  in  Nwa.li 
Iding  silver  and  gold,  the  white  quartz  is  in  a  Insn.-  :- 
tary  or  powdered  condition.  It  is  usually,  in  all  veins,  im.'  i 
softer  at  considerable  depths  and  when  freshly  minwl  ili,i-i 
at  the  out^^rops  or  after  it  has  been  exposed  to  tie  air  l-r  » 
long  time.  In  some  veins  tiie  bulk  of  the  quartz  exKi-  in 
hard,  rounded,  nodular  masse.",  surrounded  more  <)r  U-*  I'l 
softer  cellular  quartz,  in  which  the  gold  is  chieflT  fouml  -.'- 
sociateil  with  pyritous  minerals,  while  the  hnnl  twwldpr-h^- 
miiflses  of  quartz  are  comparatively  barren.  These  vein*  »r- 
known  in  California  as  "  bowlder- veins."  A  disriii.n 
mark,  handed  structure,  with  a  more  or  less  cnsiilir- 
meilial  plane,  is  not  uncommon  where  reins  ttarerse  a  lur  I 
homogeneous  rock,  sucli  as  granite  or  svenile,  Thi?  i-  » 
■'tructural  arrangement  of  the  gnngue  which  is  reganU-l  .»• 
me  of  the  characteristics  ot  true  flreure  veins  A  bnn.'- 
structure,  due  chiefly  to  the  ijamllel  arrangement  <.f  ik- 
pyrites  or  to  inclosed  Alms  of  slate,  is  often  seen  in  yy-'- 
traversing  slates,  Such  veinstone  is  often  known  a? -T!- 
boii-quartz,"  and  is  considered  by  miners  as  favorable  (■•  f" 
ncliness  of  the  ore.  There  is  a  class  of  veins  knuKn  i- 
"slale-veins,"  in  which  a  belt  of  slates  is  travel^  |,v  \t-.- 


836 


GOLD  MINES  AND   MINING 


centaffo  of  sulphurets,  2i.  In  1891  17,320  tons  of  ore  were 
milled  and  388  tons  of  sulphiirets  produced.  At  the  Sierra 
Buttes,  in  Sierra  co.,  Cal.,  tne  average  value  per  ton  of  40,035 
tons  worked  in  1873  was  $9;  cost  of  mining,  $3.60;  and  of 
milling,  only  80  cents.  During  six  months  ending  June  1, 
1893,  3,420  tons  of  ore  averaged  $3.91;  cost  of  working, 
$2.16 ;  profit,  $1.75  per  ton.  At  the  Alaska  Treadwell  mine 
in  five  months  ending  Oct.  1,  1893,  100,502  tons  of  ore 
yielded  gold  to  the  value  of  $356,227,  averaging  about  $3.44 ; 
expenses,  $122,227 ;  profit,  $234,000.  Favorable  conditions 
for  mining,  and  the  use  of  water-power  instead  of  steam, 
make  a  great  difference  in  the  expense  of  working  a  mine 
and  extracting  the  gold.  At  the  Benton  mills,  run  by 
water,  on  the  Merced  river,  Mariposas  estate,  quartz  could 
be  crushed  and  stamped  for  less  than  60  cents  a  ton,  and 
the  total  cost  of  milling  was  about  $1.  At  Hayward's  Eu- 
reka mine,  in  Amador  County,  worked  to  a  depth  of  nearly 
1,700  feet  (1874),  22,465  tons  were  worked  m  1873,  and 
yielded  an  average  of  $17.91  per  ton.  The  vein  in  some 
places  was  found  to  be  not  less  than  55  feet  thick,  and  in 
others  only  8  feet  and  4  feet.  Some  portions  were  quite 
barren.  The  cost  of  extraction  averaged  $2.50  per  ton  for 
the  higher  levels.  The  famous  Princeton  mine  on  the  Mari- 
posas estate  yieldefl  from  $13  to  $25  per  ton  at  different 
times,  the  average  generally  being  about  $16.  The  Mt. 
Morgan  mine,  in  Australia,  up  to  1892  had  produced  907,- 
697  oz.  of  gold  from  383,330  tons  of  ore,  and  paid  forty-six 
dividends  aggregating  £2,750,000. 

The  form  of  occurrence  of  gold  in  South  Africa  is  won- 
derful, and  is  unique  in  the  history  of  gold-mining.  It  is 
found  in  stratified  beds  of  conglomerates,  locally  known  as 
"  bankets,"  from  their  resemblance  to  a  cake  called  banket 
by  the  Boers.  From  a  production  of  43,155  oz.,  valued  at 
$755,212,  at  Witwatererand  in  1887,  there  has  been  a  steady 
annual  increase  in  the  amount  to  1,210,862  oz.,  valued  at 
$21,190,085,  in  1892.  The  gold  of  this  district  is  valued  at 
$17.50  to  $18.25  per  ounce.  In  1890  702,828  tons  of  ore 
were  crushed,  yielding  494,817  oz.  of  gold,  averaging  13-36 

Pennyweights  per  ton.  In  1891  1,154,145  tons  of  ore  gave 
29,238  oz.,  an  average  of  11*23  pennyweights  per  ton.  The 
total  production  for  the  year  1892  m  the  Transvaal  is  re- 
ported at  1,325,394  oz.  Deep  borings  with  the  diamond  drill 
nave  penetrated  the  main  "  reef  "  at  a  depth  of  about  2,300 
feet,  and  show  it  to  be  gold  bearing. 

Gold-bearing  veins  are  often  found  by  tracing  the  placer 
gold  up  the  valleys  to  the  side  of  the  vein.  When  rough 
and  ragged  masses  of  gold  are  found  in  placers,  it  is  good 
evidence  that  they  have  not  been  transported  far  from  the 
original  source.  There  are  frequent  examples  of  detrital 
deposits  being  barren  of  gold  above  certain  veins,  and  rich 
in  gold  below  them.  Quartz-veins  which  appear  to  be  per- 
fectly barren  sometimes  seem  to  have  been  the  source  from 
which  large  stream-deposits  of  the  metal  have  been  sup- 
plied. In  seeking  an  explanation,  the  unequal  distribution 
of  gold  in  the  mass  of  tne  veinstone  is  to  be  considered,  as 
well  as  the  enormous  amount  of  erosion  which  most  veins 
have  undergone.  The  wearing  away  and  natural  mining 
by  rivers  and  floods  through  long  ages  of  time  far  exceed 
in  extent  any  human  efforts.  Valleys  in  California  trans- 
verse to  the  direction  of  gold-bearing  veins  are  from  1,000 
to  3,000  feet  deep,  and  all  of  the  gold  which  existed  in  the 
veins  eroded  to  that  depth  is  collected  in  the  detrital  de- 
posit of  the  valley  below.  Nature  has  performed  on  a  gi- 
gantic scale  the  very  operations  required  to  obtain  the  gold 
from  veins.  The  quartz  is  mined,  crushed,  and  the  gold  is 
rudely  separated  and  concentrated  on  the  bed-rock  of  rivers 
and  alluvial  dej)osits.  Placer  mining  may  thus  be  consid- 
ered a  collecting  operation,  and  it  affords  a  more  rapid  and 
abundant  harvest  of  gold  for  a  short  time  than  can  be  ex- 
pected from  veins.  The  rivers  and  brooks  of  a  gold- region 
are  in  fact  natural  sluices,  in  which  the  gold  broken  from 
the  vein  is  gradually  concentrated ;  but  the  distribution  of 
the  metal  in  such  valleys  is  extremely  irregular,  depending 
upon  the  supply,  the  nature  of  the  current  and  of  the  bed- 
rock. As  a  general  rule,  where  the  bed  of  a  stream  is  hard 
and  the  current  is  swift  the  bed-rock  is  swept  clean,  and  no 
gold  remains,  except,  i)erhaps,  in  deep  holes  and  crevices, 
where  it  accumulates  out  of  reach  of  tne  force  of  the  water. 
In  the  process  of  ages  streams  cut  their  channels  to  greater 
depths,  and  the  drainage  of  the  country  changes:  vallevs 
are  drained  and  terrace-like  deposits  are  left  upon  the  hills. 
These  deposits  are  generally  rich  in  gold,  and  are  more  ac- 
cessible to  the  miner  than  the  beds  of  rivers.  Placer  min- 
ing is  thus  conducted  not  only  in  the  beds  of  existing  but  of 


ancient  streams.  Such  stream-deposits  have  been  trac^  f*  r 
long  distances,  apparently  across  the  existing  drains;:*'  -f 
the  mountain  region  of  California,  and  have  been  rnin  -I 
with  great  profit.  The  gravel  in  many  places,  being  d»-.  | ' . 
buried  and  excluded  from  the  air.  Itas'a  bluish  color,  du*  *  ■ 
the  presence  of  protoxide  of  iron,  contrasting  strongly  u:'i, 
the  ordinary  deposits.  This -blue  ^^avel,  wherever  fouiui  ;r. 
the  higher  parts  of  the  gold-region,  is  gcnerallv  rviTHrn:.  i 
as  the  deposit  of  one  great  river  which  formerly  flowt^i  m  i 
southeasterlv  direction.  It  is  known  as  the  "blue  Kmu/ 
But  probablv  there  were  several  ancient  streams,  each  W&y- 
ing  deposits  liaving  a  general  similarity. 

There  are  other  classes  of  deposits  besides  those  imn- 
tioned.  Some  appear  to  have  been  formed  in  lak«^,  iiiu^ 
much  as  the  coarser  materials  at  the  bottom  carryinc'h- 

fold  are  overlaid  by  horizontal  beds  of  clay  and  sand  hui- 
reds  of  feet  in  thickness.  Other  extensive  de{>o^il'.  i.i 
enormous  bowlders  seem  to  have  resulted  from  ice-afJi'-ri 
and  may  be  the  medial  or  terminal  morain^}  of  ari'  t<  ri 
glaciers.  This  variety  in  the  conditions  of  oocurrenc-e  ne- 
cessitates a  variety  of  methods  for  securing  the  prexi-  l- 
metal. 

In  placer  gold-washing,  as  in  collecting  the  gold  fr'-:. 
crushed  quartz,  the  separation  from   earthy  sal>stan«.f'>  > 
effected  by  a  current  of  water  flowing  over  incUnt*<l  ^'.r- 
faces.    The  materials  presenting  the  greatest  surfaci^  a< 
having  the  least  gravity  are  swept  forward  most  raiMi.\. 
while  the  heavier  and  smaller  dbjects  are  left  l^ehind  at  ■  - 
near  the  upper  part  of  the  incline.     All  apparatus  an: 
methods  are  based  upon  this  principle ;  the  difference  i*  ir 
degree,  not  in  kind.    Formerly,  nearly  all  auriferous  ear\ 
and  gravel  was  washed  by  throwing  it  into  -  rocker-  **  •* 
*'loug  toras,"  so  called,  which  were  essentially   iu''.:!.-! 
troughs  made  of  boards  and  set  at  such  an  angle  tliat  xW 
current  of  w^ater  flowing  through  would  be  strong  en-.i.^--' 
to  sweep  away  the  earth  and  gravel  and  leave  the  soUi.    A 
coarsely  perforated  plate  or  grating  at  the  lower  end  all».»w^i: 
the  water  and  gold  to  fall  through  into  a  box  provtdtMi  ^  i- 
riffles  and  charged  with  quicksilver.    The  coarse  grav.l  u.i- 
removed  by  shoveling.    Such  apparatus,  with  the  pirk  j:.  i 
shovel  and  a  pan, is  suflicient  for  operations  on  a  small  ^n.- 
in  ordinary  alluvial  deposits,  where  the  upper  and  l>arr>i 
layers  of  sand  and  gravel  are  shoveled  on,  and  only  th 
comparatively  small  amount  of  pay  gravel  at  the  boHom   - 
washed.    For  such  operations  only  one  or  two  men  an*  r*^-- 
essary,  and  but  little  or  no  capital,  but  for  the  more  extf-r- 
sive  deposits  hundreds  of  feet  below  the  surface,  and  o\>r- 
laid,  perhaps,  by  thick  outflows  of  basaltic  lava,  exten.-v. 
mining  operations  requiring   combined  effort    and   hrz- 
capital  are  necessary.    The  great  bulk  of  the  goldofr^*. 
fomia  and  Australia  is  now  obtained  from  the  deep  pUi  er- 
worked  by  associated  capital  on  a  stupendous  scale.    .\ 
large  portion  of  the  richest  gravel  deposits  are  foun^l  ''i 
trough-like  channels  or  basin-shaped  depressions  wit!   .. 
rocky  rim,  which  must  be  pierced  to  reach  the  paying  ^u- 
stratum  and  to  afford  the  requisite  drainage  for  saet-i--f . 
working.    This  piercing  is  effected  by  running  a  luji:.' 
from  some  adjoming  valley,  so  as  to  reach  the  lowi-st    i-- 
pression  of  the  deposit  and  give  an  outlet  for  the  flo.-}   •' 
water  used  in  wasning.    The  grade  or  "  fall "  must  W  ^>i'-\ 
as  to  convey  away  the  earth,  gravel, and  bowlders,  and  i! » • 
must  be  room  enough  at  the  final  outlet  for  the  at-c^jiui-i'- 
tion  of  tailings.    In  some  cases  the  pay  gravel  on  the  U-- 
rock  is  removed  by  mining,  in  the  same  manner  as  a  <  -n  - 
bed  is  taken  out,  and  is  washed  in  sluices  outside  of  i- 
mine;  but  the  most  economical  and   expeditious   ni»^:}'  ' 
of  excavation,  when  water  can  be  had  under  pre^sv.ii..  * 
what  is  known  as  "hydraulic  mining."    This  process  -  :..'- 
inated  in  California  in  1852,  and  has  since  been   i;r  m*  ' 
improved.     Water  is  conveyed  in  ditehes  for  many  n  ' .  • 
to  the  hills  above  the  deposits,  and  is  carried  down  in  r  • 
pipes  and  delivered  in  large  streams,  under  a  pn-SNiirv 
from   100  to  300  or  even   500  feet  of  height  .>f  in>Ii.  .  . 
against  the  base  of  the  gravel  deposit  to  be  wash«Ml.     l  . 
end  of  the  pipe  is  furnished  with  a  nozzle  from  5  ti>  s  iiu  '  • 
in  diameter.     A  6-inch  nozzle,  under  a  pressure  of  *J7"» 
I  300  feet  of  column,  will  deliver  1,579  cubic  feet  of  waft  r 
one  minute  with  a  velocity  of  140  feet  per  seeon<l.     T   - 
mass  of  water  striking  in  a  solid  column  against  tht>  K.- 
of    a    bank   of    gravel  excavates   it  with  great    rai>  <:. 
Bowlders  weighing  hundreds  of  pounds  are  tossed  riglit  i' 
left.    The  upper  portion  of  the  bank  is  soon  undenni' 
and  caves  in.    This  brings  down  hu^  masses  of  the  f  ^  ' 
lying  deposits,  which,  under  the  continuous  force  of  the  .i*. 


838 


GOLDSCHMIDT 


GOLF 


GoldBChmidi,  Meyer  Aaron  :  novelist ;  b.  at  Vording- 
borg,  a  small  town  of  the  island  of  Seeland,  Denmark,  Oct. 
26,  1819 ;  received  a  careful  education,  and  studied  at  the 
University  of  Copenhagen.  In  1840  he  founded  a  weekly 
journal,  T?he  Corsair,  which  made  a  great  sensation  in  se- 
date Copenhagen  by  its  brilliant  wit  and  audacious  satire. 
In  1848  he  founded  another  weekly  paper,  North  and  South, 
which  was  well  patronized  on  account  of  its  criticisms,  gen- 
er^ly  sound  an(I  always  fine  and  elegant.  But,  although  a 
verv  able  and  successful  journalist,  it  was  as  a  novelist  that 
he  became  dear  to  his  countrymen.  His  stjrle  has  sparkling 
wit  and  considerable  pathetic  power,  but  its  highest  excel- 
lence is  its  wonderful  simplicity,  as  fit  for  the  description  of 
nature  and  character  as  for  the  expression  of  sentiment  and 
ideas.  Some  of  his  novels  are  well  known  to  English  read- 
ers—^ Jew  (1852);  The  Homeless  One  (1853);  The  Heir 
(18d5) ;  and  The  Raven  (1867).    D.  Aug.  16,  1887. 

Goldschmidt,  Gtto:  composer  and  conductor;  b.  in 
Hamburg,  Aug.  21,  1829.  Educated  at  Leipzig  and  Paris. 
Went  to  England  in  1848,  and  in  1852  married  Jenny  Lind 
{a.  V,)  at  Boston,  Mass.  In  1855  they  made  their  home  in 
England.  He  composed  an  oratorio,  Ruth,  for  the  Hereford 
festival  of  1867,  founded  the  Bach  choir  in  1875,  and  con- 
ducted it  till  his  death.  He  also  conducted  man^  festivals 
in  Germany  and  composed  much  good  music.    D.  in  1890. 

D.  E.  H. 

Goldsmith,  Oliver:  author;  b.  at  Pallas,  County  Long- 
ford, Ireland,  Nov.  10,  1728;  the  son  of  a  poor  Anglican 
minister ;  graduated  A.  B.  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  after, 
five  ^ears  as  a  sizar,  during  which  he  was  subiect  to  most 
humiliating  indignities  and  much  distress,  partly  the  result 
of  his  own  characteristic  improvidence.  A  rejected  appli- 
cant for  holy  orders,  he  tried  the  study  of  law,  but  having 
wasted  his  scanty  means  in  ^amin^,  he  spent  eighteen 
months  as  a  medical  student  m  Edinburgh,  out  of  which 
town  he  was  hunted  by  creditors;  lived  abroad  1754-56. 
chiefly  at  Leyden,  and  afterward  wandered  over  a  large 
part  of  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  taking  his  medical  de- 
gree at  Padua,  and  supporting  himself  by  his  musical  tal- 
ents, which  entertainea  the  kind  peasants,  and  by  the  gra- 
tuities given  by  the  universities  to  wandering  students.  In 
1756  he  went  to  London,  where,  after  some  ^ears  of  hard 
experience  as  a  chemist's  assistant  and  practitioner  of  medi- 
cine, he  became  a  proof-reader  for  the  novelist  Richardson. 
Still  later,  as  usher  in  a  school  and  as  hack-writer  for  va- 
rious journals,  he  earned  a  scanty  living.  His  Inquiry  into 
the  Present  State  of  Polite  Literature  %n  Europe  (1759)  was 
chiefly  important  as  leading  to  opportunities  for  better 
work.  The  admirable  Citizen  of  the  World  (1760)  won  him 
the  friendship  of  Johnson  and  a  membership  in  his  Literary 
Club.  The  Life  of  Beau  Nash  was  f oUowea  by  the  History 
of  England  (1761 ;  revised  ed.  1771),  a  work  still  read,  for, 
though  not  of  high  critical  value,  its  style  is  delightful. 
The  Traveller  (1764)  established  his  place  as  a  poet.  The 
Vicar  of  Wakefield  (1766),  his  only  novel,  is  one  of  the 
choicest  treasures  of  literature.  T!^c  Good-natured  Man  (a 
comedy,  1767),  Roman  History  (1768),  The  Deserted  Village 
(1770),  his  best  poem,  She  Stoops  to  Conquer  (1773),  his  best 
comedy,  were  followed  by  the  Grecian  History  (1774),  one 
of  the  least  meritorious  of  his  works,  though  long  highly 
popular.  The  unfinished  Animated  Nature  (1774)  was  his 
last  undertaking,  a  well-written  and  pleasing  work,  but  one 
without  any  scientific  value.  His  last  days  were  rendered 
miserable  by  the  pressure  of  debt,  incurred  partly  at  the 
^ming-table,  partlv  by  his  thoughtless  improvidence,  and 
in  no  small  degree  by  his  liberal  benefactions  to  the  poor, 
D.  in  London,  Apr.  4,  1774.  Forster's  Life  of  Goldsmith  is 
the  best,  but  that  of  Irving  is  good  and  appreciative. 

Revised  by  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Goldsmith's  Work :  See  Metal- work. 

Gold  Stick :  a  title  given  to  colonels  of  the  British  Life 
Guards,  and  to  the  captain  of  the  gentlemen-at-arms,  so 
called  from  the  gilded  batons  which  tney  carry  on  state  oc- 
casions.   See  Silver  Stick. 

Goldstone :  See  Aventurine  Glass. 

Goldstlicker,  golt'stUk-^r,  Theodor:  Sanskrit  scholar; 
b.  in  KCnigsborg,  Germany,  Jan.  18,  1821.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  his  native  place,  at  Bonn,  and  at  Paris ;  became  a 
teacher  in  Berlin ;  removed  to  London  in  1850,  and  was 
Professor  of  Sanskrit  in  University  College  from  1852  till  his 
death.  He  founded  the  Sanskrit  Text  Society ;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Philological  and  Royal  Asiatic  Societies ;  wrote 


sixty-seven  articles  on  Indian  mythology  and  phflol<»$n  i:* 
the  first  edition  of  Chambers's  Eneycwpcsdia :  puhlLvh'«: 
Pdnini,  his  Place  in  Sanskrit  Literature  (1861),  the  San- 
skrit text  of  the  Jaunintya^Nydya-Mdld-  Visiara,  and  y^in 
of  a  Sanskrit  dictionary,  and  collected  much  matetiai  f^r 
other  works.    D.  in  London,  Mar.  6, 1872. 

Golet :  a  species  of  trout.    See  Dolly  Varden. 

Golf  Fprob.  from  Dutch  kolf  club;  cf.  Grerra<  ^olb^n. 
club,  ana  Eng.  club] :  one  of  the  oldest  of  out-door  sjx^n^. 
supposed  to  nave  originated  with  the  Flemings  some  tiTiw 
pnor  to  the  fifteenth  century,  and  then  known  as  kolf.  A^ 
played  by  them,  however,  kolf  bore  little  resemblance  to  th- 
game  as  it  has  been  played  in  Scotland  for  at  least  four  i-fTc- 
turies.  We  learn  from  history  that  as  early  as  1457  ^If  wa- 
the  national  game.  Indeed  so  popular  was  the  game  in  S<-'  tt- 
land  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  Parlia- 
ment passed  an  act  restricting  the  play  to  certain  day>  m 
the  week,  in  order  that  the  people  might  practice  arehtry, 
which,  it  was  claimed,  they  naa  neglectea  for  the  sake  < -f 
golf.  For  a  time  the  game  was  restricted  almost  entir*  iy 
to  the  wealthy  and  well-to-do.  It  is  now  very  comni-I- 
everywhere  throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  and  therv  i^ 
hardly  a  city  or  town  of  any  note  in  Great  Britain  tliat 
has  not  at  least  one  golf  club.  It  is  also  taking  root  in  va 
rious  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  is  played  in  a.l 
the  British  colonies.  In  Canada  there  are  auite  a  numWr  i  f 
very  strong  clubs,  with  a  good  many  excellent  players.  In 
the  U.  S.  the  game  is  also  becoming  very  popular.    At  New- 

Bort  and  Southampton,  both  fashionable  resorts,  verr  tiD* 
nks  have  been  laid  out,  both  in  charge  of  professional 
?)lfers.  The  oldest  club  in  the  U.  S.  is  the  St.  Andrew's  f 
onkers,  N.  Y.,  which  contains  some  of  the  finest  goife^^  i;. 
the  country. 

The  game  consists  in  driving,  with  an  implement  called  a 
"club,  a  hard  gutta-percha  ball,  about  5^  inches  in  circum- 
ference, from  one  hole  in  the  ground  (about  4  inches  in  di- 
ameter) to  another,  in  a  regular  series  of  eighteen  holes,  Ivin^ 
from  150  to  500  yards  apart.  To  make  the  full  eighteen  h*  'it^ 
means  traveling  from  8^  to  4  miles.  When,  as  sometiu't' 
happens,  there  are  only  nine  holes,  the  couise  must  be  g'  a.« 
over  twice.  The  player  who  "  holes"  the  ball  with  the  few- 
est number  of  strokes  wins  the  holes,  and  he  who  'wins  iLe 
greatest  number  of  holes  in  the  round  wins  the  game. 


OLEEK 


LOmtM 

tnoH 
Golf  clubB. 


NIBUOH 


The  game  is  usually  played  hytwo  persons,  but  can  tr* 
played  oy  four,  two  on  a  side.  When  played  by  t^wo,  t-n*^" 
player  has  a  ball  and  about  half  a  dozen  **  clubs  of  Ta^il•n^ 
sizes  and  shapes.  These  are  carried  by  an  attendant  terni*- . 
a  caddy.  The  game  is  started  by  each  player  teeing'  his  1*^!.. 
i.  e.  placing  it  on  a  small  bit  of  clay  or  sand,  thus  raisini:  : 
slightly  off  the  ground,  that-  he  may  get  a  good  stroke  at  i: 
This  is  done  on  what  is  called  the  teeing-ground^  "whit  h  > 
in  the  vicinity  of,  but  not  in  any  way  situate<l  so  as  t*.*  in- 
terfere with,  the  "green,"  that  is  the  well-kept  turf  s;:r- 
rounding  each  hole  for,  say,  20  or  30  yards.  When  the  Ut 
is  driven  off  the  player  can  not  again  touch  it,  but  nu- 
take  his  next  shot  at  it  from  wherever  it  may  lie,  usln^  tr..-; 
one  of  the  various  clubs  ¥rith  which  he  can  best  strike  * 


840 


GONAlVES,  LES 


GONFALON 


GonaYyes,  Les,  las-gd-naa'i-ves:  a  city  and  port  of  Haiti; 
capital  of  the  department  of  Artibonite ;  on  Gonalves  Bay, 
at  the  west  end  oi  the  ishind :  70  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Port-au- 
Prince  (see  map  of  West  Indies,  ref .  5-G).  The  port  affords 
excellent  anchorage  for  the  largest  vessels,  and  is  exposed 
only  on  the  western  side.  The  town  is  irregularly  built  on 
a  great  plain,  which  stretches  from  the  bay  eastward  to  the 
Monts  Noirs  or  Black  Mountains ;  this  plain  is  very  fertile, 
and  with  the  neighboring  valleys  forms  one  of  the  richest 
agricultural  districts  of  Haiti.  Gonalves  was  originally  an 
Indian  village,  and  attained  commercial  importance  onl^  in 
the  nineteenth  century.  It  exports  considerable  quantities 
of  coffee  and  cotton.  Haitian  independence  was  first  pro- 
claimed at  this  place,  and  it  has  been  the  scene  of  many  im- 
portant events  in  the  history  of  the  country.  Pop.  (1887) 
estimated  at  18,000.      '  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Gom^alTes  Dias,  Antonio:  Brazilian  poet:  b.  at  Cachias, 
province  of  MaranhSo,  in  1823.  He  was  sent  by  his  parents 
to  Coimbra,  in  Portugal,  to  study  philosophy  and  jurispru- 
dence, in  oriler  to  fit  himself  for  a  public  career  in  Brazil 
He  had  more  interest  in  poetry,  however,  and  soon  began  to 

Eublish  verses  in  Portuguese  periodicals.  On  his  return 
ome,  he  gave  up  his  place  as  magistrate  in  order  to  become 
Professor  of  History ;  and  in  1846  he  published  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  his  first  volume,  Primeiros  Cantos.  This  was  fol- 
lowed in  1848  by  Segundoa  Cantos,  e  Sextilhas  de  Fr. 
AntSo,  and  in  1851  by  Ultimos  Cantos,  About  1850,  how- 
ever, he  had  returned  to  Europe  on  a  mission  from  the 
Brazilian  Government  to  study  German  and  French  scien- 
tific schools.  He  remained  abroad  till  1858,  mainly^  in  Ger- 
many. He  printed  in  Leipzig  a  collection  of  his  poems 
(1857),  and  in  the  same  year  the  first  four  cantos  of  an  epic 
entitled  Os  Tymbiras,  Poema  Americano.  In  1858  he  re- 
turned to  Brazil  in  order  to  take  part  as  historian  and  eth- 
nographer in  the  scientific  expedition  sent  by  the  Brazilian 
Government  into  the  province  of  Ceard.  For  this  he  had 
prepared  himself  by  long  studies,  the  results  of  which  are 
to  be  found  in  several  memoirs  (cf.  Rev.  do  Inst.,  xviii.,  5 
and  289),  and  in  his  Diceionario  da  lingua  Tupy  chamoda 
lingua  geral  dos  indigenas  do  Brazil  (Leipzig,  1858).  Gon- 
calves  Dias*s  first  poetical  impulse  came  from  the  Bra&i- 
lianas  of  Aranjo  Porto- Aleore  (9.1;.),  and  he  continued  to 
be  a  writer  ardently  national  and  eager  to  give  expression 
to  the  life  of  the  Brazilians,  whether  indigenous  or  Portu- 
guese. In  this  he  was  eminently  successful,  and,  in  the  words 
of  the  Spanish  critic,  Juan  Valera,  he  became  "  the  most 
popular  of  all  the  Brazilian  poets."  See  Cantos,  CoUecHo  de 
poezias  de  A.  Gon^alves  Bias  (3d  ed.  Leipzig,  1860) ;  also 
the  review  Ouanabara,  founded  and  edited  by  him  in  con- 
junction with  Aranjo  Porto-Alegre  and  Manoel  de  Macedo 
(q.  v.).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Goncourt,  gon'koor' :  the  name  of  two  brothers — Edmond 
Louis  Antoine  Huot  de  Goncourt,  b.  at  Nancy,  May  26, 
1822,  and  Jules  Alfred  Huot  de  Goncourt,  b.  in  Paris, 
Dec.  17, 1830,  sons  of  Jean  Antoine  Huot  de  Goncourt,  dep- 
uty to  the  National  Assembly  of  1789 ;  celebrated  as  joint 
authors  of  a  number  of  brilliant  writings — historical  and 
critical  essays,  novels,  dramas,  all  belonging  to  the  realistic 
school.  Conspicuous  among  those  works  are  Histoire  de  la 
society  frangaise  pendant  la  RSvolution,  et  sous  le  Directoire 
(1854-^55,  2  vols. ;  3d  ed.  1865) ;  Portraits  intimes  du  XVIII. 
siecle  (1856-58,  2  vols.;  new  ed.  1878);  Histoire  de  Marie- 
Antoinette  (1858;  numerous  editions);  Les  Mattresses  de 
Louis  XV.  (I860.  2  vols.;  reissued  in  three  scries  with  the 
titles  la  Du  Barry,  la  Pompadour,  la  Durhesse  de  Chdteau- 
roux  et  ses  soeurs,  1878-79);  L'Art  du  XVIIP  siecle  (1874, 
2  vols.) ;  the  novels  Renee  Mauperin  (1864) ;  Idees  et  Sensa- 
tions (1866);  Man^fte  Salomon  (1867,  2  vols.);  Madame 
Gervaisais  (1869) ;  the  drama  Henriette  Marechal  (played  in 
1865) ;  Pages  retrouvees  (1886) ;  Prefaces  et  mamfestes  lit- 
tSraires  (1888);  Journal  des  Goncourt  (1st  series,  3  vols.. 
1887-88;  2d  series,  by  Edmond  de  Goncourt,  1890).  Since 
the  death  of  Jules,  which  occurred  at  Auteuil,  June  20, 
1870,  Edmond  has  published  among  other  works  VCEuvre 
de  Watteau  (1876);  VCEuvre  de  Pnid'hon  (1877);  La  fille 
Eliza  (1878) ;  Le^  freres  Zemgajino  (1879) ;  La  Mainon  d'un 
Artiste  (1881) ;  Cherie  (1884) ;'  Madame  Saint- ffuberti,  Mile. 
Clairon  (1885,  1890) ;  a  drama,  La  Pntrie  en  danger  (1873), 
originally  called  Mile,  de  la  Roched rayon  (played  in  1888); 
and  has  dramatized  Germinie.  Lacerteux,  a  romance  by  the 
two  brothers.  This  was  put  on  the  stage  in  1887.  See  the 
Lettres  de  Jules  Goncourt  (1885). 

Revised  by  Henrt  Baldwin. 


Gon'da  (Gontha,  a  cattlefold):  a  district  of  Fvzalta<i« 
Oudh,  British  India;  between  26*  46'  and  27'  50  'N.  .at. 
and  SV  35'  and  82°  48'  E.  Ion.;  just  S.  of  the  Himalax..-. 
Area,  2,881  sq.  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Gogrn  n\ >  ^ 
and  is  a  vast  alluvial  plain  dotted  with  lakes  and  grox*-^  <  f 
mango-trees.  Rice,  wheat,  and  barley  are  the  chief  f.n-1- 
ucts.  Pop.  1,300,000,  nearly  all  Hindus.  The  eafiital  i- 
Gonda,  a  town  formerly  celebrated  for  the  manufacture  ..f 
shields,  now  of  little  importance.    Pop.  15,000.    M.  W.  IL 

Gon'dar  (properly  Cfuendar):  city  of  Abvsslnia :  in  Int. 
12**  35'  N.  and  Ion.  87"  31'  57'  E. ;  on  the  ridge  and  sloj^e  .  f 
a  southern  spur  of  the  Wogara  Mountains,  at  an  elevatinn 
of  about  7,000  feet  above  the  sea  and  1,200  feet  above  1-^k'- 
Tana  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  4-G).  In  the  beginning  of  tb.- 
seventeenth  century,  under  the  government  of  the  neirii^ 
Fasilidas,  whose  name  as  king  was  Aslem-Seged,  Gon^iar 
was  made  the  capital,  and  is  said  to  have  had  50,000  inhn't^ 
itants,  while  in  the  period  between  1852  and  1862,  as;  es*  i- 
mated  by  Th.  von  Heuglin,  its  population  was  6,000  or  7.iNH» 
only.  The  city  consists  of  several  extensive  quarters,  stfw- 
rated  from  each  other  by  barren  commons  and  mounds  «.f 
rubbish,  but  at  a  distance  it  presents  from  all  sides  an  hti> 
posing  and  wonderful  aspect,  with  its  picturesque  groujis  i'i 
trees,  its  churches  with  tneir  high  conical  roofs,  and  iti^  nnal 
palace,  built,  according  to  the  Portuguese  taste  of  the  Mi.i- 
dle  Ages.  The  northernmost  quarter  of  the  city,  calhil 
Abun-Bed,  contains  the  residence  of  the  patriarch '(o/>i/fj*i\ 
and  is  separated  bv  a  brook  flowing  westward  from  the  f n  - 
litically  iree  state, "lEtsege-Bed,  where  the  higher  clergy  au.l 
the  religious  orders  live.  The  quarter  of  Debra  Birhan  ui  e 
church  of  the  light),  with  a  church  of  the  same  nam«^\ 
extends  to  the  S.  and  E. ;  and  that  of  Gempsa-Bed  (\i.r 
palace-quarter)  meets  Etsege-Bed  to  the  N.  W.  and  rn-bra 
Birhan  to  the  E.  Here  the  royal  palace,  Gemp,  arif«s  am<  t  j 
miserable  huts  thatched  with  straw,  a  high,  towering  •!a'<:tl'j, 
encircled  with  walls  surmounted  by  towers  and  pinnai4»  'J. 
At  some  distance,  and  to  the  S.  W.  of  Gempsa-BedL  ti  e 
large  market-place  is  situated;  on  the  slope  to  the  S.  lb-- 
Mohammedan  quarter,  Islam-Bed;  and  directly  S.  W.  ih*- 
Jewish  suburb,  Felasa-Bed.  The  streets  are  narrow  an.  I 
crooked,  paillv  paved  with  basalt,  but  partly  covere<l  ^irli 
dirt  and  rubbish.  The  finer  dwelling^  are  low  circular 
houses  of  two  stories,  built  of  unhewn  stones,  cement  *-ti 
with  lime.  Gondar  contains  44  churches,  with  1,200  e^^.^- 
siastics.  August  Niemann. 

Gondoko'ro,  or  Ismailia,  ^-maa-eeryi&:  an  Afri<  an 
village;  celebrated  in  the  history  of  exploration;  on  the 
White  Nile,  near  the  parallel  of  5"  N.  It  was  formerly  a 
center  of  the  ivory  and  slave  trades.  In  1846  a  R*»rnaii 
Catholic  mission  station  was  placed  there,  but  abandoiif^i 
on  account  of  a  famine  in  1859.  The  town  itself  is  now  2»li 
but  abandoned.  M.  W.  H. 

Gon'dola  [=Ital.,  dimin.  of  older  gonda,  gondola] :  a  !:hi,i: 
about  30  feet  long  and  4  feet  wide,  used  on  the  oana]^  nf 
Venice  and  in  other  jmrts  of  Italy.  The  Venetian  pomloia^ 
have  curved  ends,  which  rise  out  of  the  water,  the  l>ow  ^v^ 
ing  ornamented  with  a  serrated  iron  plate.  The  s|:i«c<*  m 
the  center  of  the  gondola  is  usually  canopied  and  curtains: 
to  form  a  shelter  for  the  occupants.  The  lavish  omazneniA- 
tion  of  gondolas  in  Venice  lea  in  the  sixteenth  century  to 
the  passing  of  laws  forbidding  distinctions  of  ornament  nwi 
color,  foreign  ambassadors  and  the  patriarch,  if  a  caniinHl. 
being  excepted;  hence  black  came  to  be  the  preTailin^  t-.  .:..r 
for  gondolas.  The  gondola  is  propelled  ny  one  or  th- 
rowers, who  stand  at  their  oars.  In  parts  01  the  U,  S,  Sat 
boats  used  for  heavy  merchandise  are  called  gondolas  { vul- 
garly pronounced  gundelo). 

Gonds:  a  non-Aryan  or  Dravidian  race  of  Central  Ino.a, 
whose  name  is  seen  in  Gundwana,  the  principal  dii:trici 
where  they  dwell.  (See  Dravidian  LiiNOUAGEs.)  Thev  jir^ 
small,  strong,  hardy,  and  brave,  totally  distinct  froni  t  itt 
Hindus  in  language,  religion,  and  habits;  have  no  c-As^t., 
except  so  far  as  thev  have  adopted  Hindu  customs,  for  ?J .' 
Raj-Gonds  are  partly  of  Rajpoot  descent,  and  have  ^^-n  t 
elements  of  Hindu  civilization,  and  some  Gonds  have  ^t:- 
tached  themselves  as  pariahs  to  Hindu  society.  The  Guiiu- 
number  about  1,500.000. 

Gon'falon,  or  Gon'fanon  [tor  gonf anon  <  M.  Enj?.  Cf'»- 
fanon,  from  0.  Fr.  gonf  anon  >  gonfalon,  from  Meth,*  t. 
hat.  gonf  a' no,  banner,  from  O.  H.  Germ,  gftndfano^  l>att!e- 
flag ;  gund,  battle  -^fano  (>  Mod.  Germ.  Fahne  :  En^.  ni/t-  , 
flag] :  in  mediaeval  Italy  the  banner  or  standaitl  of  a  cit%.  « 


QOSIOMETEK 


tal-hoUer.  This  aim  is  hollow,  and  carries  in  its  auMrior 
another  arm,  which  moves  iiidependeutlr  of  the  circle,  and 
upon  which  the  support  for  the  crystal  is  placed,  which 
coosiats  of  two  arms  with  a  joint  which  allows  a  rotation  of 


180°.  The  whole  arm  has  a  rotation  of  360°.  Through 
one  end.  at  right  angles  to  it.apieceof  round  steel  is  passed, 
which  is  slit  to  receive  u  pkt«  of  thin  brass,  on  which  the 
crystal  is  placed.     Attached  to  the  fixed  support  of  the  cir- 

The  instrument  is  placed  for  use  on  a  table  G  to  6  meters 
from  an  open  window,  so  that  two  horizontal  lines  A  B  of 
some  distant  building  may  be  seen,  or  two  window-bars,  or 
lines  drawn  for  the  purpose.  The  circle  is  made  rertical. 
To  facilitate  this  adjostment  the  foot  of  the  instrument  is 
provided  with  thumb-screws  and  small  glass  levels.  The 
crystal  is  then  fixed  on  its  support  with  wax,  so  that  one 
of  the  faces  D  C  (Fig.  3)  of  the  angle  D  C  E.  and  their  edge, 
is  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  circle,  and  as  near  as 
possible  in  the  prolongation  of  the  axis  of  the  instrument. 
The  eye  is  now  brought  so  near  the  crystal  that  the  refiec- 
tion  of  the  lines  A  and  B  may  be  seen,  and  the  im^e  of 
the  upper  line  is  brought,  by  turning  the  crystal,  to  the 
lower  line  as  seen  directly,  with  which,  by  proper  adjusts 
ment,  it  must  be  made  to  coincide.  The  crystal  is  then 
turned  until  the  reflection  of  the  image  at  A  is  seen  in  the 
second  face  C  B,  and  a  similar  adjustment  is  made  with 
this.    The  0  of  the  circle  and  vernier  are  tlien   brought 


together  by  turning  the  large  thumb-screw  D  (Fig.  2) ; 
when  the  circle  is  at  zero  the  small  thumb-screw  is  turned 
until  the  line  is  seen  as  before  in  the  first  face.  The  eye 
remaining  fixed,  the  circle  and  crystal  are  turned  together 
until  a  new  coincidence  is  observed  in  the  second  face. 
The  number  of  degrees  and   minutes  which  measure  the 


rotation  of  the  crystal  is  then  read.  It  is  essential  thai 
the  eye  should  remain  fixed — a  condition  which  is  easili 
fulfilled,  since  the  faces  of  the  crystal  arc  usually  very 
small,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  they  are  not  di^ 
tiuctly  visible,  although  the  reflected  line  is. 

Dr.  Kupfer  published  in  Berlin  in  1825  a  treatise  on  the 
theory  of  Wollastnn's  goniometer,  in  which  he  details  the 
possible  causes  of  error  attending  its  use.  He  shows  that 
the  conditions  necessary  for  exact  mea-wreroent  are — (Ij 
That  the  crystal  [nui^t  be  smalt,  and  that  its  edge  most  be 
as  near  the  axis  as  possible,  and  parallel  to  it.  and  if  possi- 
ble in  Its  prolongatioQ,  or  at  least  must  have  a  very  small 
eccentricity.  (3)  That  the  reflected  lines  shall  both  be  a^ 
far  as  possible  from  the  instniment,  and  at  exactly  the  same 
distance  from  the  crystal.  As  this  can  seldom  be.  the  in- 
strument must  be  so  placed  that  the  plane  of  the  ctrrle 
shall  cut  the  reflected  lines  at  right  angles.  (3)  The  axis  of 
rotation  of  the  circle  must  be  in  the  plane  which  divides 
the  angle  to  be  measured  into  two  equal  parts.  Thus  the 
two  normals  of  the  faces  start  from  a  point  of  the  axis,  turn 
round  their  point  of  intersection,  and  are  brought  so  that 
the  two  faces  occupy  successively  the  same  position.  If  the 
axis  is  at  a  distance  from  the  bisecting  plane,  the  normals 
drawn  from  a  point  of  this  axis  to  the  faces  wilt  be  unequal, 
and  one  of  the  faces  will  not  take  the  place  of  the  other.  It 
can  only  become  parallel  to  it.  The  error  which  this  may 
occasion  will  be  less  in  proportion  as  the  fixed  lines  are  more 
distant,  and  by  taking  them  far  enough  off  may  be  pracii- 
cally  eliminated. 

By  numerous  repetitions  made  by  turning  back  the  crys- 
tal after  each  observation  without  turning  back  the  circle. 
personal  errors  or  the  errors  of  graduation  may  be  nrarlv 
or  quite  eliminated,  and  a  result  reached  withm  a  minute 
of  the  truth.  When  observations  are  repeated,  though  with 
great  care  and  under  the  most  favorable  circa  instances, 
variations  in  the  readings  are  observed,  which  may  attain 
the  value  of  some  minutes.  It  is  only  by  taking  the  mean 
of  many  that  it  is  possible  to  get  the  exact  value  of  the 

As  it  is  difficult  to  find  two  lines  at  exactly  the  same  dis- 
tance, most  erystallographers  choose  only  one.  and  have  this 
reflected  in  a  mirror  attached  to  the  foot  of  the  instrumeni 
(see  Pig.  2).  This  mirror  rcnroduces  the  image  of  the  upper 
line  at  the  same  distance  b^ow  that  the  line  itself  is  al>oT^e. 
and  with  this  the  one  reflected  from  the  crystal  is  made  to 
coincide.  In  this  way  the  equality  of  the  a:st»nc«a  of  the 
two  lines  with  regard  to  the  crystal  is  fulfilled.  The  cros.-^ 
hairs  of  a  telescope  would  answer  equally  well.  The  t«>le- 
scope  has  the  advantage  of  giving  very  exact  resalta.  but  it 
is  Jifllcult  to  use  when  the  reflecting  power  of  the  crystal  is 
small.  Sometimes  a  single  point,  instead  of  a  line,  is  taki'n. 
and  its  image,  reflected,  is  made  to  coincide  wUh  the  inter- 
section of  two  croBS-httirs  of  a  telescope. 

The  principal  mistakes  which  can  arise  in  using  Wollas- 
ton's  goniometer  are — (I)  The  errors  of  adjustment  of  iht- 
crystal,  caused  by  the  eccentricity  of  the  Mge.  This  mav 
be  eliminated  by  two  readings,  turning  the  instmnient  s^. 
that  thpy  are  made  alternately  on  the  right  and  left  hand. 
(2)  Other  errors  arise  from  the  imperfectioD  of  the  instni- 
ment. both  as  to  its  divisions  and  Its  centering,  and  from  i  he 
fact  that  the  position  of  the  observer  is  not  BW>lut«ly  fixed. 
These  may  be  made   exceedingly  small  by  repeating    the 


Milsuherlich't  Omiometer. — Mitscheriich  has  avoided  the 
inconvenience  of  keeping  the  eye  flxed  by  ailding  a  tele- 
scope to  the  instrument.  The  graduation  of  the  circle  i»;  s. . 
fine  that  readings  can  be  made  within  10  inches.  The  li;:Iii 
falls  on  the  vernier  and  on  the  graduations  of  the  ciri-Ie 
through  a  screen  of  oile<l  paper.  The  microscopes  are  ftxed 
to  a  movable  support,  so  that  the  whole  tine  of  the  vemivr 
can  be  overlooked.  The  hollow  axis,  as  in  Wollaston's  piini- 
ometer.  carries  the  circle.  The  inner  solid  axis  carries  the 
crystal  and  the  apparatus  for  holding  it.  The  instnitucm 
carries  a  telescope  of  very  small  magnifying  power,  with 
cross-hairs,  which  moves  in  a  vertical  plane  on  pivots.  It  ha' 
also  a  movement  of  rotation  to  the  right  and  left  on  the  ro-i 
which  fits  into  the  pillar.  The  pillar  has  a  lateral  motion  by 
means  of  the  slide  upon  which  it  rests.  Mitscheriich  rp«ini- 
meniled  the  use  of  an  eve-piece  and  objective  whoise  fckci  ttrt 
about  33  mm.,  both  oi  them  alike  or  very  nearly  so.  In 
onler  to  eliminate  parallactic  errors  the  cross-hairs  must  he 
mode  to  coincide  with  the  reflected  image  seen  Ihroiijrli  th? 
objective.  The  adjustments  must  be  such  that  the  muTe- 
ment  of  the  observing  telescope  shall  be  in  a  plane  parallel 


844 


GONIOMETER 


The  directioD  of  the  lines  ol  reference  b  detormiDed  by  the 
inclination  of  the  circle.  The  circle  carries  two  telescopes, 
Mill  B  movable  arm  with  a  vernier  attaclied.  Both  telescopes 
are  movable,  but  one  of  them  is  Bxed  at  the  commencament 
and  the  other  during  the  observation.  This  last  one  car- 
ries a  vernier.  The  lines  to  be  reflecteii  arc  cross-hairs  at 
right  angles  to  each  other  in  the  foci  of  the  cje-pieces  of 
the  telescopes.  One  of  these  tines  in  the  fixed  telescope  is 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  circle;  the  other,  con sejjuentlj, 
perpendicular.  The  telescope  is  focused  for  great  distances. 
The  light  which  is  to  illuminate  the  lines  is  placed  be- 
vond  its  eye-piece,  at  a  distance  greater  than  its  focus. 
The  light  may  be  either  that  of  the  clouds  or  of  a  lamp. 
With  this  disposition  all  the  light  by  which  the  lines  are 
illuminated  leaves  the  telesoipo  through  the  objective  in 
parallel  rays,  and  a  point  or  line  is  obtained  which  pro- 
duces exactly  the  same  effect  as  if  it  were  really  at  an 
infinite  distance.  In  the  Wollaston  goniometer  we  judge 
that  the  two  faces  of  the  angle  are  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  circle  when  each  of  them  shows  reflected  lines 
parallel  to  the  real  ones.  The  same  is  true  in  the  Babiuet 
goniometer,  but  here  the  image  seen  directly  is  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  lines  of  the  movable  telescope,  and  is  only  a 
point.  The  image  observed  by  reflection  on  the  crystal  is 
the  reflection  of  the  horizontal  line  in  the  fixed  telescope. 
If  the  face  under  observation  is  perpend  it;  ular  to  the  circle, 
the  image  of  the  point  will  appear  to  move  parallel  to  the 
horizontal  line  when  the  movable  telescope  is  made  to 
change  its  position.     For  further  details  as  to  the  adjust- 


FiQ.  T.— Babinel'B  goniometer. 

ments  and  use  of  this  instrument,  the  reader  must  consult 
svBtematic  treatises  on  optical  instruments  or  on  miner- 
alogy. It  is  convenient  in  use,  but  has  the  disadvantage  ol 
all  instruments  requiring  the  use  of  lenses,  that  the  sharp- 
ness of  the  images  is  diminished,  which  renders  its  use  im- 
possible when  the  crystals  are  very  small  or  their  faces  not 
very  brilliant.  It  is  therefore  impossible  for  the  miner- 
alogist to  do  away  with  the  Wollaston  goniometer,  which, 
having  been  arranged  for  almost  microscopic  crystals,  is  the 
one  most  applicable  to  general  cases. 

Moh'K  Ooniometer. — Moh's  goniometer  has  a  horizontal 
circle,  and  is  really  a  slight  raodiflcatlon  of  Babinet's  go- 
niometer. It  is  used  in  the  center  of  a  room  in  which  four 
perpendicular  lines  equally  distant  from  the  crystal,  and  at 
the  same  height,  can  be  seen.  Those  usiuilly  selected  are 
Ihe  bars  of  two  windows  upon  different  si<les  of  a  room.  By 
turning  the  back  to  the  two  win<lows  successively,  the  lines 
upon  the  opposite  sides  can  be  mailc  to  coincide.  The  meth- 
ods of  adjustment  and  verification  arc  Ihe  same  as  those  of 
Wollaston's  goniometer.  It  sometimes  carries  a  telescojie 
with  cross-hairs,  when  it  requires  only  a  single  line. 

(froth's  Ooaiomefer. — The  latest  and  best  form  of  Babi- 
net's goniometer  is  shown  in  Fie.  8.  and  is  iluc  to  Dr.  Groth. 
of  Munich.  It  is  arranged  with  tclescom's.  One  of  these, 
D,  has  a  lens,  F,  used  for  the  finder.  whii:li  can  lie  thrown 
in  and  out  of  position  when  the  crystal  is  adjusted.  The 
other,  C,  which  is  fixed,  is  the  iiif[nite-di stance  lelesco|)e. 
The  axis  of  the  instrument  carried  four  adjusting  screws, 
similar  to  those  described  with  WoUiiston's  gcmiomclcr.  The 
Instrument  has  several  telescopes  tilted  with  both  C  and  D, 
four  of  which  carry  sights.  It  has  also  four  eye-pieces  or 
Nichols  prisms,  and  a  slit-collimator.    The  readiiig-glasseii 


areprovided  with  screens,  so  (hat  the  eye  is  but  little  fati^u^ 
by  the  readings.  The  telescope,  the  eye-pieces,  and  thcirrdd- 
uated  circle  all  move  and  may  be  combined  or  indepen-Ji-i ; 
The  fine  adjustment  screws,  A  B,  allow  of  great  accuraei  nf 


Fio.  8.— OroUi'«conlonieter. 

measurement.  The  angles  of  this  goniometer  can  be  niA 
to  seconds,  but  it  is  rare  that  th^  crvstal  faces  are  so  perfn't 
that  this  limit  caii  be  reached.  Ordinarily  they  are  n-al 
only  to  minutes.  In  all  measurements  it  is  best  to  aw  f-ta.^.'. 
crystnb,  as  their  faces  generally  are  more  perfect  than  Isrcer 
ones.  When  there  are  variations  of  temperature  or  ntitn 
the  reading  is  continued  tor  a  considerable  length  of  Wiw. 
it  has  been  noticed  that  there  is  a  slight  variation  in  i)i^ 
angles  measured.  These,  however,  are  so  very  small  tLa: 
in  ordinary  measurements  they  are  not  taken  into  aeiX'UDt. 
This  instrument  may  also  be  used  as  a  spectrometer. 

Thomas  EaLEsruv. 

OonorrhlB'a  [Or.  yorippoa:  yortt,  or  -yinn.  semen -t-^uL 
flow,  flowing,  deriv.  of  ^im,  flow]:  acute  catarrh  of  tnr 
urethra,  a  disease  which  is  usually  of  venereal  origin,  ll  i-  n 
painfal  disease,  and  may  result  in  the  chronic  catarrh  call<>i 
gleet,  or  may  lead  to  stricture,  epididymitis,  enlarge<l  pr.-s- 
tate,  and  otlier  serious  evils.  Its  treatment  should  U-  in- 
trusted only  to  practitioners  of  the  highest  character.  S.r 
Strictuhe, 

Oonsal'TO  de  Cbr'AojaiOonzaio Htmandti  deCord'i'i 
vAffuilar):  Duke  of  St  Angelo  and  of  Sessa;  "theOrfat 
Captain";  b.  at  Montilla,  Spain.  1453;  became  one  of  iht 
brightest  ornaments  of  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isal-rlln; 
was  distinguished  in  the  Portuguese  war  of  H78  an<l  th" 
Moorish  war  in  1481-93;  took  command  in  Italy  1495;  dr<>ii- 
the  French  from  Naples  1486;  supprewed  the  Moorish  re- 
bellion 1500:  commanded  with  success  against  the  Turk* 
1500-01 ;  was  made  lieutenant-general  of  Calabriaand  Af  u- 
lia  1501  ;  served  against  the  French  in  Italy  1502-(V7;  wn.- 
bcsieged  by  Bayard  and  the  Due  de  Nemours  at  Barl'-:-,a 
1.503-03,  but  destroyed  the  French  army  in  the  great  Iniiif 
of  Cerignola.  Apr.,  1503;  won  the  great  victories  on  tin 
Qarigliiino  (Nov.  fl,  Dec.  28-20.  1503);   soon  after  . 


Gaeta  fell  and  the  French  gave  up  theirclaim  upon  Ni 
He  was  viceroy  in  Italy  until  1507;  retired  to  his  estai 


ipl--. 


viceroy  in  Italy  u 
Loxa,and  there  lived  in  great  stale,  venerated  bythep<^'[' 
but  haled  by  the  king,  who  was  jealous  of  his  ume.     I>.  ni 
Granada,  Dee.  2, 1515. 

Gonza^a,  gon-zaa'ga&:  town  of  Italy;  about  23  mile^  fniTi 
Mantua  (see  map  of  Italy,  ret.  S-D).  It  was  formerly  wfll 
fortified,  and  possessed  a  strong  castle,  the  remains  of  whicii 
still  exist,  but  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  the  cnvdie  of  ti.e 
Gunzaga  family,  who  ruled  Mantua  from  1328  to  ITii;. 
Pop.  1,134. 

OODZaira:  a  famous  Italian  family,  to  which  betonp^l 
the  captaincy  of  Mantua  1338-1433;  the  maniuitiatc  "f 
Mantua  1433-1530;  the  dukedom  of  the  same  city  15;!0-i:<»*; 
the  duchv  of  Guastalla  1538-1730 ;  the  duchv  of  Moiiltrrn.- 
1336-1707;  and  that  of  Nevers  1565-1650;  olbcr  honorx  h-l.t 
at  various  periods  l)y  the  heads  or  cadet  lines  of  ihe  h.";*' 
being  the  duchv  ot  Solferino,  the  ducby  of  Relbel,  the  coiiii'j 
at  Tiirelli,  tile  duchy  of  Sabbionetta,  the  principality  ot  l^>- 
zollo,  the  marquisate  of  Medola,  etc.  Man;  illustrious  l.^■^.■ 
erals.  statesmen,  churchmen,  and  men  of  letters  sprani:  !r-  rr. 
this  stock.     The  most  celebrated  member  of  the  whole  fam- 


846 


GOOD 


York,  Pa.,  1875-77;  Philadelphia  1877-90;  Calvary  Re- 
formed church,  Rea<ling,  ^Pa.,  from  1890 ;  acting  Professor 
of  Dogmatics,  Ursinus  Theological  Seminary,  1890-93 ;  Pro- 
fessor of  Dogmatics  and  Pastoral  Theology  1893.  He  has 
published  Origin  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Germany 
(Reading,  1887) ;  Rambles  Roufid  Reformed  Lands  (Read- 
ing, 1889) ;  originator  and  editor  of  Reformed  Church  Maga- 
zine (1893).  Willis  J.  Beechee. 

Good,  John  Mason,  M.  D.  ;  b.  at  Epping,  England,  Mav 
25,  1764 ;  was  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon  of  Gosport ;  began 
surgical  practice  at  Sudbury  in  1784,  in  London  1793 ;  re- 
ceived the  medical  degree  from  Aberdeen  1820.  Dr.  Gooil 
was  an  able  and  successful  practitioner  and  an  accomplished 
linguist  and  literary  critic.  He  compiled  and  edited  the 
"Junius"  letters,  and  among  his  numerous  works  are  the 
poem  Triumph  of  Britain  (1803) ;  translations  of  Canticles 
(1803);  Job  (1812);  Lucretius's/^eiVa/wmAeruw  (1805-07); 
besides  a  translation  of  the  Basia  of  Johannes  Secundus 
made  in  his  youth,  and  The  Book  of  Nature  (1826).  He 
aided  Dr.  Olinthus  Gregory  and  Newton  Bosworth  in  pre- 
paring a  Pantalogia  or  Encyclopedia,  comprising  a  General 
dictionary  of  Arts,  ScienceSy  and  General  Literature  (com- 
plete<l  in  1813).  His  chief  professional  works  were  Diseases 
of  Prisons,  etc.  (1785);  a  History  of  Medicine,  etc.  (1795); 
System  of  Nosology  (1817);  The  Study  of  Medicine  (4  vols., 
1822).  D.  at  Shepperton,  Middlesex,  Jan.  2, 1827.  See  his 
Life  by  Olinthus  Gregory  (1828). 

Goodale.  Elaine  and  Dora  Read  :  sister  poets,  remark- 
able for  their  precocity;  b.  respectively  Oct.  9,  1863,  and 
Oct.  29,  1866,  at  Sky  Farm,  Mt.  Washington,  Mass.  Their 
verses  were  published  together  as  Apple  Blossoms :  Verses 
of  Two  Children  (1878).  This  volume  was  succeeded  by 
others,  \Tic\}idiing  In  Berkshire  mith  the  Wild  Flowers  (1S79) 
and  Verses  from  Sky  Farm  (1880).  Elaine  published  sepa- 
rately The  Journal  of  a  Farmer's  Daughter  (1881).  Elaine 
has  devoted  herself  to  Indian  education  at  Hampton,  Va 
and  m  South  Dakota.  In  1891  she  married  C.  A.  Eastman! 
M.  D.  Dora  has  devoted  herself  to  the  study  of  art  at  North- 
ampton, Mass.  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Goodale,  George  Lincoln,  M.D.:  botanist;  b.  at  Saco 
Me.,  Aug.  3, 1839 ;  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1860 
and  at  the  Harvard  Medical  School  in  1863;  practiced  medi- 
cine in  Portland,  Me.,  and  was  a  lecturer  on  Anatomy  in  the 
medical  school  of  that  city  until  1869 ;  lecturer  on  Materia 
Medica  in  the  medical  school  of  Maine,  and  Professor  of 
Natural  Sciences  in  Bowdoin  College  until  1871.  In  1872 
he  became  instructor  in  Botany  in  Harvard  Universitv ;  in 
1878  was  made  Professor  of  Botany,  and  in  1879  director  of 
the  botanic  garden.  Author  of  Physiological  Botany  (1885)  • 
Useful  Plants  of  the  Future  {\%n),  ^v        ^ 

Goode,  George  Brown,  LL.  D.  :  ichthyologist ;  b.  in  New 
Albany,  Ind.,  Feb.  13, 1851 ;  graduated  in  1870  from  Wesleyan 
University ;  1871-77  curator  of  the  museum  at  Weslevan  Uni- 
versity, and  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Com  mission 'from  its 
beginning;  1877-81  curator  in  the  U.S.  National  Museum, 
and  in  1881  l)ecame  assistant  director  of  this  institution- 
in  1880  appointed  by  the  President  to  the  position  of  U.  s! 
commissioner  to  the  International  Fishery  Exhibition  held 
at  Berlin,  Germany,  and  in  1883  to  a  similar  position  to 
the  Great  International  Fisheries  Exhibition,  London.  He 
also  had  charge  of  the  fishery  census,  and  has  been  very 
active  in  studying  the  fishery  problems  and  gathering  sta- 
tistics. Aside  from  this  work,  he  has  attained  eminence  as 
an  ichthyologist.  He  has  published  many  monographs  of 
fishes  and  descriptions  of  new  species,  mainly  in  connection 
with  Dr.  Bean.  He  is  the  author  of  The  Game  Fishes  of 
the  United  States  (New  York,  1879) ;  History  of  the  Ameri- 
can Menhaden  (1880);  Natural  History  of  the  Useful 
Aquatic  Animals  of  tJie  United  States ;  Material  for  a  his- 
tory of  the  Sword-fishes  (1882);  The  Fishery  Lidustries  of 
the  United  States  (London,  1883) ;  Beginnings  of  Natural 
History  %n  America  (1886);  Britains,  Saxo7is,  and  Virgin- 
tans  (1887);  and  other  works.  In  1888  he  became  assistant 
secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

Goodell',  William,  D.  D.  :  missionarv ;  b.  at  Templeton, 
Mass.,  Feb.  14, 1792;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1817,  and 
at  Andover  Seminary  1820:  labored  for  the  American  Board 
as  a  collecting  agent,  and  in  1822  went  to  Syria  as  a  mis- 
sionary, having  (1822)  been  ordained  to  the  Congregational 
ministry ;  labored  (1823-28)  at  Beyrut.  Svria,  then  at  Malta, 
and  (1831-65)  at  Constantinople;  returned  in  1865  to  the 
U.  S.    His  great  work  was  the  careful  superintendence  of 


GOODS  AND  CHATTELS 

the  translation  of  the  entire  Bible  into  Armeno-Turkivh. 
made  by  an  Armenian  bishop,  and  a  scholarly  Greek  revis.  -* 
edition  (1863).    See  Memoirs  of  him  bv  his  son-in-law  Rrv 

Tq  ^'oa'  ^^^^  ^^^"^  ^^''^'  ^^'^^^'  ^-'^^  Philadelphia;  F.  h. 
18,  1867.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Goodell,  William,  M.  D.:  gynaecologist;  b.  in  the  islaiwl 
of  Malta,  Oct.  17,1829;  graduated  at  Williams  College  in 
1851  and  at  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1854.  For  sevt- raJ 
years  he  practiced  his  profession  in  Constantinople  Turk^-v 
and  afterward  in  West  Chester,  Pa.  In  1865  he  was  appoint- 
ed physician  in  charge  of  the  Preston  Retreat,  Philadelphia 
In  1874  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Obstetrical  Scki,  :  v 
of  Philadelphia,  and  in  1875  president  of  the  Philatlelphia 
County  Medical  Society.  Professor  of  GynaBcology,  ni.-dictt. 
department.  University  of  Pennsylvania,  since  1874.  Auth^^r 
of  numerous  professional  papers. 

Good  Friday:  the  Friday  before  Easter  Sunday,  cf^le- 
brated  bv  many  Christian  churches  as  a  fast  in  commVmora- 
tion  of  the  passion  and  death  of  our  Lord.  It  is  pn?ceilf.j 
by  Holy  Thursday  and  followed  by  Holy  Saturday. 

Good  Hope,  Cape  of:  See  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 

Goodland :  citv  (laid  out  1887,  incorporated  1888);  capita] 
of  Sherman  co.,  Kan.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of 
Kansas,  ref .  4-A) ;  on  the  Chi.,  Rock  Is.  and  Pacific  Rail wa v ; 
180  miles  E.  of  Denver.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  st<M.k- 
raising  region;  contains  large  railway  machine-shor»s  uu.i 
two  grist-mills,  and  has  four  churches,  Clark  Aca^lemv 
(Presbyterian),  school-house  that  cost  $12,000,  op(*ra-h<»Ti>«^. 
water-works,  and  three  weekly  newspapers.   Pop.  ( 1 890)  1  .rK>7. 

Editor  of  "  News." 

Goodrich,  Charles  Augustus:  author;  brother  of  Sam- 
uel Griswold  Goodrich ;  b.  at  Ridgefield,  Conn.,  ITtH) :  grad- 
uated at  Yale  1812;  pastor  of  the  First  Congregatir.rui] 
church,  Worcester,  xMass.,  1816-20;  in  Berlin,  Conm,  li<**o- 
48;  and  afterward  in  Hartford  1848.  Chiefly  known  bv  his 
books:  History  of  the  United  States  (Boston,  1852-55 'nr 
ed.  1867) ;  Lives  of  the  Signers  (Hartford,  1829;  2f\  ed.  NV«^ 
York,  1886);  Universal  Traveler,  Geography,  Family  En- 
cyclop<Bdia,  and  others.  D.  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  Jan.  4, 
1862. 

Goodrich,  Chauncey  Allen,  D.  D.:  lexicographer;  b  at 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  23, 1790 :  graduated  at  Yale  in  1810  • 
was  college  tutor  1812-14 ;  pastor  of  a  Congregational  chunh 
at  Middletown,  Conn.,  1816-17;  Professor  of  Rhetoric  at 
Yale  College  1817-39;  became  in  1839  Professor  of  the  Pas- 
toral Charge  in  Yale  Divinity  School.  Published  a  Grtt^k 
grammar  (1814)  and  Latin  and  Greek  lessons  (1832) ;  Britt:<h 
Eloquence  (1852);  was  editor  of  Ihe  Quarterly  Spectator 
(1829-38) ;  was  largely  engaged  from  1828  till  his  death  uf^n 
the  dictionaries  of  Noah  Webster,  his  father-in-law  D  at 
New  Haven,  Feb.  25, 1860.  * 

Goodrich,  Samuel  Griswold:  "Peter  Parley";  a  brother 
of  Dr.  Charles  Augustus  Goodrich;  b.  at  Ridgefield,  (Vmii 
Aug.  19, 1793 ;  became  in  1824  a  book-publisher  in  Hartfoni' 
Conn. ;  removed  to  Boston,  Mass.,  and  edited  1828-42  The 
Token,  to  which  Hawthorne  contributed  some  of  his  "Twice 
told  Tales";  and  1MU54  Merry's  Museum;  wrote,  ed\U-<\  and 
compiled  170  volumes,  of  which  116  bear  the  name  of  "  Peter 
Parley  " ;  was  consul  in  Paris  during  President  Fillmore's  ad- 
ministration 1851^5 ;  and  published  in  1862,  in  French,  Lrs 
EtatsUnis,  aper^u  statistioue,  historique,  giographique  tfi- 
dustnel  et  social.  His  works  are  histories,  geographies  and 
tales,  nlostly  for  children,  besides  Becolleetions  of  a  Life- 
time (New  York,  1857);  Sow  Well  and  Reap  Well;  or  Fi'rf- 
side  Education  (1838) ;  Sketches  from  a  Student's  Windotr 
(1841) ;  A  History  of  All  Nations,  from  the  Earliest  Perit>d 
to  the  Present  Time  (1849) ;  The  Outcast  and  other  Potms 
(^ew  York,  1836),  of  which  an  Ulustrated  edition  apijeand 
1851 ;  Illustrated  Natural  History  of  the  Animal  Kinqdom 
(2  vols..  New  York,  1859).    D.  in  New  York,  May  9.  \m>. 

Goods  and  Chattels:  comprehensively  every  variety  of 
personal  property,  as  distinguished  from  real  estate,  whirh 
18  often  referred  to  bv  the  phrase  lands  and  tetiemenis.  The 
expression  goods  and  chntteh  is,  in  fact,  tautological,  since 
the  single  word  "chattels"  denotes  everything  indicated 
by  both  terms ;  but  as'a  consequence  of  long  usage  it  is  pvn- 
erally  employed  in  legal  instruments  in  preference  to  either 
word  by  itself.  The  term  "  goods  "  has  the  narrower  mean- 
ing, since  it  has  no  application  to  such  forms  of  personal 
property  as  estates  for  years  in  land,  which  are  known  iks 
chattels  real,  nor  is  "gootls"  generally  considere<l  toinrhidc 
animals ;  and  by  some  writers  it  is  still  further  restricted  m 


848 


GOOSE  BARNACLB 


mage  is  paler  and  more  or  less  marked  with  white  or  com- 

; lately  nhit«,  but  the  general  form  has  scarcely  chan^d. 
he  Romans  paid  much  attention  to  the  raising  and  fatten- 
ing of  geese,  their  feathers  were  in  ereat  demand,  and  great 
"herds  of  the  birds  were  imported  from  Uaiil.  being  slow- 
ly driven  for  great  distances.  Geese  are  widely  distributed 
throughout  Europe,  Asia,  and  America ;  in  Northern  Africa 
they  are  replaced  by  related  birds  of  the  family  Pttclroplerider, 
which  ha»B  larger  lefts  and  a  spur  on  the  Iwnd  of  the  wing. 
The  New  World  has  the  greatest  number  of  fij>ecies,  Asia 
the  largest  forma.  The  smallest,  which  are  little  larger 
than  a  teal,  belong  to  the  genus  Neltaput,  and  are  found  in 
South  Africa,  !tladagascar,  India,  and  Australia.    They  -  — 


it''all  geese  in  their  habits,  and  Jerdon. 

lian  species,  considers  it  probable  that  it 

ights  on   the   land.     Several   small  forms  of   the 


genus  ChloPphaga  are  peculiar  to  Southern  South  America. 
one,  C.  melanoptera,  inhabiting  the  Andes  of  Bolivia  and 
Peru,  descending  to  the  plains  in  winter,  but  in  summer 
ranging  upward  to  an  altitude  of  14,000  feet. 

1^  the  geese  belong  the  Canada  go<nie  and  its  smaller 
relatives  ot  the  genus  Branta,  the  European  white-fronted 
goose  {A>t»'.r  albifrons),  oi'tasionally  found  in  Greenland, 
and  its  North  American  ally,  A.  gambeii,  the  sDOW-goose, 
and  related  forms  of  the  genus  Chen. 


The  emperor-goose  {Philacle  eanagica)  is  a  rare  and 
handsome  species  limited  to  Northwestern  Alaska  and 
Northeastern  Siberia.  It  is  bluish  gray  with  waves  of 
darker  color  and  cresi'ent-shaped  markings  of  black.  The 
head  and  back  of  the  neck  are  yellowish,  throat  black,  and 
tail  white.  Owing  to  its  diet  of  fish  the  flesh  of  this  goose 
is  unsavory. 

The  Australian  Cereopais,  which  has  a  short,  curved, 
pointed  beak  with  a  green  core.  is.  by  some  ornithologists. 

S laced  in  a  separate  family  near  the  extinct  Cneminmis. 
ee  Barnacle-ooose,  Canada  Goose,  Snow-ouose,  and 
SpfE-wiNOED  Goose.  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Oo«M  Barnacle :  See  C'irkipedia. 

Wooaeberry  [either  SfWM  +  berry,  or  more  prob.  changed 
by  analc)gy  with  goone  from  groaeiierri/  or  grniseberry.  from 
0.  Pr.  groiaele,  currant,  goosclierry  (  >  Pr.  grostille).  Span. 
qroseUa,  from  Germ.  Kr&u^l{betTe),  pxiseberry.  deriv.  of 
kraut,  crisp.  Another  exnlnnalion  is  from  gnrge.  furze. 
bramble,  but  this  is  improliublej :  llie  common  naine  of  those 
shrubs  (and  their  fruit)  which  belong  to  the  seclion  Uro^ksii- 
lariaof  (he  gi^nus  Ribea  (family  Nitrifragiwr/f).  distinguished 
from  the  currants  by  the  prcseni*  of  thorns  and  briirtiy 

firicktcs  on  the  stalk,  and  esiieciatjy  near  the  bases  of  the 
eaf-stalks ;  while  in  moat  the  floweMlaiks  have  only  from 
one  to  Ihreo  flowers  eatrh.  though  in  some  species  the  flowers 
are  in  racemes,  like  those  of  the  currnnta.  Some  goose- 
berries have  also  prickly  fruit,  which  eurmnts  never  have, 
though  a  few  species  of  curratits  liave  liairy  fruit.  Thus 
the  distinction  between  guosi' berries  and  (.-iirrniits  is  not 
strongly  markeii.  North  Atnerifa  has  a  niitnWr  of  wild 
Bpeeiea.  Of  these, fi. yrnciVc,  wilh  beniiliTiil  while  flowers,  is 
cultivated  for  ornamental  purposes,  and  is  worthy  of  atten- 


GORDIANUS  AFRICANUS 

tion  for  its  fruit.  Of  other  epecies,  R.  ivgacanlhi/iiJ"  :• 
(he  parent  ot  the  Houghton  and  other  cultivat-t-d  vari.T,—  : 
and  several  of  the  I'acjfle  coast  species  have  attrM-tcl  f-r  -. 
though  insufficicnl,  attention  as  fruit- bearer^i.  Thi-  i  •: ; 
World  has  also  a  number  ot  species,  some  of  thi'in  i  "i  .- 
mon  also  to  the  continent  of  North  America.  Tlie  K:,.-- 
lish  gooseberries  are  princiimily  assignable  to  /f.  !.■  i- 
crispa,  an  Old  World  species,  of  which  some  15fl  v»ii-- 
ties  have  been  named.  In  Europe,  an '  'larticitlar^y  -. 
Great  Britain,  great  attention  b  paid  to  tiitrf  cultun-.ni  1 
some  of  the  sorts  bear  fruit  of  surprising  size  ajid  •  \- 
cellence.  The  fruit  is  used  when  unrir*  for  making  \nr- 
and  pies,  and  when  ri[)c  is  a  good  dessert  fruit,  and  i-  ii,-  ■ 
made  into  jams  and  preserves.  A  pleasant  drink  ck..-': 
gooseberry  wine  is  also  produced  from  iU  and  giif^irrr. 
vincjjar  ia  prized.  European  gooseberries  almost  unit..nr  . 
fail  in  the  U.  S.  from  mildew,  but  native  varieties,  w),  )' 
are  almost  exclusively  grown,  suffer  little  from  it.  1':,.- 
miidew  can  be  kept  in  check  by  spraying  thoroughtv.  a? 
soon  as  the  leaves  unfold,  with  half  an  ounce  of  pi>tas~i'i.ii 
sulphide  in  a  gallon  of  water.  The  leading  North  Amen  .i:i 
gooseberries  arc  Downing.  Pale  Red,  Houghton,  and  Smr  •. 
They  thrive  best  upon  a  cool  loam  which  does  ntrt  sniT  r 
from  drouth.  The  plants  are  set  about  4  or  H  feet  Hi'.tr 
The  gooseberry  or  currant  worm  Ls  very  troublesome,  i>r.t  ii 
is  easily  kept  in  chock  by  a  dusting  or  spraying  wilh  bIlii. 
hellebore,  or  by  Paris  green,  either  before  the  fruit  *<  is  .ir 
after  it  is  harveflted.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

QooM-fealhers :  See  Pkathers. 

GO08«fl»h :  See  Anuleb. 

Go'pher  [from  Amer.  Fr.  gavphre,  gopher,  a  special  k.-- 
of  Pr.  y(i«/rp,  honeycomb  (the  reference  being  to  lb<- (■■.r- 
rowing  baoits  of  the  gopher)  <  0.  Fr.  gavfrt.  from  I)iit.  d 
itafel,  honeycomb,  kind  of  cake  (whence  Eng.  vafli)] :  i '  •■ 
vernacular  designation  of  certain  burrowing  animals.  1:  • 
name  is  specifically  restricted  in  different  parts  of  the  I".  >  : 
thus  in  the  extreme  Southern  States  it  is  used  for  thr  Inr:  i- 
tortoises  (TVa/urfo,  Xerobalta.  or  Oopherua  carnlinttx  a-  i 
fter/onrftVri)  which  are  peculiar  to  them,  but  in  Ge<>rL-i:i  '' 
is  applied  to  a  eolubroia  snake.  In  the  Western  Stdt--?  i;  > 
given  to  certain  rodents,  chieflv  those  of  the  family  '>■■' 
myidm  and  genera  Oeomya  and  ^Thomomya,  but  alao  <at  h  n-t 
in  some  parts  of  Illinois  and  Wisconsin)  to  speciv?  I'f  iii 
genus  i.9pcr7nopAi7u«.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Soul  1'.[t< 
Slates  the  species  of  Oeomyida  are  termed  salBmsn<l'T>  u 
name  originally  given  to  certain  batrachians).  Hlth'>i:.- 
other  names  are  conferred,  as  "hamster."  "pouchei)  ni." 
"muloes,"  etc.  For  further  information,  see  SpEBJ«iiriiin 
and  Tortoise.  Tueodoeb  Uilu 

Oopher-woAd:  SeeCYPBBas. 

Gorakhpnr':  a  city  and  district  of  Benares.  Norths.-^-. 
ern  Provinces.  British  India.  The  district  U  betw.in  lv. 
50'  and  'iT  20'  N.  lat.,  and  83°  7  and  84°  26  E.  Ion..  I*- 
tween  Nepaul  and  the  Gogra river.  Area,  4.598  sii.  ii,i  ■  - 
The  population  is  3,750.000,  and  is  rapidly  incr¥a.<ing:  :- 
per  cent,  are  Hindus.  The  chief  proilucis  are  cottoTi  ;ir  : 
foodsluffs.  The  climate  is  not  unwholesome,  but  n>lu^;:  ; 
and  the  forest-area  is  subject  to  malaria.  Gautama  Itriil.L'  a. 
the  founder  of  the  BOddhist  religion,  died  within  the  iiiN,-.- 
of  this  district.  The  capital  is  Gorakhpur,  on  the  If  h:  r 
river,  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  distnct  (see  map  cif  S 
India,  ref.  6-G).     Pop.  (1891)  94.BB0. 

Oo'ral  [the  East  Indian  name]:  the  Jfemorh'dun  .;,.r..,' 
a  small  antelope  of  Nepaul.  inhabit ing  rocky  height's  «■  : 
lofty  table-land.s.  It  is  also  called  the  Nepatil  boucni.T;-,. 
and  is  hunted  for  its  excellent  flesh.  An  allied  speok-s.  .\. 
crinpttn,  occurs  in  Japan. 

(jlordlan  Knot :  See  Goanius. 

Qordla'DUB  Africa'nns.  MAsrvs  Anton-ius  :  known  a' 
the  elder  Gonlian ;  a  Koman  emperor ;  a  descendant  «f  • » - 
Gracchi  and  Trnian:  b.  158  a.  !>.;  was  consul  213  and  e.  1 
proconsul  in  Africa  2S3;  and  when  eighty  years  old  ws>  ; 
vested  with  the  purple  at  Tisdrus,  without  his  consent.  :: 
place  of  Maximinus,  but  in  less  than  two  months  was  .-.  ■ 
pcllwi  by  the  victories  of  Capellianus  to  commit   snj.  i 
&XH  A.  0.).     He  WHS  a  man  of  venerable  character,  anil   . 
death  caused  widespread  grief. — His  son,  M  Alters  A stov     • 
(iiiRUiAM's  (b.  I!t2).  was  declared  Augustus  jointiv  wiih  t, 
father,  and  fell  in  battle  iust  before  his  father's  death.      H. 
was  a  man  of  loiwe  morality,  but  was  a  popnlar  favorite,  s: 
able   magistrate,  and  the  author  of  writings  in  pnea'  uti.! 
verse,  none  of  which  are  extant. 


850 


GORDON  PASHA 


GORGIAS 


light,  fra^^le,  and  perishable,  but  is  recommended  for  some 
kinds  of  joiner-work,  being  quit«  handsome.  The  Gordonia 
altamaha  is  cultivated  as  a  garden  shrub,  and  has  large 
white  and  richly  fragrant  flowers.  It  is  unknown  in  the 
wild  state,  having  been  eradicated  from  its  original  station 
in  Southeast  Georgia.        Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Gordon  Pasha :  See  Gordon,  Charles  George. 

Gore,  Catharine  Grace:  novelist;  b.  in  Nottingham, 
England,  1799;  the  daughter  of  a  wine-merchant  named 
Moody;  was  married  to  Capt.  Charles  Gore  1823.  Author 
of  about  seventy  works,  mostly  novels  depicting  English 
aristocratic  life :  The  Cabinet  Minister  (3  vols.,  1839) ;  The 
Ambassador's  Wife  (3  vols.,  1843) ;  Birthright  (3  vols.,  1843) ; 
The  Quee/n  of  Denmark  (3  vols.,  1845) ;  The  Hamiltons  (3 
vols.,  1850) ;  The  Diamond  and  the  Pearl  (3  vols.,  1856) ; 
Modem  Chivalry,  etc.  She  wrote  also  several  dramas.  D. 
at  Lynwood,  Hampshire,  Jan.  27, 1861. 

Gore,  Christopher,  LL.  D. :  U.  S.  Senator;  b.  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Sept.  21, 1758;  son  of  John  Gore,  a  loyalist ;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  1776 ;  was  U.  S.  district  attorney  for  Siassa- 
chusetts  1789-96,  the  first  to  hold  the  office ;  was  with  W. 
Pinckney  a  commissioner  to  England  1796-1804  to  settle 
the  claims  of  the  U.  S.  on  Great  Britain  for  spoliations; 
ehargi  d'affaires  at  London  1803-04;  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts 1809;  IT.  S.  Senator  1814-17.  D.  at  Waltham, 
Mass.,  Mar.  1, 1827,  leaving  nearly  $100,000  to  Harvard  Col- 
lege. The  library  building.  Gore  Hall,  was  named  in  his 
honor. 

Gore,  George,  LL.  D.,  P.  R.  S. :  electrician ;  b.  in  Bristol, 
England,  in  Jan.,  1826 ;  was  entirely  self-educated ;  lectured 
for  many  years  on  Physics  and  Chemistry  at  the  Grammar 
School  of  King  Edward  VI.,  Birmingham;  was  elected  a 
fellow  df  the  I^yal  Society  in  1865 ;  and  received  the  hon- 
orarv  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  Edinburgh  University  in  1877. 
He  distin^shed  himself  by  his  discoveries,  inventions,  and 
writings  m  electricity,  phvsics,  and  chemistry,  and  was  au- 
thor 01  Theory  and  Pra^licc  of  Electro-deposition  (1856) ; 
The  Art  of  Electro-metallurgy  (1877) ;  The  Art  of  Scientific 
Discovery  (1878) ;  The  Scientific  Basis  of  National  Proa- 
ress  and  Morality  (1882);  Electro-chemistry  (1885);  Ths 
Art  of  Electrolytic  Separation  a/nd  Refining  of  Metals 
(1890). 

Gor^e,  gd'rS' :  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  near  the 
western  coast  of  Africa;  belongs  to  France,  and  is  situated 
1\  miles  S.  of  Cape  Verde.  It  is  only  3  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  deficient  in  wood  and  water,  but  it  contains  a 
well-built  and  fortified  town,  with  a  good  harbor,  although  it 
is  not  of  so  great  commercial  importance  as  formerly.  Lat. 
14'  40'  N.,  Ion.  17'  25'  W.     Pop.  about  3,000. 

Gor^gas,  Ferdinand  J.  S.,  A.  M.,  D.  D.  S.,  M.  D. :  dent- 
ist ;  b.  at  Winchester,  Va.,  July  27,  1834 ;  graduated  at 
Dickinson  College  in  1854,  at  the  Baltimore  College  of 
Dental  Surgery  1855,  and  at  the  University  of  Maryland 
School  of  Medicine  in  1868.  In  1864  revised  Harris's  Med- 
ical and  Dental  Dictionary,  and  in  1872  edited  the  opera- 
tive part  of  Harris's  Dental  Surgery ;  has  been  since  1866 
the  editor  of  The  American  Journal  of  Deyital  Science,  and 
has  filled  his  present  chair,  that  of  Dental  Surgery  and 
Therapeutics,  in  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery, 
since  1860.  Author  of  Lectures  on  Dental  Science  arid 
Therapeutics;  Dental  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics 
(1884). 

Gorge :  the  local  narrowing  of  a  deep  river  valley,  often 
called  cafion  in  the  Western  U.  S.  The  gorge  of  the  Rhine 
from  Bingen  to  Coblentz  has  been  cut  through  the  Huns- 
rilck-Taunus  plateau,  whose  uplift  formed  a  barrier  across 
the  course  of  tne  river  which  then  held  a  lake  where  the  plain 
of  the  middle  Rhine  now  stands.  The  gorge  of  the  Danube 
through  the  Carpathians  is  similarly  the  outlet  of  an  ex- 
tinct lake,  whose  sediments  now  form  the  plain  of  Hungary. 
The  lower  cafXon  of  the  Yellowstone  in  Montana  is  a  gorge 
of  the  same  nature.  The  gorge  of  the  Hudson  through  its 
Highlands  has  an  entirely  different  relation  to  the  wide 
valley  lowlands  above  Newburg:  both  the  gorge  and  the 
lowland  are  formed  by  the  denudation  oi  ah  elevated 
plateau ;  the  upper  valley  has  been  wide  opened,  forming  a 
lowland,  because  its  rocks  are  weak,  while  the  gorge  re- 
mains narrow  and  steep-walled  because  its  rocks  are  ex- 
tremely hard ;  but  both  gorge  and  lowland  are  of  the  same 
age ;  the  lowland  was  excavated  only  as  fast  as  the  gorge 
was  deepened.  The  gorges  of  the  Connecticut  below  Mid- 
dletown,  of  the  Delaware  below  Easton,  and  of  the  Potomac 


below  Harper's  Ferry  are  of  the  sahie  class.  Short  gorp^ 
through  narrow  ridges  are  called  water-gaps  Id  Penn>\i- 
vania :  as  the  Delaware,  Lehigh,  and  Schuylkill  w&t«r-gafK 
in  Blue  Mountain.  Many  smaller  gorges  result  from  t).!- 
obstruction  of  an  open  valley  by  glacial  drift,  and  the  di^ 
placement  of  its  stream  to  a  new  line  of  flow.  It  thereuiM>ii 
rapidly  proceeds  to  erode  a  new  trench,  which  for  a  tiiiif 
deepens  faster  by  stream-cutting  than  it  widens  by  weather- 
ing on  the  walls ;  in  this  way  the  many  gorges  in  the  Xoith- 
em  U.  S.  are  formed,  the  greatest  being  that  of  Niagara 
iq.  v.).  The  upper  and  lower  ^rges  of  the  Genesee  river  in 
Western  New  York  are  of  this  character.  Smaller  gor^r*-^ 
are  called  chasms  in  the  Adiroudacks,  as  the  AosalTe  ami 
Chateaugay  chasms ;  or  glens,  as  Watkins  Glen  in  Wesu^m 
New  York.    See  CaSon,  Rivers,  and  Valley. 

W.  M.  Davis. 

O^nrei,  gSr'gi,  Arthur  :  general ;  b.  at  Toporcz,  in  Hun- 
gary, Feb.  5,  1818;  educated  at  the  military  school  of  Tulu. 
and  appointed  to  the  Hungarian  bodv-guard ;  promoted  t** 
be  first  lieutenant  in  the  JPalatinal  Hussars.  He  re^giit.ni 
from  the  army  to  pursue  the  study  of  chemistry,  but  on  ti.H 
news  of  the  rising  in  Hungary  reaching  him  he  haftinf-^i 
to  place  his  services  at  the  disposal  of  the  Hungarian  min- 
istry. His  conduct  attracted  the  attention  of  Kossuth,  and 
after  the  battle  of  Schwechat  he  assumed  command  of  thn 
Hungarian  army.  Unable  to  maintain  himself  at  Raab.  hr 
was  driven  out  by  Windischgr&tz ;  was  again  repulse«l  ai 
Windschacht,  saving  his  army  by  a  bold  retreat  over  thr* 
Sturecz  Mountains.  Difficulties  arising  between  Gorgei  and 
the  civil  authorities,  he  was  twice  superseded  in  commur  •!. 
On  the  resignation  of  the  governor  and  council  in  IMc*. 
Kossuth  made  G3rgei  dictator  in  his  place.  Soon  after  this 
the  Hungarian  forces  laid  down  their  arms.  G5rgei  wa^ 
stigmatized  as  a  traitor  for  this,  but  this  opinion  af tervi  ard 
changed  completely.  In  1851  he  published  a  volume  nar 
rating  his.  connection  with  the  insurrection,  entitles!  J/> 
Life  and  Acts  in  Hungary.  From  that  time  he  has  livM 
in  retirement,  keeping  completely  aloof  from  politics.  Ir. 
1885  a  proposal  was  made  formedly  to  reinstate  nim  in  pui^ 
lie  favor,  but  it  was  not  well  received  in  Hungary. 

Gorges,  Sir  Febdinando:  "  proprietor  of  Maine** :  b.  at 
Ash  ton,  Somersetshire,  England,  about  1565;  was  a  f^-^ 
low  conspirator  with  the  Earl  of  Essex,  against  whom  i.^• 
was  a  witness  1601 ;  sensed  in  the  British  navy,  and  in  lfii.*4 
became  Governor  of  Plymouth;  was  one  of  the  lemlins: 
spirits  in  the  original  Plymouth  Company ;  sent  a  numb^T  -if 
unsuccessful  expeditions  to  the  New  England  coas«t,  an<i  iri 
1620  obtained  a  charter  "for  the  governing  of  New  E:ic- 
land,"  which  was  held  to  extend  westwani  to  the  Paiiric. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  original  proprietors  of  Laci*!):^ 
which  was  to  extend  from  the  Kennebec  to  the  Merrinja*  k. 
and  in  1623  his  son  Robert  was  named  general  governor  f •  ^r 
New  England.  In  1639  Gorges  was  appointed  lonl-pr- 
prietary  of  Maine,  the  office  to  be  hereditary  in  his  fan.ilv ; 
and  in  1642  he  chartered  the  city  of  Gorgi'ana  (now  Y«  ri.. 
Me.).  Gorges  returned  to  England  in  16^,  served  atrnir!^: 
the  Puritan  armies,  and  died  in  1647.  His  grandson,  Ftr  '- 
nando  (1629-1718),  sold  his  rights  in  Maine  to  Massachu>«''^ 
(1677)  for  £1,250,  and  was  author  of  America  Plain f^i  •■ 
the  Life  (1659). 

Gor'gias:  Greek  rhetorician  and  sophist;  b.  at  Leont.ti'. 
in  Sicily ;  was  sent  to  Athens  in  427  B.  c.  on  an  enibHi>s>\  t  • 
seek  aid  against  the  Syracusans;  succeeded  in  his  en-:ti :.. 
and  was  so  much  sought  after  on  account  of  the  new  t- 
quence  which  he  represented  that  he  forsook  Sicilv   ai 
traveled  about  Greece  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  anJ   il-  • 
maker  of  holiday  speeches.    Ho  died  at  the  great  a^  of  .»•'• 
or  109  years,  thus  outliving  Socrates,  with  whom  he  fii^.iv- 
in  the  Platonic  dialogue  that  bears  the  name  of  G*.ri:iv 
His  style  was  elaborate  and  highly  artificial,  a  style  of  I  •  - 
ance  and  of  jingle,  which  afterward  fell  into  discredit,  \ 
the  pattern  once  set  was  never  forgotten,  and  the  Gor;n.i-  . 
figures  still  survive  in  modem  rhetoric.    In  a  sense  <Torj  -.* 
is  the  creator  of  Greek  artistic  prose,  and  to  him  is  iHTiT   • 
attributable  the  diffusion  of  Attic  as  a  literary  Ian  in.  -^ 
The  two  declamations  extant  under  his  name,  Mfneomtu". 
Helen  and  Palamedes  (ed.  hy  Blass  in  the  Teubner  A./ 
phon),  if  not  genuine,  are  at  least  admirable  imitation?:  of  : 
style  of  Gorgias.    His  philosophy  is  sufficiently  indii  .r  ■ 
by  the  title  of  his  treatise  on  Nature  or  the  Non-JF^^t\<- 
fragments  of  which  have  been  preserved.      See   P<.is5.    " 
Gargia   LemUifW  (Halle,   1828);   Frei,  Qu<&«iione^    I*- 
gorecB  (Bonn,  1845);  Wilamowitz,  Entstehung  d^r   vrf. 


852 


GORITZ 


GORTON 


in  flight,  and  its  senses  of  hearing  and  sight  are  so  acute  that 
it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  stalk  the  animal,  and  white  hunt- 
ers have  almost  invariably  failed  in  their  efforts  to  shoot 
this  huge  ape.  The  adult  male  gorilla  is  said  by  good  au- 
thority to  attain  a  height  of  6  feet  and  a  weight  of  400  lb. ; 
but  these  figures  seem  excessive,  and,  as  shown  by  the  skele- 
ton, 5  ft.  6  m.  is  tlie  height  of  a  large  and  old  animal. 

It  is  not  gregarious.  The  young  are  seen  in  company 
with  the  parents  until  they  attain  adult  size.  In  warning, 
the  natural  position  is  on  all  fours,  the  enormously  long 
arms  facilitating  such  locomotion  very  materially.  When 
it  chances  to  stand  or  progress  as  a  biped,  it  is  with  an  un- 
.  steadiness  that  betokens  a  lack  of  power  and  abilitv.  The 
male  is  vastly  larger  as  well  as  much  more  formidable  in 
appearance  than  his  mate,  his  large  canine  teeth  being  a 
characteristic  feature.  The  habitat  of  the  gorilla  is  a  com- 
parativelv  small  portion  of  Western  Africa,  in  the  Congo 
district,  lying  between  2**  and  5°  S.  lat.,  and  running  from 
the  coast  eastward  to  about  Ion.  16°  E.  It  inhabits  the  dense 
forests,  and  seems  to  prefer  high  or  mountainous  localities. 
A  few  young  gorillas  have  been  taken  alive  to  Europe,  but 
soon  succumbed  lo  pulmonary  diseases.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Go'ritz  (Germ.  Oorz) :  town  of  Austria ;  in  the  duchy  of 
Gorz ;  22  miles  N.  W.  from  Trieste,  on  the  Izonzo  (see  map 
of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  8-D).  Its  manufactures  of  leather, 
silk,  and  rosoglio  are  extensive,  and  its  trade  very  lively. 
Charles  X.,  the  ex-King  of  France,  died  here,  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Castagnavizza,  in  1836.    Pop.  21,825. 

Gorkhas :  See  Goorkhas. 

Gor'Jiam  (Dutch  Gorinchem) :  town  of  the  Netherlands ; 
in  the  province  of  South  Holland ;  on  the  Merwede ;  22 
miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Rotterdam  (see  map  of  Holland- and  Bel- 
gium, ref.  7-F).  It  is  strongly  fortified,  has  large  salmon- 
fisheries,  and  a  very  brisk  transit  trade.    Pop.  (1890)  11,900. 

Gi^r'litz :  town  of  Prussia ;  in  the  province  of  Silesia ; 
on  the  Neisse,  which  here  is  crossed  by  a  viaduct  1,500  feet 
long,  115  feet  high,  and  resting  on  34  arches  (see  map  of 
German  Empire,  ref.  5-H).  It  is  fortified,  and  has  iron- 
foundries,  weaving  and  bleaching  establishments,  and  con- 
siderable manufactures  of  cloth,  cotton,  linen,  and  leather. 
Among  its  buildings  is  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul,  built  in  the  fifteenth  century,  a  remarkable  specimen 
of  Golhic  architecture.  It  hiis  five  naves,  of  which  the 
principal  one  is  formed  by  twenty-four  palm-shaped  pillars 
77  feet  high,  and  has  a  bell  weighing  12^  tons.  There  is  a 
fine  statue  of  Emperor  William  I.,  with  Moltke  and  Bis- 
marck.    Pop.  (1890)  62,135. 

Gorman,  Arthur  P.;  U.  S.  Senator;  b.  in  Howard  co., 
Md.,  Mar.  11, 1839 ;  attended  the  public  schools  in  his  na- 
tive county  for  a  short  time  ;  appointed  page  in  U.  S.  Senate 
1852,  and  continued  in  the  service  of  the  Senate  until  1866, 
at  which  time  he  was  postmaster  ;  Sept.  1, 1866,  was  removed 
from  his  position  and  immediately  appointed  collector  of 
internal  revenue  for  the  fifth  district  of  Maryland,  an  office 
he  held  until  the  incoming  of  the  Grant  administration  in 
1869 ;  in  June,  1869,  he  was  appointed  a  director  in  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal  Company,  and  in  November 
was  elected  a  memt^er  of  the  house  of  delegates  of  the 
Maryland  Legislature  as  a  Democrat ;  was  re-elected  in 
1871 ;  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Delegates  at  the  en- 
suing session ;  was  elected  to  represent  Howard  County  in 
the  Maryland  State  Senate  June,  1872,  and  re-elected*  for 
a  term  of  four  years  Nov.,  1879 ;  was  elected  in  Jan.,  1880, 
to  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat,  to  succeed  Hon.  William 
Pinkncv  Whyte;  took  his  seat  Mar.  4,  1881 ;  re-elected  in 
1886  and  in  1892.  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Gttr'res,  Jakob  Joseph,  von  :  author ;  b.  at  Coblenz,  Ger- 
many, Jan.  25,  1776.  From  his  early  youth  he  was  an  eager 
student,  a  close  observer,  rich  in  sympathy,  broad  and  bold 
in  his  views.  Inspired  by  the  French  Revolution,  he  began 
as  a  radical,  carrying  his  radicalism  into  all  the  spheres  of 
human  life,  but  soon  felt  discouraged  at  the  development  of 
affairs,  became  entangled  in  the  dream-life  and  mysticism 
of  the  romantic  school,  was  driven  into  bitterness  and  ob- 
scurity by  its  retrograde  idotus,  and  ended  by  serving  the  re- 
action which  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  preSvSed  on  Europe 
during  a  whole  generation.  In  1797  he  founded  a  periodical. 
Das  rothe  Biait,  which  in  1798  was  succee<led  by  liiXbezahl 
im  blauen  Gewande,  both  of  which  were  suppressed  on  ac- 
count of  their  radical  views.  In  1799  he  went  to  Paris  at 
the  head  of  a  deputation  from  the  Rhenish  provinces,  with 
the  purpose  of  effecting  the  incorporation  of  these  districts 


with  France,  but  failed.  '  In  despair  he  retired  from  fKli- 
tics,  and  became  a  teacher  at  the  College  of  Coblenz.  In  In  »6 
he  removed  to  Heidelberg,  where  he  resided  for  two  years. 
Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Brentano  and  Achitn 
von  Amim,  and  adopted  all  the  Oriental  and  medis^viU — 
that  is,  quietistic  and  reactionarv  tendencies  of  the  ronianr  it- 
school.  In  1807  he  published  bie  deutschen  Volk^burfn^r; 
in  1810,  Mythengeschichte  der  asiatischen  Welt;  in  isi:^, 
Lohengrin,  Once  more  he  was  allured  back  into  politic.^. 
Under  the  general  rising  a^inst  Napoleon  which  foUowi-d 
his  disaster  in  Russia  and  his  defeat  at  Leipzig,  GQrres  t^.^ 
tablished  a  new  periodical.  The  Rhenish  Mercury,  wh--?^ 
success  was  so  great  that  Napoleon  called  it  the  filth  gr*-at 
power.  He  was  not  radical  now  :  he  advocated  the  estal>- 
lishment  of  a  German  confederation  of  constitutional  mon- 
archies under  an  enoperor ;  nevertheless  in  1816  the  f>a|»»'r 
was  suppressed.  His  book  Devtschland  nnd  die  Rnx^hi- 
tion  (1819)  even  occasioned  the  Prussian  king  to  onler  his 
imprisonment  in  Spandau,  but  he  escaped  arrest.  He  fletl  to 
Switzerland,  where  he  lived  till  1827,  when  he  was  apfxiinttil 
Professor  of  History  at  the  University  of  Munich.  Puriiig  his 
residence  in  Switzerland  he  published  Das  Heldenhtich  rtm 
Iran  (1820) ;  Europa  und  die  Revolution  (1832) ;  Emanurl 
Swedenhorg  (1827),  etc,  A  new  change  took  place  with  him. 
He  had  once  believed  in  the  spontaneous  aevelopment  of 
the  people  itself  toward  civilization  and  freedom,  but  that 
idea  he  had  given  up  in  despair.  He  next  hoped  to  tind 
constitutional  government  a  guarantee  for  the  happiness  of 
the  people,  but  this  confidence  he  now  lost  lie  lo»k»ti 
down  on  all  government  with  contempt,  and  considen?<l  the 
Church,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  as  the  only  means  1»  it 
of  salvation.  In  this  spirit  are  -all  his  later  books  wriit»'n 
—Aihanasius  <1838) ;  Die  chrisfUche  Mysiik  (1842) ;  Ihe 
Wallfahrt  nach  Trier  (1845),  etc.  They  are  still  of  a  hiirh 
character,  interesting  and  suggestive,  but  they  are  es^ii- 
tially  reactionary.  D.  at  Munich,  Jan.  29,  1&48.  His  bioij- 
raphy  was  written  by  J.  Gallaud  (Freiburg  im  Breisaru'u 
1876).  Revised  by  H.  H.  BoYE*iEx. 

Gorringr^^, Henry  Honeychurch:  commander  U.S.  naw ; 
b.at  Barb^os,  West  Indies,  Aug.  11, 1841 ;  educated  at  Barl^a- 
dos ;  went  to  the  U.  S.  at  an  early  age,  and  entered  the  n8v\  as 
foremast-hand  during  the  war,  serving  in  the  Missi^iYf»i 
squadron  ;  rose  rapidly ;  commanded  the  Cricket  under  Ad- 
miral Porter  in  the  Red  river  expetlition  ;  at  the  close  of  th*: 
war  appointed  to  the  regular  navy  :  served  in  various  cami-i- 
ties,  and  while  in  command  of  the  Gettysburg  in  the  Medi- 
terranean discovered  a  coral  bank  N.'  E.  of  Madeini:  in 
1878,  on  return  from  this  cruise,  he  was  given  leave  of  al*- 
sence,  and  through  the  liberality  of  William  H.  VandeH-iii 
removed  (1879-80)  to  New  York  from  Eg^pt  the  c»Niwk 
known  as  Cleopatra's  Needle,  now  standing  in  Central  Park, 
his  method  having  been  simpler  and  more  effective  tli.nii 
any  plan  previouslv  proposed.  Subsequently  he  re^igrit-ti 
from  the  navy  and  engaged  in  ship-building.  PnblisliM 
History  of  Egyptian  Obelisks  (New  York,  1885).  D.  in 
New  York  city,  July  7,  1885. 

Gorst,  Sir  John  Eldon  :  British  politician  ;  b.  in  L.an<  a- 
shire,  May,  1835;  educated  at  Cambridge;  in  1861-65J  civil 
commissioner  of  Waikato,  New  Zealand;  called  to  the  iKtr 
1865;  queen's  counsel  1875;  in  Parliament  1866-68  and 
1875 :  member  of  the  fourth  party ;  Solicitor-General  in  I^.rd 
Salisbury's  first  administration  ;  Under-Secretarv  for  Inu** 
in  his  second  administration  ;  made  privy  councilor  IWHK 

Gorton,  Samuel  :  founder  of  a  sect ;  b.at  Gorton,  EngUr<U 
about  1600;  was  a  linen-draper  in  London;  went  in  16-6 
to  Boston,  Mass.,  whence  he  was  soon  expelled  for  hori'sy  ; 
was  banished  from  Plymouth  in  the  following  winter :  ^♦••it 
to  Aquidneck  (now  Newport,  R.  I.),  where  he  was  publi<  ly 
whipped  for  saying  that  the  magistrates  were  **  just  asses  "*; 
removed  to  Pawtuxet,  R.  I.,  and  was  involve<l  in  lavtsuU^ 
about  land  ;  went  (1642)  to  Shawomet  (now  Warwick,  R.  1.^ 
whence  he  with  ten  of  his  followers,  "  Gortonians,"  were  i\\*- 
ducted  by  forty  soldiers  from  Massachusetts,  and  were  tried 
at  Boston  as  "*  damnable  heretics,"  and  sentenced  to  h:*nl 
labor  in  irons,  but  in  1644  the  sentence  was  coramuteil  to 
banishment ;  returned  to  Warwick,  R.  I.,  and  becanu'  a 
preacher,  a  magistrate,  and  a  person  of  much  considf?rati.n. 
Author  of  several  religious  works.  D.  in  Rhode  Island  in 
1677.  His  sect  survived  for  many  years,  and  his  follow*  rs 
were  called  "  Nothingarians,"  because  they  repudiate<1  iv- 
ligious  forms  of  every  kind  and  recognized  no  ministrr. 
See  his  Life  by  J.  M.  Mackie  in  Spark's  American  Bioffruj^h^ 
(2d  ser.,  v.,  Boston,  1845). 


854 


GOSPEL 


GOSPORT 


colonists,  and  steered  directly  across  the  Atlantic,  instead 
of  taking  the  circuitous  southern  course  previously  chosen 
by  navigators.  He  entered  Massachusetts  Bay,  named  Cape 
Cod,  discovered  No  Man's  Land,  and  named  it  Martha's 
Vineyard  (a  name  since  given  to  a  much  more  important 
neighboring  island),  and  planted  his  colony  on  Cuttyhunk 
(now  in  the  township  of  Gosnold,  Mass.) ;  but  the  settlers 
became  discouraged  and  soon  returned.  On  Dec.  19, 1606, 
he  sailed  with  another  colony  to  Virginia,  which,  in  spite 
of  his  remonstrances,  chose  for  their  first  settlement  James- 
town, a  locality  that  proved  unhealthful.  D.  in  Virginia, 
Aug.  22,  1607. 

Gospel  [M.  Eng.  gospel  <  0.  Eng.  godspel,  gospel  ( :  god, 
good  -f  spel,  tidings),  transl.  of  Gr.  ^Iceyy^Kioi^,  gospel,  liter., 
good  news,  dimin.  of  tvdyytKos,  bringing  good  news ;  cJ,  well 
+  &77fAActy,  bring  a  message,  announeej :  (1)  a  thanksgiving 
or  sacrifice  for  good  news ;  (2)  glad  tidmgs  of  salvation  by 
Christ ;  (3)  the  historical  records  of  this  salvation,  or  of  the 
life,  death,  and  resurrection  of  Christ  for  the  salvation  of 
the  world,  or  the  gospel  history,  which  we  have  in  a  four- 
fold form. 

1.  The  Canonical  Gospels. — Thev  are  properly  only  one 
and  the  same  gospel,  in  its  fourfold  aspect  and  relation  to 
the  human  race  (the  fourfold  gospel,  r^rpdfxop^  ^ifccyytKioVy 
according  to  Irenapus).  Hence  they  are  styled  in  ancient 
manuscripts  the  Gospel  a>ccording  to  (not  of)  Matthew, 
Mark,  Luke,  and  John.  The  first  and  fourth  are,  according 
to  the  traditional  view  of  the  churches,  by  apostles;  the 
second  and  third  by  pupils  of  the  apostles,  and  thus  indi- 
rectly apostolical.  Mark  is  closely  connected  with  Peter 
(as  his  "  interpreter ''),  Luke  with  Paul  (as  his  companion  in 
missionary  travel  and  work).  The  authorship  rests  on  an- 
cient testimony  and  internal  probability,  but  Ls  subject  to 
criticism.  The  first  three  gospels  were  written  between 
A.  D.  60  and  70,  certainly  before  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, to  which  they  point  as  a  future  event.  The  last  was 
probably  written  toward  the  close  of  the  first  century,  at 
bphesus.  Before  the  end  of  the  second  century  they  were 
generally  received  and  used  in  the  churches  as  one  collec- 
tion. This  is  confirmed  by  the  independent  testimonies  of 
the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (Justin  Martyr,  Tatian,  Irenjeus, 
Tertullian,  Origen,  etc.),  by  the  Gnostics*  and  other  heretics. 
Tatian  about  170  wrote  the  first  harmony  of  the  gospels, 
which  was  much  used  in  the  Syrian  Church,  and  was  re- 
covered in  1888  in  an  Arabic  version.  The  gospels  are  not 
complete  biographies  of  Jesus,  but  selections  of  characteris- 
tic leatures  as  they  seemed  most  impoilant  to  each  evan- 
felist  for  the  purpose  of  leading  his  readers  to  the  faith  that 
esus  of  Nazaretn  is  the  promised  Messiah  and  Savior  of 
men. 

Each  Gospel  has  a  marked  individuality,  corresponding  to 
the  author's  education,  talent,  taste,  and  mission.  Matthew 
wrote  in  Palestine  and  for  Jews,  to  show  them  that  Jesus  is 
the  fulfiUer  of  prophecy  and  the  true  King  and  Lawgiver  of 
Israel ;  Mark  in  Rome,  for  Roman  readers,  to  exhibit  Jesus 
as  the  mightv  Wonder-worker  and  Son  of  God ;  Luke,  for 
Greeks  and  Gentiles,  to  set  Him  forth  as  the  universal 
Savior  of  all  men;  John,  for  Jewish  and  Gentile  Chris- 
tians combined,  and  for  all  future  ages.  Matthew  (formerly 
a  tax-gatherer  and  accustomed  to  keeping  accounts)  follows 
the  topical  and  rubrical  order ;  Luke  (an  educated  Hellenist 
and  a  physician),  the  chronological  order ;  John  (the  trusted 
bosom  friend  of  Christ)  combines  both  with  an  internal  de- 
velopment of  the  growing  antagonism  between  Christ  and 
carnal  Judaism ;  Mark  gives,  as  from  the  first  impressions 
of  his  master,  the  impulsive  Peter,  fresh,  rapid,  graphic 
sketches.  The  first  three  evangelists  agree  much  in  matter 
and  language,  and  are  consecmently  called  Synoptists  (their 
Gospels  tlie  Synoptic  Gospds);  John  stands  alone  as  the 
ideal  and  spiritual  evangelist;  his  Gospel  is  the  purest, 
deepest,  and  subliinest  of  all  literary  compositions,  the  Gos- 
pel of  Gospels, '*  the  one  true,  tender,  main  Gospel,"  "the 
heart  of  Christ."  (See  Schaff's  S[)ecial  introduction  to 
Lange's  Com.  on  John.)  Yet  the  first  three  are  just  as  nec- 
essary, and  eive  the  historical  bjisis,  the  divine  humanity  of 
Christ ;  while  John,  going  back  to  the  eternal  Logos,  pre- 
sents the  incarnate  divinity  of  Christ. 

The  discrepancies  among  the  Gospels  in  minor  details 
confirm  the  independence  and  credibility  of  the  authors. 
The  genuineness  and  truthfulness  of  tliese  br)oks  rest  on 
stronger  evidence  than  that  of  any  other  historical  records, 
ancient  or  modern.  This  has  been  acknowledged  by  emi- 
nent writers  who  are  free  from  all  doctrinal  or  sectarian 


bias.  Goethe  says:  "I  regard  the  Gospels  as  thorough; y 
genuine,  for  we  see  in  them  the  reflection  of  a  majesty  wLi<h 
proceeded  from  the  Person  of  Christ — a  majesty  which  w 
as  divine  as  anything  that  ever  appeared  on  earth.*'  R«iu>- 
seau  remarks  that  "  the  gospel  history  can  be  no  ficti«'ii. 
else  the  inventor  would  be  jp^ater  than  the  hero"  {Finvru- 
teur  en  serait  plus  etonnant  que  le  h4ros);  or  (as  Thendnre 
Parker  says)  it  would  take  more  than  a  Jesus  to  forg^>  a 
Jesus.  And  yet  the  Jesus  of  the  Gospels  is  admitted  to  l-r- 
the  purest  and  highest  character  conceivable.  If  there  j> 
no  truth  and  reality  in  Him,  it  is  nowhere  else  to  be  found. 
Take  away  the  historical  Christ,  the  Life  and  Light  of  th^ 
world,  and  human  life  and  history  are  as  dark  as  midnighr, 
an  inscrutable  enigma.  See  Harmony  of  the  Gospll-s, 
Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John,  and  Bible. 

Literature. — This  has  immensely  increased  since  IXJO 
in  connection  with  the  very  numerous  Litres  of  Jesus  Uy 
Schleiermacher,  Strauss,  Neander,  Ewald,  Lane^e,  RenaiL 
Keim,  EUicott,  Andrews,  Farrar,  Weiss,  Beyschlag,  Edtr- 
heim,  etc.  See  the  critical  introductions  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment by  De  Wette,  Reuss,  Bleek,  Davidson,  Weiss,  and 
Holtzmann ;  the  commentaries  on  the  Gospels  by  Olshaus^n. 
De  Wette,  Liicke,  Tholuck  (on  John  only),  Bleek,  Mf^^r, 
Lange,  Godet  (Luke  and  John),  Alford,  Westcott  (on  Jofu.  i, 
Holtzmann,  etc. ;  and  monographs  on  the  several  Gosp«'l>. 
especially  that  of  John,  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned  hen-. 
Tischendorf,  When  were  our  Gospels  composed  f  (4th  ^d. 
1866,  translated  into  several  languages,  even  the  Rusr^i.-jn 
and  Turkish)  makes  an  able  plea  K)r  the  gennineness  of  ihf 
Gospels  from  historical  evidence.  Baur  opened  the  mod^nj 
attacks  on  John  in  a  masterlv  critical  essay  (1844).  K^r^ 
Abbot  has  written  the  best  book  on  the  external  testin)«'iiy 
for  the  Johannean  authorship  of  the  fourth  Gospel  (1s.*<4l 
There  are  more  recent  discussions  on  this  burning  qut^TjMn 
by  Holtzmann,  Weiss,  Schttrer,  Hamack,  Gloag,  Sand«y. 
Compare  the  careful  bibliographical  lists  of  Hase^  in  his 
Leben  Jesu  (5th  ed.  1865,  p.  22,  seq.);  of  Ezra  AbU.t.  in 
Smith's  Bibl.  Dictionary  (Abbot's  and  Hackett's  eiL,  ^  <  >L 
ii.,  pp.  959-61) ;  and  of  Schaff  in  the  first  volume  of  his 
Church  History  (revised  1890),  pp.  575-79  and  607-12, 

2.  Apocryphal  Gospels. — A  number  of  spurious  bii".;- 
raphies  of  Jesus  and  the  holy  family,  purporting  to  ei»uie 
from  apostles  or  their  pupils,  but  written  in  the  st»c<»ii*i, 
third,  and  later  centuries  oy  unknown  authors,  to  fill  iiut, 
for  the  satisfaction  of  an  idle  and  morbid  curiosity,  xtie 
vacancies  left  by  the  chaste  modesty  and  veracitv  (*>f  th*- 
evangelists,  especially  in  the  history  of  the  infancy  of 
Christ  and  His  descent  into  Hades.  They  are  the  tirst 
specimens  of  religious  novels,  replete  with  extravairani 
fancies  and  unnatural  miracles  which  the  boy  Jesus  i^  "^.j  i 
to  have  performed  for  ostentation  and  amusement.  Th*  y 
are  also  glorifications  of  Mary  and  the  holy  family.  Th.v 
are  related  to  the  canonical  6ospels  as  the  counterfeit  to 
the  genuine  coin,  as  caricatures  to  the  original.  They  hrt%f 
no  historical  value,  but  they  furnish  indirectly  a  stniiisr 
argument  for  the  canonical  Gospels,  and  enable  us  to  tnu  >> 
some  of  the  traditions  and  superstitions  of  the  media*v:il 
Church  to  their  proper  source.  This  is  their  only  use,  T!jt» 
principal  of  these  apocryphal  productions  are  the  Gospel  '>f 
James  {Protevangetium) ;  the  Gospel  of  Pseudo-Matt h-lr 
on  the  Infancy  of  Mary  and  Je^i-s;  the  Gospel  of  the  ^\  •!- 
titnty  of  Mary;  the  Gospel  of  Joseph  the  Carptnfrr:  it.^ 
Gospel  of  Thomas;  the  Gospel  of  ^icodemus;  the  Actif  *>^ 
Pontius  Pilate  ;  and  his  Letter  to  Tiberius  on  the  death  .  "f 
Christ;  and  the  recently  discovered  Gospel  of  Peter.  Tl.»' 
references  in  the  Koran  to  the  gosf)el  history  are  from  tht>e 
a}X)cryphal  sources. 

Literature. — Thilo,  Codex  Apocryphus  Nov.  Test.  ^Loic^ 
zig,  1832);  Tischendorf,  Evangelia  apocrypha  (Leip/.jl:. 
1853) ;  the  same,  De  Evang.  apocr.  origtne  et  usu  (1H51 ) :  IL 
Hofmann,  Das  Leben  Je^u  nach  den  Apokryphen  (Ijeipyii:, 
1851).  and  his  article  in  Schaff 's  Encyclop.  (vol.  i.,  1882,  pji, 
105-07) ;  for  the  Gospel  of  Peter  see  edition  bv  A.  Hama4N 
(2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1893).  Also  Wright,  Conirihutions  to  *•  r 
Apocr.  Lit.  of  the  New  Testament  (1865),  and  Lipsiiis,  /'." 
Pilatusacten  (1871).  There  are  English  translations  of  \  i.t* 
Aj>ocryphal  Gospels  by  Cowper  (London,  1867),  and  Iv 
Walker  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Library  (Edinburgh,  1870) :  .f 
the  Gospel  of  Peter,  see  H.  von  Schubert  (Edinbur]gh«  lsi*^'k 

Philip  Schaff. 

Go8'port:  town  of  Hampshire,  England,  directlv  opisw 
site  Portsmouth  (see  map  of  Englanif,  ref.  14-1),  It  is  !•  * 
seat  of  the  Royal  Clarence  victualing-yard,  with  its  brewt  r- 


856 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


GOTHIC  LANGUAGE 


improve  the  quality  and  decrease  the  quantity  of  liquors 
consumed. 

Gothic  Architecture:  the  style  of  architecture  which 
was  developed  out  of  the  Romanesque  in  Western  Europe 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and  which  existed,  though  much 
modified  with  time,  until  the  classical  revival  in  the  six- 
teenth century  put  an  end  to  it.  (See  Renaissance.)  The 
especial  virtue  of  this  style  is  its  free  use  of  rich  sculpture 
so  combined  with  the  architectural  forms  as  to  make  one 
with  them.  The  word  Oothic  was  first  used  in  a  contemptu- 
ous sense  by  those  writers  of  a  later  time  who  wished  to 
praise  classical  art  at  the  expense  of  that  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  a  disposition  to  use  this  style 
appeared  in  England,  France,  and  Germany.  In  England 
especially  this  led  to  important  results.  See  Architecture, 
and  Gothic  Revival. 

Gothic  Langrnaee :  the  language  of  that  branch  of  the 
Teutonic  race  called  the  Goths,  especially  as  known  through 
a  Visigothic  Bible  translation  of  the  fourth  century  a.  d. 
The  earliest  historical  indications  concerning  the  home  of 
the  Goths  place  them  along  the  lower  course  of  the  Weich- 
sel  (Vistula)  in  modern  Pohind  and  Prussia  between  War- 
saw and  Dantzic.    Here  they  remain  as  late  as  loO  a.  d., 
but  early  in  the  following  century,  having  been  dislodged 
probably  by  the  movements  of  their  Pinno-Hunnish  neigh- 
bors, they  are  found  on  the  northern  side  of  the  lower 
Danube  and  on  the  northwestern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea  in 
modern  Roumania  and  Southwestern  Russia  as  far  E.  as 
Odessa.  To  the  W.  on  the  Danube  were  the  Visigoths,  to  the  E. 
m  Southwestern  Russia  the  Ostrogoths.    In  251  they  defeated 
the  Emperor  Decius  at  Philippopolis,  but  in  270,  after  va- 
rious incursions  into  Thrace  and  Greece,  were  driven  back  to 
their  seat  N.  of  the  Danube.     They  were  known  to  the  an- 
cient historians  and  geographers  as  To^wvcj  (Strabo),  r^ftw- 
yf$  (Ptolemv),  Goianes  or  Oothones  (Tacitus),  and  kter  as 
TArBoi  (Suidas),   Ooihi  (Spartianus),   which   points  to  the 
native  name  *0utan8,  or  *Gutds.    The  word  gut^iudai  (da- 
tive of  guthiuda^gut  +  ]>iuda,  folk)  preserved  in  a  fragment 
of  a  calendar  in  Codex  Ambros,  A  is  the  only  indication  in 
native  sources. 

The  only  sources  of  knowledge  of  the  language  are :  (1) 
Portions  of  a  Bible  translation,  of  a  paraphrasing  interpre- 
tation of  the  Gospel  of  John,  and  of  a  calendar  contained  in 
fragments  of  manuscripts  written  in  Italy  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, presumably  by  Ostrogoths.    These  are  the  Codex  Ar- 
genteus,  now  in  the  university  library  at  Upsala,  the  Codex 
Carohnus,  in  the  library  at  Wolfenbttttel,  live  Codices  Am- 
brosiam,  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan,  and  the  Codex 
Turinensis,  at  Turin.    (2)  The  signatures  of  Gothic  witnesses 
on  two  Latin  records  or  receipts,  one  at  Naples,  one  formerly 
at  Arezzo,  but  now  lost.    A  few  Gothic  words  and  names  of 
alphabetic  symbols  in  a  Salzburg  MS.,  now  at  Vienna.    (3) 
A  few  Gothic  words  {eils  and  scapiamatziaiadrincan  akap 
lah  matjan  jah  drigkaih  (if))  in  a  fjatin  epigram,  a  large 
number  of  proper  names  from  Greek  and  Latin  sources,  and 
m  old  Spanish  documents  and  inscjriptions.     (4)  The  scanty 
records  of  a  Gothic  language,  probably  Ostrogothic,  pre- 
served as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century  in  the  Crimea,  and 
reported  by  Augcrius  von  Busbeck  in  his  Epiatolm  quntuor 
(Pans,   1589).      Cf.    Tomaschek,    Die   Goten    in    Taurien, 
1881.     The  Bible  translation,  of  which  there  remain   por- 
tions of  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke.  John,  Romans,  1  and  2  Co- 
rinthians, Galatians,  Ephcsians,  Philippians,   Colossians,  1 
and  2  Thessalonians,  I  and  2  Tiinothv,  Titus,  Philemon, 
Esdras,  Nehemiah,  is  associated  alwavs*  with  the  name  of 
Ulfilas  (Gr.  OhKtplxns),  i.  e.  Wulfilas,  as  translator.     lie  was 
probably  himself  a  Goth,  born  about  310  a.  d.,  made  bishop 
of  the  Goths  341,  removed  348,  with  a  large  bwlv  of  his  fol- 
lowers avoiding  persecution,  into  Moesia,  S.  of  the  Danube; 
died  380  or  381.     Cf.  Waitz,   Ueher  dm  Lehen  und  Lehre 
t^LF^fil^^  ^^^^^ '  Besscl,    Ueher  das  Lehen  des    Ulfilas 
(1860)  ;  Bernhardt,    Vninia  (introd.,   1875) ;  Scott,   Uinias, 
Apostle  of  the  Goths  (1885) ;  Bradlev,  The  Goths  (1890). 

Ulfilas  not  only  did  the  work  of  translation,  probably  of 
the  entire  Bible,  but  he  invented  an  alphabet  for  it,  using 
as  a  basis  the  Greek  uncial  alphabet  of  his  time  with  preser- 
vation of  its  order,  as  well  as  of  the  numerical  and  phonetic 
values  of  the  letters.  He  adapted  it,  however,  to  its  pur- 
pose by  tholuse  of  forms  taken  from  the  Latin  and  the 


1 
a 

R 

20 
k 


B 

2 
b 

A 

80 

1 


r 

8 

g 

n 

40 
m 


4 

d 


e 
5 

e 


U 
6 

q 


X 

7 

z 


h 

8 
h 


u 

50 
n 


C 

60 

■ 


n 

70 
u 


n 

80 
P 


9 

> 

90 


I  \ 
10 
i 

r 


S 

200 

s 


SO*! 


T        Y         F         X        0         p 

800        400         500         600        700    '   800 
t  w  i  X  h?  6  - 

The  language  is  of  the  highest  importance  for  the  hi^ 
toncal  grammar  of  the  Teutonic  languages,  because  it  r^iH 
resents  the  earliest  extended  record  of  any  language  wiilJr. 
this  group,  and  approaches  in  general,  though  not  in  everr 
particular,  nearest  to  the  type  of  pro-ethnic  Teutonic 
speech. 

P^ono%y.— Following  peculiarities  are  to  be  remarket!  ■  -' 
and  0  are  close  long  vowels ;  ei  denotes  I  (i  in  pique)  •  i  i< 
always  short ;  a  and  «  are  both  long  and  short ;  a%  and  an 
denote  either  diphthongs  (marked  di,  cm)  or  the  open  vow,-U 
«,  0  (marked  at,  ati),  generally  short;  A,  J,  g  denot*^  iht^ 
voiced  aspirants  5,  d,  ^.  as  well  as  the  medials  A,  rf,  a ;  /  ai.d 
w  (pron.  like  Eng.  y  in  yet  and  w  in  ireO  are  the  semi- 
vowels of  t  and  w ;  9  (like  Lat.  qu  in  quia)  and  h?  (like  En^ 
wh  in  what)  are  not  double  consonants.  The  position  uf 
the  language  can  be  most  readilv  appreciated  from  the  f<.|- 
lowing  table,  giving  for  each  Gothic  sound  its  commonvsi 
Indo-European  progenitor  or  progenitors,  with  eotniate 
words  containing  it  m  Greek  or  Latin,  English  and  Gernmn  • 


Goth.       I.-E. 

j  ank 
\  onk 

g(af)*jj 


ah 


e 


6  (aii)*  u 
5r  r 

■  if 


ti 

tin 
u 
w 

• 

1 

r 

m 

n 

F 

b 

k 

I 

hr 

t 
> 
d 


1 


ei 
ti 
n 

• 

u 
u 

■ 

1 
1 

r 
m 
n 
b 

Eh 
-p'- 


q 

jgh 

t 
dh 

-t'- 


1 


8 


Goth. 

tagr 
ahtau 

[  f&han 

air])a 

maihstus 

-se]>s 

daur 

hatirn 

fotus 

brojjar 

midjis 

fisks 

swein 

steigan 

juk 

tunbus 

fuls 

wiljan 

aljis 

laggs 

raihts 

mena 

nahts 

slepan 

faaar 

boka 

si  bun 

kniu 

qiman 

nahts 

K»as 

gasts 

tigus 

taihun 

)>ata 

dauhtar 

hund 

sitan 


Gr.  or  Lat. 

octo 

pango 

Ifpofe 

semen 
bdfta 

KOpVOt 

«Jj  (Dor.) 

frater 

medius 

piscis 

sulnus 

jugum 

dens 

puteo 

velle 

alius 

longus 

rectus 

nox 
labi 
pater 

Im-a 

genu 

fe)venio 

nox 

qui 

hostis 

Ikicds 

Z4Ka 

r6{9) 

^vyaTifp 

kKar6v 

sedeo 


unic  alphabets,  creating  a  svstcni  better  for  the  purpose 
than  either  of  the  three.  The'alphabet  is  given  in  tho  next 
column;  accompanied  by  the  numerical  values  of  the  lettei-s 
and  their  usual  transcription. 


♦  Before  r  and  h. 


Eng. 

tear 

eight 

fang 

earth 

mixen  f 

seed 

door 

horn 

foot 

brother 

mid- 
fish 
swine 

styt 

yoke 

tooth 

foul 

wiU 

else 

long 

right 

moon 

night 

sleep 

father 

beech 

seven 

knee 

come 

night 

who 

guest 

-ty 

ten 

that 

daughter 

hundretl 

sit 

t  Obsolete. 


G«»mi. 

z&hre 
acht 

fangen 

erde 
mist 
aaat 

tor 
horn 

fU5S 

broder 

mitte 

fis<'h 

schwein 

stoii^en 

joeh 

zahn 

faul 

will 

el  end 

lan^ 

re<-ht 

mond 

na^-ht 

sehlafen 

vater 

bnehe 

siel>on 

knie 

kommen 

nacht 

wer 

gast 

-zijr 

zehn 

das 

toehter 

hundert 

sitzen 


Morphology. — The  inflection  of  nouns  is  distinguished  by 
its  relatively  close  approach  to  the  original  Indo-Eurojiean 
system.  Of  the  cases  it  preserves  the  nora.,  voc.,  gen  it,, 
uceus.,  and  dat.,  the  latter  including  the  original  instru- 
mental and  locative,  and  to  some  extent  the  ablative.  Thr* 
following  declensions  are  preserved  :  Those  in  -o-.  «,  -iV.  -i- 
(-e*-),  -M-  (-^M-),  -W-,  and  traces  of  the  other  consonant  dei'Ion- 
si(ms.  The  original  accus.  plur.  ending  is  preserve<i,  as  in 
no  other  Indo-European  language  except  certain  Greek  dia- 
lects ;  cf.  anstins,  sununs,  dagans.    The  old  genit.  of  i-  and 


858 


GOTTENBURG 


GO  UGH 


Roman  emperor.  The  subject  is  treated  by  i\early  all  tlie 
contemporary  writers  of  the  period.  Of  modern  authorities 
the  best  are  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Raman  Umpire 
(chaps.  X.  and  xxxix.) ;  Millman,  History  of  Latin  Chris- 
tianity  (bk.  3) ;  Dahn.  Die  Kdnige  der  Germanen  (4  vols., 
1866) ;  Manso,  Ges,  d.  Ostgothischen  Reichs  in  It  alien  (1824). 

C.  K.  Adams. 
Oottenbar^ :  See  Gothenburg. 

Gottfried  of  Strassburgp:  German  poet  or  Minnesinger; 
flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  and  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  centuries.  There  is  no  authentic  account  of 
his  life,  but  Strassbourg  is  supposed  to  have  been  his  birth- 
place, and  he  is  thought  to  nave  held  there  a  position  of 
considerable  influence.  His  chief  work,  the  epic  poem  of 
Tristan  und  Isolde,  was  begun  between  the  years  1204  and 
1215,  and  was  unfinished  at  the  time  of  his  death,  which  oc- 
curred within  the  first  quarter  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
It  was  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  mediaeval  poetry  ex- 
tAut,  being  considered  by  many  critics  the  equal  of  Eschen- 
bach's  Parcival,  The  style  is  light  and  graceful,  and  the 
descriptions  are  singularly  vivid.  The  extensive  influence 
that  it  exercised  upon  German  literature  is  attested  by  the 
number  of  writers  who  afterward  treated  the  same  theme  in 
Gottfried's  manner.  In  its  unflnished  state  the  poem  con- 
tains between  19,000  and  20,000  lines,  to  which  additions 
were  made  by  Ulrich  von  TGrheim  (about  1736)  and  Hein- 
rich  von  Freiberg  (about  1270).  but  their  continuations  were 
far  inferior  to  the  original.  Of  his  other  works  a  few  short 
lyrics  are  all  that  remain. 

C^ttingen,  g5t' ting-en :  town  of  Pnissia;  in  the  province 
of  Hanover,  on  the  Leine  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ret, 
4-E).  It  has  a  neat  and  quiet  appearance,  and  some  manu- 
factures of  woolens,  tobac^co,  and  leather.  It  is  chiefly 
noted  for  its  university,  with  which  are  connected  an  ex- 
cellent library  of  550,000  volumes,  a  museum,  a  botanical 
garden,  an  observatory,  an  anatomical  theater,  a  chemical 
laboratory,  and  other  scientific  institutions.  It  was  founded 
in  1737  by  George  II.,  King  of  England  and  Elector  of  Han- 
over, and  the  magnificent  scale  on  which  it  was  established 
and  maintained  ma<le  it  soon  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
universities  of  Germany.  In  1837  seven  of  its  most  cele- 
brated professors — among  them  the  two  Grimms  and  Ger- 
vinus — were  expelled  for  political  reasons.  From  this  blow 
the  institution  has  never  recovered,  and  the  number  of  stu- 
dents, which  in  1823  was  1,547,  declined  to  737  in  1864.  In 
1890  the  number  of  students  increased  to  807,  and  the  uni- 
versity is  still  an  institution  of  great  repute  and  influence, 
though  Berlin  and  Leipzig  have  taken  the  lead.  Pop.  (1890) 
23.689.  Revised  by  C.  H.  Thurbkr. 

Gott'land,  or  Gothland :  an  island  in  the  Baltic  belong- 
ing to  Sweden,  and  situated  in  lat.  56"  55'  N.  and  Ion.  18° 
10'  E.  Area,  1,227  sq.  miles.  Capital,  Wisby  {a.  v.).  The 
climate  is  mild,  and  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  chiefly  in 
agriculture,  shipping,  flshing,and  lime-burning.  Pop.  (1891) 
51,337. 

Gottschalk,   got'shaalk,   Got'teschalk,  or   Godescale 

{Gotheschalcus  Fuh/ent ius)  :•  {heo\ogiaj\  i  son  of  Count  Ber- 
no  of  Saxony;  b.  about  806;  became,  in  consequence  of  pa- 
rental vows,  an  inmate  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  of 
Fulda,  and  received  the  tonsure,  but  later  he  denied  the  va- 
lidity of  the  rite  enforced  upon  him  and  desired  to  leave  the 
convent.  His  case  was  decided  in  his  favor  by  the  Synod  of 
Mentz  in  829,  but  he  was  restrained  by  the  Abbot  Raban, 
who,  however,  {)ermitted  him  to  exchange  the  monastery  of 
Fulda  for  that  of  Orbais ;  there  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  Augustine  and  the  propagation  of  the  predestinarian 
doctrines  in  their  most  extreme  form,  involvmg  a  denial  of 
the  freedom  of  the  will  and  the  universalitv  of  the  atone- 
ment ;  was  everywhere  op{>oscd,  especially  by  Nothingus, 
Bishop  of  Verona,  and  by  his  old  master  Raban,  now  Arch- 
bishop of  Mentz ;  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Mentz  848 ; 
tried  by  Hincmar  of  Reims  and  Charles  the  Bald  at  Quiercy 
(849) :  flogged  in  presence  of  the  king  an<l  bisliops,  and  im- 
prisoned for  life  in  the  abbey  of  Uautvilliers,  where  he  died 
868  or  869,  Ilincmar  denying  hini  the  consolations  of  the 
Church  in  his  last  hours  because  he  would  not  recant.  Remi- 
gius  of  Lyons,  Prudentius  of  Troves,  and  Ratramnus  of  Old 
Corbie  were  among  his  defenders,  and  Scotus  Erigena  wrote 
a  treatise  against  him.  A  Life  of  Gottschalk,  by  Arcjh- 
bishop  Ussher,  appeared  in  1631,  and  Mauguin  in  1650  pub- 
lished the  existing  fragments  of  his  works.  See  his  Leben 
und  Lehre,  by  von  Borrasch,  (Thorn,  1868). 

Revised  by  Samuel  Macauley  Jackson. 


Gottschalk,  Alexandre  :  civil  engineer ;  b.  at  St.  Peter^ 

burg,  Aug.  13,  1832;  graduated  at  the  ficole  Centrale  ».f 
Arts  and  Manufactures  in  Paris  in  1853.  He  was  first  ern- 
ployed  on  railway  works  in  Russia,  afterward  superinKn.i- 
ent  of  traction  of  the  South  Austrian  Railway;  in  1S*^> 
president  of  the  society  of  Ing^nieurs  Civils  of  Fraotv, 
member  of  the  consultative  'committee  of  the  Ministry  . ' 
Public  Works  on  the  technical  operation  of  railways;  ofli*-*-'- 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor;  and  engineer  counsel  of  vari.rus 
railway  and  investment  companies.  W.  R.  Hitton. 

Gottschalk,  Louis  Moreau:  pianist;  b.  in  New  OrK-nn-. 
May  8,  1829;  studie<l  in  Paris  and  made  his  first  public  ap- 
pearance there  in  1845.  He  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  1  *»."»:; 
and  at  once  became  the  most  popular  pianist  in  the  eounrrv. 
He  went  on  many  concert  tours,  alwajrs  playing  hi>  f'vr:j 
compositions.  He  also  traveled  extensivelv  in  Mexif<».  th^^ 
West  Indies,  and  South  America,  and  died  iA  Rio  de  Janeir- , 
Brazil,  Dec.  18, 1869,  being  seized  with  his  fat^l  illness  whil- 
at  the  piano  playing  his  last  composition.  La  Mortf,  Hi- 
compositions  mclude  a  few  songs,  a  symphony  entitlinl  Lt 
Nutt  des  Tropiques,  a  triumphal  cantata,  an  overt  are,  arni 
many  piano  solos.    These  solos  became  very  popular. 

Gottsched,  got'shet,  Johann  Christoph:  critic;  l».  ai 
Judithenkirch,  near  Konigsberg,  Prussia,  Feb.  2, 1700;  stu-i- 
ied  languages  and  literature  at  the  University  of  KoiUhT-- 
berg;  in  1730  became  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  P.«»r^ 
at  the  University  of  Leipzig,  and  in  1734  Professor  of  Lt  ir'- 
and  Metaphysics.  He  also  edited  several  peri<xlical<,  u>ii.i: 
them  in  his  endeavors  to  reform  polite  literature  and  i.i- 
drama,  and  from  1729  to  about  1740  had  supreme  inti'i- 
ence  in  Germany.  He  attacked  and  actually  crush«»<l  rh- 
second  Silesian  school  of  poets,  whose  characteristic  wa-:  » 
wild  bombast.  He  himself  represented  French  \asie,  a:i.i 
endeavored  to  make  the  French  drama  a  model  for  the  ii*T- 
man  stage,  but  becoming  extravagant  and  overbearintf  in  Ki- 
criticisms,  he  opposed  the  Swiss  writers  Bodraer  and  Bni- 
tenger,  whose  taste  was  English,  and  refused  toacknowl»'*!c« 
the  genius  of  Klopstock  and  Lessing.  He  in  turn  met  inr  •, 
opposition,  then  with  ridicule,  and  finally  lost  at!  influei!* » , 
lie  wrote  a  drama,  Der  sterbende  Cato  (The  I)ying  C"Ht»»« 
1732;  a  number  of  educational  works,  and  compiK^l  h 
catalogue  of  German  plays,  Ndthiger  Vorrath  zvr  Ge^gtchtef'  f*- 
der  Deutschen  dramattschen  Dichtkunst  (1757-65).  Hi-» 
wife,  Louise  Kulmus  (171  <^-62),  aided  him  in  tran^latii:,: 
dramas  from  the  French,  and  herself  translated  TTit  Sp^ctn  *"r 
and  Pope's  Rape  of  the  Lock.  Gottsched  died  at  Lrt»i|.»zjc. 
Dec.  12,  1766.    See  Danzel,  Gottsched  und  seine  ZcH  (lh4>  . 

Revised  by  H.  H.  Boy»en. 

GOtz  Ton  BerHchingrcn :  See  Berlicuingejt,  Grixz  vi.v. 

Gouda,  gow'daa,  or  Terg'ouw,  t<'r-gow':  town  of  \h^ 
Netherlands;  in  the  province  of  South  Holland,  on  the  Ys>»  1 ; 
13  miles  by  rail  N.  B.  of  Rotterdam  (see  map  of  Holland  ri-I 
Belgium,  fef.  6-E).  Its  Church  of  St.  John  is  celebrat^^l  f .  r 
its  stained-glass  windows  of  the  sixteenth  century.  G«M.^ii 
has  large  manufactures  of  bricks,  cheese,  tiles,  |x>ttery.  aiv: 
clay  pipes.    Pop.  (1890)  18,847. 

Goagh.  gof,  Hugh,  Viscount:  soldier;  b.  at  Woodst'twn, 
Ireland,  Nov.  3,  1779.  He  joined  the  British  army  in  lTi*4  : 
served  with  distinction  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope'lT95.  ai  i 
in  Spain  1809-13,  where  .he  was  thrice  wounded ;  iHH'ain*'  a 
major-general  1830 ;  went  to  India  1837 ;  le<l  the  land  fun-^  - 
in  the  Chinese  opium  war  1841;  was  made  a  l>aronet  .hi.  i 
G.  C.  B.  1842 ;  anu  commanded  the  British  forces  against  t  'i'- 
Mahrattas  1843,  and  the  Sikhs  1845  ;  was  made  a  Iwn^n  1M»'^ : 
commanded  in  the  second  Sikh  war  1848-49,  but  in  coi.-,- 
quence  of  the  terrible  losses  inflicted  upon  the  British  by  \\  •• 
Sikhs  his  generalship  began  to  be  criticised,  although  all  1  i- 
battles  were  victories;  and  Sir  Charles  Napier  in  184l»  N-. -k 
his  place.  Gough  was  created  viscount  and  handsomely  i -r  - 
sioncd  (1849),  made  colonel  of  the  Horse  Guards  1854,*  K.  1* 
1857,  privy  councilor  1859,  G.  C.  S.  I.  1861.  field-mar- {.. : 
1862.     D.  near  Dublin,  Mar.  2,  1869. 

Gough,  John  Bartholomew :  temperance  lecturer;  t>.  :i* 
Sandgate,  Kent,  England,  Aug.  22,  1817;  removed  in  l>v> 
to  the  U.  S. ;  became  a  bookbinder  in  New  York  in  1k;i. 
and  aft^r  some  years  of  poverty,  causeii  by  intern peranc**^.  \  ^ 
reformed,  and  in  1843  became  a  temperance  lecturer,  h-  i 
labored  with  great  zeal  and  success  all  over  the  U.  S.  lf» 
1853  he  visited  the  British  islands  and  lectured  therv^  *  » 
large  audiences.  In  1857-60  he  again  visited  Great  Brir.i^. 
His  hist  visit  was  in  1878.    See  his  Autobiography  (15^46. » i- 


860 


GOURD 


GOUT 


waters  of  Farther  India,  Cochin  China,  and  the  islands  of 
JaTa,  Madura,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo.  The  shape  is  a  deep 
oval,  the  scales  are  large,  and  the  first  soft  ray  of  the  ventral 
fins  is  produced  to  the  end  of  the  body.  The  gourami  is 
said  to  attain  a  length  of  5  or  6  feet  ana  a  weight  of  100  lb., 
but  specimens  2  feet  long  and  weighing  12  to  15  lb.  are 
considered  large.  This  fish  builds  a  nest  of  plants  and  mud 
in  which  the  eggs  are  deposited,  and  the  parents  guard  the 
young  with  great  care.  On  account  of  the  delicacy  of  the 
flesh,  numerous  attempts  have  b(?en  made  to  introduce  the 
gourami  into  foreign  countries,  but  tliese  have  succeeded 
only  in  Mauritius  and  the  adjacent  island  of  Bourbon. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Gourd,  gord  or  goord  [M.  Eng.  gourd,  from  O.  Fr.  gourde, 
earlier  gougourde  and  cougourde,  Mod.  Fr.  eourge  <  Lat. 
cucur'hita,  whence  Germ.  fCurbias,  gourd] :  a  name  applied 
indiscriminately  in  Great  Britain  to  many  members  of  the 
natural  family  Cucurbitacea?,  but  in  the  U.  S.  restricted  to 
the  genus  La{fenaria  and  to  the  small,  hard-shelled  and  in- 
edible forms  of  Cucurbita  pepo.  Lagenaria  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  lagena,  a  bottle,  and  refers  to  a  frequent  shape  of 
the  fruit,  of  which  the  shell  is  used  not  only  for  bottles,  but, 
after  soaking  to  remove  the  bitter  principle,  for  dishes, 
cups,  and  especially  for  dippers,  for  which  the  natural 
handles  especially  adapt  it.  In  the  Southern  U.  S.  a  gourd 
is  almost  always  found  suspended  at  a  spring  for  the  use  of 
travelers.  The  Lagenaria  climbs  ext^insively  over  walls 
and  shrubbery  by  means  of  its  compound  tendrils.  The 
clammy  pubescent  herbage  has  a  powerful  odor  of  musk. 
It  has  rounded  leaves,  lon^-stalke(t  flowers  greenish  white 
in  color,  and  fruit  dififering  greatly  in  size  and  shape ; 
hence  the  great  variety  of  purposes  to  which  it  can  be  ap- 
plied by  cutting  the  rind  and  removing  the  contents.  The 
sterile  Jlowers  are  on  a  long  peduncle,  the  fertile  on  a  short 
one,  and  are  musk-scented  like  the  leaves.  The  plant  is  a 
native  of  Africa  and  Asia.  The  small  egg-shaiied  and  pear- 
shaped  gourds  which  are  used  for  ornaments  belong  to  the 
same  species  as  the  field  pumpkin  {Cucurbita  pepo).  There 
are  many  forms,  all  of  the  easiest  culture.  Various  other 
small  hard  cucurbitaceous  fruits  are  frequently  called 
gourds  in  the  U.  S.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Gonrd  Family :  the  CucurbitacecB ;  a  group  of  herbs  or 
undershrubs  with  climbing  or  trailing  tendril-bearing  stems, 
and  diclinous  flowers,  the  pistillate  with  the  compound  ovary 
inferior.  The  633  species  are  mainly  tropical,  comparatively 
few  being  natives  of  temperate  regions.    Squashes,  melons, 

f curds,  etc.,  are  familiar  examples  of  spt»cies  of  this  family, 
'wenty-eight  species  are  natives  of  North  America,  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  **  wild  pumpkin  "  {Cucur- 
bita foefidissima)  of  the  great  plains,  whose  perennial  root 
is  from  6  to  8  feet  long  and  as  thick  as  a  man  s  body,  while 
its  fruit  is  as  large  as  an  orange.  Both  root  and  fruit  are 
intensely  bitter.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Goarko,  goor'ko,  Count  Joseph  Vassilyevkh  :  Russian 

feneral;  b.  in  1828;  educated  in  the  Imperial  Corps  de 
'ages;  entered  the  army  an<l  rose  rapidly,  becoming  colo- 
nel 1861 ;  major-general  1867,  joining  the  emperor's  suite; 
took  part,  though  not  prominently,  in  the  Crimean  war,  and 
won  aistinction  in  the  Husso-Turkish  war.  II is  successful 
passage  of  the  Balkans  in  the  middle  of  the  winter  of  1877- 
78  was  one  of  the  greatest  deeds  ever  performed  by  a  Rus- 
sian soldier.  He  was  created  count  in  1878  and  afterward 
appointed  governor  of  Warsaw.  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Gout,  gowt  [M.  Eng.  goufe,  from  0.  Fr.  gotte,  goufe  >  Fr. 
goufte,  drop,  gout,  Ital.  gotta  <  Lat.  gutta,  drop,  the  disease 
being  considered  due  to  a  defluxion] :  a  nutritional  disea.se, 
characterized  by  excessive  formation  of  uric  acid,  and  bv  at- 
tacks of  acute  inflammation  of  tlie  joints.  Gout  was  long 
confounded  with  rheumatism,  though  now  clearly  recognized 
as  an  entirely  distinct  affection.  Many  elements  doubtless 
enter  into  the  causation  of  the  disease,  but  its  repeated  oc- 
currence in  members  of  the  same  family  is  remarkahle.  It 
has  been  found  that  in  fully  50  or  60  per  cent,  of  all  cases 
the  disease  existed  in  the  parents  or  grandparents.  Be- 
i^ides  heredity  food  and  drink  are  imj)ortant  etiological  fac- 
tors. The  excessive  use  of  food,  and  [mrlicularly  meats,  has 
been  long  recognized  as  a  potent  factor.  Usually  combined 
with  improper  or  excessive  eating,  and  of  great  ini})ortance, 
is  the  excessive  drinking  of  alc-olu)!,  especially  fermented 
liquors.  For  these  reasons  gout  is  most  common  in  Cfreat 
Britain  and  Germany,  where  much  ale  and  beer  are  drunk. 
For  the  same  reason  the  disease  is  common  among  the  rich 
and  indolent,  though  it  must  not  bo  thought  to  be  exclu- 


sivelv  present  in  this  class.  Amoncr  the  baUnst-heaver^  ..f 
London,  among  whom  poor  food,  baa  hygiene,  and  exces-iv*> 
indulgence  in  malt  liquors  arc  marked  elements  in  the  d;iil> 
life,  gout  is  exceedingly  common.  In  the  U.  S.  it  is  a  cifi- 
paratively  rare  disease,  a  fact  which  is  due  to  the  more  ac-ti\  • 
and  hygienic  life,  and  the  better  food  as  well  as  the  ligh^^r 
quality  of  the  beers  drunk.  Chronic  icad-poisoning  'u^  si  >n>t- 
times  an  etiological  factor  of  importance. 

The  essential  nature  of  the  disease  is  not  definitely  kn«>«r. 
but  there  appears  to  be  a  widespread  nutritional  disordi  r 
leading  to  excess  of  uric  acid  in  the  blood,  the  alkalinity  of 
this  fluid  being  thereby  diminished  and  a  tendency  to" d.- 
posit  of  urates  established.  This  indefinite  state  of  the  ^^  — 
tern  has  been  called  the  poutg  diathesis,  or  lithc^mia.  Tlji< 
condition  may  be  manifested  by  a  great  variety  of  symj»- 
toms  referable  to  the  gastro-intestinal,  urinary,  vas<'ular. 
or  nervous  systems,  and  the  patient  may  never  be  the  ^ul^- 
ject  of  an  acute  attack,  the  true  nature  of  the  ailment  U m;: 
recognized  by  the  habits  of  the  patient,  and  the  fact  that 
members  of  his  familv  suffer  with  distinct  gouty  attack^. 
In  other  persons  this  litha^mic  state,  after  var>'ing  tK*ri<'i^ 
of  time,  may  terminate  in  a  seizure  of  acute  gout.  The  lat- 
ter comes  on  late  at  night,  usually*  after  midnight,  tb<'  pa- 
tient awaking  with  most  severe  pain  in  the  metatarso-pha- 
langeal  joint  of  the  great  toe.  The  part  swells  rapidly.  :> 
hot,  tense,  and  shiny;  the  most  intense  pain  continu*-*  ai:d 
the  patient  feels  as  though  the  joint  were  gripped  in  a  vj-*.-. 
The  pain  grows  worse  and  worse,  becoming  after  a  f #  w 
hours  almost  intolerable,  and  the  weight  of  the  l»edch»ii  .-^ 
can  not  be  endured.  Toward  morning  the  attai*k  sul»-.id»^. 
the  slight  fever  which  was  present  disappears,  and  llu*  jui- 
tient  falls  asleep.  Tlie  next  night  a  recurrence  is  apt  u* 
come  on,  and  so  on  for  several  days,  usually  six  to  ri:.'h!. 
Sometimes  other  joints  are  involved,  particularly  the  bi*:  !•  ^ 
of  the  other  foot,  rarely  the  larger  joints.  After  the  atiark 
the  skin  of  the  toe  desquamates,  and  intense  itching  wmtim.f^ 
the  patient's  discomfort.  Similar  attacks  may  come  on  ^-v- 
eral  times  a  year,  or  only  at  long  intervals.  A  rapid  >td  <i- 
dence  of  the  symptoms  during  an  attack  is  always  regani*  d 
with  apprehension,  as  it  is  a  frequent  indication  of  rtinn"- 
dent  or  masked  gout^  in  which  serious  derangements  c»f  trie 
gastro-intestinal  or  cardiac  systems  may  appear,  and  s<»ne- 
times  lead  to  a  fatal  issue. 

Between  "acute  attacks  the  various  conditions  of  the  lit  ha^ 
mic  state  are  noted,  and  not  rarely  a  peculiarly  dejin-^^^*  .1 
mental  condition,  these  symptoms  all  disappearing  with  il.»- 
acute  outburst.  A  distinguished  English  statesman  wa^  fnr 
two  years  so  profoundly  depressed  bv  such  irregular  g^".'\ 
disease  as  to  have  caused  the  fear  that  his  mind  had  b.-  ri 
irreparably  diseased,  when  an  acute  attack  cleared  awav  t!.e 
mists  and  left  him  with  all  his  wonted  mental  vigor.  \\i::i 
repetiticms  of  the  joint  affection  comes  the  de|.>osiiion  <.f 
concretions  of  urate  of  soda  in  and  alx)ut  the  joint,  urml 
distinct  masses  are  produced  and  the  disfiguring  apj^iir- 
ances  characteristic  of  the  disease  in  its  mtist  chnmic  -tac  > 
result.  These  chalky  masses  or  tophi  may  finally  caux-  -il- 
ceration  of  the  skin,' and  thus  become  exposed.  The  t*>[>/>i 
are  also  formed  in  the  ears,  more  rarely  the  eyelids,  n<'>»'. 
and  other  parts.  In  this  stage  of  the  disease  the  paticfi: 
may  become  bedridden,  tormented  by  the  recurrinir  atin.- 
attacks,  and  in  the  interval  subject  to  the  most  deprc>»..'i:; 
mental  conditions  and  irregular  internal  disonlers.  Ainot  .^ 
the  latter  may  be  mentioned  the  form  of  chronic  Briirlit^ 
disease  called  gouty  kidney,  from  the  frequent  asstxiati*-!: 
with  this  affection;  also  forms  of  heart  disease,  ga>iri" 
and  intestinal  complaints,  and  occasionally  disorders  of  va- 
rious parts  of  the  nervous  system  and  diseases  of  the  skin. 

The  treatment  of  the  disease  is  directed  to  correction  »f 
the  diathetic  disorder  and  to  the  amelioration  of  the  nrniv 
outbursts.  It  need  hardly  be  I'emarked  that  the  diet  and 
drink  of  the  patient  require  strictest  supervision.  Hxii'>- 
sive  amounts  of  meat  should  be  avoided,  as  also  relative  ex- 
cess in  starchy  food,  since  an  undue  proportion  of  the  luti.  r 
makes  complete  digestion  of  the  former  difficult  or  inij^  ^- 
sible.  Malt  liquors  must  be  prohibited  and  alcohol  in  tuli  r 
forms  severely  regulated.  Exercise,  by  stimulating  the  ^z*  x,~ 
eral  vitality  and  tissue  activity,  has  a  most  beneficial  iiit'i- 
ence,  as  its  withdrawal  is  a  factor  in  the  production  of  t  i  » 
disease.  Mineral  waters,  such  as  potash  or  lithia  wat«"--, 
and  milk  are  particularly  desirable,  as  they  flush  out  *iiii 
promote  tissue  change.  The  skin  may  be  kept  active  bv  t\- 
ercise  and  by  occasional  Turkish  baths.  The  acute  att^^'k  .^ 
generally  treated  by  elevation  of  the  limb,  with  proteft^*  i 
in  cotton,  and  one  drug,  colchicum,  is  particularly  u^t'i .  . 


862 


GOVERNMENT 


be  borne  in  mind  in  investigations  upon  this  subject.  This 
equality,  as  is  manifest,  does  not  consist  in  size,  form,  or 
agy  personal  characteristics,  in  a  physical,  moral,  or  intel- 
lectual view.  It  does,  however,  consist  in  an  equal  right  in 
the  administration  of  justice.  Justice  is  the  great  regula- 
tor in  the  government  of  human  affairs,  as  gravitation  is  in 
the  government  of  the  material  universe.  The  same  simple 
law  of  gravitation  which  molds  an  atom  also  shapes  a  world. 
To  the  silent  but  potent  influence  of  the  same  magic  princi- 
ple are  due  that  harmony  and  concord  which  pervade  the 
planetarjr  and  stellar  spheres.  In  like  manner,  justice,  right- 
Iv  administered,  stays  discord  and  produces  peace,  c^uiet,  or- 
der, and  happiness  in  communities,  states,  and  kingdoms. 
Th&  rule  of  justice  is  the  divine  injunction,  applicable  alike 
to  all :  "  As  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  also 
to  them  likewise." 

An  inquiry  into  what  particulars  certain  classes,  such  as 
are  to  be  found  in  all  communities,  from  want  of  sufficient 
mental  and  moral  development  can  be  rightly  and  there- 
fore justly  restrained  in  their  volitions  and  actions  for 
their  own  good  as  well  as  that  of  the  rest  of  society,  and 
which  their  natural  rights  in  point  of  fact  require  (as  in 
the  case  with  children,  to  say  nothing  of  others),  would  lead 
to  the  gravest  problems  which  ever  engaged  the  attention 
of  philanthropists,  lawgivers,  and  statesmen.  That,  how- 
ever, lies  not  within  the  scope  of  this  article.  The  principle 
which  should  govern  in  every  case  is  all  that  is  at  present  in- 
tended to  be  set  forth. 

II.  The  Essential  Principles  upon  which  ail  Govern- 
ments should  be  hosed. — Of  tnese  the  following  may  be  set 
forth  as  among  the  most  important :  1.  The  basis  should  be 
the  fundamental  principle  that  the  sovereignty  is  an  attri- 
bute of  the  entire  aggregate  organism,  and  can  not  be  di- 
vided. 2.  From  this  follows  another  essential  principle  or 
truth,  that  all  governments  derive  their  "  just  powers  from 
the  consent  of  the  governed."  8.  These  principles  or  truths 
being  established,  it  further  follows  that  all  exercise  of  gov- 
ernmental power  is  a  trust,  and  can  be  justly  exercised  only 
for  the  benefit  of  the  governed.  4.  Another  of  the  essential 
principles  or  truths  referred  to,  and  the  only  remaining  one 
which  will  be  here  mentioned,  is  this,  that  while  sovereignty 
itself  is  indivisible,  as  has  been  shown,  yet  its  powers  are  di- 
visible. It  is  a  point  of  no  inconsiderable  importance  in  dis- 
cussions of  this  kind  to  bear  constantly  in  mind  the  differ- 
ence between  the  powers  of  sovereignty  and  the  great  source 
itself  from  which  these  powers  emanate.  The  three  chief 
powers  of  sovereignty  when  properly  divided  may  by  appro- 

Eriate  classification  be  termed  the  law-making  power,  the 
iw-expounding  power,  and  the  law-executing  power.  In 
all  properly  constituted  governments  the  exercise  of  these 
powers  should  be  confided  to  separate,  independent,  and  co- 
ordinate departments,  known  as  the  legislative,  judicial,  and 
executive.  The  powers  exercised  by  each  of  these  depart- 
ments are  equally  sovereign,  and  when  so  divided  and  exer- 
cised they  constitute  the  trinity  in  unity  of  organized  society 
and  present  the  grandest  feature  in  governmental  structures. 

III.  Single  atid  Confederated  ^onns  of  Government. — 
The  most  marked  differences  between  the  different  forms  of 
government  are  those  which  indicate  the  propriety  of  their 
being  arranged  genericaily  into  two  classes — single  and 
confederated.  A  single  government  is  that  of  a  distinct 
state  founded  upon  the  social  compact.  A  confederated 
government  is  that  of  a  union  of  two  or  more  single  govern- 
ments founded  upon  what  is  known  as  the  federal  compact. 
Writers  usually  divide  single  governments  into  five  general 
kinds — to  wit,  monarchies,  aristocracies,  or  oligarchies,  as 
they  are  sometimes  stvled,  deraocrracies,  republics,  and 
mixed  governments,  or  those  partaking  of  the  qualities  of 
two  or  more  of  the  others.  Monarchies  are  usually  sub- 
divided into  various  kinds,  such  as  absolute,  limited,  heredi- 
tary, and  elective.  Democracies  are  also  suMividcd  into 
several  kinds.  Two  only  of  these  kinds  of  the  latter  will  be 
here  mentioned — pure  and  representative.  (See  Democ- 
racy.) A  pure  democracy  is  where  all  questions  pertaining 
to  public  affairs  are  decided  by  the  body  of  the  people  in 
general  assembly  convened.  A  representative  democracy  is 
where  the  functions  of  government  are  performed  by  agents, 
deputies,  or  delegates  selected  by  such  electors  from  the 
body  of  the  people  as  may  be  empowered  to  make  the  choice 
by  the  fundamental  law  or  constitution.  The  power  of 
choosing  such  deputies  is  what  is  known  as  the  franchise. 
It  is  an  office  conferred  by  organized  society,  and  therefore 
a  matter  of  trust  and  not  a  matter  of  natural  right. 

Republics  are  but  a  species  of  democracy,  and  may  be 


subdivided  into  various  kinds.  The  two  most  general  of 
these  kinds  are  those  which  distinguish  all  government^ — 
single  and  confederated.  The  great  and  leading  object  of 
confederation  of  any  sort,  applicable  alike  to  republics  aiul 
all  other  forms  of  government,  is  the  better  to  protect  nnd 
maintain  the  ^reat  inherent  right  of  self-government  or 
self-determination  possessed  by  each  of  the  parties  enter- 
ing into  it,  just  as  tne  great  and  leading  object  of  all  sini;I>: 
governments  fonned  by  the  social  compact  is  the  better  to 
protect  and  maintain  inviolate  the  innate,  absolute,  and  in- 
destructible rights  of  the  individuals  entering  into  organ- 
ized society.  What  are  known  as  the  natural  rights  <»f  in- 
dividuals correspond  with  what  may  be  characterized  &>  the 
sovereign  rights  of  states  or  kingdoms. 

Confederated  Repvhlics. — These  have  existed  from  the  ear- 
liest times  of  which  history  has  taken  any  notice.     A  char- 
acteristic feature  of  all  of  them  was  that' under  the  federal 
compact  no  power  was  conferred,  by  the  parties  to  it,  up^»n 
the  conventional  state  thereby  created,  to  act  directly  in 
the  execution  of  the  powers  that  were  conferred  upon  th«? 
individual  members  of  society  or  citizens  of  the  several  re- 
publics so  confederating  respectively.     This  was  left  to  thf 
good  faith  of  each  of  the  parties  severally,  and  it  was  founl 
to  be  a  great  defect  in  the  workings  of  this  kind  of  couf^l- 
erations.     This  form  of  confederation  is  what  by  the  (rvr- 
man  publicists  is  styled  a  Staaienbund,  or  union  of  staTi*>. 
To  remedy  these  defects  in  some  degree,  another  form  « •( 
confederation  has  been  resorted  to,  characterized   by  th*' 
same  writers  as  a  Bundessicuitj  or  federative  union,  in  whii  b 
the  entire  sovereignty  of  the  separate  states  is  merged  in  th*^ 
new  and  conventional  state  so  created.    It  wafi  reserved  f"r 
the  statesmen  of  the  U.  S.  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteent  h 
century  to  remedy  the  evils  of  both  tne  Staatenbund  &\A 
Bunde^taat  systems,  under  what  is  known  as  the  fe<lfr&I 
constitution  of  1787,  with  the  amendments  subsequently 
ratified  in  pursuance  of  its  provisions.  Space  will  not  alli^w 
any  extensive  consideration  of  the  striking  and  wooderf  ui 
new  features  in  this  model  of  federal  republics.    Suffice  it 
to  say  that,  anterior  to  1789,  when  the  new  constitutinn  «f 
1787  went  into  operation,  the  U.  S.  of  America,  after  thf 
declaration  of  their  independence,  were  a  confederal eil  rt.- 
public  upon  the  model  of  that  set  forth  by  Monte<<jiiieu. 
Vattel,  and  others:  or,  in  other  words,  they   constitutt-«l 
what  the  Germans  style  the  Staatenbund.    The  defect  or 
vice  of  this  system  was  the  want  on  the  part  of  the  general 
government  of  the  power  to  execute,  by  its  own  functi<^.ii5 
and  machinery,  the  many  other  specific  powers  which  haii 
been  conferred  upon  it  under  the  nrst  Articles  of  Confeder- 
ation.   The  great  fundamental  changes  made  in  the  cun^ti- 
tution  of  1787  were  the  clothing  of  the  Federal  govern  mo  !it 
with  this  additional  power,  and  the  creation  of  the  neee>>arA- 
machinery  for  its  execution.    This  reouired  a  subdi vi:^io^  i  .f 
all  powers  conferred  upon  the  general  government,  Umiu*} 
and  specific  as  they  were,  into  legislative,  judicial,  and  ex- 
ecutive departments,  and  by  this  arrangement  the  Federal 
government  is  now  empowered  within  its  limited  sphere  1 1  • 
act  as  directly  upon  the  citizens  of  the  States  respeetiv* >:\ 
as  the  States  are  on  all  other  matters  reserved  to  theinbehe^ 
and  not  confided  to  the  general  government.    Another  j^*^ 
culiarity  of  the  systems  of  the  U.  S.,  applicable  alike  to  th» 
general  and  State  governments,  is  that  in  the  subdivision  *•{ 
the  sovereign  powers  before  referred  to  the  judicial  jHfWir 
is 'co-ordinate  and  coequal  with  the  others.    Iso  one  of  th«'ni. 
in  its  assigned  sphere,  is  superior  to  the  other,  in  either  tt:»* 
Federal  or  State  governments.    This  is  another  new  featurv 
in  the  political  system  of  the  U.  S.     In  all  other  count  ru-< 
where  a  judiciary  exists  it  is  held  to  be  subordinate  to  wlia; 
is  called  the  political  power  of  the  state.    See  Coxsrrmn  »y. 

The  United  States  System. — In  conclusion,  suffice  it  to  Na> 
in  reference  to  the  model  of  a  confederated  republic,  f^re- 
sented  by  the  U.  S.,  that  it  is  far  in  advance  of  anvthmi: 
ever  before  developed  in  the  annals  of  history.  It  pres»Tr- 
an  entirely  new  species  of  confederate<i  republics.  It  n^t-. 
as  the  French  pnilosopher  de  Tocquevilfe  said,  up<jn  **,^ 
wholly  novel  theory  wnich  may  l^  considereil  as  a  gn\iT 
discovery  in  modem  political  science,"  and  for  which  lher*» 
is  as  vet  no  specific  name.     His  language  is : 

"Tliis  constitution,  which  may  at  first  be  c*)nfoun«K.i 
with  the  federal  constitutions  which  have  precetleii  it,  ry>:^ 
in  truth,  upon  a  wholly  novel  theory,  which  may  be  eou>:  i- 
ered  as  a  great  discovery  in  mo<ierTi  political  science,  h. 
all  the  confederations  which  precedea  the  American  o  -n- 
stitution  of  1787,  the  allied  states,  for  a  common  obj»^:. 
agreed  to  obey  the  injunctions  of  a  federal  governmont ; 


864 


GOVERNMENT 


Russia  and  Turkey.  The  details  of  these  constitutional 
limitations  are  exceedingly  diverse,  and  yet  they  have  cer- 
tain characteristics  in  common.  There  are  almost  invari- 
ably two  houses  of  parliament,  in  one  or  both  of  which  the 
emperor,  king,  or  ruling  prince,  as  the  case  may  be,  is  di- 
rectly represented.  This  presence  of  the  monarch  either  in 
person  or  by  representative  in  the  legislative  body  is  ordi- 
narily the  chief  or  most  essential  difference  between  parlia- 
mentary and  congressional  government.  See  Legislatures. 
But  while  in  limited  monarchies  the  chief  executive  officer 
is  uniformly  present  in  the  legislature,  here  the  uniformity 
seems  to  end.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the  German  empire,  the 
consent  of  parliament  is  absolutely  essential  to  any  impor- 
tant change  in  the  methods  of  administration ;  but  at  the 
same  time  the  power  of  the  emperor  is  such  that  he  is  able 
to  bring  an  almost  irresistible  influence  to  bear  upon  the 
legislative  body  or  upon  the  people  for  the  accomplishment 
of  his  pur|>oses.  In  other  cases,  as  in  Great  Britain,  the 
representative  of  the  monarch  in  parliament  must  be  in 
political  sympathv  with  the  predominant  parliamentary 
power.  In  this  class  of  governments  the  minister  is  re- 
quired to  rtvsign  and  ^ive  place  to  a  representative  of  the 
other  party  if  the  political  party  represtjnted  bj  the  prime 
minister  is  defeated  on  any  governmental  question.  But  in 
the  other  class  such  a  requirement  does  not  exist.  The 
chancellors  hold  their  position  at  the  head  of  parliament, 
not  by  virtue  of  their  bein^  at  the  head  of  a  dominant 
party,  but  by  virtue  of  the  will  of  the  emperor.  They  have 
ordinarily  l^een  able  to  secure  for  their  measures  parliamen- 
tary approval,  but  if  at  any  time  they  should  fail  there  is 
neither  usage  nor  constitutional  provision  requiring  them  to 
resign.  In  Great  Britain,  on  the  other  hand,  a  resignation 
under  such  circumstances  would  be  inevitable.  But,  not- 
withstanding this  fundamental  difference,  it  should  be  noted 
that  there  is  everywhere  a  strong  tendency  toward  the  British 
form  ;  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  at  the  present  time 
the  difficulties  that  would  confront  any  large  government 
in  case  of  a  permanent  antagonism  between  the  ministry 
and  parliament  would  not  be  so  great  as  to  block  the 
wheels  and  force  a  resignation.  But  such  a  resignation 
in  Germany  would  be  simply  a  matter  of  policv  and  not 
one  of  constitutional  necessity.  The  mere  fact  that  in  case 
of  a  declared  antagonism  a  resignation  would  probably  be 
tendered  shows  that  the  British  principle  of  ministerial  re- 
sponsibility to  parliament  already  has  a  promineut  place 
in  the  policy  and  purposes  of  statesmen  everv where.  The 
history  of  the  growth  of  this  principle  is  nothing  less  than 
the  history  of  those  limitations  which  have  been  imposed 
upon  monarchy  in  Great  Britain  from  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury to  the  present  time.  In  the  course  of  this  long  history 
government  has  become  more  and  more  sensitive  to  popu- 
lar opinion,  until  at  the  present  time  in  Great  Britain,  and 
in  all  governments  modeled  after  the  same  pattern,  the 
peo|>le  may  rest  assured  that  when  the  popular  will  is  so 
clearly  expressed  as  to  be  unequivocal,  it  will  be  made  the 
basis  of  parliamentary  legislation.  Under  the  broadly  ex- 
panded system  of  suffrage  which  has  come  to  prevail,  gov- 
ernment in  all  limited  monarchies  has  become  very  sensi- 
tive to  the  influence  of  public  opinion.  It  should  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  this  influence  does  not  extend  directly 
beyond  the  heads  of  departments.  Public  opinion  in  Great 
Britain  can  overthrow  any  ministry  as  soon  as  it  can  se- 
cure an  adverse  vote  in  parliament;  but*  the  removal  of  a 
ministry  makes  no  change  in  tlie  tenure  of  office  of  the  great 
majority  of  those  employed  in  the  civil  service.  The  over- 
throw of  a  government  either  in  Great  Britain  or  in  con- 
tinental Europe  results  in  the  removal  of  scarcely  more 
than  a  hundred  persons  at  the  head  of  the  most  important 
departments.     See  Civil  Service. 

Kepuhlic. — The  republican  form  of  government  is  founded 
upon  the  idea  that  the  people  have  a  right  to  a  voice  in 
the  government  by  which  tney  are  ruled.  The  beginnings 
of  government  among  primitive  peoples  are  always  obscure, 
but  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge  from  the  knowledge  at 
our  command  we  must  infer  that  monarchical  power  had 
its  origin  in  militarv  leadership.  If  we  go  back  a  step  fur- 
ther, we  shall  find  that  military  leadership  resulted  from  a 
popular  recognition  of  fitness' to  lead.  Thus  the  right  to 
rule  in  any  form  of  government  rests  in  a  final  analysis 
upon  popular  choice  or  popular  appreciation.  When  once 
a  choice  has  been  made  tne  length  of  tenure  determines  the 
form  of  government  that  is  to  be  })erpetuated.  If  the  right 
of  choice  is  retained  by  the  peo}>le,  the  residt  is  what  we 
know  as  a  republican  form  of  government ;  if  the  popular 


right  is  abandoned  after  being  exercised  for  a  time,  the  f >er- 
son  chosen  perpetuates  his  authority,  and  monarchy  is  e>tal>- 
lished.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  whatever  the  nltimate  form 
of  government  with  any  people,  the  origin  of  that  form  w^> 
in  the  republican  principle  of  the  consent  of  the  govemd. 
But  the  republican  principle,  where  it  has  retained  its  vitai- 
itv  and  succeeded  in  giving  permanent  form  to  political  in- 
stitutions, has  manifested  itself  in  a  great  variety  of  way>. 
The  Grecian  republics,  although  they  all  rested  npon  th»' 
frequently  expressed  will  of  the  people,  reveal  every  variilv 
from  an  elective  monarchy  to  the  most  turbulent  denn^-- 
racy  or  ochlocracy.  The  Roman  republic  had  chanwteri^ 
tics  that  amply  reward  the  most  careful  study.  The  senate 
was  an  aristocratic  body  to  which  no  one  was  admitteii  t  hat 
had  not  given  evidence  of  public  esteem  by  being  chosen  u> 
high  office.  The  assembly  of  the  centuries  was  a  milititr} 
body  organized  on  the  basis  of  a  property  qualificatMC 
which  gave  to  persons  of  wealth  a  preponderant  influen(  »•. 
The  assembly  of  the  tribes  was  more  popular  in  its  naturi», 
but  it  had  unlimited  authority  within  the  somewhat  pn-- 
scribed  sphere  of  its  activity.  The  senate  was  thei>retieally 
in  constant  session,  and  every  act  before  it  could  become  a 
law  was  required  to  receive  senatorial  approval.  The  rati- 
fication of  one  of  the  other  bodies  was  also  ret^uired.  Nu 
government  in  modem  times  has  ventured  to  imitate  thL> 
system  very  closely,  but  its  efficiency  was  evinced  by  nearly 
five  hundred  years  of  extraordinary  success.  The  f>»>Wfr 
of  the  government  was  unquestionably  due  t-o  the  greai- 
ness  of  the  senate,  but  the  conservative  power  of  even  thi> 
remarkable  body  was  not  enough  to  withstand  or  dinnt  th'^ 
movement  in  favor  of  more  popular  methods.  For  tw«» 
hundred  years  before  the  fall  of  the  republic  the  agit^ti'»i. 
in  behalf  of  the  poorer  classes  was  the  most  constant  fan^.r 
in  Roman  affairs.  Civil  and  social  wars  abounded  until  i}u* 
populace,  when  they  had  gained  virtual  control,  S4»ii{:i''- 
guidance  and  protection  by  throwing  all  their  politic  ..i 
rights  at  the  feet  of  Julius  Ca?sar.  The  empire  succ»»tiit  I 
the  republic  not  so  much  by  usurpation  as  by  the  graduvi 
absorption  of  popular  authority.  In  the  Middle  Age*  ih- 
Italian  repubhcs  revealed  a  great  variety  of  metho<is,  rang- 
ing from  the  aristocratic  organization  of  Venice  to  the  ei- 
treme  democracy  of  Florence  ;  but  while  these  govemm€*nr- 
encouraged  commercial  and  literary  activity,  they  po!5>ejv-««L « ; 
very  few  characteristics  that  have  been  perpetuated  in  tlt«' 
republics  of  modern  time.  The  Government  of  Switzer- 
land, the  oldest  of  modern  republican  governments,  has  4>ii. 
peculiarity  that  is  well  worthy  of  note.  Provision  is  ma^l*- 
in  the  constitution  that  anv  federal  law  **  shall  be  submitti  1 
for  acceptance  or  rejection  by  the  people,  if  the  demand  i- 
made  by  30,000  voters  or  eight  cantons,"  In  all  the  cantf^ii-, 
except  Freiburg,  the  people  have  the  same  privilege  of  vnr- 
ing  upon  any  general  law  on  similar  conditions.  Th'^ 
method  of  procedure,  known  as  the  Referexdcm  {q.  v.).  b.t- 
not  only  been  extended  to  the  right  of  initiative  in  SwiTz»r- 
land,  but  has  been  seriously  advocated  for  introduction  iir  ' 
Belgium,  Great  Britain,  and  the  U,  S.  The  Govemmeni  ••: 
Switzerland,  like  that  of  the  U,  S.,  is  federal  in  its  natur* . 
each  of  the  cantons  enjoying  as  large  a  mea.sure  of  local  ipdi- 
pendence  as  seems  compatible  with  the  interests  of  the  otht  r-. 
Four  of  the  cantons  have  general  assemblies  of  all  the  ( it  i- 
zens.  In  the  U.  S.  the  most  noteworthy  of  the  dtstingui>li- 
ing  characteristics  of  the  Government  is  the  pi>wer  of  tin 
Supreme  Court  to  decide  upon  the  constitutionality  of  t}>t. 
acts  of  the  Legislature.  This  feature  has  proveti' an  t la- 
ment of  immeasurable  strength  and  stability  t<»  the  G»-»\- 
ernment  by  weakening  the  tendencies  to  disintegration  an  I 
strengthening  the  bonds  of  union.  The  same  authority  ••n 
the  part  of  the  State  courts  has  prevented  careless  infrat  - 
tions  of  the  constitutions  by  the  State  Legislatures.  In  a.l 
tJie  States,  as  well  as  in  tne  Federal  Union,  provision  '^ 
made  for  amendments  of  the  constitutions  whenever  su-  \\ 
amendments  are  duly  called  for.  But  such  aihendmrnT^ 
can  not  be  made  by  the  legislatures.  In  France  it  wat^  % 
radical  error  of  the  several  forms  of  government,  republui.r 
as  well  as  monarchical,  during  the  revolutionary  j>cn«-i 
that  the  legislative  body  was  given  the  power  to  amend  ti> 
constitution,  and  it  wa.s  to  this  peculiarity  that  the  in?-.^- 
bility  of  the  republics  of  that  period  was  very  largelv  dui . 
The  French  Government  differs  from  that  of  the  L*.  S.  i- 
another  very  important  respect.  The  legislature  is  parlia- 
mentary in  form,  whereas  tnat  of  the  U.  S.  is  congre:«io!:H!. 
the  difference  consisting  in  the  fact  that  in  the  former  ti  r 
ministrv,  as  in  Great  Britain,  is  responsible  to  the  If^i- ..- 
tive  body,  whereas  in  the  latter  no  such  responsibility  ei,i-i-- 


866 


GOVERNORS 


R  S  is  attached  to  the  "  throttle-valve  "  or  to  the  expansion 
gear;  in  the  water-wheel  it  connects  with  the  mecnanism 
operating  the  "  gate  "  by  means  of  which  the  supply  of  water 
is  adjusted ;  in  the  windmill  this  train  of  mechanism  chang- 
es the  pressure  existing  between  the  millstones,  or  it  changes 
the  position  or  the  area  of  the  "  sails." 

In  this  governor  there  exists  at  every  position,  with  uni- 
form motion,  an  exact  eauilibrium  of  the  vertical  compo- 
nent of  the  force  acting  along  the  suspending  arm  B  C,  the 
force  of  gravity,  and  centrifugal  force.  The  height  of  the 
point  at  which  the  line  of  the  arm  crosses  the  spmdle — the 
virtual  point  of  suspension — ^above  the  plane  of  revolution 
of  the  balls  bears  a  ratio  to  the  radius  of  the  circle  in  which 
the  centers  of  the  balls  move  that  is  equal  to  the  mtio  of  the 
weight  of  the  balls  to  the  centrifugal  force— i.  e.  Fig.  2. 


<  sin  0  — 


wt»' 


=  0, 


t  cos  e  —  mg  =  0, 

,      ^r  sin  a  .  „   * 

v^  = r-  =  a.  AP 


cos  9 


sin*  9 
cos  0' 


and  <  =  -r, 


f=W 


APcos  9 


=  2ir|/ 


A.C 


The  number  of  revolutions  per  second  N=y  ■  „•  -,  and 
the  height  of  tlie  point  of  vertical  suspension  above  the 
plane  of  revolution  of  the  balls  -4.(7=^  =  -ttt-  foot  = 


9-748 


inches  = 


0-248 


meters.    Also  H-= 


35186 


where  H  = 


N*    N*    • i2« 

height  in  inches  and  R  -=  number  of  revolutions  per  minute, 


and 


187-5 


=  R,     Thurston's  Manual  of  the  Steam-Engine, 


vol.  ii..  chap.  iii. 

The  speed  of  the  governor  should  be  carefullv  detennined, 
either  by  experiment  or  by  calculation,  when  first  designed, 
in  onler  that  the  transmitting  mechanism  which  determines 
the  velocity-ratio  of  governor  and  driving-shaft  may  be  pre- 
cisely proportioned  to  its  work. 

The  weight  of  balls  is  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
resistance  to  be  overcome.  It  is  proportional  to  the  resist- 
ance to  be  overcome,  but  can  seldom  be  computed,  and  is 
usually  determined  by  experiment. 

The  simple  pendulum  governor  has  comparatively  little 
power,  and  does  not  give  truly  isochronous  motion.  Being 
rigidly  connected  with  the  regulating  valve,  the  speed  can 
only  be  precisely  maintained  under  one  set  of  conditions. 
Any  variation  of  load  or  of  steam-pressure  will  produce  a 
limited  but  unavoidable  change  of  speed.  The  limits  of 
variation  are  determinable  by  tne  arrangement  of  the  con- 
necting mechanism,  and  are  usually  but  slightly  removed 
from  tne  proper  speed. 

To  secure  greater  sensitiveness  and  strength  in  action  a 
weight  is  sometimes  mounted  upon,  or  suspended  from,  the 
collar  I  L  (Fi^.  1),  which  enables  the  speed  of  the  governor 
to  be  greatly  increased  with  the  same  neight  of  suspension 
and  with  a  smaller  size  of  balls,  giving,  at  the  same  time, 
quickness  and  much  greater  strength  of  action.  This  form 
has  been  extensively  adopted  both  in  the  U.  S.  and  Europe. 
It  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  In  this  case  the  effect  of  gravity  is  in- 
creased, while  the  effect  of  centrifugal  force,  at  the  same 
speed  of  revolution,  remains  unchanged,   and  the  height 

AW 
AC  is  increased  in  the  ratio  A  +  ^^^^^  to  1 ;  ^  representing 

the  ratio  of  increase  of  the  action  of  gravity,  W  the  weight 

of  balls,  and  W  the  total  weight  of  balls  and  the  increased 

action  of  gravitv  produced  by  the  added  load.    Then  77  = 

y-7848     W+  ^^' 
Xi^ X  — — — .     A  change  of  speed  in  the  engine  causes 

a  greater  change  of  position  of  balls  than  in  the  unloaded 
governor,  in  the  proix)rtion  of  W  to  W  +  AW,  The  gov- 
ernor is  thus  rendered  more  sensitive  in  this  proportion. 
The  suspending  arms  of  this  governor  are  forked,  and  the 
pins  are  thus  made  double.  This  construction  is  no  less 
an  essential  feature  than  the  preceding.  It  enables  sudden 
variations  of  speed  to  produce  change  of  altitude  without 
serious  retardation  due  to  friction  on  the  joints.  Another 
important  advantage  possessed  by  this  instrument  is  the 
comparatively  slight  resistance  to  change  of  speed,  which  is 
a  consequence  of  the  comparatively  small  weight  of  balls  and 
of  their  small  orbit.  Strain  upon  the  connecting  gearing, 
or  slipping  of  the  governor-belt,  is  thus  avoided,  and  the 


governor  is  enabled  to  act  promptly  and  effectively  where 
the  ordinary  form  would  be  slow  m  action,  or  where  it  migL^ 
break  its  belt  and  cease  to 
act.  Porter's  governor  is  of 
this  form. 

Approximate  isochronism 
is  secured  in  the  governor  of 
Farcot,  of  Paris,  by  crossing 
the  arms,  thus  carrying  the 
points  of  suspension  of  each 
Dall  to  the  opposite  side  of 
the  vertical  spmdle  from  the 
ball,  and  thus  causing  the 
trajectory  of  the  ball,  as  it 
rises  and  falls  in  its  circular 
orbit,  to  coincide  with  the 
paraboloid  of  which  the  sub- 
normal is  equal  to  the  alti- 
tude A  C  (Fi^.  1).  This  form 
of  governor  is  used  to  some 
extent  in  Europe.  In  the 
Farcot  governor  minor  ad- 
justments are  secured,  to 
eliminate  faults  in  its  action 
due  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  mechanism  transmitting 
movement  of  the  controlling 


Fio.  8.— Loaded  governor. 


valves.  The  links  connecting  the  ball-rods  to  the  collar  **t\ 
the  main  spindle  are  crossed,  and  a  helical  spring  on  the 
spindle  resists  slightly  the  tendency  of  the  balls  to  rise,  its 
tension  increasing  as  the  balls  separate. 

Precise  isochronism  is  obtained  by  the  parabolic  govern- 
ors, in  Which  the  height  H  remains  constant  in  all  positiun^^. 
In  these  governors  the  path  of  the  balls  in  the  vertical  plane 
is  such  that  they  descrioe  the  arc  of  a  parabola.  The  heiiihi 
A  C  (Fig.  1)  is  then  the  subnormal  or  this  parabola.  Tht- 
subnormal  is  of  constant  magnitude,  and  onlv  at  that  spiM-^i 
which  gives  a  height,  H,  equal  to  this  Quantity  is  a  position 
of  equifibrium  held.  It  consequently  follows  tliat  any  chan  -^t- 
of  speed  from  that  due  the  height  A  C  will  destroy' equilii>- 
rium,  and  it  can  only  be  restored  by  a  return  to  the  projtrr 
speed.  These  governors  therefore  continue  their  action  u|^»n 
tne  connecting  mechanism  until  normal  speed  is  obtair.ifi 
or  until  the  extreme  of  their  range  is  reached.  An  altitad- 
of  the  points  of  suspension  above  the  plane  of  motion  of  tt> 
balls  equal  to  twice  the  focal  distance  of  the  parabola  i:^  tlu 
only  one  in  which  the  balls  can  remain  steady.  The  force  wi:  :> 
which  the  balls  tend  to  move  is  proportional  approximately 

to-^ ,  in  which  W  is  the  aggregate  weight  of  balls.  8  is  the 

amount  of  deviation  of  speed,  and  N  the  proper  sjjeed  v*. 
revolution. 

The  balls  are  given  their  parabolic  path  in  Davey's  gov- 
ernor by  suspending  them  from  a  spindle  by  steel  sprint:?, 
which,  as  they  diverge,  unwrap  from  the  edge  of  a  gui'.ie- 
cheek  having  the  form  of  the  e volute  of  the  parabola.  Tlit- 
balls  may  also  be  carried  on  a  guide-curve,  as  in  Madden'^ 
governor. 

The  parabolic  governor  may  be  loaded,  like  Porter's  p  v- 
emor,  to  attain  higher  speell  of  rotation,  and  incrf-a.-^.-'i 
strength  and  sensitiveness.  This  will  produce  an  incn-.-i-4- 
of  altitude  in  the  proportion  of  the  aggregate  new  wciijht 
to  the  original  weight,  and  the  speeds  of  revolution  will  U- 
increased  as  the  square  root  of  those  quantities.  The  ad«i»  i 
load  gives  a  means  of  adjustment  of  speed  by  varying  th. 
amount  of  that  load.  One  method  of  applying  it  is  t  \ 
means  of  a  sliding  weight  upon  a  lever,  tli us  making  tl> 
load  upon  the  governor  easily  and  accurately  ailjustablc. 
By  causing  the  ball  to  move  in  a  high  portion  of  the  par- 
abolic arc,  also,  increased  strength  of  action  anti  sensitive- 
ness may  be  secured.  Since  the  centrifugal  fort-e  varies  in- 
versely as  the  square  of  the  periodic  times,  the  greater  tl.£ 
speed  of  revolution  thus  secured,  the  greater  the  power  .»i 
tne  governor.  Smaller  balls  can  thus  be  used  with  high^  r 
speed,  as  in  the  loaded  pendulum  governor,  and  their  1»^> 
weight  gives  greater  sensitiveness,  in  consequence  of  their 
slight  inertia,  as  well  as  because  of  their  greater  speed  i  f 
revolution. 

In  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  governor  the  balls  always  mt»vf 
in  a  horizontal  plane,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4 ;  the  ball-rods,  h 
n,  being  jointed  to  a  spindle,  o,  which  slides  vertically  wit^  - 
in  a  hollow  driving-spindle,  and  which  is  counterbalanct'd 
by  weights  at  u\  carried  in  a  scale-pan  on  the  end  of  a  lev*  r. 
through  which  they  act  upon  the  lower  ends  of  the  sliilii.*: 


868 


GOVERNOR'S  ISLAND 


GOWRIE  CONSPIRACY 


sistance  of  the  air  is  just  sufficient  to  counterpoise  a  weight 
attached  to  the  apparatus,  while  at  higher  or  lower  speed  the 
rise  or  fall  of  the  weight  moves  the  mechanism  connecting 
the  governor  with  the  supply-valve. 

The  marine  steam-engine  reauires  a  governor  of  somewhat 
different  qualities  from  those  demanded  in  the  relation  of 
the  stationary  engine.  The  motion  of  the  manne  engine 
when  the  vessel  is  in  smooth  water  is  uniform  so  long  as  the 
pressure  of  steam  remains  constant,  as  there  is  then  a  perfect 
uniformity  in  impelling  power  and  of  resistance,  and  no 
governor  is  require.  At  sea,  however,  in  rough  weather, 
the  vessel  is  tossed  about  by  the  waves,  and  meetj)  with  a 
varying  resistance.  Frequently  all  resistance  to  the  motion 
of  the  engine  is  removed  by  the  pitching  of  the  ship  and 
consequent  lifting  of  the  propeller  out  of  the  water.  At 
such  times  the  engine,  if  uncontrolled,  starts  off  with  great 
velocity,  causing  danger  of  accident  and  a  wasteful  expend- 
iture of  steam.  While  revolving  at  this  high  velocity  the  en- 
gine is  next  suddenly  checked  by  the  return  of  the  vessel  to 
a  position  in  which  the  propeller  is  again  immersed,  and  the 
resulting  shock  is  even  more  dangerous  than  that  due  to  the 
effect  of  inertia  at  the  higher  speed.  This  is  the  kind  of 
fluctuation  of  speed  which  the  marine  governor  is  intended 
to  prevent.  No  govenior  in  which  gravity  acts  can  be  used 
at  sea,  on  account  of  the  motion  of  the  vessel.  The  ordinary 
forms  of  balanced  governors  are  not  usually  satisfactory, 
because  the  inertia  of  the  heavy  parts,  which  must  be  sua- 
denly  made  to  move  at  higher  velocity  when  a  jump  of  the 
engine  occurs,  is  liable  either  to  prevent  their  prompt  action 
or  to  strain  and  break  the  connecting  mechanism. 

Momentum  governors  have  been  usually  found  most  satis- 
factory. Silver's  momentum-wheel  governor  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  this  class.  This  consists  of  a  flv-wheel  fitted  loosely 
upon  a  shaft  driven  by  the  engine,  l^he  wheel  carries  flat 
vanes,  so  set  that  the  resistance  of  the  air  when  they  are 
turning  at  the  proper  speed  sliall  just  e(]|uilibrate  the  effort 
of  a  helical  spring  by  which  the  wheel  is  connected  to  the 
shaft,  and  through  which  it  is  driven.  Any  sudden  increase 
of  speed  taking  place,  the  inertia  of  the  wheel  prevents  a 
proportional  increase  of  its  velocity.  The  shaft  running 
ahead  of  the  wheel,  the  spring  is  coiled  up ;  and  this  change 
is  made,  by  suitable  mechanism,  to  change  the  position  of 
the  throttle-valve.  A  sudden  decrease  of  the  speed  of  the 
engine  occurring,  the  inertia  of  the  fly-wheel  causes  it  to 
overrun  the  shaft,  and  the  spring  is  uncoiled  and  the  throt- 
tle-valve opened. 

The  governor  is  used  in  steam-engines  of  the  best  class  to 
determine  the  point  of  cut-off,  instead  of  moving  the  throt- 
tle-valve, which  latter  metl^  produces  loss  of  efficiency  by 
throttling  the  steam  and^iiinishing  the  gain  due  to  higher 
pressure  and  greater  ejipansion.  In  some  cases  the  govern- 
or changes  the  position  of  the  eccentric  which  moves  the 
valve-gear.  In  otiier  cases  it  adjusts  the  link-motion,  pro- 
ducing a  similM*  change  of  action  in  the  valve,  and  conse- 
quently in  tki^  distribution  of  steam.  The  attachment  of  a 
governor  to  a  detachable  cut-off  valve-gear — with  which  ar- 
rafi^eraent  the  grade  of  expansion  of  steam  is  determined 
without  necessarily  demanding  from  the  governor  the  em- 
ployment of  any  considerable  moving  force — is  the  most  gen- 
erally satisfactory  method  of  regulation  of  steam-engines.* 

The  force  required  in  the  regulation  of  water-wheels  is  so 
great  that  water-wheel  governors  are  arranged  to  simply 
throw  trains  of  mechanism  connected  with  the  motor  into 
gear  with  the  water-wheel  gate,  opening  or  closing  it  as  re- 
quired. R.  H.  Thurston. 

Governor's  Island:  an  island  of  Suffolk  co.,  Mass.,  in 
Boston  harbor,  directly  N.  of  Castle  island  and  of  the  main 
ship-channel  or  President  Roads.  It  is  occupied  by  fortifi- 
cations (of  which  Fort  Winthrop,  a  small  inclosed  quad- 
rangular work  with  exterior  open  barbette  batteries,  is  the 
keep  or  riduit),  forming  part  of  the  system  of  defense  of 
Boston  harbor  and  its  maritime  approaches. 

GoTernor's  Island:  a  small  island  in  New  York  har- 
bor, three-fourths  of  a  mile  S.  of  the  southern  extremity 
(now.  occupied  by  the  esplanade  known  as  the  Battery) 
of  New  \  ork  city  (Manmittan  Island) ;  separated  from 
Southern  Brooklyn  (Long  Island)  by  a  narrow  (the  Butter- 
milk) channel.  A  mile  and  a  half  westward  are  the  small 
islands  Ellis's  and  BedhK^'s  on  the  ea^stern  margin  of  the  ex- 
tensive shoals  known  as  the  Jersev  Flats,  which  constitute 
the  western  margin  of  the  ship-channel  to  New  York  city, 

♦  See  Afnnwil  of  the  Steam-engine,  part  il.,  chap.  iU.,  for  very 
extended  disuiiasioD  and  for  references. 


which  passes  between  it  and  Governor's  island.  The  promi- 
nent position  of  Governor's  island  marked  it  out  in  c^i  to- 
days as  the  key  to  the  maritime  defense  of  Manhattan  Inl- 
and, and  it  was  occupied  for  such  purposes  by  the  Dutrh. 
In  1614  they  built  their  first  rude  fort  on  Manhattan  L<Iari'). 
probably  where  the  Battery  now  is,  and  doubtless,  as  th^r 
settlement  increased,  occupied  Governor's  islancL  The 
English  took  possession  in  1674,  and  under  them  the  fiK 
regular  fort,  on  the  site  of  what  is  now  Fort  Columbus.  w:i> 
built,  and  the  island  (probably  through  the  residence  of  thi- 
early  governors,  who  were  also" military  commanders)  J»rcaiij»- 
known  as  Governor's  island.  The  present  Fort  Columliii^ 
(which  has,  however,  since  undergone  extensive  repairs  aini 
modifications),  occupying  the  center  of  the  island,  and  <\i-tl» 
Williams,  on  the  western  point,  were  built  in  1807-10  <a- 
also  Fort  Clinton  (Castle  Garden)  and  Fort.  GaMSev<M»rt,  :i 
miles  higher  up)  by  Col.  Jonathan  Williams,  the  first  chiif 
engineer  of  the  U.  S.  army.  Castle  Williams  was  the  fir-t 
casemated  battery  erectea  in  the  U.  S.,  and  was  plannt»l 
after  the  system  of  Montalembert,  with  which  Col.  William- 
had  made  himself  acquainted  in  France.  Besides  the  ffrtr- 
fications  and  small  garrisons,  the  ordnance  de|)artment  h.t- 
one  of  its  depots  here,  and  the  island  has  for  some  y«-«r-. 
been  the  headquarters  of  the  department  of  the  East.  Tl . 
island  is  also  the  headquarters  of  the  Military  Service  Insti- 
tution, whose  librarv  and  extensive  collection  of  war  relii  s, 
etc.,  occupy  two  buildings. 

Gowan,  James  Robert,  LL.  D.  :  Canadian  jurist :  b.  in 
County  Wexford,  Ireland,  Dec.  22.  1815,  and  educati'il  m 
Canada.     He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839;  a{>|HiiT)t'^i 

i'udge  of  Simcoe  district  in  1843,  an  office  which  he  held  till 
lis  retirement  in  1888.  He  assisted  in  the  consolidation  of 
the  statutes  of  Canada,  of  those  of  Ontario,  and  of  \\.^ 
criminal  law.  He  was  chairman  of  the  boanl  of  judges  f.  t 
Ontario  1869-87;  a  meml^r  of  the  commission  to  in<juir«' 
into  the  constitution  and  jurisdiction  of  the  several  <'<»urr^ 
of  law  and  equity  in  Ontario  in  1871 ;  a  member  of  tht- 
commission  to  investigate  the  charges  against  the  miiii-trs 
in  connection  with  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  contra*  t  : 
and  appointed  to  the  high  court  of  justice  in  1882.  He  wa> 
admitted  to  the  Dominion  Senate  in  1885. 

Neil  Macdonald. 

Gowan'da :  village ;  on  the  Buffalo  and  Southwest*  rr- 
Railroad  ;  in  Cattaraugus  and  Erie  cos.,  N.  Y.  (for  locatiit. 
of  counties,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  5-C),  which  ar* 
separated  by  the  Cattaraugus  creek  ;  30  miles  S.  of  BufTal' 
It  contains  large  agricultural  implement  and  ma^Miiii'. 
works,  tanneries,  flouring-mills,  carriage-factories,  chi^-j-  ~ 
box  factorv,  saw  and  planing  mills,  etc.,  and  has  s(ileii«!i  - 
water  priWleges.  Principal  business,  fanning  and  dain  ii.::. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,243 ;  (1890)  not  separately  returned. 

Gower,  Johk:  an  English  poet:  b.  about   1325.    Tli- 
place  of  his  birth  is  variously  given  as   having   b^-en  .r. 
Wales,  Kent,  and  Yorkshire.    He  was  probably  a  roan  « ' 
property,  and  it  is  said  that  he  became  chief  justic«>  of  t'l 
common  pleas,  and  some  fltate  that  he  was  knighted.     l!< 
was  a  friend  of  Chaucer,  who,  in  dedicating  his  Trmhta  «y  / 
Cressida  to  him,  calls  him  "the  moral  Gower,"  a   <♦  r  - 
pliment  retunied  by  Gower  at  the  closc^  of  the  fVn/'--**- 
Amaniia,    His  poetrv  was  written  in  English,  French.  «:.  I 
Latin,  tlie  latter  versified  according  to  quantity.     His  prin- 
cipal work,  undertaken  by  conmiand  of  Richard  II.,  uii  • 
directed  him  to  "  book  some  new  thing,"  was  in  three  jxHrT^ 
the  Speculum  Medifantis,  now   lost ;  the  Vojt  Clamn  r. '  ' 
(Latin),  never  printed  entire,  but  existing  in  MS.;  and  t:.' 
ConfesMo  Amantia,  completed  1394,  first  prints  bv  Casi'  u 
(148*3),  best  edition  bv  Pauli  1857.     The  Roxburg:he  Cluh  :: 
1818  published  his  Cinquanfe  Bcdades^  written  in  >Vi..  *• 
He  became  blind  in  1400,  and  siwnt  the  last  years  of  hi>  .if- 
at  St.  Saviour's.    D.  in  Oct.,  1408,  and  was   buried  in  >: 
Saviour's  church,  London. 

Gow'rie  Conspiracy:  an  attempt  made  (Aug.  5,  IH"' 
by  John  Ruthven,  Earl  of  Gowrie,  and  others,  eiihtT  '  • 
assassinate  the  king,  James  VI.  of    Scotland   (afterxi:.r. 
James  1.  of  Great  Britain),  or  more  probablv  to  make  ir   « 
prisoner,  for  the  purpose  of  permitting  the  <5ovemm»tit  t  • 
oe  administered  in  a  manner  more  thoroughly  in  th»-  n 
terest  of  Presbyterianism.    The  affair  took  place  at  G^^r- 
House,  Perth,  and  the  earl  and  his  brother  Alexander  wir- 
both  killed  in  the  affray.    It  is  ))ossible  that  Gowrie's  in«»'*  - 
in  this  affair  was  revenge  for  the  death  of  his  father.  *•» 
was  executed  as  a  traitor  in  1584,  but  this  is  not  gencrJ..; 
believed  to  have  been  the  cause. 


GOYANNA 


GRACCHUS 


869 


Oojranna,  go-yaa'naa,  or  Goiana :  a  city  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  state  of  Pemambuco,  Brazil ;  on  the 
river  Go^anna,  12  miles  from  the  sea  and  65  miles  nearly  N. 
of  the  city  of  Pernambnco  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref. 
4-II).  The  river  is  navi&rable  for  small  vessels  to  this  point, 
but  the  entrance  to  it  is  by  an  intricate  and  difficult  chan- 
nel. The  surrounding  district  is  fertile,  and  is  largely  de- 
voted to  suf^r-planting.  Sugar,  spirits,  cattle,  hides,  and 
small  quantities  of  dyewoods  are  exported  to  Pemambuco. 
(royanna  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  m  Brazil,  and  it  was  a 
point  of  importance  during  the  struggles  with  the  Dutch  in 
the  seventeenth  century.    Pop.  (1893)  about  12,000. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Goya  y  Locientes,  go'yaa-ee-loo-thee-en'tes,  Francisco 
Jos6,  de :  genre,  portrait,  and  historical  painter ;  b.  at  Fuen- 
detodos,  Aragon,  Spain,  Mar.  30,  174o.  Pupil  of  Lujan 
Martinez  at  Saragossa,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Parma, 
Italy.  His  works  are  highly  esteemed  by  artists,  and 
though  often  eccentric  in  style  are  remarkable  for  their 
portrayal  of  character.  Pictures  by  Goya  are  in  the 
principal  Spanish  museums  and  cathedrals,  and  two  works 
arc  in  the   Louvre.     D.  at  Bordeaux,  France,  Apr.  15, 

182a 

Gorax,  goi-yaaz':  a  central  state  of  Brazil:  bounded  N.W. 
and  N.  by  Para,  E.  by  Maranhdo.  Piauhy,  and  Bahia,  S.  E. 
by  Minas  Geraes,  and  S.  W.  and  W.  by  Matto  G rosso ;  area, 
286,948  sq.  miles.    The  state  is  irregularly  wedge-shaped, 
the  eastern  side  of  the  wedge  being  formed  by  the  river  To- 
cantins  and  its  branch,  the  Manuel  Alves  Grande,  with  the 
Canastre  Mountains,  while  the  western  side  is  the  river  Ara- 
guaya, which  joins  the  Tocantins  at  the  apex  of  the  wedge. 
Between  the  Tocantins  and  Araguaya  there  is  mountainous 
land  of  unknown  northern  extent.    Probably  the  culminat- 
ing peaks  of  this  mountain-system  are  the  Pyreneos,  near 
V^Ula  Boa  de  GJoyaz.    Recent  explorers  (1892)  state  that  the 
highest  point  is  only  5,250  feet  above  the  sea.    Aside  from 
these  mountains,  the  whole  of  Goyaz  is  included  in  the 
great  Brazilian  plateau,  but  this  is  much  broken  and  varied 
by    the    river- valleys ;   the  average    elevation   is  probably 
2,700  ft»et.    Much  of  the  surface  is  open,  or  covered  only 
with  scattered  trees ;  but  lines  of  forest  follow  every  stream, 
broiulening  to  extensive  areas  northward.    The  climate  is 
u«niperate,and  in  most  places  very  healthful;  the  only  com- 
mon dLsease  is  goitre,  or  swelled  heck.     Nearly  all  the  civil- 
ized population  is  gathered  about  a  few  centers  in  the  south- 
ern part;  immense  regions,  especially  in  the  northern  part, 
are  unexplored,  and  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  state 
i.H  desertcKl,  or  has  only  scattered  villages  of  savage  Indians. 
A  large  percentage  of  the  civilized  population  consists  of 
half-breeds  and  Negroes,  who  cultivate  small  plantations  in 
a  very  slovenly  way.    Aside  from  this,  tobacco  planting, 
cattle-raising  and  gold-mining  are  almost  the  only  indus- 
tries,     (juartz  crystals,  known  in  commerce  as  Brazilian 
pebbles,  are  exported  in  considerable  quantities.     Goyaz 
nas  great  areas  of  fertile  land  and  pastures,  and  it  is  un- 
doubtedly rich  in  minerals  and  forest  products ;  but,  unfor- 
tunately, it  is  the  most  isolated  of  the  Brazilian  stat^    Eu- 
ropean goods  are  brought  by  mule-trains  from  the  railroads 
*>f   Minas  Geraes,  or  even  from  the  river  Paraguay  at  Cuya- 
Ij4.      Small  steamers  ply  on  the  Araguaya  and  Tocantms, 
and   attempts  have  been  made  to  open  a  regular  navipi- 
tioii   to  Pari;  but  this  scheme  presents  great  difficulties, 
owing  to  rapids  on  the  lower  Tocantins.    Manuel  Correa 
reached  Goyaz  from  S^  Paulo  in  1670;  Bartholomeo  Bueno 
cLa  Silya  discovered  gold  mines  and  made  the  first  settle- 
ment in  1682,  and  the  mines  soon  drew  numerous  adven- 
turers.    The  captaincy  of  Goyaz,  corresponding  to  the  pres- 
ent  state,  was  formed  in  1740.     Estimated  population  of 
fftAte    (1888)  211,721,  besides  wild   Indians,  who  probably 
fj<5  not  number  more  than  25,000.    See  Saint-Hilaire,  Voyage 
fjujc    sources  du  Rio  S,  Francisco  et  dans  U  province  de 
fit^yc^  (1847-48);   Cunha  Mattos,  Chorographia  historica 
gia  ^rovii%cia  de  Goyaz^  in  Revisfa  do  InstHuto  Hislorico 
da  Rio  de  Janeiro  (1874  and  1875).      Ukrbkrt  H.  Smith. 

^^^yta^  Villa  Bella  dr:  capital  and  only  important 
town  of  the  state  of  Goyaz;  on  the  little  river  Vermelho,  a 
Hnanoh  of  the  Araguaya  (see  man  of  South  America,  ref. 
It  owed  its  foundation  to  the  gold  mines  discovered 
in  1682.  The  site  is  one  of  the  worst  in  the  state,  being 
%  rocky  valley,  nearly  surrounded  by  mountains.  The 
h€4^  during  the  day  is  often  very  oppressive,  though,  owing 
;4i  tlse  radiation,  the  nights  are  apt  to  be  unpleasant Iv  cold. 
r*«,p.  mbout  7.000.  U.  £l.  S. 


Gozo.  or  Gozzo,  got'sd :  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean, 
14  miles  N.  W.  of  Malta,  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  Area|. 
20  sq.  miles.  It  is  beautiful  and  fertile,  and  has  two  good 
harbors.  The  remains  of  the  cyclopean  wall  called  the 
**  Giant's  Tower  "  are  interesting.  *  Principal  town,  Babato. 
Pop.  (1881)  17,620. 

Gozzi,  got  see, Carlo,  Count:  Italian  dramatist  and  com- 
petitor of  Goldoni ;  b.  in  Venice  in  Mar.,  1722.  His  Memoirs 
(1797,  Eng.  trans.,  2  vols.,  1889),  in  connection  with  Goldo- 
ni's  memoirs,  give  a  very  interesting  and  instructive  picture 
of  the  state  of  the  Italian  theater  at  that  time.  It  was 
his  idea  that  improvisation  is  a  natural  talent  with  the  Ital- 
ians, and  for  this  reason  he  left  open  certain  parts  of 
his  dramas,  especially  the  comical  parts,  to  be  filled  out  by 
the  momentary  inspiration  of  the  actors.  Gozzi  opposecl 
Goldoni,  who  strove  to  put  French  dramatic  works  upon 
the  Italian  stage.  II is  dramas  are  no  longer  played,  though 
they  bear  evidence  of  a  talent  of  a  higher  and  finer  order 
than  that  of  Goldoni.  The  best  two  of  his  dramas  are  The 
Three  Oranges  and  The  Princess  Turandot,  D.  Apr.  ^ 
1806.  Clemens  Petebsen. 

Gozzoli,  got-s<5'lee,  Benozzo  :  painter ;  b.  in  Florence  in 
1424 ;  was  a  pupil  and  assistant  of  Beato  Angelica  and  of 
Masaccio.  Tuscany  abounds  with  his  work.  He  painted  in 
the  Church  of  San  Frediano,  and  in  the  Medici  Palace  (now 
called  Riccardi)  there  is  a  chapel  with  decorations,  by  him 
containing  portraits  of  people  of  his  own  time  in  gorgeous 
costume  as  then  worn.  In  Kome  he  painted  in  S^  Maria  in 
Aracoeli  several  subjects  from  the  life  of  St.  Antony;  at 
Montefalco,  near  Foligno,  he  decorated  a  church ;  and  at 
Pisa  he  afterward  decorated,  in  less  than  two  years,  a  whole 
side  of  the  Campo  Santo  with  representations  of  the  *  cre- 
ation of  the  world,"  **  the  divine  wrath  opening  the  cataracts 
of  heaven,"  **  the  tower  of  Babel,"  "  the  birth  of  Moses,"  and 
all  the  Hebrew  stories  of  Moses  and  Solomon.  He  also  exe- 
cuted many  other  works  at  Pisa.  The  Pisans  erected  a  fine 
monument  to  him  in  their  Campo  Santo  in  grateful  remem- 
brance of  his  work  there.  He  was  the  first  painter  in  whose 
works  is  found  evidence  of  the  actual  use  of  the  model  in 
making  the  designs  for  his  pictures,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  he  made  many  careful  drawings  of  his  contemporaries, 
so  that  his  pictures  may  be  regarded  as  collections  of  the 
{Ktrtraits  of  the  men  of  Florence  of  his  time.  He  also  made 
the  first  advance  toward  a  naturalistic  treatment  of  land- 
scape in  the  backgrounds  of  his  pictures,  and  must  be  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  most  important  painters  of  his  time, 
and  the  link  between  the  Giottesque  art  of  Fra  Angelico  and 
the  naturalistic  of  Filippo  LippL    D.  at  Pisa  about  1496. 

W.  J.  Stillman. 

Gnuitlaii  Yesicles.  graafi-an-vesl-kPz. or  (KtImcs  [res- 
ide is  from  Lat.  vesiaua^  dimin.  of  vesica^  bladder ;  ovisac 
is  from  Lat.  otmm,  egg,  ovum  +  saee^is,  sack] :  numerous 
small  globular  transparent  follicles  (hence  also  called  Graa^ 
fian  follicles)  found  in  the  ovaries  of  mammals  probably  rep- 
resenting the  inner  part  of  the  calyx  of  oviparous  animals. 
They  are  named  from  Regnier  de  Graaf,  tneir  discoverer 
(1641-73).  They  are  filled  with  a  transparent  albuminous 
liquid.  Verv  small  at  first  and  deeply  bedded  in  the  ovary, 
they  gradually  approach  the  surface,  and  finally  burst  and 
discharge  the  ova. 

Graal,  or  Grail :  See  Sangbeal. 

Oraecha^nos.  M.  Junius:  author;  lived  in  the  time  of  C. 
Gracchus  (b.  c.  123) ;  enjoyed  his  friendship,  and  from  this 
circumstance,  according  to  Pliny,  derivea  his  cognomen. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise,  De  Pblestatibus^  addressed 
to  Pomponius,  the  father  of  Pomponius  Atticus,  in  which 
he  gave  a  history  of  the  constitution  and  the  great  ofllces  of 
state  from  the  time  of  the  kings,  which  is  highly  commended 
by  Xiebuhr  {Hist,  Rome,  vol.  ii.,  p.  10-11).  The  original 
work  is  lost,  but  is  often  referred  to  by  Varro,  Cicero,  and 
others,  and  a  portion  of  it  is  preserved  m  the  Greek  treatise 
of  Joannes  Lydus,  De  Jiagtstratibus,  See  Gerlach,  Oe- 
schichtschreiber  der  Rdmer,  p.  84,  seq, ;  L.  Mercklin,  De 
Junio  Oracchano  (Dorpat,  1840-41);  and  Huschke,  Juris- 
prudent ia  anteiusiiniana,  pp.  8-10. 

Revised  by  M.  Wabbek. 

Grae'chM :  the  name  of  a  Roman  family  of  plebeian  ori- 
gin belonging  to  the  gens  Sempronia.  From  the  middle  of 
the  third  century  b.  c.  members  of  this  family  had  attained 
distinction  in  war  and  in  the  state.  Tibbbius  Sempbonius 
Gbacchus,  b.  about  210  b.  c,  became  tribune  of  the  people 
187  b.  c.  ;  married  (Cornelia,  daughter  of  Scipio  Af ricanus ; 


870 


GRACCHUS 


GRACE 


consul  177;  censor  169,  when  he  brought  about  important 
political  reforms ;  consul  again  163  b.  c.  The  time  of  his 
death  is  not  knoWn.  He  was  the  father  of  twelve  children, 
among  whom  were  Tiberius  and  Gains,  the  *'  Gracchi "  par 
excellence.  Their  mother,  Cornelia,  says  Plutarch, "  brought 
them  up  with  such  care  that  education  was  allowed  to  have 
contributed  more  to  their  perfections  than  nature.  Tiberius," 
he  goes  on  to  say,  "  had  a  mildness  in  his  look  and  a  com- 
Dosure  in  his  whole  behavior ;  Gains  as  much  vehemence  and 
nre.  The  language  of  Tiberius  was  chaste  and  elaborate ; 
that  of  Gains  splendid  and  persuasive." — The  elder  brother, 
Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus,  distinguished  himself  first 
by  his  courage  and  fidelity  in  the  campaigns  in  Spain,  which 
were  concluded  by  the  capture  of  Numantia  in  134.  He  does 
not  seem  perhaps  to  have  been  more  conscious  of  the  evils 
under  which  Rome  was  laboring  than  others  of  his  time,  but, 
with  a  characteristic  impetuosity,  his  recognition  of  them 
was  a  call  to  immediate  action  for  their  remedy.  To  this 
end  he  secured  election  to  the  tribunate  of  the  people  for 
the  year  after  his  return  from  Spain  (133),  an  office  which, 
by  reason  of  its  veto  power,  was  able  to  control  the  other 
magistracies,  and  whicn  was  also  well  suited  to  initiate  posi- 
tive legislation.  The  first  of  his  measures  of  reform,  and 
the  only  one  he  lived  to  carry  through,  was  the  revival  of 
the  Licinian  law  (which  had  never  been  repealed)  limiting 
the  amount  of  public  land  which  might  be  held  by  an^  in- 
dividual. In  this  way  Tiberius  hoped  to  break  up  the  prince- 
ly estates  which  the  nobles  had  secured,  and,  oy  reducing 
their  holdings  of  public  lands  to  lawful  amounts,  to  pro- 
vide small  estates,  of  about  15  acres  each,  for  the  landless 
proletariat  of  the  city.  To  prevent  their  falling  again  into 
the  hands  of  the  nobles  these  estates  were  not  to  be  sold, 
but  were  to  be  held  in  the  name  of  the  Roman  people  and 
granted  in  perpetual  lease.  This  measure  was  vetoed  by 
one  of  the  tribunes,  but,  bent  on  carrying  through  his  re- 
form, Tiberius  secured  the  removal  of  his  obstinate  col- 
league by  unconstitutional  means,  since  there  was  no  pro- 
vision for  the  impeachment  of  a  Roman  magistrate.  Thus 
the  Licinian  law  was  revived  and  the  execution  of  it  in- 
trusted to  a  commission  of  three  men,  Tiberius,  his  broth- 
er Gaius,  and  his  father-in-law,  Appius  Claudius.  But  be- 
fore they  were  able  to  proceed  to  the  execution  of  the  law 
Tiberius  was  attacked  oy  a  body  of  the  nobles,  under  the 
leadership  of  Scipio  Nasica,  and  beaten  to  death  in  the 
Forum.  However,  the  commission  went  on  with  its  work 
and,  in  spite  of  many  obstacles,  succeeded  in  recovering 
enough  public  land  to  give  homes  to  more  than  75,000  citi- 
zens and  allien.  The  efforts  of  Gracchus  had  therefore  not 
been  in  vain,  although  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  revolu- 
tionary methods  first  introduced  by  him  are  a  grave  offset 
to  these  benefits. — In  123  b.  c,  ten  years  after  his  brother's 
death,  Gaius  Sempronius  Gracchus  was  made  tribune  of 
the  people.  Of  his  life  before  he  became  tribune  Plutarch 
says :  "  In  Sardinia  Gaius  gave  a  noble  specimen  of  every 
virtue,  distinguishing  himself  greatly  among  the  other  young 
Romans,  not  only  in  his  operations  again^  the  enemy  and 
in  acts  of  justice  to  such  as  submitted,  but  in  his  respectful 
and  obliging  behavior  to  the  general.  In  temperance,  in 
simplicity  of  diet,  and  love  of  labor  he  excelled  even  the 
veterans."  In  ability  and  in  oratorical  genius  he  surpassed 
his  brother,  while  the  fate  of  the  latter  did  much  to  embitter 
and  accentuate  his  natural  intensity  and  fierceness  of  spirit. 
The  reforms  which  he  proposed  were  of  a  more  radical  nature 
than  those  entertained  by  his  brother,  and  seem  to  have 
aimed  at  nothing  less  than  a  subversion  of  the  old  constitu- 
tion. As  the  corner-stone  of  them  all  he  first  carried  through 
a  provision  allowing  re-election  to  the  tribunate  of  the  people, 
a  position  from  which  he  hoped  apparently  to  exert  his  in- 
fluence as  a  leader  of  the  state  in  some  such  way  as  Pericles 
had  swayed  the  Athenian  democracy.  By  regular  distribu- 
tions of  grain  he  won  over  the  rabble,  and,  by  re-enforcing 
his  brotner's  land  law  and  by  founding  colonies  in  Italy,  as 
well  as  beyond  its  boundaries,  he  provided  homes  for  many 
of  the  city  proletariat.  These  were  but  preliminary  meas- 
ures, however,  to  the  humiliation  of  the  senate,  the  object 
of  which  was  not  only  to  diminish  its  power,  but  also,  by 
means  of  new  recruits,  to  improve  its  character  and  effi- 
ciency. This  was  to  be  brought  about  by  adding  to  it  an 
equal  number  of  knights  who  represented  the  aristocracv  of 
wealth,  and  by  depriving  it  at  the  same  time  of  some  of  its 
most  powerful  ana  most  profitable  prerogatives.  The  latter 
plan  was  carried  out  in  a  number  of  measures  restricting  the 
judicial  and  administrative  functions  of  the  senate.  Had 
Gaius  been  able  to  maintain  himself  in  the  tribunate  he 


might  perhaps  have  anticipated  the  monarchy  of  Cipsar  \*v 
almost  a  century.  But,  in  nis  absence  in  the  interests  of  hi- 
colonial  policy,  the  fickle  mob  were  induced,  by  the  proniiM' 
of  larger  favors  from  a  candidate  of  the  senatorial  jiarty.  t< 
withdraw  their  support  from  Gaius,  who  had  in  a  inea^urp 
contributed  to  their  disaffection  by  his  proposition  to  w- 
f  ranchise  the  Italian  allies.  Gracchus  was  defeated,  and  •  r; 
the  inauguration  of  the  new  consul,  L.  Opimius  (Jan..  lul 
b.  c),  measures  were  taken  against  him  which  resulted  in  iui 
open  conflict  between  the  two  parties,  and  the  defeat  arj«l 
death  of  Gracchus  and  his  followers.  G.  L.  Hexdrickh^n. 

Grace  [from  0.  Fr. grace^Jj&t.gra'tia, favor,  esteem, grai  k 
transl.  of  Gr.  x<^<'t  grace,  favor] :  a  word  which,  as  a  traTi*- 
lation  of  Heb.  ion  and  Gr.  x^'^  is  employed  in  the  Scnt^- 

V  V 

tures  in  most  of  the  senses  in  which  it  appears  in  Engli^h— 
as  loveliness  (Luke  iv.  22) ;  good-will  (Acts  vii.  10) ;  favor  n- 
an  act  (2  Cor.  viii.  4) ;  the  Icindness  of  God ;  what  is  dut*  ti< 
grace,  as  the  condition  of  one  governed  by  grace  (Rom.  v. 
2) ;  a  benefit  (1  Cor.  xvi.  3 ;  1  Pet.  v.  10) ;  thanks. 

I.  History, — Though  the  doctrine  of  grace  was  held  fnin 
the  beginning  in  the  Christian  Church,  its  first  clear  forniuU- 
tion  was  the  result  of  the  controversy  between  Augustine  aii'i 
Pelagius  (a.  d.  412-430).  Pelagius  held,  in  order  to  give  f uii 
force  to  the  feeling  of  responsibility  for  sin,  that  the  hun  hu 
will  itself  first  inclines  toward  God,  and  that  then  gracv,  l-y 
which  he  meant  the  co-operation  of  God,  was  bestowed  «-  a 
merited  rewanl  for  this  act,  Augustine  held  that  man  w  in 
unable  to  help  himself,  that  his  will  was  fixed  in  sinful  vi- 
litions,  was  diseased,  and  needed  healing.  Thus  the  init  iati ve 
in  salvation  must  be  God's,  and  this  initiative  was  the  pft 
of  grace  which  operated  curatively  upon  the  will  nu-l 
brought  forth  holy  volitions.  It  preceded  every  holy  rotiti-  n 
in  man,  and  hence  was  not  merited  but  g^ven  freely  (t/rn!>'i 
gratis  datur).  While  Pelagius  held  that  the  giving  (.f  tlu 
Gospel  was  grace,  Augustine  limited  the  term  to  the  <iin- : 
operation  of  God  as  a  personal  agency  upon  the  will  it-  f. 
not  excluding,  however,  means  such  as  "persua«i<»i.-" 
During  the  following  period  till  the  Reformation,  whit- 
Roman  Catholic  theology  was  in  process  of  development. » L- 
tendency  was  toward  Pelagianism  rather  than  August inian- 
ism,  as  was  natural  while  the  idea  of  merit  was  more  aini 
more  dominating  the  system.  But  Luther  reasserted  th* 
Aupistinian  doctrines  with  even  greater  emphasis  ttuui 
their  first  formulator.  Man  lost  all  real  activity,  and  il.  ■ 
divine  initiative  was  fully  maintained  with  the  'associHTe.1 
doctrines  of  election,  which  Luther  conceived  in  strong  ^u- 
pralapsarian  form.  Melanchthon, successively  modifying  hi- 
theory  of  the  mind  and  the  will,  sought  to  give  more  |»!a\ 
to  a  true  freedom,  and  introduced  what  has  been  cai%  i 
"synergism,"  but  improperly  so,  since  he  maintaincil  i.i' 
divine  initiative  decidedly,  though  ascribing  an  activity  ;<• 
the  will  in  response  thereto.  Calvin  agreed  more  fully  \\n\ 
Augustine,  and  under  his  influence  Augustinian  meth'(Hl>  •  f 


111 


thought  and  expression  became  common  till  Arminius 
1609)  sought  to  remove  the  objectionable  features  of  ir» 
doctrine  of  predestination.  He  made  election,  strictly  termiAi. 
to  be  restricted  to  the  choosing  of  certain  nations  as  rocu  i- 
ents  of  grace ;  taught  a  universal  prevenient  grace,  enabhi  c 
the  wills  of  all  men  who  hear  the  Gospel  to  believe,  whi.  Ii 
act  of  faith  they  exercise  by  virtue  of  their  i'estore<i  f ret-d"  i  , 
The  tendency  since  Arminius's  day  has  been  toward  a  fulit  r 
acknowledgment  of  the  freedom  of  the  will,  and  a  consequent 
modification  of  extreme  fonns  of  stating  the  doctrine  vt 
grace.  New  school  Calvinism  in  the  U.  S.  makes  the  gra«>' 
of  Grod  individual  and  prevenient,  teaches  that  as  an  his- 
torical fact  the  will  of  man  never  takes  the  initiative  t4>wHr  1 
God,  but  emphasizes  the  abstract  power  of  contrary  chi'Ht- 
at  every  moment. 

II.  Evangelical  Import, — This,  derived  from  the  New  T»— 
tament,  may  be  concisely  stated  as  ditnfie  favor  shotm  /" 
the  ill-deserving. 

(1)  Grace  is  a  consequence  of  the  divine  character.  It  i^ 
an  outflow  of  the  love  of  God  (John  iii.  16)  which  sent  \Vx 
Redeemer,  and  embraces  in  its  scope  even  the  guilty  (R»>ni. 
V.  8).  (2)  Men  are  saved  by  grace.  This  doctrine  is  special  I  v 
emphasized  by  Paul,  whose  teaching  may  be  thus  suroniH- 
rized :  It  is  conceivable  that  men  might  be  saved  by  work^ 
since  perfect  obedience  to  the  divine  law  would  entitle  nu  'i 
to  salvation.  But,  as  a  fact,  aU  men  have  sinned.  Tin} 
have  thus,  on  the  one  hand,  failed  to  render  perfect  obedicr.»f. 
and,  on  the  other,  have  laid  themselves  open  to  the  condemn- 
ing sentence  of  God.  Salvation  is  thus  in  no  sense  due  to 
them.    If  they  have  it  at  all  it  must  be  freely  giv«n  to  thtm 


872  QRAI 

■crlbblers.  £xcept  in  the  case  of  tiioee  found  in  the  Cato- 
cnmbe  their  antiquitjr  confers  upon  tliem  the  chief  interest 
they  possess.  They  are  found  in  the  substructures  ot  Roman 
ruinai  aa.  for  instance,  in  the  Golden  House  of  Nero,  the 

Ealace  of  the  Cie^rs,  the  Palatine,  and  in  still  greater  num- 
ere  in  Pompeii  and  in  the  Roman  catacombs.  They  some- 
timea  give  stri  kin;;  glimpses  of  the  modeof  thinking  and  the 
manner  of  living  in  ancient  times.  Thus  was  discovered  in 
a  chamber  of  the  palace  of  the  Cfsars  a  caricature  of  Chris- 
tian worship  accompanied  by  an  explanation ;  the  caricature 
represents  a  man  worshiping  an  a«  hanging  on  a  cross. 
Several  coUeetions  have  been  published,  from  which  a  little 
archsological  knowledge  has  oeen  gained.  A  small  collec- 
tion of  graffiti  from  Pompeii  was  published  in  1837  by  Dr. 
Wordsworth,  but  the  most  complete  and  most  interestins  is 
suit  from  Naples,  published  in 

_ _._  _ J   .. .  e  partly  Latin  and  partly  Greek. 

The  term  is  also  applied  to  deeply  engraved  lines  and  pat- 
terns intended  for  ornament,  aa  in  plaster  spread  upon  walls. 
In  this  sense  called  also  gra^lo  decoration. 

Sraftlng :  the  operation  of  inserting  a  bud  or  cion  *  into 
a  plant,  or  stock.   A  "  bud,"  in  technical  language,  is  a  siugle 
'     ■     It  from  the  side  of  a  small  twig  and  having  little  orno 
..._,i...  1  ..  :.       1  --- JB  a  detached  portion  of  a  plant, 


wood  attached  to  iL 


Fio.  I.— Cleft-  Fio,  2.-Cletl-graftlDg.  Fio.  S.— A  waxed 

grate  clou.  nub. 

bearing  woody  tissue  and  two  or  more  buds.  A  sfjick  is  a 
plant  or  part  of  a  plant  upon  which  a  cion  or  bud  is  set ;  in 
most  cases  it  is  a  seedling  plant  of  unknown  or  inferior 
merit  In  its  fruit,  flowers,  or  habit.  The  term  grafting,  in 
its  broad  sense,  is  bold  to  include  budding,  or  the  insertion 
of  single  buds  as  defined  above,  and  grafting  proper,  or  the 
insertion  of  eions;  but  it  is  onJinarily  associated  with  the 
latter  operation  alone.  A  still  broader  term,  to  denote  the 
whole  proc'oss  and  operations  of  grafting  and  budding,  and 
the  state  and  condition  incident  thereto,  has  been  suggested : 
the  word  graftage.  Grafting  or  budding  is  employed  for 
the  propagation  and  perpetuation  of  nearly  all  the  varieties 
of  tree  fruits,  and  it  is  used  for  many  ornamental  trees  and 
shrubs.  It  may  be  used  in  many  hcrt»aceous  perennials  tn 
advantage,  but  such  plants  are  more  commonly  propagated 
by  means  ol  cuttings.  The  common  office  of  grafting  is  to 
perpetuate  a  variety  which  will  not  rcurmluco  itseli,  or 
"  come  true,"  from  seed,  but  in  some  species,  which  presi^nt 
no  well-marked  varieties,  propagation  is  so  slow  or  difficult 
from  seeds  or  cuttings  that  they  are  grafted  upon  stocks  of 
related  species.  Grafting  is  also  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  some  radical  change  in  the  plant,  as  in  the 
dwarflng  of  trees  by  growing  them  upon  slow-growing  slocks, 
and  the  acceleration  of  fruit-bearing  by  setting  Clonic  in  old 
plants.    Tlius  pears  are  dwarfed  by  grafting  them  upon  the 


uurserjTDieD,  Uiougta  m 


slow-growlngqiunce,andappleebygr&ftingupontheparsiiisr 
stock.  Grafting  is  employed,  therefore,  for  three  purpow-: 
to  perpetuate  a  variety ;  to  increase  the  case  and  spewl  i.f 
multiplication;  to  produce  some  radical  change  in  the  liuiii 
or  other  character  of  the  cion.  The  limits  wilhio  vhiib 
intergrorting  is  possible  between  different  species  of  plant, 
can  be  determined  only  by  experimenl,  but  it  may  lie  >fli>l 
that  only  the  roost  closely  related  species  can  gKiw  n\-a 
each  other.  For  a  long  time  it  was  supposed  that  pr(imi--.ii. 
ous  grafting  was  possible,  but  the  instances  which  were  cit--.] 
in  proof  of  the  supposition  were  not  well  foundud.  Adi>>ii^' 
common  fruits  the  stone-fruits  not  only  refuse  to  grow  u|>i.ii 
the  pome-fniits,  but  many  of  the  species  will  not  intergtiifi 
Thus  the  peach  does  not  succeed  upon  the  cherry,  ailhi>iii:li 
it  will  grow  upon  the  apricot  and  plum.  Among  the  ^•ru..'- 
fruits,  apples  will  not  grow  upon  p«irs,  but  pears  su<t.-i1 
for  a  time  upon  apples;  yet  pears  thrive  upon  many  of  ihi- 
thorns,  although  these  two  plants  are  thought  by  botanitI^ 
to  be  less  closely  related  than  are  apples  and  pears. 

There  are  very  many  methods  of  firing,  differing  in  the 
size  of  the  cion,  the  method  in  which  it  is  cut  or  ^hatifl. 
and  the  manner  of  insertion  into  the  stock.  Grafting  pn-fvr. 
or  cion-grafting,  is  usually  performed  in  the  wintor  or  varlr 
spring,  and  the  cut  surfaces  of  both  stock   and  ciou  arv 

Srotccted  by  a  covering  ot  wai.  The  cions  are  cut  [r.ni 
onuant  trees  in  winter  and  arc  stored  until  used  in  a  C'->1 
cellar,  or  they  are  sometimes  buried  in  a  well-drained  lanlv 
place.  Greenhouse  plants  are  often  grafted  by  using  >lii.ii. 
green  cions  which  contain  two  or  three  leaves.  The  i-.'ta- 
monest  style  of  grafting  is  that  shown  in  the  first  thrre  illi:>- 
trations,and  b  luiown  as  cleft-grafting,  from  the  split  or  i  li'' 
which  is  made  in  the  stock  for  the  reception  of  the  d<<ii.'>. 
The  cion,  which  is  shown  about  natural  size,  bears  two  or 
three  buds,  and  is  cut  at  its  lower  end  into  a  wedge-shapt-. 
The  portion  of  the  branch  to  be  grafted  is  cut  off  squari.K, 
and  IS  split  to  a  depth  of  an  inch  or  two.  This  cleft  is  h'ld 
open  by  means  of  a  wedge,  and  a  cion  is  inserted  ni-iii 
either  side — if  the  stock  is  btrce  enough  to  aocominoilHt'.' 
two  cions — care  being  taken  that  the  inner  barks  of  ilf 
cion  and  stock  meet.  The  wai  is  now  applied,  either  c-.ld 
by  the  fingers,  or  warm  with  a  brush.  There  arevarii.ui 
recipes  for  grafting  wan.  One  of  the  best  is  as  foUnw- ; 
Kesin,  4  parts  by  weight;  beeswai,  2  parts;  bard  or  cake 
tallow,  Ijiart.  Melt  ti>getbor  and  pour  into  a  pail  or  tub  i-f 
water.  When  nearly  coo!  work  it  through  the  hands  uniil 
it  becomes  tough  and  light  colored.  Budding  or  bud-graft- 
ing is  commonly  dune  in  late  summer  or  early  fall,  U]>'U 
small  stocks  or 'branches,  the  bud  usually  being  set  ug-ii 
wood  that  is  not  more  than  two  years  old.  The  ood  shuvti 
cut  from  the  side  of  a  recent  twig  in  shield->hu;n-. 


bud. 


.—Preparing 


Fid.  ft— Tbe  bud  ord. 


The  stock  is  then  prepared  by  making  a  T-shaped  incision 
(Fig.  5(,  into  which  the  bud  is  slipped,  and  it  is  held  in  plKn- 
by  a  binding  of  some  soft  string.  Fig.  6  illustrates  \u-: 
method.  Buds  inserted  in  late  summer,  after  the  comiu<'i> 
method  of  propagating  fruit-trees,  remain  dormant  until  t:i- 
following  spring,  but  the  bandage  must  be  removed  in  a 
week  or  two  after  the  bud  is  inserted.  Any  part  of  the  ^1•'<1l 
or  root  of  a  tree  may  be  grafted,  and  where  the  bark  i!>  n^'t 
too  thick  and  stiff  budding  may  also  be  practiced.  Graft  in.; 
in  the  top  of  a  tree  is  called  top-grafting,  in  distinction  f^  m 


874 


GEAHAMSTOWN 


GRAIK  ELEVATOHS 


fracture,  with  a  black  or  brown  iib-tilaek  color.  It  was  for- 
merly useil  lor  Ihc  manutscture  of  oils  anil  for  an  enricber 
of  gas;  also  for  rooflng,  for  pavements,  and  as  an  electric 
insulator.  When  distilled  it  yields  a  distillate  rich  in  oils 
of  the  parafOn  aeries  and  of  solid  pu^Sin.  It  belongs  lo 
that  class  of  asphalts  occurring  in  injected  veine.  Petru- 
leuin  has  largely  superseded  it.    See  Asphaltic  Coal  and 

BiTUHEN.  S,  F.  PECKHiM. 

GrahaniBtotrn :  capital  of  the  Albany  district.  Cape  Col- 
ony, South  Africa:  100  miics  N.  E,  of  Port  Eliiabeth  (see 
map  of  Africa,  ref.  10-F):  lies  along  a  series  of  parallel 
ridges  nearly  2.000  feet  above  sea-level ;  has  an  Anglican 
calhedral.  built  fnim  the  desicu  of  Sir  George  Gilbert  Scott, 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  With  its  broad  streets, 
trim  gardens,  well-built  schools,  and  public  buildings.  It  re- 
sembles an  English  cathedra]  town.    Pop.  6,903. 

Grail,  The  Uolv:  See  Sanoreii.. 

Grain:  See  Cerbalu  and  Food. 

Grain  [special  use  of  grain,  seed  of  wheat  (the  grain  being- 
originally  iletermined  by  the  weight  of  a  grain  of  wheat). 
from  Lat  granum.  a  grain  <  Indo-Eur.  gfnlim  >  Eng. 
corn] :  the  iniit  of  the  system  of  weights  prevailing  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  U.  S.  A  statute  of  Henry  III.  (1366)  en- 
acted that  33  grains  of  wheat  from  the  middle  of  the  ear. 
well  dried,  shoidd  weish  a  pennyweight,  of  which  20  should 
go  to  the  ounce ;  but  finally,  in  the  twelfth  year  of  Henry 
Vii„  the  pennyweight  came  to  be  divided  into  24  Brains, 
In  the  U.  S.  the  troy  and  the  apothecaries'  pound  eacn  con- 
tain 5,T60  grains,  or  13  oz.  of  4H0  grains  each;  while  the 
avoirdupois  pound  has  16  oz.  of  437j  grains  each,  or  7,000 
grains  to  the  pound.  There  are  15.4:)2346T4  grains  In  the 
gramme  of  the  French  or  metric  system  of  weights,  accord- 
ing to  Miller's  determination  made  in  1844. 

Grain  CoOHt:  the  former  name  of  the  coast  of  what  is 
now  Liberia,  in  Africa,  so  named  from  the  Grains  op  Par- 
adise {q.  V,),  formerly  an  important  article  ol  trade  in  that 

Grain  Elerators:  buildings  designed  for  the  storage 
transfer,  and  handling  of  cereals.   Theold  and  crude  method 


evator,  Bulfato.  N.  T. 


of  handling  grain  consisted  In  the  employment  of  men  to 
shovel  the  ^rain  into  hags  in  the  hold  of  a  vessel,  carry  these 
out  on  their  boi-ks.  then  empty  them  into  a  storehouse,  an 
operation  requiring  several  days.  By  the  melhod  of  ele- 
vating grain  by  machinery,  80,000  hush,  of  grain  can,  be 
transferred  from  a  vessel  lo  cars  or  canal  boats  in  an  hour. 
A  modem  grain  elevator  is  a  large,  high  strurture,  with  two 
or  three  unloading  towers  on  the  water-front,  one  of  the  tow- 
ers being  stationary.  The  movable  towers  are  mounted  on 
car-wheels,  which  nm  on  a  ilouble  railway  track,  each  tower 
having  its  own  moving  and  operating  machinery.  The  sta- 
tionary tower  b  built  on  the  middle  of  the  front,  with  the 
movable  towers  on  either  side. 


the  bins  is  called  the  machinery  floor,  for  in  this  pan 
of  the  building  are  placed  the  shafting  and  gearing  for 
driving  all  of  the  machinery  In  the  elevator.  A  wide  bill 
Iransmits  power  from  the  engine  below.  From  this  shaft- 
ing on  the  machinery  floor  all  of  the  stationary  or  tosid? 
elevator  legs  of  the  storehouse  for  the  dislribution  of  ih* 
grain  to  the  different  bins  are  driven.  The  tops  of  tli*** 
distributing  legs,  with  their  shatla  and  driving  pulleys  are 
one  slory  higher.  On  the  front  of  each  unloniling  tower 
a  projection  is  built  with  a  slot  or  opening  for  operatiw; 
the  marine  or  outside  elevator  leg,  A  marine  leg  is  a  !arg*. 
long  double  hoi  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  of  cups  or  bnct- 
ets,  which  are   fastened  to  an   endless   rubber  belu      The 


a76 


GRAMMAR 


GRAMMATEUS 


The  impulse  to  a  grammatical  science  appears  independ- 
ently among  but  few  of  the  peoples  of  early  history.  The 
necessity  of  perpetuating  the  knowledge  of  the  language  and 
literary  monuments  of  the  Sumero-Accadian  civilization, 
which  the^  had  inherited,  caused  the  Assyrians  to  construct 
Yocabulanes,  syllabaries,  translations,  andi  systems  of  para- 
digms of  this  language.  The  Egyptians  invented  methods 
of  recording  words  and  then  sounds.  The  Chinese  devel- 
oped in  the  study  of  their  ancient  literature  a  science  of 
textual  criticism  and  of  lexicography,  though  the  impulses 
to  grammatical  work  in  the  proper  sense  unquestionably 
came  first  from  India,  as  was  also  the  case  in  Japan.  The 
only  two  peoples,  however,  who  independently  developed 
complete  grammatical  systems  were  the  Hinaus  and  the 
Greeks,  and  it  is  upon  the  foundations  laid  by  them  that  the 
entire  structure  of  modem  grammatical  science  rests.  With 
the  niudus  the  science  of  grammar  arose  in  immediate  con- 
nection with  the  study  and  interpretation  of  their  sacred 
books,  and  served  the  main  purpose  of  explaining  and  of 
maintaining  in  purity  of  form  the  ancient  or  classical 
standard  language,  tne  Sanskrit,  which  had  ceased  to  be 
the  language  of  the  people  and  was  regarded  as  the  peculiar 
property  of  the  priestly  class.  The  transparency  of  forma- 
tion characteristic  of  this  language  admitted  of  its  analy- 
sis into  its  constructive  elements.  With  the  Hindu  gram- 
marian originated  the  identification  and  clear  definition  of 
root,  suffix,  tense  sign,  mode-sign,  inflexional  ending,  etc. 
They  observed  and  discussed  the  exact  character  of  sounds, 
their  changes  and  combinations,  the  laws  of  stem-formation, 
inflection,  and  composition  with  an  accuracy,  fineness,  and 
completeness  that,  upon  the  discovery  of  the  Sanskrit  lit- 
erature, evoked  the  admiration  and  amazement  of  European 
scholarship.  The  rise  of  the  science  of  comparative-his- 
torical grammar  distinctly  dates  from  this  discovery  at  the 
end  of  tne  eighteenth  century.  The  vast  materials  oi  Hindu 
grammatical  science  find  their  completest  summary  in  the 
marvelous  grammar  of  Panini  (probably  fourth  century  b.  c), 
which  is  a  collection  of  about  four  thousand  sharply  con- 
densed rules.  See  Pdninis  Grammatik  herausgegeben 
ubersefzt  erldutert  urid  mit  verschiedcnen  Indices  versehen, 
by  Otto  BShtlingk  (1887). 

The  beginnings  of  Greek  grammar  arc  found  in  the  works 
of  the  philosophers.  Aristotle  partly  identified  and  defined 
the  parts  of  speech,  and  the  Stoics  added  to  his  results,  but 
the  essential  work  of  constructing  a  grammatical  system  lay 
with  the  professional  g^mmarians  who  from  the  third 
century  b.  c.  onward  are  found  in  connection  with  the  Mace- 
donian courts  of  Pergamon  or  Alexandria,  or  in  the 
schools  of  Athens  or  Rhodes.  Especially  at  Alexandria  as- 
sembled themselves  about  the  great  library  founded  by 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  II.  a  not^^le  body  ana  succession  of 
grammarians.  Among  the  earliest  of  these  are  Zenodotus, 
Eratosthenes,  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium,  and  Aristarchus. 
The  influence  of  Aristarchus  (second  century  b.  c),  especial- 
ly through  his  pupils  and  interpreters,  who  extend  in  a  long 
line  down  to  Herodianus  (second  century  a.  d.),  was  of  the 
supremest  importance  not  only  for  the  formation  of  a  gram- 
matical system,  but  for  the  establishment  of  standards  for 
textual  criticism.  Among  the  grammarians  of  Aristarchus's 
school  was  Dionysios  Thrax,  whose  little  handbook  of  gram- 
mar became  the  basis  for  all  the  Greek  grammars  down 
almost  to  modern  times,  and  determined  the  traditions  of 
school  grammar  for  the  entire  Occident.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury A.  D.  it  was  translated  into  Armenian,  and  in  the 
sixth  into  Syriac.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  was  put  into 
the  form  of  a  catechism  (ipwHi^a),  and  as  such  formed  the 
basis  of  the  grammars  with  which  such  scholars  as  Chryso- 
loras,  Gaza,  Lascaris,  and  Chalcondyles  spread  the  Greek 
learning  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy.  Among  the  followers 
of  Aristarchus  were  also  Ammonius,  Apolk>dorns,  Ptole- 
ma3us  Ascalonites,  Demetrius  Ixion,  Dionysios  of  Halicar- 
nassus,  Tyrannion,  Trvphon,  Didymus,  Aristonicus,  Apollo- 
nius  Dyscolus,  and  Herodian.  Among  the  Romans  the 
science  of  grammar  was  left  largely  to  Greek  scholars, 
many  of  whom,  like  Didymus,  ApoUonius  Dyscolus,  and 
Herodian,  found  in  Rome  an  appreciative  reception.  Of 
the  native  grammarians  M.  Terentius  Varro,  a  contempo- 
rary of  Cicero,  occupies  the  first  position  by  reason  of  the 
value  of  his  reports  concerning  tne  materials  of  the  older 
Latin  and  the  Italic  dialects.  ^Elius  Stilo  and  Servius  are 
also  to  be  mentioned,  and  Prisc-ianus  of  Constantinople 
(fifth  century  a.  d.)  in  his  famous  inntitutionea  grammaticcB 
pressed  into  the  service  of  the  Latin  tongue  the  best  of  the 
doctrines  of  the   Greek  grammarians.     The  grammatical 


work  of  the  Greeks,  in  sharp  distincticm  from  that  of  the 
Hindus,  had  its  rise  in  philosophical  speculation,  and  later 
freed  itself  from  the  leaiiing-strings  oi  metaphysics  only  a^ 
the  accumulation  of  collect^  facts  compelled  it.  The  first 
question  which  engaged  its  attention  was  that  of  the  reLatinn 
between  expression  and  idea.  Was  the  word  by  nature  ari*! 
right  (^M6^«t>  or  only  by  conTostion  {l^4v*i,  i^/t^)  the  exprt^ 
sion  of  the  ideat  Throughout  the  whole  history  oi  tbt 
Greek  study  of  grammar  ran  also  the  controversy  between 
anomaly  {iawiJMXla)  and  analogy  {ianiXoyla);  viz.,  shall  the  ir- 
regnilarities  or  the  regularities  of  language  constitute  the  cri- 
terion for  judging  it!  The  practical  activity  of  the  sciciHt- 
addressed  itself,  however,  in  foremost  regard  to  the  inteij »re- 
tation  and  establishment  of  the  text  of  Homer,  and  herein  at 
least  it  presents  a  parallel  to  the  work  of  the  Indian  gram- 
marians. 

The  traditional  descriptive  grammar  generally  divides  it- 
self under  four  main  heads,  orthography,  etymology,  syntax, 
and  prosody.  Orthography  deals  with  sounds  and  their 
symbols,  letters,  and  with  the  grouping  of  these  into  sylla- 
bles and  words.  In  the  modem  historical  grammar  thii^ 
is  replaced  by  phonetics,  or  the  physiology  of  sounds.  pln»- 
nology,  or  the  history  and  relation  of  sounds,  and  the  hi5t(>ry 
of  writing  with  its  special  disciplines,  epigraphy,  and  pala - 
ography.  Etymology  treats  of  the  parts  of  speech  and  th^^ir 
infiexions,  and  in  historical  grammar  is  replace<i  by  the  hi«^ 
torical  study  of  inflexions  or  accidence  ana  of  word-forma- 
tion, including  composition  and  derivation  (suflSxes  and  pre- 
flxes).  The  traditional  division  of  accidence  into  declen>ii<  m 
and  conjugation  does  not  represent  any  fundamental  differ- 
ence of  purpose.  Conjugation  (Lat.  eon  -k-jungere^  join)  is 
a  translation  of  Gr.  avivyia  (o^,  with  +  firy-,  join),  and  de- 
noted the  grouping  of  like  inflected  verbs.  It  was  onVi- 
nally  and  correctly  viewed  as  a  subdivision  of  fcAi^is  (infim^- 
tion).  Inflection  or  declension  (icAio'ii)  was  so  named  btx-au^ 
the  various  inflections  were  viewed  as  deflections  from  t  he 
upright,  as  represented  in  the  leading  form.  Thus  the  nom- 
inative was  called  the  "  upright "  case  (tv^cZa.  ctueu^  rvcfu « i. 
the  others  "  oblique  "  (vkdyuu).  The  cases  are  so  many  "fall- 
ings "  (fTTflia'cif,  casus).  Aristotle  calls  the  tenses  other  t!iai> 
the  present  "oblique"  {wxdytw.).  Syntax  treats  of  the  ur- 
rangement  of  words  into  sentences  according  to  the  fun<*ti<  it:> 
expressed  in  their  form.  It  deals  with  meaning,  as  *•  etynw  •!- 
ogy  "  does  with  form.  The  modem  historic^  syntax* S4fk>? 
to  show  how  the  functions  expressed  by  form  and  the  typ^ 
of  construction  in  sentences  are  historically  conditiontxi'aml 
developed.  Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versification  a>  r»^ 
lated  to  the  quantity  and  accent  of  syllables. 

Bibliography. — Steinthal,  Geschichte  der  Sprxtrhttiit.'^u- 
schaft  bei  den  Oriechen  und  Bomem  (1863;  2d  ed.  \t<i'*t\: 
von  der  Gabelentz,  Die  Sprachwissenschaft  (1891);  PmwI. 
Principien  der  Sprachgeschichte  (2d  ed.  1886) ;  Benfey,  /»V- 
schichte  der  Sprachieissenschaft  (1869);  GrCber,  MethiHitL 
und  Aufgaben  der  sprachw.  Forsehung,  Orober*s  Grundrii^ 
der  roman.  Philologie^  i.,  209  ff.  (1886);  Sweot,  A  Amt  Eh- 
glish  Grammar,  Logical  and  Historical  (1892) ;  I>elbru(  k. 
Einleitung  in  das  Sprachsludium  (2d  ed.  1885.  Eng.  tranxi. 

Benj.  Ide  Wheeleh. 

Grammateos  (in  Gr.  rpo/i/iorc^s) :  an  Athenian  secretnry 
or  clerk.  There  were  several  kinds  of  clerks  in  Athens :  \\k 
humblest  were  professional  clerks,  paid  by  the  state,  and  l»e- 
longed  to  the  lowest  classes,  or  else  they  were  slaves  ownnl 
by  the  state.  Clerks  of  this  kind  were  attached  to  a  h<i54  of 
petty  oflflces,  such  as  the  oflice  of  magistrate.  But  then 
were  also  several  kinds  of  clerks  of  higher  rank,  such  aj<  th«' 
clerk  of  the  senate,  who  was  a  senator  elected  by  his  c«i- 
leagues.  Of  high  rank  was  the  clerk  of  the  Prytany  (q.  r.i 
in  office ;  he  was  elected  by  lot  and  his  duty  was  to  nn^serve 
the  enactments  of  the  Prytany,  and  his  name  was  placeti  ir. 
the  enactment  as  a  guarantee  of  accuracy  and  to  dale  tlf 
document.  The  clerk  of  the  city  was  elected  by  the  jieopU-. 
and  it  was  his  duty  to  act  as  the  clerk  of  the  public  assem- 
blies, keep  the  records,  etc.  To  the  clerks  of  nigh  rank  1 1- 
longed  the  antigrapheus  (the  auditor  or  check-clerk)  of  the 
senate,  who  was  responsible  to  the  people  for  the  acooni  t< 
and  enactments  of  the  senate.  The  antigrafiheus  of  the 
treasury  was  elected  by  the  people,  to  whom  he  was  resiK^ii- 
sible  for  the  accuracy  of  the  accounts  of  all  the  oflicial<  of 
the  treasury.  See  Bockh,  Staatshaushalf  der  Afhener.  u 
252  ff. :  Hille,  De  scribis  Aikem^tstum  pfiblicis  (Loip/ic. 
1878) ;  Kornitzer,  De  scribis puhlieis  Athendensium  (Vienn.i- 
Hernals.  1888) ;  Schaefer,  De  scribis  senntHSp^puUgue  A'f^'- 
Jiiensium  (Greifswald,  1878):  Heydeman,  De  aencUu  Afhf- 


878 


GRANADA 


GRAND  ARMY  OP  THE  REPUBLIC 


and  its  customs.  But  in  1492  the  kingdom  of  Granada  was 
conquered  by  Ferdinand  and  lsal>ella,  and  in  1510  the 
Moors  were  expelled  from  Spain.  The  works  of  irrigation 
stopped  operation,  the  plantations  withered  awa^r,  the 
gloom  of  tne  Inquisition  fell  like  a  frost  on  the  sciences 
and  arts,  and  the  splendor  of  Granada  was  gone.  The 
present  province  of  Granada  has  an  area  of  4,937  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  (1887)  484,341. 

Granada :  city  of  Spain  ;  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Granada  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  19-F).  It  is  built  on  two 
spurs  of  the  northern  range  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  2,445  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  has  a 
most  delightful  climate,  the  atmosphere  being  refreshed  by 
the  breezes  from  the  snowy  peaks  behind  the  city.  Below  it 
stretches  the  Vega,  the  plain  of  Granada,  watered  by  the 
Jenil  and  the  Darro,  and  once  remarkable  for  its  high 'state 
of  cultivation.  Granada  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and 
has  a  university  founded  in  1531,  and  yearlv  attenaed  by 
several  hundred  students,  and  a  large  cathedral,  most  gor- 
geously decorated  with  variegated  marble  and  containing 
the  monuments  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  But  its  chief 
interest  it  derives  from  its  historical  remains.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Moors  in  the  eighth  century,  and  became  in 
1248  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Granada.  As  such  it 
was  one  of  the  most  splendid  cities  the  world  ever  saw.  It 
had  400,000  inhabitants,  and  was  surrounded  by  a  strong 
wall  crowned  by  1,030  towers ;  and  in  spite  of  centuries  of 
decay,  not  only  the  Alhambra  (g.  v.)  but  manv  other  build- 
ings attract  the  traveler.    Pop.  (1887)  78,006.  ' 

Granada :  a  city  of  Nicaragua ;  on  the  northwest  shore  of 
Lake  Nicaragua,  near  the  foot  of  the  Mombacho  Volcano 
(see  map  of  Central  America,  ref.  6-H).  It  is  in  the  midst 
of  a  fertile  district  noted  for  its  fine  cacao  plantations.  The 
lake,  E.  of  the  city,  is  dotted  with  numerous  islets,  formed 
by  a  lava-flow  from  Mombacho,  but  now  covered  with  vege- 
tation and  very  picturesque.  Owing  to  its  situation,  Grana- 
da is  a  commercial  point  of  great  importance,  all  the  trade 
between  the  Pacific  and  the  lakes  passing  through  it.  A  rail- 
road connects  it  with  Managua,  Leon,  and  the  port  of  Corinto 
on  the  Pacific,  and  the  projected  Nicaragua  Canal  will 
greatly  increase  its  commerce.  It  was  founded  by  Hernan- 
dez de  Cordoba  in  1524 ;  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  it  was  one  of  the  most  important  places  in  the 
Spanish  colonies,  the  transit  trade  across  Nicaragua  pass- 
ing through  it ;  its  faire  attrai'ted  hundreds  of  traders.  Its 
university,  once  famous,  has  now  fallen  into  decay.  Gra- 
nada has  been  four  times  destroyed  by  fire ;  the  last  time 
during  the  filibusters'  war  of  1856',  when  it  was  temporarily 
the  capital  of  the  republic.    Pop.  (1893)  about  12,000. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Granadiria  [Span.,  diinin.  of  granada,  pomegranate] : 
the  fruit  of  several  tropical  species  of  passion-flower.  The 
great  granadilla  is  the  fragrant,  gratefully  sub-acid  fruit 
of  Passiflora  quadranyularia^  whose  root  is  emetic  and  nar- 
cotic. P.  laurifolia  (watermelon),  P.  maliformis  (sweet 
calabash),  filameniosa^  edalia,  and  many  other  species  bear 
edible  fruits.  They  are  all  natives  of  America.  See  Pas- 
sion-flower. 

Granbery,  John  Cowper,  A.  M.,  D.  D. :  b.  at  Norfolk, 
Va.,  Dec.  5,  1829 ;  educated  at  Randolph-Macon  College, 
Virginia ;  became  a  member  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South  in  1844 ;  was  a  chaplain  in  the  Confederate 
army  1861-65 ;  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  and  Practi- 
cal Theology  in  Vanderbilt  University,  Nashville,  Tenn., 
1875-82 ;  elected  a  bishop  in  1882 ;  and  published  a  Bible 
Dictionary  in  the  same  year.  J.  F.  H. 

Granbnry :  town ;  capital  of  Hood  co.,  Tex.  (for  location 
of  countv,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  3-H) ;  on  the  Brazos  river 
and  the  Ft.  W.  and  liio  G.  Railway ;  40  miles  S.  W.  of  Fort 
Worth.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  cat  tie- raising  region, 
and  has  two  weeklv  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  524;  (1890) 
1,104. 

Granby :  a  town  of  Shefford  County,  Quebec,  Canada ; 
on  the  northern  division  of  the  Central  Vermont  Railway; 
29  miles  E.  of  St.  Johns  (see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  6-C).  It 
has  a  good  water-power  and  several  mills  and  factories. 
Pop.  1,040. 

Granby,  John  Manners,  Marquis  of :  soldier ;  b.  in 
England,  Jan.  2, 1721 ;  eldest  son  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland  ; 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge ;  raised  a  foot  regi- 
ment in  1745;  was  chosen  to  Parliament  1754,  1761,  and 
1768  ;  became  colonel  of  the  Horse  Guards  in  1758 ;  lieuten- 


K' 


ant-general  in  1759,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  l»a::].' 
of  Minden ;  conitnanded  the  British  troops  in  the  S\»i. 
Years'  war  1760-68;  was  distinguished  at  Warburjj  17t/». 
at  Kirchdenken  1761,  at  Grftbenstein  and  Homburg  176,': 
became  master-general  of  ordnance  1763 ;  had  chief  c*  >ii.- 
mand  of  the  British  army  1766-70.  D.  at  Scarborout:h. 
Oct.  19, 1770. 

Gran  Chaco  [from  the  Quichua  c^a/ni,  the  animal?  drivtn 
together  by  a  round-up  hunt,  in  allusion  to  the  numcP'U^ 
Indian  tribes  inhabiting  it] :  a  region  in  South  America  «r;)- 
bracing  all  the  land  W.  of  the  Paraguay  and  N.  of  tl; 
Salado  to  the  highlands  of  Northwestern   Argentina   ai  i 
Bolivia,  and  northward  to  about  lat.  17'  30'  S. ;  it  thll^  in- 
cludes the  northeastern  part  of  Argentina,  the  southtuistirn 
part  of  Bolivia,  Western  Paraguay,  and  a  very  small  strip 
of  Brazil,  the  total  area  being  not  less  than  825,000  sq.  milv^. 
Formerly  the  name  was  extended  to  Northeastern  Boli\ia 
as  far  as  the  Guapre  and  Bern,  which  would  add  nearly  2<n>,- 
000  sq.  miles  to  the  estimate.    Excluding  this  Dortht-m 
region,  the  Chaco  is  a  vast  plain,  in  parts  perfectlv  flat,  eU^- 
where  slightly  rotiing,  the  whole  witn  a  very  gentle  slor*e  to 
the  southeast;  in  the  northern  part  there  are  some  ifwtlat'-'l 
hills,  and  westward  the  plain  is  broken  by  spurs  from  t  he 
highlands ;  but  the  general  surface  is  nowliere  more  than  a 
few  hundred  feet  above  sea-level.    The  great  rivers  V\Wi.- 
mayo,  Bermejo,  and  Salado  cross  it  in  a  southeasterly  direc- 
tion ;  they  have  very  tortuous  courses,  and  break  up  into  a 
network  of  channels  before  reaching  the   Paraguay.    All 
these  rivere,  as  well  as  the  Para^ay  itself,  are  subject  t-* 
yearly  freshets,  when  the  waters  rise  over  the  low  banK.s  aiii 
inundate  vast  areas  of  the  flat  lands ;  it  is  said  that  the  wh^le 
region  between  the  Bermejo  and  the  Pilcomayo   is  thi.< 
flooded,  only  small  portions  being  left  as  flat  islands.    .\^ 
the  waters  subside  the  soil  bakes  hard,  leaving  an  arid  wa^tr. 
with  stagnant  lakes,  pools,  and  swamps   here  and   th'.ri. 
Where  the  pools  are  lacking,  travelers  crossing  the  plain  ma} 
die  for  want  of  water  on  the  very  ground  that  was  fl<M.«.i,  .i 
10  feet  deep  a  few  months  before.    Large  areas  of  tlu.M- 
floodlands  are  covered  with  a  thin  growth  of  Carand^  pu!ni- 
{Copemicia  cerifera)^  presenting  a  very  peculiar  appeartint . 
Higher  portions  of  the  Chaco  are  covered  with  grassw  but  tl.- 
pasturage  is  nowhere  equal  to  that  of  the  pampas.     The  ^  i. 
IS  generally  sandy,  and,  judging  by  what  is  known,  little  cf 
it  is  adapted  to  agriculture.    True  forest  is  generally  ton- 
fined  to  the  river-banks  and  to  small  clumps  on  the  phiin<. 
but  there  are  vast  and  almost  impenetrable  thickets  <»f  1i>tv 
trees,  vines,  and  bushes.    In  the  southern  part  there  an 
extensive  salines.     The  climate  is  everywhere  hot  exctpt 
at  times  in  the  winter  months  (June  to  October).    Rain-^  an- 
not  abundant,  and  only  fall  from  October  or  Novoml>tr  to 
May.     Malarial  fevers  are  prevalent  in  many   I<x'aliii*'>, 
During  historical  times  the  Chaco  has  been  inhabited  !»y 
many  savage  Indian  tribes — the  Tobas,  Mocn^bis,  Vilelas,  ai  i 
others — nearly  all  of  wandering  habits,  and  often  at  war  with 
each  other.  Aany  of  them  hc^ve  cattle  and  horses,  desot'nt..- ! 
from  Spanish  stock.    All  efforts  of  the  early  missionaries  t.. 
Christianize  these  tribes  proved  unavailing.    Owing  to  lh»  ir 
hostility,  and  the  obstacles  presented  by  swamps,  floodlaihN. 
matted  thickets,  and  deserts,  exploration  in  the  Chaco  n^iri.  n 
is  peculiarly  difficult,  and  large  areas  are  still  unknDwt. 
One  of  the  latest  explorers,  Crevaux,  was  killed  with  1j> 
companions  in  1882.    The  Bolivian  Government  has  I  i.c 
been  seeking  for  a  practicable  route  across  the  Chaco  to  tl.- 
Paraguay,  and  military  expeditions  from  Argentina  ha\t 
penetrated  it  with  the  view  of  preparing  away  for  stiili- 
ment.     Civilization  is  slowly  extending  northward  acn  — 
the  Salado.    On  the  western  side  some  of  the  Argentina  nr.'l 
Bolivian  herdsmen  have  utilized  pastures  near  the  hiir'i- 
lands;  and  on  the  east  a  few  settlements  have  been  fonr.-il 
near  the  Paraguay.    But  the  whole  civilized  population  rl 
the  Chaco  does  not  (1893)  exceed  6.000  souls.     The  riur^ 
Pilcomayo  and  Bermejo  are  both  obstniete<l  by  l)ars  ani 
floating  vegetation,  but  it  is  hoped  that   the  latter   lu.iv 
eventually  be  utilized  for  navigation.    See  Thouar,  ^<>v/^; 
dans  Is  dhaco  boreal;  the  reports  of  Arenales,  Seelstninc. 
Cominges,  etc.  Herbebt  fl.  Smith. 

Grand  Army  of  the  Repablic:  a  fraternal,  charit  all  r>, 
and  patriotic  association  composed  exclusively  of  soldii  r- 
and  sailors  of  the  U.  S.  army,  navy,  and  marine-corps  whn 
served  during  the  civil  war  of  1861-65,  and  were  hon«^r- 
ably  discharged.  No  person  is  eligible  to  membership  vhr 
has  at  any  time  borne  arms  against  the  U.  S.  B.  F. 
Stephenson,  M.  D.,  who  served  as  surgeon  of  the  Fourteenth 


880 


GRAND  JUNCTION 


GRAND  RAPIDS 


mill,  beet-sugar  factory,  creamery,  and  canning-factory. 
There  arc  several  churches,  7  public-school  buildings,  Bap- 
tist college,  business  college,  opera-house,  water,  sewerage, 
gas,  and  electric-light  plants,  6  banks,  and  1  daily,  1  semi- 
weekly,  and  4  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  2,968 ;  (1890) 
7,536.  Editor  of  "  Independent," 

Grand  Junction  :  city :  capital  of  Mesa  co.,  Col.  (for  lo- 
cation of  county,  see  map  of  Colorado,  ref.  3-A) ;  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Grande  and  Gunnison  rivers,  and  on  the 
Rio  Grande  Railroad  and  the  Col.,  Mid.  and  the  Rio  G.  West. 
Railways.  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  horticultural,  stock-rais- 
ing, and  coal-mining  re^on,  and  has  8  churches,  6  school 
buildings  (including  a  high-school  building  that  cost  $20,- 
000),  opera-house  that  cost  |35,000,  2  banks,  and  1  daily  and 
2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  859 ;  (1890)  2,030  ;  (1893) 
estimated,  8,000.  Editor  of  "  Star." 

Grand  Jary  [from  0.  Ft.  prande  Juree,  great  court  or 
jury] :  a  jury  whose  province  it  is  to  determine  whether  in- 
dictments shall  be  brought  against  alleged  criminal  offend- 
ers ;  so  called  from  its  size,  as  distinguished  from  a  petit 
jury.  (See  Jury,  Trial  by.^  The  custom  of  making  the  trial 
of  any  person  for  a  crime  depend  entirely  upon  the  decision 
of  his  fellow  citizens  is  very  ancient  in  English  history ; 
and  its  importance  as  a  safeguard  of  civil  liberty  has  caused 
its  scrupulous  maintenance  to  the  present  day.  In  the  U.  S. 
provisions  have  been  inserted  in  tne  national  Constitution, 
and,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  State  constitutions  as  well, 
prohibiting  criminal  prosecutions  for  all  but  an  inferior 
chiss  of  offenses,  or  such  as  occur  among  the  military  or 
naval  forces,  except  upon  the  presentment  or  indictment  of 
a  grand  jury. 

At  the  common  law  a  grand  jury  consists  of  not  more 
than  twenty-four  members  nor  less  than  twelve,  and  the 
concurrence  of  at  least  twelve  is  required  that  a  bill  of 
indictment  may  be  found.  In  a  few  of  the  United  States 
the  number  of  members  composing  a  grand  jury  has  been 
altered  by  statute.  The  proper  number  of  jurors,  selected 
by  lot,  is  returned  by  the  sheriff  or  marshal  at  every  session 
of  a  court  for  the  trial  of  criminal  causes,  in  pursuance 
of  a  writ  termed  a  "  venire,"  which  directs  him  to  sum- 
mon a  jury  to  be  present  at  the  appointed  time.  After 
their  appearance  they  are  impaneled — that  is,  a  foreman  is 
appointed,  and  they  are  severally  sworn  to  perform  their 
duties  faithfully  and  impartially.  They  sit  in  absolute 
secrecy,  and  may  either  consider  and  pass  upon  bills  of  in- 
dictment presented  by  the  attorney-general  or  other  officer 
representing  the  government,  or  they  may  of  their  own  mo- 
tion make  presentments — that  is,  accusations  upon  their  own 
observation  and  knowledge  or  upon  evidence  laid  before 
them,  and  without  any  introduction  of  a  bill  at  the  instance 
of  the  governmental  officer.  Ordinarilv,  however,  the  busi- 
ness transacted  is  brought  forward  by  the  prosecuting  attor- 
ney, and  in  any  case  the  projKir  officer  must  frame  an  indict- 
ment upon  which  the  party  accused  may  be  brought  to  trial. 
The  proceedings  are  entirely  ex  parte.  Only  witnesses  in 
support  of  the  prosecution  are  examined,  and  no  evidence  is 
admitted  in  favor  of  the  accused.  The  decision  of  the  jury 
does  not  determine  the  guilt  of  the  alleged  offender,  but 
merely  indicates  that  in  their  opinion  the  evidence  against 
him  is  or  is  not  of  sufficient  weight  to  justify  his  being 
brought  to  trial.  The  jurors  are  not  ordmarily  permitted 
to  disclose  in  a  court  of  justice  what  occurs  in  the  jury- 
room,  in  order  that  the  consultation  may  be  free  and  un- 
biased, that  no  fear  of  animosity  or  hostile  acts  on  the  part 
of  those  against  whom  accusations  are  brought  may  deter 
the  jurors  from  agreeing  upon  an  indictment  if  they  deem 
it  proper  and  requisite,  and  that  those  indicted  may  not  re- 
ceive mtolligence  of  the  fact,  and  be  thus  enabled  to  make 
their  escape.  But  in  some  instances  a  grand  juror  may  by 
statute  be  compelled  to  serve  as  a  witness  upon  the  actual  trial 
of  the  cause,  as  to  prove  that  the  evitlence  of  a  witness  upon 
the  trial  was  directly  contrary  to  that  given  before  tin*  grand 
jury.  If  the  rcijuisite  numl)er  of  jurors  are  satisfied,  from 
the  evidence  presented  to  them,  of  the  truth  of  the  accusa- 
tion, they  write  upon  the  back  of  the  indictment  the  words, 
"A  true  bill";  but  if  they  are  convinced  that  the  charge  is 
groundless,  the  indorsement  is  '*  Niit  a  true  bill"  or  "  Not 
found."  Formerly  they  used  in  this  latter  case  the  word 
Iafwram%i8^ "  we  are  ignorant ";  wlionce  tiie  expression, "  the 
bill  of  indictment  has  been  ignored^  After  all  the  accusa- 
tions have  been  considered,  and  indictments  found  or  de- 
nied, their  labors  are  ended,  and  the  causes  are  rea<ly  for 
trial  before  a  petit  jury.      Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 


►  r 
•.u 


Grand  Lake,  La. :  See  Chetih aches  Lake. 

Grand  Ledg^e:  city;  Eaton  co..  Mich,  (for  local ir.n 
county,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  7-1) :  on  the  Grand  riv 
and  the  Detroit,  Lans.  and  North.  Railroad ;  12  miltrs>  W, 
Lansing.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  obtains  oxch]]. 
water-power  from  the  river,  and  has  2  flour-mills  and  man 
factures  of  chairs,  tile,  sewer-pipe,  and  other  articles.  Th^ 
are  4  churches.  2  school  distncts,  2  banks,  and  2  wtt  k 
newspapers.  It  is  the  leading  summer  resort  of  C«'n^r 
Michigan.    Pop.  (1880)  1,887 ;  (1890)  1,606. 

Enrroa  op  **  Independext." 

Grand  Mai :  See  Epilepsy. 

Grand  Manan'  [from  Fr.  ^am2,  great  +  Passama4)U(«Mv 
maihan^  island] :  an  island  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  iH-lonL'irii 
to  Charlotte  County,  New  Brunswick.  Lat  of  north. h-? 
head,  44'  45'  N.,  Ion.  66'  45'  W. ;  lat.  of  southwest  hea.1.  44 
34'  N.,  Ion.  66'  53'  W.  It  is  22  miles  long,  and  from  8  Uj  n 
miles  in  breadth.  It  is  fertile  and  well  timbered,  ami  r- 
coast  abounds  in  good  harbors.  Its  shores  are  bf^ld  nvA 
high,  but  the  general  surface  is  not  greatly  elevated.  Tt.- 
herring,  haddock,  and  cod-fisheries  are  important.  (iry.Mi 
Harbor  is  the  principal  settlement.  The  island  is  a  favorite 
summer  resort.    Pop.  8,000,  partly  Indians. 

Grand  Monad'nock,  or  Monadnock :  an  isolate«l  monr:- 
tain-peak  in  Jaffrejr  township,  Cheshire  co.,  N.  II.  It  :< 
3,718  feet  hi^h,  and  is  visible  for  many  m\\e&  in  evcr>'  <1  >:.■•- 
tion.  The  view  from  its  top  is  verv  fine.  It  is  regani«ti  a* 
an  outlying  member  of  the  White  Momitain  group. 

Grand  Pensionary,  or  State  Penslonarj :  the  <\-a*^' 

secretary  for  the  provmce  of  Holland  during  the  rejujl  i.  • 
of  the  United  Netherlands.  He  was  originally  also  ailv.^ 
cate-general  for  the  same  province.  In  later  tiroes  he  w.,^. 
bv  virtue  of  his  position,  an  official  of  the  Statei^enenil.  a 
kind  of  premier  in  that  body.  His  term  of  office  wh>  Ij^.' 
vears.  The  syndic,  or  paia  counselor,  of  any  imp<.rtaii' 
Dutch  town  was  called  a  pensionary. 

Grand  Pr^,  graan'pra'  HPr.,  great  meadow]:  a  beaut  if  i 
village  on  the  Basin  of  minas,  Horton  township,  Kiji_- 
County,  Nova  Scotia;  on  the  Windsor  and  Annapolis  M.wx- 
way  ;  15  miles  from  Windsor  (see  map  of  Quebec,  eic .,  r-  f. 
2-6);  the  scene  of  Longfellow's  Evangeline,  It  wa*  j^'tfi-  i 
by  the  French  under  I)e  Monts  in  1604,  but  passed  with  im- 
rest  of  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia  into  the  hands  of  u;  • 
British  in  1713.  The  expulsion  of  the  Acadian  c<>lnnw«.. 
however,  did  not  occur  till  the  year  1755.  The  Prt»  is  a  f*  r- 
tile  tract  of  diked  land ;  area,' 10  so.  miles.  Grand  IV'  i< 
the  seat  of  a  seminary.    Pop.  about  2,000. 

Grand  Rapids:  city;  capital  of  Kent  co.,  Mich,  (for  lo- 
cation of  county,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  7-fl) ;  on  (rni-  . 
river,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  and  on  the  Chi.  and  \\ . 
Mich.,  the  Detroit,  Gr.  Hav.  and  Mil.,  and  the  Lake  Sh.  ^ 
and  Mich.  South.  Railways,  and  the  Detroit,  Lans.  ai-; 
North.,  the  Gr.  Rap.  and  Ind.,  and  the  Mich.  Cent,  Rn;!- 
roads ;  30  miles  E.  of  Lake  Michigan.  It  is  in  an  agricu] ru- 
ral and  fruit-growing  region,  is  a  city  of  larg^  manufa<'Ui'-- 
ing  and  commercial  importance,  and  is  a  distriboting-j»«  l: 
for  vast  Quantities  of  pme  and  hard- wood  luml)er.  In  tLi 
census  of  1890  there  were  reported  114  industries,  rt|  n- 
sented  by  864  manufacturing  establishments  with  a  cap  'ni 
of  $14,978,015,  employing  12,814  persons,  and  paying  f  e/^'i:*.- 
758  as  wages.  They  expended  f9,171,347  for  materiul>  .hm: 
$1,286,532  for  miscellaneous  expenses,  while  the  value  of  tr* 
manufactured    products  amounted    to    $19,255,347.      Tv- 

f)rincipal  industries  were  the  manufacture  of  fumitiin-.  ■ ' 
umber,  shingles,  sashes,  etc.,  of  foundry  and  machinc-<)i<>( 
products,  flour  and  grist  mill  products,  and  carriag»*s  ai.i 
wagons.    Manufacturing  is  greatly  promoted  by  the  vxt'»  1- 
lent  water-power  afforded  by  Grand  river,  which  here  ht\>  :. 
fall  of  17  feet  in  2  miles.    Near  the  city  are  extensiv*'  iji.;i - 
ries  of  gypsum,  which  yield  annually  about  100,000  l»arrr\- 
of  stucco  and  100,000  tons  of  land-plaster.    Grand  Kh{i<l- 
has  3  public  parks,  asphalt  pavements,  electric  street -railway 
system,  electric  street  lighting,  reservoir  system  of  wat»r 
works,  85  churches,  32  public  and  23  private  schools,  fi  <•«  i.- 
vents,  4  theaters,  public  library  with  27,000  volumes,  5  n at i>f  - 
al.  2  State,  and  2  savings-banks,  and  1  trust  company,  w" 
combined  capital  of  $2,900,0(X)  and  deposits  of  more  tlur 
$8,000,000  (1893),  and  4  daily,  1  semi-weeklv,  18  weekly,  I 
semi-monthly,  and  11  monthly  periodicals,    "^he  chahUit  i- 
institutions  include  the  City  Home  for  the  Treatment  of  ( '. :  • 
tagious  Diseases,  Emerspn  Home,  Holland  Unicm  Benevt^l. 
Association  Home,  Home  for  the  Aged,  Invalids*  Home.  N'. 


882 


GRANIUS  LICINIANUS 


GRANT 


ica,  and  some  parts  of  the  Western  U.  S.  exhibit  ^anites  of 
Tertiary  age.  To  outline  the  geographical  distribution  of 
granitic  rocks  would  be  to  far  exceed  the  limits  of  this  article. 
They  are  found  in  all  great  mountain  regions,  like  the  Urals, 
Alps,  Rockies,  and  Andes,  or  in  the  eroded  roots  of  former 
mountain  ranges,  like  the  Auvergne,  Bohemia,  or  New  Eng- 
land. They  are  enormously  developed  in  Northern  Russia, 
Finland,  Scandinavia,  and  Canada. 

Origin. — The  origin  of  granite  has  been  one  of  the  most 
disputed  problems  of  geology.  This  rock  has  been  regarded 
as  produced  only  by  the  original  cooling  of  the  globe ;  it  has 
been  explained  as  a  normal  igneous  or  eruptive  rock ;  it  has 
been  accounted  for  as  the  result  of  extreme  metamorphism  of 
sedimentary  deposits ;  and  it  has  been  attributed  to  aqueous 
agency,  either  as  so-called  aquo-igneous  fusion  or  as  simple 
chemical  precipitation.  The  prolonged  discussion  has  been 
due  both  to  the  vagueness  with  which  the  different  theories 
have  been  formulated  and  to  the  manifest  difficulty  in  ex- 
plaining the  origin  of  all  rocks  having  the  composition  and 
structure  of  granite  by  a  single  hypothesis.  There  is  doubts 
less  an  element  of  truth  in  many,  if  not  in  all,  of  these  theo- 
ries. Some  granites  may  indeed,  for  all  we  know  to  the 
contrary,  represent  the  earth's  original  cooling  crust ;  some 
granites  have  been  proved  beyond  doubt  to  be  igneous  rocks 
of  the  ordinary  type ;  some  granites  may  also  be  extremely 
metamorphosed  sediments,  although  the  argument  commonly 
used  in  favor  of  this — ^their  association  with  gneiss— can  not 
now  be  regarded  as  validl    See  Gneiss. 

Economic  Uses  and  Supply. — The  wide  distribution,  com- 
pact structure,  homogeneous  appearance,  range  of  color, 
susceptibility  to  polish,  and  durability  of  granite — all  fit  this 
rock  for  an  extensive  application  to  architectural  and  deco- 
rative uses.  The  more  or  less  developed  jointing  or  "  rift " 
which  alwavs  traverses  granite  enables  it  to  be  readily 
quarried  in  blocks  of  any  desired  size. 

One  of  the  most  famous  granites  of  the  world  is  the  rather 
coarse,  red  hornblende-granite  of  Syene,  in  Upper  Egypt 
(formerly  called  syenite).  Of  this  the  ancient  Egyptians 
constructed  many  of  their  imperishable  monuments.  The 
durability  of  this  stone  is,  however,  largely  dependent  on 
the  dryness  and  warmth  of  the  climate.  An  obelisk  which 
has  remained  unaltered  in  Egypt  for  4,000  years  when  exposed 
to  northern  frost  and  moisture  readily  scales  and  crumbles. 
Among  famous  granites  of  Europe  are  those  of  Elba,  Baveno 
in  Northern  Italy,  Finland  (the  so-called  "  Rappikiwi  *'),  and 
Scotland  (Peterhead,  red,  and  Aberdeen,  gray).  A  beauti- 
ful granite  porphyry,  much  used  for  monuments,  comes  from 
Shap,  in  the  English  lake  district.  In  the  U.  S.  the  granite 
industry  is  large  and  constantly  increasing.  There  were 
produced  in  1889  14,500,000  cubic  feet,  valued  at  over  $62,- 
000,000.  Twenty-four  States  participated  in  this  production, 
of  which  the  four  most  important  were  Massachusetts,  Maine, 
'  California,  and  Connecticut.  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin  have 
a  fine  granite  which  has  begun  to  be  developed.  A  fine- 
^rainedgray  granite,  much  used  as  a  building-stone,  is  found 
m  Maryland  and  Virginia.  At  St.  George,  New  Brunswick, 
a  red  granite  is  found,  rivaling  in  color  and  quality  the 
famous  rock  from  Peterhead,  Scotland.  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  Sierras  contain  vast  supplies  of  granite,  which  has 
not  as  yet  been  economically  aeveloped.  See  Building- 
STOxVE ;  see  also  Building-stones  and  Statistics  of  Quarry- 
ing Industries  in  vol.  x.  of  the  Tenth  U.  S.  Census  Reports ; 
also  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration,  by  George  P.  Mer- 
rill (New  York,  1891). 

Disintegration. — Granitic  rocks  are  subject  to  disintegra- 
tion through  a  peculiar  alteration  of  their  feldspar.  This 
mineral,  under  atmospheric  influences,  loses  a  part  of  its 
silica,  and  by  the  gain  of  a  little  water  becomes  the  soft 
substance  known  as  kaolin.  Many  valuable  kaolin  deposits 
used  for  porcelain  manufacture  have  originated  in  this  way 
from  very  coarse  granites.  The  widespread  action  of  this 
process  causes  granite  to  disintegrate  into  sand,  or  to  weather 
into  rounded  blocks  or  dome-shaped  hills.  Granite  moun- 
tains therefore  usually  present  softly  rounded  outlines,  al- 
though they  sometimes  exhibit  sharp  peaks  like  the  Swiss 
aiguilles.  The  vast  accumulations  oi  granitic  blocks  caused 
by  the  weathering  of  this  rock  are  called  tors  in  England 
tkndTelsenmeer  inGennany.  George  H.  Williams. 

Granins  Licinianns :  See  Licinianus. 

Grant  [from  0.  Fr.  grant,  greant,  deriv.  of  granter, 
greanter,  creanter  (the  last  form  original,  the  forms  with 
g  perhaps  by  analogy  of  garantir,  warrant),  from  Low.  Lat. 
^credenta'rSy  grant,  credit,  deriv.  of  ere' dens,  pres.  partic.  of 


ere'dere,  believe] :  in  the  most  comprehensive  sense  of  the 
term,  a  transfer  of  any  kind  of  property  from  one  persoi.-  r . 
another,  or  the  bestowal  upon  or  concession  to  an  individL. 
of  any  right  or  privilege  by  the  public.    The  term  gro/.' 
however,  acquired  at  common  law  a  specific  technical  ^  :.- 
nification,  bein^  confined  in  its  application  to  a  conveynrx  . 
of  such  intangible  interests  in  real  property  as  rever>\<  i -, 
rents,  franchises,  and  other  kinds  of  incorporeal  faere<ii  La- 
ments, of  which  livery  of  seizin  could  not  be  made,  and  «  .l^ 
distinguished  from  feoffment,  which  was  employed  in  t  i 
transfer  of  freehold  estates  of  a  tangible  nature,  of  wi>     . 
an  actual  delivery  of  possession,  termed  in  law,  **  livery    • 
seizin,"  could  be  made.    (See  Feoffment.)    Therefore,  c< .  q  -  - 
real  hereditaments  were  said  to  **  lie  in  livery  *' — those  im  '.r- 

Soreal  to  "  lie  in  grant."    The  grant  was  evidenceii  by  u 
eed  containing  appropriate  woMs  of  transfer,  as  dtdi  tf 
concessi  (I  have  given  and  granted),  and  eorresp*»n«i«M^' 
terms  have  been  retained  in  conveyances  by  deed.     But  lip- 
oid system  of  feoffment  has  gone  out  of  use,  and  it  ha>  U-*  f 
declared  by  statute  in  England  that  the  distinction  bet « or. 
corporeal  and  incorporeal  forms  of  real  propertT  shall  u- 
abolished,  and  that  transfer  by  grant  shall  be  sudicient  f  r 
both  these  classes  of  estates.    In  the  U.  S.  also  the  aucii-i : 
and  distinctive  meaning  of  the  word  has  received  imp<3n:i.'.r 
modifications.    Still,  in  a  majority  of  the  States  it  wnuhi  U 
generally  employed,  if  used  at  all,  with  particular  refer*  :i.  •• 
to  the  conveyance  of  incorporeal  interests,  as  formerly.    Uh* 
in  New  York,  by  a  special  statutory  provision,  eTery  m-i. 
of  transfer  of  a  freehold  has  been  declared  a  grant,  s?o  th*: 
though  deeds  of  bargain  and  sale  and  of  lease  and  re]«  um- 
may  continue  to  be  used,  they  are  to  be  deemed  grant:^.    Ij 
Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Massachusetts   nearly  ev<-n 
form  of  conveyance  is  in  actual  practice  denominated  ri 
grant,  so  that  the  old  peculiar  meaning  of  the  word  st- .  n.< 
effectually  abolished. 

Besides  "private  grant,"  which  is  a  transfer  by  a  priva'- 
person,  there  is  a  mode  of  conveyance  known  in  law  a^ 
"office  grant,"  which  consists  in  a  transfer  of  land  mad.*  t  ^ 
some  officer  of  the  law  where  the  owner  is  either  unwii  'u 
or  unable  to  execute  the  necessary  deeds  to  pass  the-  :::-. 
An  example  would  be  the  conveyance  of  lands  sold  by  a 
government  official  for  the  payment  of  taxes,  or  by  an  i.-l- 
ministrator  under  license  oi  the  court  for  the  paymeii'  ■  1 
the  debts  of  the  deceased.  The  phrase  "  public  gram  "  i- 
employed  to  designate  the  mode  of  creating  a  title  in  aii  .:  - 
dividual  to  lands  which  had  previously  belonged  to  the  j-v. 
emment.  Conveyances  of  this  kind  are  also  termed  '*  k; Tt  -^ 
patent,"  Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen, 

Grant,  Sir  Alexander,  LL. D.,  D.  C. L.:  teacher;  h.  .\ 
New  York,  Sept.  13, 1826 :  educated  at  Harrow  and  Oxf.»i  . . 
went  to  Madras  1859,  where  he  became  Professor  of  Hi>t.<r^ 
and  Political  Economy;  in  1863  vice-chancellor  of  the  I'u:- 
versity  of  Bombay ;  appointed  director  of  public  instruct:  ^ 
for  the  Presidency  of  Bombay,  and  in  that  office  showevl '.  • 
highest  ability,  his  administration  marking  an  epoch  in  tl  •. 
history  of  education  in  India.    In  1868  he  was  elected  ph  .- 
cipal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  a  position  whivL  1  c 
h^d  till  his  sudden  death,  Nov.  30, 1884.    He  was  a  prohf « 
and  versatile  author.    Among  his  most  valuable  work?  rr- 
A  History  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh^  Lives  of  Xr- 
totle  and  Xenophon,  and  a  translation  of  the  Ethic-^  .^ 
Aristotle  (his  masterpiece).  Alfred  Gcdemax. 

Grant,  Anne:  author;  b.  in  Glasgow,  Scotland.  Feb.  -21. 
1755 ;  the  daughter  of  a  British  army  officer  named  Mo\' 
ar,  whose  estate  in  Vermont  (where  she  for  some  years  liv* 
was  confiscated  during  the  American   Revolution.     > 
married  in  1779  the  Rev.  Mr.  Grant,  of  Laggan,  and  U  - 
came  the  mother  of  a  large  family.    He  died  in  18l)l,  u\  i 
the  stress  of  poverty  forced  her  into  literary  work,     i   - 
Highlanders,  a  successful  volume  of  verses  (1803) ;  Z^ '.'-  » 
from  the  Mountains  (1806-07);  Memoirs  of  an  Ammr. 
Lady  (Mrs.  Schuyler,  of  Albany,  1808);  On  the  Sujf-'<- 
tions  of  the  Highlanders  (1811):  Eighteen  Hundrtd  •. 
Thirteen  (a  poem,  1814),  are  her  principal  works.     I>.  . 
Edinburgh,    Nov.    7,   1838.      Her    Life,    by  John     P.     - 
Grant,  her  son,  but  partly  autobiographical,  was  public L. 
in  1844  (rev.  ed.  1845  and  1853). 

Grant,  Sir  Francis  :  portrait-painter ;  b.  at  KilgTh«*  ' . 
Perthshire,  Scotland,  in  1804.  He  was  educated  for  tbo  .^ ' 
and  practiced  his  profession  for  a  time,  but  relinquish*.'*!  ' 
for  painting  about  1828.  He  began  without  a  master  r.  • 
was  first  known  as  a  painter  of  hunting  scenes:  bepin  •• 
paint  portraits  about  1840,  and  exhibited  an  equestrian  \<^  r- 


•t  - 


I   r 


884 


GRANT 


of  being  surrounded,  fiut  Grant  soon  rallied  the  force,  and 
charging  the  enem3r,  cut  his  way  out,  reached  the  steamers, 
and  returned  to  Cairo,  having  luUy  obeyed  his  orders  and 
accomplished  the  object  of  the  expedition.  If  any  re-enforce- 
ments had  been  intended  for  Missouri,  they  were  by  this 
operation  detained.  In  the  affair  of  Belmont  the  Confeder- 
ates had  7,000  men  engaged  against  Grant's  3,000.  Their 
loss  was  M2,  and  his  485.  Grant  carried  off  two  pieces  of 
artillery  and  200  prisoners. 

Early  in  Feb.,  1862,  after  repeated  applications  t^  Gen. 
Ilalleck,  his  immediate  superior,  he  finally  was  allowed  to 
move  up  the  Tennessee  river  against  Fort  Henry,  in  con- 
junction with  a  naval  force.  The  gunboats  silenced  the 
fort,  which  surrendered  on  the  4th,  before  the  troops  ar- 
rived. Grant  immediately  made  preparations  to  attack 
Fort  Donelson,  about  12  miles  off,  on  the  Cumberland  river. 
Without  waiting  for  orders,  he  moved  his  troops  to  the  lat- 
ter point,  and  on  the  12th  with  15,000  men  began  the  siege. 
This  position  was  extremely  strong,  and  the  garrison  num- 
bered 21,000.  There  was  hard  fighting^  on  three  succes- 
sive days,  and  on  the  15th  Grant  carried  by  assault  the 
works  which  were  the  key  to  the  place.  On  the  16th  the 
Confederates  surrendered  unconditionally  65  cannon,  17,- 
600  small-arms,  and  14,623  soldiers.  About  4,000  more  had 
escaped  in  the  night,  and  2,500  were  killed  or  wounded. 
Grant's  entire  loss  was  less  than  2,000.  On  the  last  day  of 
fighting  his  numbers  amounted  to  21,000.  This  was  the 
first  important  success  won  by  the  national  troops  during 
the  war.  Its  strategic  results  were  marked;  the  entire 
States  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  at  once  fell  into  the  na- 
tional hands,  and  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  the 
Tennessee,  and  the  Cumberland  rivers  was  opened  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles.  Grant  was  made  a  maior-general  of  volun- 
teers, and  placed  in  command  of  the  district  of  West  Ten- 
nessee. In  March  he  was  ordered  to  move  up  the  Ten- 
nessee river  toward  Corinth,  where  the  Confederates  were 
concentrating  a  large  army;  he  was  directed,  however,  not 
to  attack.  Accordingly  his  forces,  numbering  38,000,  were 
encamped  near  Shiloh,  or  Pittsburg  Landing,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Tennessee,  waiting  the  arrival  of  Gen.  Buell 
with  40,000  more ;  but  on  Apr.  6  the  Confederates  came  out 
f  com  Corinth,  50,000  strong,  and  attacked  Grant  violently, 
hoping  to  overwhelm  him  before  Buell  could  arrive ;  5,000 
of  his  troops  were  beyond  supporting  distance,  so  that  he 
was  largely  outnumbered.  Both  sides  fought  fiercely,  but 
the  national  forces  were  pushed  back  to  the  river.  There, 
however,  Grant  held  out  till  dark,  when  the  head  of  Buell's 
column  came  upon  the  field.  There  was  no  more  heavy 
fighting  that  night,  but  on  the  7th  the  combined  national 
armies  attacked  and  drove  the  hostile  force,  who  retreated 
as  far  as  Corinth,  19  miles.  Grant  was  senior  in  rank  to 
Buell,  and  commanded  on  both  days.  His  entire  loss  was 
13,047,  that  of  the  Confederates  was  greater,  with  the  loss  of 
their  commander.  Gen.  A.  S.  Johnston,  who  was  killed  on 
the  first  day  of  the  battle,  Apr.  6.  The  ground  remained  in 
the  hands  of  Grant,  and  the  object  of  the  attack  was  unat- 
tained.  Two  days  afterward  Halleck  arrived  at  the  front 
and  assumed  command  of  the  army.  Grant  remaining  at  the 
head  of  the  right  wing  and  the  reserve.  On  May  30  Corinth 
was  evacuated  by  the  Confederates,  although  no  fighting 
had  occurred  since  Shiloh.  In  July  Halleck  was  made  gen- 
eral-in-chief,  and  Grant  succeeded  him  in  command  of  the 
department  of  the  Tennessee.  On  Sept.  19  he  fought  the 
battle  of  luka,  where,  owing  to  the  failure  of  Gen.  Rose- 
crans  to  carry  out  his  orders,  only  an  incomplete  victory 
was  obtained.  The  national  loss  was  736,  that  of  the  Con- 
federates 1,438.  The  strategy  of  this  battle  was  Grant's, 
the  tacttics  were  those  of  Rosecrans  and  Ord.  Subsequently 
Grant  fortified  Corinth,  and  directed  the  operations  which 
resulted  in  the  repulse  of  the  Confederates  from  that  place 
on  Oct.  3  and  4,  and  in  the  battle  of  the  Hatchie  on  the  5th, 
the  commanders  under  him  being  again  Rosecrans  and  Ord. 
At  the  battle  of  Corinth  the  entire  national  loss  was  2,359, 
I  »at  of  the  Confederates  more  than  twice  as  large. 

Immediately  after  the  victory  of  Corinth  Grant  proposed 
to  the  general-in-chief  the  capture  of  Vicksburg,  ana,  re- 
ceiving no  answer,  on  Nov.  2  he  began  a  movement  into  the 
interior  of  Mississippi.  While  he  threatened  Vicksburg  from 
the  rear  with  30,000  men,  Sherman  was  sent  by  way  of 
the  Mississippi  river  with  40,000,  to  attack  it  in  front. 
Grant  advanced  without  opposition  as  far  as  Oxford,  50 
miles,  when  Holly  Springs,  his  principal  base  of  supplies, 
was  surrendered  by  Col.  Murphy,  who  was  dismissed  from 
the  army  in  consequence.    This  compelled  the  abandonment 


\C--'. 


l*>  t. 


■«1' 


L'      »' 


of  the  campaign,  and  Grant  returned  to  the  neighborh 
of  Corinth.  Sherman's  assault  on  Vicksburg  failed  at  ^l 
the  same  time.     In  Jan.,  1863,  Grant  took  command    • 

Cerson  of  all  the  troops  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  ni'-w  . 
y  the  river  to  a  point  opposite  Vicksburg.  There  he  >[•  -:: 
several  months  in  fruitless  efforts  to  turn  the  place ;  <  i  ^ 
plan  was  to  build  a  canal  in  sight  of  Vicksburg,  but  uut  .-f 
reach  of  its  guns,  through  which  the  army  could  pa-^  r-  n 
point  below;  another,  to  divert  the  Mississippi  river  fr 
its  course:  a  third,  to  find  or  make  a  circuitous  pas?a>:i- 
the  rear  of  the  town  through  the  tortuous  streams  on  ih'-  N. 
and  E.  But  all  these  failed,  and  in  April  Grant  man.-L>  .1 
his  army  through  the  swamps  on  the  western  bank  r..  :i 
place  below  Vicksburg,  while  the  gunboats  and  the  tn. re- 
port fleet  ran  the  batteries  under  a  terrific  fire.  On  Arr.  :»» 
ne  crossed  the  river,  and  landed  at  Bruinsbnrg,  30  mli^-^  ^. 
of  Vicksburg.  Two  armies  were  now  opposed  to  him.  IVim- 
berton,  with  52,000  men,  defended  Vicksburg,  and  J.  E.  J«  r.ii- 
ston,  with  a  smaller  but  rapidly  increasing  force,  wa<  ..: 
Jackson,  50  miles  farther  E.  Grant's  column  was  -^^^t^"* 
strong.  He  at  once  abandoned  all  communication  with  'i  e 
river,  and  pushed  into  the  interior  between  the  two  h*-ti.rr 
armies.  On  May  1  he  met  and  defeated  a  portion  of  Pm}- 
berton's  command  at  Port  Gibson ;  then  advancing  east^H^.i. 
on  the  12th  he  fell  upon  and  destroyed  a  force  comiiiLr  •  ^: 
from  Jackson  to  resist  him ;  and  on  the  14th  he  capt  i.:>  i 
Jackson  and  scattered  Johnston's  army.  Turning  tlie  ^.-xi^.f 
day  to  the  Mississippi,  on  the  16th  he  utterly  route<i  P»  n  - 
berton's  entire  force  at  Champion's  Hill;  on' the  17th.  r.  ^- 
suing  hotly,  he  came  up  with  the  enemy  and  beat  him  ni:>  n 
at  Black  River  Bridge;  and  on  the  "l8th  drove  him  irr- 
Vicksburg,  encamping  in  its  rear,  with  his  own  base  "isv 
more  on  me  Mississippi.  On  the  19th  and  22d  he  mad«  -m- 
successful  assaults,  and  on  the  23d  began  a  regular  su  j^ . 
On  July  4  the  place  surrendered  with  81.600  men  an-i  17"2 
cannon,  at  that  time  the  largest  capture  of  men  and  mar*  ".:»! 
ever  made  in  war.  During  the  entire  campaign  the  I'  ..- 
federates  had  lost  40,000  prisoners,  besides  12,000  in  k..  .  . 
and  wounded,  and  about  8,000  by  disease  and  straggling :  &  *  - 

f  ether  an  army  of  60,000  men.    Grant's  entire  loss  waV  n>7^: 
'he  great  river  was  thus  opened  to  the  sea,  and  n».»  n^.  r- 
important  fighting  occurred  m  the  Mississippi  valley.    G  r.i  '• 
was  made  a  major-general  in  the  regular  army.    (>n  CH :.  >< 
he  was  placed  m  command  of  the  military  division  « >!  •  • 
Mississippi,  which  included  the  armies  of  the  Ohio  arit't  - 
Cumberland,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Tennessee^  with  wh 
he  had  been  so  long  associated.    Chattanooga  was  at  t*  > 
time  beleaguered  and  almost  surrounded  by  nostile  f*  •:•  •.  -. 
and  the  army  of  the  Cumberland,  which  defended  it.  -%.  - 
in  imminent  danger  of  starvation  or  capture.     On  iK  •.  j. 
Grant  reached  this  place,  and  on  the  27th  the  battle  •>' 
Lookout  valley,  fought  under  his  direction,  relieved  the  .^rT'iv 
of  the  Cumberland.    On  Nov.  23,  24,  and  25  he  foujrhi  *:  - 
battle  of  Chattanooga,  utterly  defeating  Brage,  driving:  •.  j  . 
from  positions  that  seemed  impregnable,  and  cantun:!.-  .u 
the  open  field  over  5,000 prisoners  and  40  pieces  of  anil.  r-. . 
His  own  losses  were  6,616;  the  Confederates  reporteii  '2  "-•• 
killed  and  wounded,  besides  prisoners.  Grant's  force  in  r  - 
battle  was  60,000;  that  of  Bragg,  45,000;  but  the  eneni}  - 
joyed  advantages  of  position  which  more  than  countf  r» .  - 
anced  the  disparity.    The  victory  of  Chattanoogn  overt  iir  ' 
the  last  important  hostile  force  W.  of  the  Alle^^hanies.  &:  ^. 
opened  the  way  for  the  national  armies  into  Georgia. 

The  remarkable  series  of  successes  which  Grant  had  -i  * 
achieved  pointed  him  out  as  the  appropriate  leader  if  * 
national  armies.    In  Feb.,  1864,  the  rank  of  lieutenanr-iZ'   - 
eral  was  created  for  him  by  Congress,  and  on  Mar.   17 
assumed  command  of  the  armies  of  the  U.  S.    Having  Um*  -  ■ 
all  the  other  important  hostile  commanders,  and  brok» '  . 
pieces  every  other  great  opposing  force,  he  now  prejvan- ' 
encounter  in  person  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia,  u:;  :  ■ 
Lee,  and  at  the  same  time,  by  his  subordinate's  to  tn  • 
all  the  remaining  forces  of  the  enemy,  so  that  no  Confer i»  r.  • 
army  could  in  any  emergency  or  by  any  possibilitv  >ui'i  •  ■ 
another.    Accordingly,  while  he  sent  Sherman  into  (Te«  re   . 
and  directed  Sigel  to  penetrate  the  vallev  of  Virginia.  ;i' 
Butler  to  capture  Riciimond,  he  fought  tis  own  wa>  :r 
the  Rapidan  to  the  James.    On  May  4  he  could  put    ' 
battle  110,000  soldiers;   Lee  confronted  him  with   T-k*  •■. 
while  30,000  under  Butler  were  opposed  by  the  same  r.-  • 
ber  at  Richmond,  and  Sigel  with  7,000  fought  Breckenr:  . 
with  5,000  or  6,000.   Before  Grant  reached  the  James  h*  - 
lost  6,000  men  killed,  26,000  wounded,  and  nearly-  7,1W>  r*  -- 
ing.    The  losses  of  Lee's  troops  can  never  be  known,  as- '.'    ' 


886 


GRANTA 


GRANVILLE 


New  York  at  a  cost  of  $500,000,  chiefly  contributed  by  citi- 

Adam  Badeau. 


zens. 


Granta :  a  river  of  England.    See  Cam. 

Grantham :  town  of  England ;  in  the  county  of  Lincoln, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Witham,  and  on  the  Great  North- 
em  Railway,  25  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Lincoln  (see  map  of  Eng- 
land, ref.  8-1).  Its  church  is  an  interesting  building  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  with  a  fine  spire  278  feet  high.  In  its 
grammar  school,  founded  in  152o,  Newton  received  his  first 
education.  There  ar^  manufactures  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments and  brick.    Pop.  17,500. 

Grant's  Pass :  town  (incorporated  1884) ;  capital  of 
Josephine  co.,  Ore.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Ore- 
gon, ref.  7-B) ;  on  the  Rogue  river  and  the  S.  Pacific  Rail- 
way ;  equidistant  between  Portland  and  San  Francisco.  It  is 
in  an  agricultural,  mining,  fruit-raising,  and  lumber  region ; 
is  the  distributing-point  for  the  trade  of  a  large  area ;  and 
contains  4  churches,  large  union  school,  gas,  water,  and 
electric-light  plants,  railway-car  and  machine  shops,  opera- 
house  that  cost  $19,000,  a  national  bank,  2  weeKly  news- 
Eapers,  and  manufactures  of  brick,  carriages,  and  wagons, 
rooms,  matches,  and  lumber  products.    Pop.  (1890)  1,432. 

Granular  Lids  (synonyms :  granular  ophthalmia^  gran- 
ular conjunctivitis,  trachoma^  Egyptian  ophthalmia,  mili- 
tary ophthalmia) :  an  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva,  in 
which  the  membrane  loses  its  smooth  surface  owing  to  the 
formation  of  "granulations,"  or  yellowish-red,  rounded 
bodies,  which  after  absorption  leave  cicatricial  changes.  It 
is  usually  described  under  two  forms,  a^iute  granulations 
and  chronic  granulations.  Chronic  granulations  may  re- 
sult from  the  imperfect  disappearance  of  acute  granula- 
tions, but  more  frequently  appear  as  a  primary  disorder. 
Certain  individuals  are  predisposed  to  the  disease,  and,  al- 
though its  subjects  are  often  pale  and  anaemic,  there  is  no 
known  constitutional  disorder  which  causes  it.  The  pre- 
disposition also  includes  races,  the  Jews,  the  Irish,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  East,  as  well  as  the  Indians  in  the  U.  S., 
being  especially  liable  to  the  affection,  while  the  Negroes  are 
almost  exempt.  Dwellers  in  certain  regions  of  the  earth 
where  the  climate  is  damp  are  readily  affected,  while  an 
altitude  of  1,000  feet  coniers  comparative  immunity.  A 
large  amount  of  evidence  has  accumulated  indicating  the 
dependence  of  granular  lids  upon  the  presence  of  a  special 
form  of  micro-organism,  which  is  known  as  the  trackoma- 
C0CCU8.  The  contagious  nature  of  the  affection  is  un- 
doubted. The  essential  elements  of  this  disease  are  the  **  gran- 
ulations," and  this  word  refers  to  the  characteristic  feature 
of  granular  lids,  and  must  not  be  confused  with  the  gran- 
ulation tissue  or  proud  flesh  which  is  seen  in  wounds.  One 
form  of  the  disease,  called  follicular  conjunctivitis,  is  due 
to  enlargement  of  the  natural  follicles  of  the  conjunc- 
tiva, but  in  true  granular  lids  bodies  of  special  structure, 
called  tra^ihoma  nodules  or  granules,  develop  under  the 
circumstances  which  have  been  described.  In  the  acute 
variety  the  symptoms  are  like  those  of  a  violent  ophthalmia, 
added  to  which  is  the  formation  of  roundish  granulations. 
In  the  chronic  variety,  often  without  any  preceding  inflam- 
mation, the  yellowish-red  semi-transparent  bodies  develop, 
especially  on  the  folds  of  the  conjunctiva  which  join  the 
lids  and  the  eyeball  together.  Gradually  these  increase, 
the  lids  become  thickened,  the  granulations  soften,  break 
down,  and  form  scar  tissue.  New  ones  take  their  places, 
and  so  the  process  is  repeated  again  and  again.  With  the 
softening  tnere  is  often  much  discharge,  which  is  markedly 
contagious.  The  roughened  lids  rub  over  the  cornea  ani 
irritate  it,  producing  an  inflammation  of  this  membrane  in 
which  a  great  many  new  blood-vessels  form  in  its  layers, 
called />a  Tin  MS,  which  when  inveterate  has  been  treated  by 
producing  a  violent  inflammation  with  an  infusion  of  the 
seeds  of  tlie  Ahrus  precatorius  (paternoster  bean).  When 
the  acute  stage  disappears  the  pannus  may  also  subside.  It 
is  a  dan^rous  method.  The  lids  become  distorted  bv  the 
contraction  of  the  scar  tissue,  and  the  eyelashes  are  misplaced 
and  rub  against  the  eyeball.  In  neglected  cases  these  serious 
changes  may  cause  destruction  of  sight.  It  is  an  exceed- 
ingly tedious  disease,  and  months  and  even  years  elapse 
before  its  cure  is  brought  about.  The  treatment  of  gran- 
ular lids  consists  in  the  application  of  such  remedies  as 
will  cause  absorption  of  the  "  granulations  "  with  the  least 
possible  scar  tissue.  For  this  purpose  many  caustics  are 
used,  among  which  the  most  noted  are  nitrate  of  silver, 
strong  solutions  of  corrosive  sublimate,  sulphate  of  copper 
or  bluestone,  and  boro-glyceride,  which   is  a  mixture  of 


borax  and  glycerin.  A  host  of  other  remedies  have  be-t-;] 
recommend^  in  addition  to  these,  comprising  till  thr  U>: 
known  antiseptics  and  astringents.  In  many  cases  it  U- 
comes  necessary  to  operate.  The  best  operations  are  thtM* 
by  which,  with  certain  specially  devised  instrument ji:,  t;t 
contents  of  the  granulations  are  evacuated,  either  by  a 
squeezing  process  (expression)  or  by  rubbing  (grattnf;^  •. 
Under  certain  circumstances  electricity  is  applied. 

The  disease  was  probably  known  to  the  ancient  E;.'7r>- 
tians  1500  b.  c.  It  'has  been  the  means  of  seriously  iiit*  r- 
fering  with  the  operations  of  armies  in  the  £Iast,'and.  a> 

feneral  attention  was  first  called  to  the  disease  by  Larr^-y^ 
escription  of  the  state  of  the  eyes  of  the  French  army  in 
Egypt  in  1798,  it  is  often  called  Eayptian  ophthalmia'  al- 
though no  doubt  this  disease  includes  many  other  forms  <.f 
conjunctival  affections  besides  true  granular  lids.  The  sol- 
diers who  returned  from  the  Egyptian  campai^s  are  ^u}•- 
posed  by  some  authorities  to  have  been  the  means  of  dis- 
seminating this  disorder  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

G.  E.  DE  SCHWKIXITZ. 

Granvelle  (Fr.  pron.  graan'vel).  or  GranTella.  Aktoine 
DE  Perrenot,  Cardinal:,  b.  at  Ornans,  fiur^undv,  Au|r-  ^0, 
1517;  the  son  of  the  Sieur  de  Granvelle,  Pnme  Minister  Xi> 
Charles  V. ;  studied  law  at  Padua  and  theology  at  Louvair: : 
became  Bishop  of  Arras  1540 ;  attended  the  Diets  of  Wonus 
and  Ratisbon  1540,  and  in  1545  was  sent  to  the  Council  cf 
Trent,  where  his  great  diplomatic  talent  first  found  an  o}<- 
portunity  to  show  itself;  became  a  prominent  stAte  o«  ui.- 
cilor  under  Charles  V.,  and  in  1550  took  the  ohancellur- 
ship  of  the  empire  after  his  father's  death;  negotiated  the 
treaty  of  Passau  1552;  arranged  the  marriage  betwttru 
Philip  II.  and  Mary  of  England  1553,  which,  however,  ii^i 
to  a  result  quite  opposite  to  that  which  was  expe<-ted.  hs 
the  marriage  was  without  issue,  and  England,  after  tL^ 
death  of  Mary,  immediately  placed  herself  among  the  \ni- 
terest  enemies  of  Spain;  concluded  the  treaty  of  Cattau- 
Cambresis  1559 ;  was  minister  to  the  Duchess  of  Parma  in 
the  Low  Countries  1559-64 ;  became  Archbishop  of  ^IolK- 
lin  1560,  cardinal  1561,  and  in  1564  retired  to  Be«^niim. 
compelled  to  leave  his  office  by  the  clamors  of  nobler  nii>l 
people,  led  by  Horn,  Egmont,  and  the  Prince  of  Orai;;:*-. 
Granvelle's  tyranny  was,  indeed,  of  the  most  odious  kiuii. 
He  introduced  swarms  of  Spanish  troops  into  the  Xeihi-r- 
lands,  supported,  and  even  encouraged,  the  Inquisiti<<n. 
and  destroyed  the  flourishing  commerce  and  industry  of 
the  country.  Never  has  a  minister  been  more  bittVrly 
hated  than  he  was.  His  house  was  plundered,  burned.  an<i 
razed  to  the  ground,  and  caricatures  of  him  were  publu  .y 
sold  in  the  streets.  Afterward  he  became  Spanish  envdv  ti.> 
Rome  1570 ;  Viceroy  of  Naples  1570-75  ;  became  pre^i^.lt'^l 
of  the  supreme  council  of  Italy  and  Castile  1575 ;  was  trar:^ 
lated  to  the  archbishopric  of  Besan^on  1584.  D.  in  Madrid. 
Sept.  21, 1586.    He  was  a  man  of  learning  and  ability. 

Granyille,  graan'veel'  [Fr.,  great  city] :  a  fortified  town 
of  France;  in  the  department  of  La  Manche.on  the  English 
Channel  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  3-0).  It  has  a  hydrogni[>D- 
ic  college  and  manufactures  of  brandy,  chemicals,  and  iron- 
ware. Ship-building,  tanning,  and  fishing  (oysters  and  o  d  > 
are  important  industries.    Pop.  (1891)  12,721. 

Granyille :  village ;  on  railway ;  Washington  co.,  X.  Y. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  New  Yort  ref.  4-K) :  65 
miles  N.  of  Albany.  Within  the  limits  of  Granville  town- 
ship are  five  other  villages  and  several  cheese-factorit  >. 
Granville  Female  Seminary  is  located  in  the  villago  ^^f 
North  Granville.  Principal  business  of  the  town,  agricul- 
ture and  the  quarrying  and  manufacturing  of  roofing  slatt. 
mantels,  and  all  articles  of  marbleized  slate.  Pop.  of  town- 
ship (1880)  4,149  ;  (1890)  4,716. 

Granyille  :  village  ;  Licking  co.,  O.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  5-F) ;  on  Raccoon  creek  &rA 
the  Toledo  and  Ohio  Central  Railway ;  28  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Columbus.  It  is  the  seat  of  Denison  Universitt  {g.  »•>. 
the  Shepartlson  College  for  Women,  and  the  Granville  ¥*"- 
male  College  (Presbyterian,  opened  1827).  It  has  a  bar.k. 
and  3  weekly  and'  2  quarterly  periodicals.  Pop.  (l^Ni 
1,127 ;  (1890)  1,366. 

Granyille,  George:  Viscount  Lansdowne,  Baron  rt 
Bideford ;  b.  in  1667 ;  was  educated  at  Trinity  ColU»i:t\ 
Cambridge;  kept  aloof  from  politics  during  the  reign  vf 
William  and  Mary  on  account  of  his  S3rmpathy  for  tht 
Stuarts;  wrote  Heroic  Love^  British  Ench/ifiters,  hnd  t^hrT 
dramas,  besides  poems ;  became  the  head  of  the  farniiy  ^  ^ 


888 


GRAPE 


GRAPE-CURE 


very  severe  pruning,  but  the  wine  grape  or  Vitis  vinifera 
can  be  more  severely  pruned  than  other  species.  Grape 
pruning  and  training  are  greatly  simplified  if  one  comes 
thoroughly  to  understand  that  the  fruit  is  borne  upon  wood 
of  the  current  year's  growth.  That  is,  the  shoots  bloom  as 
they  grow,  early  in  the  season — the  grape  does  not  develop 
fruit-buds  in  the  fall.  The  number  of  Buds  which  is  left  on 
a  vine,  therefore,  does  not  directly  determine  how  many 
clusters  of  grapes  the  vine  will  bear,  for  each  bud  is  to  make 
a  branch,  whicn  in  turn  will  bear  grapes.  This  explains 
the  very  close  pruning  of  grapevines.  Tne  canes  or  ripened 
shoots  of  any  season  are  cut  back  to  two  to  four  or  five 
buds,  and  some  of  the  canes  may  be  removed  entirely  if  they 
are  numerous.  Ordinarily  three  or  four  canes  will  be 
enough  to  leave,  each  being  cut  back,  so  that  a  very  large 
vine,  after  pruning  in  the  winter,  may  bear  only  eight  to 
forty  buds.  The  nature  of  the  prumng  depends  greatly 
upon  the  character  of  the  variety  or  the  species.  Some 
strong  varieties  of  native  grapes,  as  Concord  and  Niagara, 
can  well  carry  twice  as  much  wood  as  weaker  varieties,  like 
the  Delaware.  It  follows  that  if  each  successive  year's 
growth  is  cut  back  to  a  few  buds,  the  bearing  wood  must  be 
constantly  removing  itself  from  the  root  or  crown  of  the 
plant  In  order  to  prevent  this,  or  to  keep  the  wood  near 
the  stock,  a  new  cane  is  often  trained  up  from  the  root, 
which  shall  ultimately  take  the  place  of  the  old  stock  or 
plant;  but  by  judicious  pruning  the  grower  can  prevent 
the  accumulation  of  too  many  "^  spurs,"  as  the  remnants  of 
the  pruned  canes  are  called,  and  can  keep  the  bearing  wood 
near  the  crown. 

There  are  very  many  ways  of  training  the  grape,  but  it  is 
well  to  bear  in  mind  at  the  outset  that  the  American  varie- 
ties can  not  be  cut  back  so  closely  as  the  European*  The 
European  vine  can  be  made  to  stand  entirely  alone  without 
any  support  whatever,  and  this  is  the  common  system  in 
California.  The  "  stump  "  or  trunk  of  these  vines  varies  in 
height,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  operator.  Sometimes 
the  branches  start  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  some- 
times the  trunk  is  2  or  3  feet  high.  Tying  to  a  single  stake 
is  also  often  practiced  with  the  wine  grape.  The  American 
■pecies,  however,  are  commonly  train^  upon  a  trellis.  The 
high  renewal  system  demands  three  wires.  The  "  arms,"  or 
the  permanent  portion  of  the  vine,  reach  the  bottom  wire 
and  are  tied  to  it.  The  canes  are  cut  back  to  within  a  few 
buds  of  these  arms  every  winter.  These  pruned  canes  are 
tied  horizontally  on  the  lower  wire,  and  tne  shoots,  as  they 
grow,  are  tied  perpendicularly  to  the  wires  above.  This  is  a 
favorite  system  for  Catawba,  Delaware,  and  all  varieties  of 
medium  or  weak  growth.  It  is  idso  well  adapted  to  the 
stronger  sorts,  but  in  them  too  much  summer  tying  of  shoots 
is  required,  and  such  vines  usually  overgrow  the  trellis. 
This  system,  while  it  secures  fruit  of  the  finest  quality,  de- 
mands much  hand  labor  during  summer,  and  a  cheaper  sys- 
tem must  eventually  supersede  it  for  the  common  varieties. 
Its  strongest  competitor  is  the  Kniffln  system.  Here  only 
two  wires  are  required,  and  the  top  one  stands  from  5  to  6 
feet  above  the  ground.  Two  canes  are  trained  out  in  each 
direction  on  each  wire,  and  the  bearing  shoots,  instead  of 
being  tied  up,  are  allowed  to  hang,  thus  doing  away  with 
all  tying,  except  that  required  to  keep  the  main  canes  on 
the  wires.  The  Kniffin  system  is  especially  adapted  to  all 
strong  growing  varieties,  and  it  is  now  the  favorite  one  in 
the  grap)e  districts  of  New  York. 

Culture  and  Propagation, — Grapes  demand  a  well-drained, 
warm,  and  gravelly  soil,  and  a  location  free  from  late  spring 
and  early  fall  frosts.  The  American  varieties  are  usually 
most  reliable  near  bodies  of  water,  which  modify  the  tem- 
peratures at  both  ends  of  the  growing  season.  Vine-yards 
are  ordinarily  given  clean  culture  throughout  the  season,  or 
until  the  fruit  is  ready  to  pick.  The  vines  are  set  from 
6  to  8  feet  apart  each  way,  the  distance  depending  upon 
the  strength  and  habit  of  the  variety.  Grapes  are  usually 
propagated  by  means  of  cuttings  of  hardwood  taken  in  the 
fall  and  stored  until  spring  in  a  cool  cellar  or  buried  in 
a  gravelly  place.  New  or  rare  varieties  are  sometimes 
started  under  glass  from  cuttings  of  single  "  eves  "  or  buds. 
Greenwood  cuttings  and  layers  are  occasionally  used.  The 
vine  can  be  grafted  with  ease,  but  the  scion  should  be  in- 
serted below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  else  it  will  be  broken 
out  by  the  wind. 

Diseases^  etc, — The  grape  is  subject  to  many  diseases  and 
insects,  of  which  the  worst  probably  is  the  Phylloxera 
{q,  v.).  The  downy  mildew  {Peronospora  viiicola)  is  a  fun- 
gous disease  affecting  the  leaves  and  the  fruit,  causing  the 


latter  to  rot.  Upon  the  leaves  it  appears  as  slight  frost-Hk^^ 
patches  upon  the  under  surface,  causing  discolored  sjH.ts 
above,  and  finally  resulting  in  the  premature  death  or  gre.ir 
injury  of  the  entire  leaf.  The  mildew  of  Europe  (oldiuin* 
is  a  different  disease  from  this,  and  is  kept  in  check  i»v 
dusting  sulphur  upon  the  vines,  and  before  the  nature  <if 
the  downy  mildew  was  known  this  remedy  was  uri^ed  ujm>;i 
growers  in  the  U.  S.  But  dry  sulphur  has  little  influt* m  • 
upon  the  downy  mildew,  and  its  use  has  been  given  iif'. 
Tne  American  or  downy  mildew  is  common  in  Europe,  how- 
ever, and  the  French  have  found  a  remedy  for  it  in  the  K."- 
deaux  mixture,  and  a  new  remedy  has  been  added  in  the  I*.  >. 
in  the  ammoniacal  carbonate  of  copper.  (See  Fungk'il>e.> 
Either  of  these  compounds  is  a  specific  for  mildew  if  appli^l 
from  four  to  six  or  eight  times  at  intervals,  beginning  ju<i 
before  the  blossoms  open  and  continuing,  if  necessary,  until  a, 
short  time  before  the  grapes  begin  to  color.  The  black-n«t 
(LcBstadia  hidwellii),  also  an  American  disease,  causes  a 
serious  shriveling  and  decay  of  the  fruit,  but  it  can  be  ko[>t 
in  check  by  the  same  means  as  recommended  for  the  dowiiy 
mildew.  Of  the  numerous  insects  peculiar  to  the  grape  and 
allied  plants,  the  so-called  thrip,  or  leaf-hopper,  is  almost  as 
serious  as  the  phylloxera.  This  is  a  minute  insect  feedin<: 
on  the  leaves.  In  grape-houses  the  thrip  is  kept  at  bay  1>y 
fumigating  with  tobacco  or  pyrethrum.  In  the  field  ken»- 
sene  emulsion  (see  Insecticide)  applied  as  a  spray  is  recom- 
mended. Some  growers  catch  the  insects  on  sneetsof  sticky 
fly-paper  carriecf  on  poles,  the  insects  being  scared  up  by  a 
person  who  precedes  the  operator.  The  rose-chafer  is  alst^  a 
serious  pest,  especially  on  light  soils,  but  no  good  remedy 
beyond  hand-picking  is  known. 

Varieties. — Over  500  varieties  of  grapes  indigenous  to  the 
U.  S.  are  described.  The  most  popular  kinds  are  Conconi, 
Worden,  Niagara,  Catawba,  Delaware,  Champion,  Brighton, 
Moore's  Early,  Pocklington,  Ijady,  Cynthiana,  Norton  s  Vir- 

finia,  Herbemont,  Ives,  Lady  Washington,  Martha,  the  Roj:er< 
vbrids  already  mentioned,  and  others  for  special  localiTit'^. 
f^or  graperies  under  glass  the  following  are  popular:  B1h<  k 
Hanaburg,  White  Frontignan,  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  Chti^ 
selas,  St.  JPeter's,  Black  Since.  For  varieties  suited  to  C  aii- 
fomia,  and  other  information  concerning  grape-culture  tlier . 
consult  the  articles  Raisin  and  Wine. 

There  is  a  large  grape  literature  in  the  U.  S. ;  the  most  re- 
cent information  is  to  be  found  in  the  Bushherg  Caialogut. 
Husmann's  American  Grape -growing  and  mne-mnkin'!, 
Barry's  Fruit  Garden^  Mitzsky's  Grape  Culture^  Thomji>V 
America/n  Fruit  Culturi8t,'Ba,ilej*s  American  Orape  Tratn- 
ing,  Charlton's  Grape-growers^  brtiide  (for  glass  grape  rie-^. 
Wickson's  California  Fruits,  and  Eisen's  Raisin  Indut^trt/. 

L.  H.  Bailey. 

Grape-enre :  a  systematic  administration  of  grapes,  or  «f 
certain  parts  of  them,  in  large  quantities,  for  the  reli^^f  ••f 
disease.  This  mode  of  treating  various  ailments  is  most  ti- 
tensively  carried  out  in  Germany,  while  there  are  places  in 
which  it  is  practiced  in  Austria,  Hungary,  and  Switzerlani. 
In  France,  however,  where  vineyards  are  very  numerr>us. 
there  seems  to  be  no  place  where  the  grapcn^jure  is  regularl} 
used.  In  using  grapes  for  the  grape-cure  it  is  customary-  ri> 
reject  both  the  SKins  and  the  seeds,  and  to  swallow  only  iht^ 
pulp  and  the  juice  which  surrounds  it.  These  cont^  in 
1,000  parts  (about)— 

Water 885-0 

Grape-sugar ISO*© 

Free  acid 4*0 

Albumin '      5*6 

Pectin,  etc 2*9 

Salts 2^5 

Total 1,000H) 

Tannin  is  found  in  the  juice  only  when  derived  from  bn>k^>n 
seeds  or  bruised  skins  or  stems.  In  the  grape-cure  it  s 
usual  to  begin  with  a  pound  or  two,  and  gradually  t<^  in- 
crease the  quantity  to  6  or  12  lb.  a  day.  This  quantit>  .- 
divided  in  three  portions.  The  first,  consisting  of  h..  f 
the  daily  quantity,  is  taken  in  the  morning  before  e^tinc 
anything  else,  though  patients  who  find  this  not  to  hsr*^ 
with  them  are  permitted  to  take  the  grapes  after  a  brv-nV- 
fast,  or  even  to  eat  some  bread  crusts  with  the  grapes.  If 
the  grapes  are  eaten  before  breakfast,  the  meal  follows  in  fcc 
hour,  and  consists  of  bread,  tea,  coffee,  thin  chocolate.  ''T 
a  light  soup.  The  second  portion  of  the  grapes  (a  quar- 
ter of  the  daily  quantity)  is  taken  an  hour  before  the  nii'i- 
day  meal.    The  third  portion  (again  a  quarter  of  the  wboi^ 


890 


GRAPHITE 


GRASLITZ 


Merriman  and  Jacoby,  Chaphic  Stattes  (New  Fork,  1890J ; 
and  Hoskins,  Elements  of  Graphic  Statics  (New  York, 
1893).  Many  of  the  books  raenUoned  under  Bridges  also 
contain  chapters  on  applications  of  graphic  statics  in  the 
determination  of  stresses.  Mansfield  Merriman. 

Graphite  [deriv.  of  Gr.  ypd/p€ufy  write] :  a  form  of  carbon 
(often  called  plumbago  and  bla>ck  lead),  usually  classed  as  a 
mineral,  but  supposed  to  be  of  organic  origin  and  the  ulti- 
mate product  of  the  destructive  distillation  of  vegetable  or 
animal  tissue.  When  pure  it  crystallizes  in  flat  hexagonal 
tables.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1*81,  and  its  hardness  from 
0*5  to  2.  As  it  occurs  in  nature,  graphite  is  usually  mixed 
with  more  or  less  foreign  matter,  consisting  of  silica,  alu- 
mina, lime,  magnesia,  etc.  The  purest  known  variety  of 
natural  graphite,  found  at  Ticonaeroga,  N.  Y.,  consists  of 
99*9  carbon.  The  best  Ceylon  graphite  contains  99  per 
cent.,  and  that  from  the  famous  Borrowdale  mine  in  Cum- 
berland, England,  87  per  cent,  of  carbon.  The  inferior 
varieties  of  graphite  frequently  contain  50  to  00  per  cent,  of 
foreign  matter.  Graphite  usually  occurs  in  metamorphic 
rocks,  such  as  gneiss,  granite,  slate,  crystalline  limestone, 
etc.,  but  it  also  is  sometimes  found  in  trap.  It  is  often  pro- 
duced in  iron  furnaces,  crystallizing  in  nat,  specular  flakes 
in  cavities  in  the  cast  iron.  In  many  instances  it  is  seen  to 
be  the  direct  product  of  metamorphism  on  coal,  as  at  Craig- 
man,  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  where  coal  is  altered  by  trap,  and 
at  Newport,  R.  I.,  where  the  coal,  highly  metamorphosed  in 
mass,  varies  from  anthracite  to  graphite,  and  may  oe  classed 
as  graphitic  anthracite.  Still  more  direct  evidence  of  the 
conversion  of  vegetable  tissue  into  graphite  is  seen  in  the 
coating  of  graphite  which  sometimes  covers  the  impressions 
of  fossil  plants  in  metamorphosed  carboniferous  strata. 
Here  it  is  plain  that  the  graphite  is  the  residual  product  of 
the  distillation  to  which  the  vegetable  tissue  has  been  sub- 
jected. Graphite  occurs  most  abundantly  in  somewhat  ir- 
regular sheets  or  in  detached  masses,  occupying  nearly  the 
same  plane  in  gneiss,  slate,  and  other  metamorphic  rocks. 
In  these  instances  it  apparently  represents  collections  of 
vegetable  matter,  like  tnose  which  in  more  recent  deposits 
form  beds  of  coal.  Graphite  also  occurs  as  a  more  or  less 
abundant  constituent  oi  graphitic  schist,  which  is  probably 
but  the  metamorphic  condition  of  bituminous  shale.  Usual- 
ly these  stratifiea  deposits  of  graphite  contain  much  earthy 
matter.  Graphite  also  frequently  occurs  in  detached  grains, 
crystals,  lumps,  or  masses,  sometimes  of  remarkable  purity. 
In  this  category  should  be  included  the  specks  and  grains 
found  in  crystalline  limestone  at  Amity,  Orange  co.,  N.  Y., 
the  flattened  crystals  of  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  the  larger 
masses  found  in  trap  at  the  Borrowdale  mine,  England,  and 
perhaps  those  of  the  no  less  famous  Alibert  mine,  Siberia. 
In  some  of  these  cases  the  graphite  is  almost  chemically 
pure,  and  it  seems  to  have  crystallized  out  of  its  associa- 
tions, as  it  does  in  cast  iron.  The  detached  masses  or  par- 
ticles of  graphite  which  occur  in  limestone  probably  repre- 
sent the  carbon  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  animals  of  which  the 
shells  and  bones  have  supplied  the  calcareous  matter.  Many 
unchanged  limestones  contain  asphalt  and  petroleum,  and 
these,  in  the  process  of  metamoiphism,  may,  by  the  loss  of 
their  hydrogen,  be  left  as  masses  or  specks  of  nearly  pure 
carbon.  The  e^raphite  which  is  sometimes  found  filling  fis- 
sures in  crystalline  rocks  is  perhaps  the  product  of  the  meta- 
morphism of  asphaltic  veins  or  asphaltic  coals  like  albertite, 
grahamit-e,  chapapote,  etc. 

The  uses  of  graphite  in  the  arts  are  very  varied.  It  is  a 
good  conductor  of  electricity,  and  is  frequently  employed 
lor  coating  molds  in  electrotyping.  It  is  largely  used  for 
foundry  facings  and  in  the  manufacture  of  stove  polish.  It 
is  also  an  excellent  lubricant,  and  is  frequently  added  to  the 
compositions  applied  to  the  bearings  of  machinery  to  reduce 
friction.  The  great  consumption  of  graphite,  however,  is  for 
the  manufacture  of  crucibles  and  pencils.  Although  in  cer- 
tain circumstances  graphite  will  ourn,  producing  carbonic 
acid,  yet  it  is  practically  infusible.  When  mixed  with  clay 
and  molded  into  crucibles,  it  forms  one  of  the  most  refrac- 
tory substances  known,  and  supplies  the  material  from  which 
the  best  crucibles  used  in  chemistry  and  metallurgy  are 
made.  For  the  manufacture  of  pencils  only  the  finer' vari- 
eties of  graphite  are  used.  Where  it  occurs  in  blocks  of 
considerable  size  and  great  purity,  it  is  sawed  in  sheets, 
and  these  are  again  cut  into  rods  which  are  insert-ed  in 
wooden  holders.  The  graphite  obtained  from  the  Borrow- 
dale mine  was  largely  used  in  this  way,  and  the  pencils 
made  from  it  were  in  such  repute  that  the  material  was 


sometimes  sold  at  ^40  per  pound.  The  Siberian  graphite 
from  the  Alibert  mine  is  also  used  in  the  same  way  for  the 
manufacture  of  pencils,  the  monopoly  of  which  has  been  en- 
joyed by  A.  W.  Faber,  of  Stein,  Germany.  Although  pencii? 
made  from  the  purest  natural  graphite  are  mostnigbiy  es- 
teemed, nearly  all  those  used  are  manufactured  from  graph- 
ite washed  free  from  its  impurities,  ground  to  an  impuf table 
powder,  and  then  consolidated  by  pressure,  with  or  with<mt 
cement.  For  the  harder  pencils  a  considerable  quantity  (>t 
fine  clay  is  mixed  with  the  powdered  graphite. 

The  great  source  of  supply  of  graphite  or  plambago  to 
commerce  and  the  arts  is  Ceylon.  The  imports  into  the 
U.  S.  in  the  fiscal  vear  ending  June  30, 1893,  amounted  to 
14,207  gross  tons.  Most  of  the  product  of  this  island  is  sent 
to  the  United  Kingdom  for  distribution  or  manufacture.  It 
varies  much  in  purity,  some  being  almost  entirely  free  frr>m 
foreign  matter — being  second  only  to  the  Ticonderoga  graph- 
ite in  purity — while  other  varieties  contain  large  quantit  it's 
of  earthy  matter.  These  different  grades  are  applied  to  <iif- 
ferent  uses,  the  finer  qualities  serving  for  the  manafacture 
of  pencils,  the  coarser  for  crucibles,  etc.  Graphite  is  abo 
produced  in  considerable  abundance  at  Hamon,  Sweden; 
at  Passau,  Bavaria;  Schwarzbach,  Bohemia;  Stiermark. 
etc.  It  has  also  been  discovered  in  the  province  of  Nel'on. 
New  Zealand.  In  the  U.  S.  graphite  occurs  at  innmneral^ie 
localities,  but  is  mined  in  a  pure  state  only  at  Ticonderoga, 
N.  Y.  Impure  grades  are  mined  at  Raleigh,  N.  C,  Cum- 
berland Hnl  and  Cranston,  R.  I.,  and  near  Asheville,  N.  (.'. 
Important  deposits  of  graphite  exist  in  Canada,  the  mc?^ 
considerable  of  which  is  perhaps  that  of  Buckingham  on  th(f 
Ottawa  river,  16  miles  above  Ottawa  city.  This,  like  mo^t 
of  the  New  England  and  New  York  graphite,  occurs  in 
gneiss  and  crystalline  limestone,  and  is  mixed  with  much 
foreign  matter,  from  which  it  needs  to  be  freed  by  crushing? 
and  washing.  The  impurities  contained  in  or'associat»^l 
with  graphite  are  of  two  kinds — (1)  the  foreign  matter  of  tlit» 
rock  which  contains  it,  and  (2)  earthy  material  intiinaiely 
blended  with  it.  From  the  former  it  may  often  be  ea>ily 
separated  by  washing.  The  latter  is  an  inherent  impurity, 
like  the  ash  in  coal,  and  its  character  and  quantity  det  er- 
mine the  value  and  uses  of  the  materiaL  Sometim^  it  ex- 
ists as  a  mere  trace,  as  in  the  Ticonderoga  graphite,  or  it 
may  amount  to  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  mass.  The 
market  value  of  graphite  is,  however,  not  directly  propor- 
tioned to  the  earthy  matter  or  ash  it  contains,  as  even  when 
this  is  in  large  amount,  if  very  fine  and  equally  diffused,  it 
may  not  forbid  the  employment  of  the  material  for  the 
manufacture  of  pencils  and  other  uses  for  which  a  kind  i^ 
demanded  that  commands  a  high  price.  For  the  manufac- 
ture of  crucibles,  graphite  may  contain  much  ash,  provided 
the  quantity  of  lime,  magnesia,  etc.,  is  smalL  Much  of  the 
alkalies  or  alkaline  earths  renders  the  substance  fusible. 
The  market  price  of  graphite  is  variable,  but  the  avera^ 
commercial  quality  applicable  chiefly  to  the  manufacture  cf 
crucibles  is  worth,  at  wholesale,  from  $150  to  $800  per  ton, 
the  latter  for  the  best  grades  of  lump. 

Revised  by  Charles  Kischboff. 

Graphotype  [from  Gr.  ypnpii,  writing  +  Eng.  -type,  from 
Gr.  rms,  impression,  denv.  of  r^rrciy,  strike] :  a  proi  e-^< 
by  which  prints  are  made  without  engraving.     A  tablet  ot 

Srepared  and  compressed  chalk  is  used,  and  upon  it  th« 
raughtsman  makes  his  drawing  with  a  peculiar  ink.  The 
tablet  is  gone  over  with  a  brush  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave 
the  inked  parts  in  relief.  The  chalk  is  then  hardened  bv  i&d 
appropriate  process,  and  from  it  electrotypes  may  be  taken. 
Well-made  graphotype  plates  sometimes  afford  prints  i>f 
much  merit. 


Grap'tolites  [from  Mod.  Lat  graptolites;  Gr.  y^arrit, 
written,  deriv.  of  ypd^a^,  write  +  xiBosj  stone]  :  fossil  IJt,- 
drozoa  of  the  genus  Monograptus  and  its  allied  gent>re: 
named  ("written  stone")  from  the  slender  black  traeint> 
left  by  the  fossils  upon  the  slates  in  which  they  occur.  Thoy 
first  appear  in  very  early  Lower  Silurian  rocks,  and  havt> 
been  recognized  as  high  up  as  the  Hercynian  rocks  of  Ger- 
many, which  have  been  placed  in  the  Lower  Devonian  by 
Keyser.  They  were  somewhat  closely  allied  to  the  \W\i\z 
sertularians,  and  constitute  a  sub-order,  Graptolithida,  i>f 
the  order  Hydroida  of  the  classification  of  Zittel. 

Revised  by  H.  S.  WtLniAMs. 

Graslitz,  graas'lits:  a  town  of  Bohemia;  near  the  frL>D- 
tier  of  Saxonv ;  about  90  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Prague  by  rail 
(see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  3-D).  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  musical  and  mathematical  instruments  and  of  look- 


The  most  generally  accepted  clossiflcation  of  the  erossra 
is  that  by  Hackel.  an  outlioe  of  which  is  here  given,  tliough 
not  a  stru-Uy  natural  one.  He  divides  the  lamily  into  thir 
teen  tribes  as  follows: 

Series  A.  Spikehls.  nne-  or  tiro-floaered.  the  lowtr  when 
present  imptrfeet;  falling  from  the  pedicel  entire,  or  to- 
aether  vrith  certain  joints  of  the  axis  at  maturily. 

Tribe  I.  ifot/iieiB.— Staminate  spikelets  occupying  the 
upper  portion  of  the  inflorescence,  or  ot  its  divisions,  the 
pistillate  below ;  stem  tall  witli  pith ;  leaves  broad  and  flat 
starch  grains  of  endosperm  simple  (Pig.  i.  A).  Repre- 
sented by  Indian  com  (Zea  mays),  teosinte  {Euehitena  iuiu- 
rians),  etc. 

Tribe  II.  XniiropoyorawB.— Spikelets  in  spike-like  racemes 
two  (rarely  pne)  at  each  joint  of  its  mostly  artieuUte  aiis 
one  sessile  and  one  pedicellate.  Spikelets  generally  one 
flowered,  with  three  empty  glumes;  stamens  three,  rarely 
two  or  one ;  HUrch  grains  simple  (Fig,  4.  B).  The  blue- 
stems  of  the  plains  of  Nort.h  America,  and  the  sugar-cane 
(Sacehorumopcinarum)imdborgiuim(Andropogonaorghum. 
Tars  taecharatua,  vulgaris,  and  niger  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  Old  World)  are  well-known  members  of  this  tribe. 


Tnbe  VL    Oryzta — Spikelete  one-flowered    perfect    or 


Pro,  S.— A,  tTlbe  PanlcetE  \  ipllielet 


- .  -r — "■    B,  trtlw  Ortua : 

■pikeket  ot  Orria. 

compound  (Fig.  5,  B).  Wild  rice  {Zizania  aqvatiea)  ot  !h<' 
ponas  of  North  America  and  Northeastern  Asia,  and  ni-> 
[Oryta  tatiira),  a  native  of  India  and  now  cultivated  in  all 
warm  countries,  are  the  best--known  representatives. 

Series  B.  Spikelets  one-  to  many-flowered,  iU  axi»  gener- 
ally articulated  above  the  empty  glumes,  and  in  the  vne- 
flouKTed  form*  frequently  produced  beyond  the  flotttrt ;  the 
spikelets  in  falling  avmy  teatte  the  empty  glumes. 

Tribe  VII.  PAaiortrf««.— SpikeleU  all  fertile,  one-flow- 
ered, or  with  one  or  two  starainate  flowers  below  the  upi'-r 
perfect  one  ;  empty  glumes  four  (or  the  two  inner  one:^  iv  >- 
ing  as  flowering  glumes  for  the  staminale  flowers),  uncinnl. 
or  one  rudimentary;  flowering  glume  and  palel  lalera'iv 
oompressedi  one-nerved  or  nerveless,  awnless;  starch  gTni;is 
compound  (Fig.  6,  A).    Canary  grass  and  ribbon  grass  ispi- 


ut^ist 


Tribe  III.  Zojffiwe.— Spikelpts  solitary  or  in  groups,  us 
ally  one-Howereil,  the  (lowering  glume  always  awnle; 
membranaceous ;  the  empty  glumes  of  flrmer  tonture  ai 
freijuently  awned.  axis  continuous.  Starch  grains  simph 
(PJK.  4.  l").  Mostly  natives  of  hot  climatfS.  Four 
of  Hilaria  an<l  two  of  jSgopogon  occur  in  the  S< 
U.  tS.  A  species  of  Tragus  is  an  introduced  weedy  grass  in 
the  SoutliCHstern  U.  S. 

Tribe  IV.  TWVfffi'neiE.— Spikelets  all  with  stamens  and 
pistils,  one-  to  two-flowered,  in  panicled  racemes,  whose  axis 
Li  continuous.  Empty  glumes  three,  the  third  sometimes 
having  the  tanelion  of  a  flowering  glume  of  a  starainate 
flower  (Fiji.  *•  ^)-     All  tropical. 

Tribe  \.  Panice<B. — S|)ifcelet8 

flowered,  the  second  flower  star. , 

in  the  aiil  of  the  third  glume;  arranged  in  spikes,  rawimes, 
or  panicles;  axis  usuallv  continuous.  Flowering  glume 
and  palet  of  the  perfect  'flower  firmer  in  texture  than  the 
empty  glumes,  and  unawncd;  empty  glumes  rarely  awned; 
slarch  grains  simple  (Fig.  5.  A).  Paspalum  (180  species, 
mostly  tropical),  PUnieum  (300  species,  mostly  of  warm 
climates),  Srtaria  (10  species),  anil  Puiiiisetum  (40  sjieeies, 
mnstlvof  hot  climates)  are  important  ns  fumisliing  flour- 
prmlueinr  grains  in  many  warm  countries.  They  also  yield 
valuable  forage  (or  domestic  animals.  A  few  are  pernicious 
weeds,  e.  g.  species  of  Panieum,  iSetaria,  Cenckrua,  etc. 


cics  of  Phalan's)  and  vanilla-grass  (HteroehJof)  are  commt-n 
representatives  of  the  tribe. 

Tribe  VIII.  Agrostidea.—Spi)ieleta  one-flowered,  nsuii:;.- 
all  perfect,  its  axis  sometimes  prolonged  beyond  the  i>a!t ' : 
empty  glumes  often  unequal,  usually  as  long  aa  or  loi;:;!  r 
than  the  flowering  glume  (rarely  none);  palet  usually  r«  - 
nerved;  starch  grains  compound  [Pig.  6,  B).  This  inci'  ;■- 
several  of  the  most  important  forage  grasses  of  the  I",  S.. 
e.  g.  timothy  (Phleum  pralense),  redtop  (Agroslis  fulgori' . 
meadow-foxtail  {Alopeairut  pratensis),  brides  manv  w; .; 
species  of  Muhienbergia,  Sporobolns.  Catamagroetir.  i-v. 
Speaes  ot  Ariel ida  laid  SI ipa  are  dangerous  to  sheet>.  l:. 
sharp-pointed  fruiting  glumes  easily  penetrating  the  skm. 

Tribe  IX.  jltviifn".— Spikelets  two-  to  many-flowe^?J. 
mostly  arranged  in  panicles  (rarely  in  spikes),  the  flow.r- 
all  perfect,  or  one  staminate :  empty  glumes  usually  li.n.-.  r 
than  the  flowering  glumes,  which  are  ^nerally  awnnl  i, 
the  back;  palet  two^keeled;  starch  grains  coin'pound  'V.:. 
7,  A).  The  cultivated  oat  (Avena  sativa)  and  the  tall  ■  i:  ■ 
grass (j1rrA«na(Aeruinar«nacr«m),bothfromthe01<lW.  r  .. 
belong  here. 

Tribe  X.  Chlorides. — Spikelets  one-  to  many-flowerpii  ■  i 
ranged  in  two  rows  upon  one  side  ol  the  axis  of  a  spiki 
raceme) ;  palet  two-nerved;  starch  grains  compound  irai 
simple)  (Fig.  7,  B).  Among  the  members  of  this  triln'  a', 
cord-grass  {Spartina),  gama  {Souleloua),  several  spei  u  -  ' 
the  great  plains,  and  the  famous  buSalo-frrass  (Bull'  • 
daclyfoidee).  once  abundant  upon  Ihe  great  plains  but  i  ■ ' 
fast  disBf>]iearing.  Species  of  £?<usine  are  grown  in  Ii^  .  ■ 
and  .'Vfrjca  for  their  floury  grains,  from  which  breail  .-': 
beer  are  made. 

Tribe  XI,  /"m/mmib.— S[)ikelcts  two-  to  manT-flower-  . 
rarely  one-flowered,  usually  all  perfect  (arranged  in  pani<  '.■ 


894 


GRASS-TREES 


GRATZ 


Grass-trees  [so  called  from  the  long  grass-like  leaves], 
or  Black-boys :  popular  name  of  long-lived,  tree-like,  lilia- 
ceous plants,  somewnat  resembling  the  vucca  in  habit ;  be- 
longing to  the  i^enus  XanthorrhcBa,  They  grow  in  Tasma- 
nia and  Austraua.  There  are  several  species,  of  which  X 
hcuitilia  and  humilis  are  best  known.  Their  leaves  are  not 
stiff  and  sharp  like  the  leaves  of  yucca,  but  are  gathered  as 
food  for  cattle.  The  tender  base  of  the  leaves  is  edible  and 
agreeable.  The  tree  abounds  in  a  balsamic  gum  which  has 
been  used  in  medicine.  The  "  grass-tree  or  black-boy  gum  " 
is  obtainable  in  inexhaustible  quantities,  and  has  been  rec- 
ommended as  a  source  of  illuminating  gas  and  of  picric 
acid. 

Grass  Talley:  township  in  Nevada  co.,  Cai.;  on  the 
Nevada  County  Narrow-gauge  Railroad  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  5-D) ;  the  center  of  the 
chief  gold  quartz-mining  district  of  the  State,  from  which 
source  it  derives  the  principal  part  of  its  business.  It  has 
two  orphan  asylums,  high,  intermediate,  and  preparatory 
public  schools,  foundries,  quartz-mills,  etc.  Grass  Valley  is 
the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Pop.  of  township 
(1880)  6,688 ;  (1890)  6,798. 

Grass-wrack,  called  Eel-grass  in  the  U.  S. :  the  Zostera 
marina,  a  salt-water  plant  of  the  family  Naiadacem,  growing 
in  coves  and  sea-ditcnes,  alwavs  under  water.  It  grows  in 
both  the  (Jld  World  and  the  New,  and  is  used  to  weave  into 
the  coverings  of  flasks,  as  a  material  for  stuffing  mattresses 
and  cushions,  and  as  packing  for  glass  and  queensware.  In 
the  U.  S.  it  is  gathered  like  seaweed,  chiefly  as  a  manure. 

Gra'tian,  or  Gratia'nns,  Franciscus  :  founder  of  the  sci- 
ence of  canon  law ;  b.  at  Chiusi,  Italy,  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury ;  entered  the  convent  of  Classe,  near  Ravenna,  whence 
he  removed  to  that  of  St.  Felix  de  Bologna.  Here  he  wrote 
his  Decretum,  and  sent  it  to  the  pope,  Alexander  III.,  who 
in  reward  appointed  him  Bishop  of  Chiusi.  The  Decretum 
is  a  complete  and  systematized  collection  of  all  the  canons 
issued  by  the  popes  and  councils.  It  is  divided  into  three 
parts :  (i)  De  Ministeriia,  subdivided  into  101  distinct  tones ; 
(2)  De  iVip^o/ns,  sulxlivided  into  36  caiASCB;  (H)  De  Saora- 
mentis,  subdivided  into  5  distinctiones.  There  existed 
earlier  collections  of  this  kind,  but  they  were  itastly  inferior 
to  that  made  by  Gratian,  and  the  science  of  canon  law  was 
not  taught  in  the  theological  schools  until  after  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Decretum.  As  Gratian  never  doubted  the  au- 
thority of  the  False  Decretals,  and  as  his  collection  was  used 
and  referred  to  for  more  than  three  centuries  without  com- 
ment or  reservation,  it  contributed  very  much  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  doctrine  of  the  pope  s  authority  as  above 
the  canon  law,  absolute  and  unrestrained;  of  the  exemp- 
tion of  the  clergy  from  the  secular  jurisdiction,  etc.  In 
1580,  under  Pope  &regorv  XIII.,  a  critically  revised  and  cor- 
rected edition  of  the  becretum  was  published  in  Rome, 
forming  the  first  part  of  the  whole  Corpus  Juris  Canonici, 

Gratian,  Gratianus  Augustus:  Roman  emperor;  son 
of  Valentinian  I. ;  b.  359  A.  d.  ;  succeeded  his  father  in  375 
as  Emperor  of  the  West,  his  uncle  Valens  reigning  in  the 
East  until  378;  succeeded  Valens  in  that  year,  out  gave  the 
dominion  of  the  East  to  Theodosius  I.  lie  was  a  zealous 
supporter  of  the  Church,  and  persecuted  with  eaual  zeal 
pagans  and  heretics  of  the  Christian  confession.  His  wars 
against  the  barbarians  were  measurably  successful.  He  was 
murdered  in  383  A.  D.  by  Andragathius,  a  follower  of  Maxi- 
mus,  who  succeeded  him  as  emperor. 

Gratio'la  [Mod.  Lat.,  deriv.  of  Lat.  gratia,  grace,  in  ref- 
erence to  its  siipposed  healing  properties] :  a  genus  of  herbs 
of  the  order  ScrophulariacecB.  The  U.  S.  have  numerous 
species,  none  of  them  important.  The  hedge-hyssop  (G. 
officinalis)  of  Europe  and  some  South  American  species 
have  been  used  in  medicine. 

Gratiot,  Charles:  soldier;  b.  in  Missouri  in  1788;  grad- 
uated at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1806,  and  entered 
the  army  as  second  lieutenant  of  engineers;  promoted  to 
be  captain  in  1808,  major  1815,  lieutenant-colonel  1819,  and 
colonel  and  chief  engineer  U.  S.  army  (brevet  brigadier-gen- 
eral) 1828.  During  the  war  with  Great  Britain  (1812-15)  he 
served  with  distinction  as  chief  engineer  of  the  army  in  the 
Northwest;  subsequently  in  the  construction  of  fortifica- 
tions to  1838,  when  placed  in  command  of  the  corps  of  en- 
gineers, which  position  he  held  till  Dec,  1838,  when  he  was 
dismissed  by  the  President  for  having  failed  to  pay  into  the 
treasury  certain  balances  of  money  placed  in  his  hands  for 
public  purposes.    In  1852  he  appealed  to  the  U.  S.  Senate 


for  an  expression  of  opinion  as  to  the  legality  of  his  dis- 
missal, and  the  committee  on  the  judiciary,  although  deciK- 
ing  such  expression  inconsistent  with  their  duty,  report »-ii 
that  his  pleas  deserved  attention.  The  case  of  Gen.  Gratis! 
was  never  reopened,  and  after  holding  a  clerkship  in  the  lari'i 
office  at  Washin^n  from  1840  to  1^,  he  went  to  St.  Lt.tj:^. 
Mo.,  where  he  died  in  destitute  circumstances  May  18.  1n>5. 

Gratry,graa'tree',  AuGUSTB  Joseph  Alphonse  :  author:  K. 
at  Lille,  France,  Mar.  30, 1805 ;  studied  at  the  £cole  Pol  vt<H  h- 
nique ;  became  in  1841  director  of  the  College  Sainte-I)arb». 
Paris ;  almoner  of  the  higher  normal  school  1846-51 ;  tta> 
one  of  the  reorganizers  of  the  Oratory  of  the  Imma<.*ulate 
Conception,  and  became  an  instructor  of  youth  ;  viear-£r»  n- 
eral  of  the  diocese  of  Orleans  1861 ;  Professor  of  Moral  The- 
ology in  the  Sorbonne  1863;  was  chosen  to  the  Freii*  h 
Academy  1867;  left  the  Oratory  1869.  Author  of  La  (an- 
naissance  de  Dieu,  opposing  Positivism  (1855,  and  often  re- 
printed); Logique  (iSoQ) :  Paix:  miditations  historique^  tt 
religieuaes  (1862) ;  Les  Sources,  conseils pour  la  conduite  de 
PesjMrit  (1861-62);  Phihsophie  du  Credo  (1861);  Commen- 
taries on  St.  Matthew  (1863) ;  Jesus  Christ  (addressotl  t<» 
Renan,  1864) ;  Les  sophistes  et  la  critique  (1864) :  La  mor^'^ 
et  la  loi  de  Vhistoire  (setting  forth  his  soci^  views,  18fi.'<» : 
and  other  works.  Shortly  tef ore  his  death  he  accepted  t  he 
definitions  of  the  Vatican  Council,  which  he  had  nithertu 
opposed.    D.  at  Montreux,  Switzerland,  Feb.  6,  1872. 

Grattan,  Henrt:  patriot  and  orator;  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland. 
July  3, 1746;  son  of  the  recorder  of  the  city,  a  Protei;tai.t. 
and  grandson  of  Thomas  Marlay,  chief  justice  of  Ire- 
land; graduated  at  Trinity  College  in  1767:  studietl  at 
the  Middle  Temple,  London,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Iri*-b 
bar  in  1772;  was  a  member  of  the  Irish  Parliament  in  1775 
from  Charlton,  and  almost  from  the  first  was  the  leader  of  t  he 
opposition ;  brought  forward  in  1780  resolutions  to  the  eff»-it 
that  "  the  king,  with  the  consent  of  the  Parliament  of  Irelaii«i, 
was  alone  competent  to  enact  laws  to  bind  Ireland  ** :  and  in 
1782  moved  a  declaration  of  rights,  asserting  Iit*lni..:5 
right  to  self-government  in  a  memorable  si>eech,  the  eflti : 
of  which  was  to  secure  the  unanimous  passage  of  rescduti*  ri- 
pledging  the  British  Parliament  to  a  redress  of  mevan*  »>. 
For  his  services  as  a  patriot  he  was  presented  witS  a  valua- 
ble estate  by  the  Irish  Parliament.  He  was  returned  in  1 75«> 
from  Dublin;  opposed  alike  the  rebellious  schemes  of  r[e 
United  Irishmen  and  the  union  with  Great  Britain  :  entt  iv*i 
the  imperial  Parliament  in  1805 ;  advocated  Catholic  enutu- 
cipation  with  great  zeal,  and  wore  himself  out  with  laUrsi 
in  behalf  of  Ireland.  D.  in  London,  June  14,  1820.  l\r- 
sonally,  Grattan  was  small  and  of  unprepossessing  aj»|>car- 
ance  ;  his  character  was  pure  and  noble.  See  his  Sjftrrj  ,-$ 
and  Miscellaneous  Works,  both  edited  by  his  son  (18*J4»;  rfse 
Life  by  his  son  (5  vols.,  1839-46) ;  and  Henry  Grattan  m 
Statesman  Series  (1889). 

Grattan,  Thomas  Collet  :  novelist  and  historian :  b.  in 
Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1796.  He  spent  much  time  on  the  (Vn- 
tinent,  and  from  1839  to  1853  was  British  consul  at  H-fTm. 
Mass.  Among  his  novels,  which  are  mainlv  historical,  are 
Philibert  (1819)  and  The  Heiress  of  Bruges  (1830).  Ue  wn  v? 
also  a  History  of  the  Netherlands,  a  pamphlet  on  the  north- 
east boundarv  question  (1842),  and  England  and  the  Jh.*- 
rupted  States  of  America  (1861).    D.  in  1864.        H.  A.  B. 

Grat'tins  Falis'cns :  a  Roman  poet  of  whom  nothins:  i> 
known  but  the  three  following  circumstances :  he  wa^  & 
contemporary  of  Vergil  (see  Ovid,  Epistles  from  Pontuf  1  \\ 
16, 33) ;  he  wrote  a  poem  upon  the  chase  entitled  Cynrgtiic  i. 
probably  in  several  books;  and  this  poem  was  so  emirily 
forgotten  at  the  time  of  Numerianus  (283  A.  D.)  that  Ntm.^ 
sianiis,  writing  on  the  same  subject,  could  assert  that  he  en- 
tered on  a  hitherto  untrodden  path.  Of  the  poem  540  \w\- 
ameters  have  come  down  through  one  single  MS,,  disct»vrr>-l 
in  France  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  prii.t.  \ 
in  Venice  in  1534,  translated  into  English  verse  by  Chris- 
topher Wase  in  1654,  and  into  German  verse  by  Pt^^l  ' 
in  1826.  See  Baehren's  Poet(B  Latini  Minores,  vol.  i..  t:*. 
31-53  (Leipzig,  1879).  Revised  by  M.  Wabrilv  ' 

Gratz,  graatz  (Servian  Grafsa,  a  little  castle  ;  the  won!  :- 
often  written  Gr&tz,  but  in  1843  the  form  Gratz  was  oflB*  i al- 
ly determined  on  as  the  nearer  representative  of  local  )«'  - 
nunciation):  city  of  Austria,  and  capital  of  Styria:  s?^- 
ated  on  both  sides  of  the  Mur  at  an  elevation  of' 1,047  U-t 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  forming  the  principal  star;,  r- 
on  the  route  from  Vienna  to  Trieste  (see  map  of  Ausin.i- 
Hungary,  ref.  6-E).    It  is  an  old  town,  with  narrow  td.c 


896 


GRAVITATION 


GRAVITY,  SPECIFIC 


C  E.  The  gjreater  the  velocity  with  which  the  shot  is  flred, 
the  farther  it  will  go  before  it  reaches  the  ground.  Sup- 
pose at  length  that  we  should  fire  it  with  a  velocity  of  6 
miles  a  second,  and  that  it  should  meet  with  no  resistance 
from  the  air.  Suppose  e  to  be  the  point  on  the  line  5  miles 
from  C.  Since  it  would  reach  this  point  in  one  second,  it  fol- 
lows from  the  law  of  falling  bodies  just  cited  that  it  will  have 
dropped  16  feet  below  e.  But  we  have  just  seen  that  the 
earth  itself  curves  away  16  feet  at  this  distance.  Hence  the 
shot  is  no  nearer  the  earth  than  when  it  was  fired.  During 
the  next  second,  while  the  ball  would  eo  to  E,  it  would  faU 
48  feet  more,  or  64  feet  in  all.  But  here,  again,  the  earth 
has  still  been  rounding  off,  so  the  distance  D  B  is  64  feet, 
llencc  the  ball  is  still  no  nearer  the  earth  than  when  it  was 
fired,  although  it  has  been  dropping  away  from  the  line  in 
which  it  was  fired  exactly  like  a  falling  body.  Moreover, 
meeting  with  no  resistance,  it  is  going  on  with  undiminished 
velocity.  And  just  as  it  has  been  falling  for  two  seconds 
without  getting  any  nearer  the  earth,  so  it  can  get  no  nearer 
in  the  third  second,  nor  the  fourth,  nor  any  subsequent  sec- 
ond ;  but  the  earth  will  constantly  curve  away  as  fast  as  the 
ball  can  drop.  Thus  the  latter  will  pass  clear  round  the 
earth,  and  come  back  to  the  point  C  from  which  it  started, 
in  the  direction  of  the  arrow,  without  any  loss  of  velocity. 
The  time  of  revolution  will  be  about  an  hour  and  twenty- 
four  minutes,  and  the  ball  will  thus  keep  on  revolving  round 
the  earth  in  this  space  of  time.  In  other  words,  the  baU 
will  be  a  satellite  of  the  earth,  just  like  the  moon,  only  much 
nearer  and  revolving  much  faster. 

The  ball  just  described  is  deflected  from  a  straight  line 
16  feet  in  a  second.  The  way  in  which  Newton  proceeded 
to  find  whether  the  moon  was  held  in  its  orbit  by  the  gravi- 
tation of  the  earth  was  to  calculate  the  amount  by  which 
the  moon  was  deflected  from  a  straight  line  every  second, 
and  compare  this  with  the  gravitation  of  the  earth.  It  was 
already  known  from  bbservations  of  the  moon's  parallax 
that  her  mean  distance  was  almost  exactly  30  diameters  of 
the  earth.  But  the  diameter  of  the  earth  itself  was  not 
known  with  any  accuracy,  and  the  value  first  used  by  him 
was  one-eighth  too  small.  The  consequence  was  that  the 
distance  of  the  moon  he  used  in  his  calculations  was  also  too 
small,  and  the  result  did  not  agree  with  the  theory  of  gravi- 
tation, diminishing  in  the  inverse  square  of  the  distance. 
But  a  few  vears  later  a  new  determination  of  the  magnitude 
of  the  earth  was  made  by  the  French  geodesists,  which  en- 
abled Newton  to  repeat  his  calculation  with  exact  data.  He 
found  that  the  moon  actually  dropped  ^Vth  of  an  inch  in  a 
second,  or  y^th  as  far  as  a  stone  at  the  earth's  surface. 
The  number  3,600  being  the  square  of  60,  the  distance  of  the 
moon  in  radii  of  the  earth,  he  was  enabled  to  announce  that 
the  force  which  held  the  moon  in  her  orbit  was  the  same 
which  made  the  stone  fall,  only  diminished  in  the  ratio  of 
the  square  of  the  moon's  distance. 

The  next  step  in  the  demonstration  was  to  show  that  the 
planets  were  held  in  their  orbits  by  a  force  directed  toward 
the  sun,  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance  from  it. 
This  demonstration  was  one  great  object  of  the  Prmct/wa, 
and  the  data  from  which  Newton  set  out  were  the  laws  of 
Kepler.  From  the  law  that  equal  areas  were  described 
around  the  sun  in  equal  times  it  was  easy  to  show  that  the 
force  in  question  must  be  directed  toward  the  sun;  and 
from  the  relation  between  the  distances  of  the  planets  and 
their  times  of  revolution,  the  law  of  a  force  proportioned  to 
the  inverse  square  of  the  distance  followed  by  a  very  simple 
demonstration.  It  remained  to  prove  that  the  same  law 
held  true  for  the  different  distances  of  one  and  the  same 
planet  from  the  sun ;  in  other  words,  that  a  planet  revolv- 
ing around  the  sun  under  the  influence  of  gravitation  would 
describe  an  ellipse  having  the  sun  in  its  focus.  This  demon- 
stration occupied  the  attention  of  other  mathematicians,  as 
well  as  of  Newton,  but  the  latter  first  succeeded  in  it,  and 
in  doing  so  completed  the  theory  of  the  gravitation  of  the 
planets  toward  the  sun. 

The  next  step  was  to  apply  to  the  moon  the  combined 
gravitation  of  tne  sun  and  earth.  It  was  known  that  this 
body  in  its  movement  showed  deviations  from  Kei)ler's  laws, 
and  Newton  succeeded  in  showing  that  most  of  these  devia- 
tions could  be  traced  to  the  attractive  force  of  the  sun.  But 
his  mathematics  were  insufficient  to  enable  him  to  calculate 
all  the  inequalities,  or  to  give  the  exact  values  of  those  which 
he  did  calculate.  Nevertheless,  his  success  was  sufficient  to 
justify  the  enunciation  of  the  greatest  law  of  nature  ever 
discovered :  Ei*ery  body  in  nature  attracts  every  other  body 
with  a  force  directly  as  its  masSy  and  inversely  as  the  square 


of  its  disto/nee.  If  this  law  is  true  in  all  its  generality,  then 
each  planet  must  be  attracted  by  every  other  planet,  a5  well 
as  by  the  sun,  and  its  motion  inust  Be  slightly  altered  by 
these  attractions.  To  compute  the  effect  of  these  attrac- 
tions is  a  problem  which  has  occupied  the  att<ention  of  m(><t 
of  the  great  mathematicians  since  Newton,  and  the  result 
has  been  that  the  most  complicated  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  can  be  predicted  years  in  advance  with  a  degree  <  'f 
accuracy  limited  only  by  the  mathematician's  power  of  cal- 
culating and  the  practical  astronomer's  power  of  observing. 
Nor  has  the  demonstration  of  gravitation  been  limited  xo 
the  sun,  moon,  and  planets.  In  1772  Maskelyne  determined 
the  attraction  of  a  mountain,  and  this  attraction  is  now 
shown  whenever  accurate  observations  for  latitude  and  lon- 
gitude are  made  in  the  neighborhood  of  great  mountain- 
chains.  Not  only  so,  but  Cavendish  and  Bailly  suoce^ieil 
in  measuring  the  attraction  of  balls  of  lead  upon  very  d«fli- 
cately  balanced  weights,  and  thus  found  the  mean  density 
of  the  earth  to  be  about  six  times  that  of  water.  Passsing 
from  the  smallest  things  to  the  greatest,  Herscbel  found 
that  many  double  stars  revolve  around  each  other,  and  by 
carefully  observing  those  motions  his  successors  have  found 
that  these  also  attract  each  other  according  to  the  law  of 
gravitation.  The  gravitation  of  widely  distant  stars  has  not 
yet  been  seen,  but  the  distances  of  these  bodies  from  tlit- 
earth  and  from  each  other  are  so  immense  that  tiiou5and< 
and  perhaps  millions  of  years  would  be  required  before  any 
motion  due  to  gravitation  could  be  perceived.  From  all  thf* 
evidence  one  is  justified  in  considering  the  mutual  gravita- 
tion of  bodies  to  be  a  universal  law  of  nature,  govemini; 
the  action  of  the  smallest  masses  of  matter  as  well  as  th^ 
suns  and  planets.  S.  Newcomb. 

Grayity,  Specific  [gravity  is  from  Lat.  gra'vitas.  heavi- 
ness, weight,  deriv,  of  gra'vis^  heavy] :  a  term  (abb.  sj».  'Jt  i 


used  to  denote  the  relative  density  of  a  substance.    I> '  ^ 
ties  of  solids  and  liquids  are  compared  with  water  at  4  v 


898 


GRAY 


GREAT  HARRINGTON 


New  York ;  was  appointed  in  1834  botanist  to  the  Wilkes 
expedition,  but  declined  the  post;  became  in  1842  Fisher 
Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Harvard  University,  from 
the  more  active  duties  of  which  position  he  retired  in  1873. 
He  was  chosen  in  1874  a  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion. Dr.  Gray  was  recognized  throughout  the  scientific 
world  as  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  philosophic  of  botanists. 
Among  his  numerous  writings  are  Elements  of  Botany 
(1836);  Manual  of  Botany  {\\i!^)\  the  unfinished  Flora  of 
North  America,  by  himself  and  Dr.  Torrey,  the  publication 
of  which  was  begun  in  1838;  Genera  Boreali- Americana, 
also  incomplete  (1848) ;  Botany  of  the  United  States  Paci- 
fic Exploring  Expedition  (1854);  numerous  important  and 
elaborate  papers  on  the  botany  of  the  West  and  Southwest, 
published  in  the  Smithsonian  Contribntiotis,  Memoirs,  etc., 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  of  which  he 
was  for  ten  years  president,  and  in  various  Government  re- 
ports; also  How  Plants  Grow,  Lessons  in  Botany,  Stntc- 
tural  and  Systematic  Botany,  and  other  works,  forming  a 
series  of  admirable  text-boolis.  In  1861  appeared  his  Eree 
Examination  of  Darwin^ s  Treatise;  in  1877,.his  Darwini- 
ana.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  The  American 
Journal  of  Science  and  Arts  and  other  scientific  journals. 
Elected  member  of  Institute  of  France,  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, July  29, 1878.    D.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Jan.*  30,  1888. 

Gray,  David  :  p<)et ;  b.  at  Merkland,  a  small  village  on  the 
Luggie,  about  8  miles  from  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Jan.  ^9, 1838 ; 
was  the  son  of  a  poor  handloom-weaver,  but  succeeded  in 
studying  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  went  in  1860  to 
London  to  seek  some  literary  employment.  In  that  he  failed. 
He  was  attacked  by  consumption,  returned  home  to  Merk- 
land, and  died  Dec.  3,  1861.  His  TJie  Luggie  and  other 
Poems,  with  an  introduction  by  Monckton  Milnes  and  a 
memoir  by  James  Hedderwick,  was  published  in  1862  and 
again  in  1874. 

Gray,  Henry  Peters  :  genre  and  portrait  painter ;  b.  in 
New  York,  June  23,  1819.  Pupil  of  Daniel  Huntington; 
National  Academician  1842,  and  president  1869-71.  His 
Wages  of  War  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York ; 
Cupid  Begging  his  Arrow  in  the  Pennsylvania  Academy, 
Philadelphia;  Judgment  of  Paris  in  the  Corcoran  Gallery, 
Washington.     D.  in  New  York,  Nov.  12,  1877.      W.  A.  C. 

Gray,  Horace  :  jurist ;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1829 ;  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1845,  and  afterward  at  Harvard  Law  School ; 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  Boston  1851 ;  in  1854  was  appointed 
reporter  of  the  supreme  judicial  court  of  Massachusetts, 
where  he  served  seven  years ;  Aug.  23,  1864,  became  asso- 
ciate justice  of  that  court,  and  its  chief  justice  Sept.  5, 1873 ; 
was  confirmed  as  associate  justice  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  Dec. 
20,  1881. 

Gray,  Isaac  Pusey:  politician;  b.  in  Chester  co..  Pa., 
Oct.  18,  1828;  received  a  common-school  education;  early 
began  the  study  of  law ;  spent  a  number  of  years  successfully 
in  mercantile  pursuits ;  and  in  1855  settled  at  Union  City, 
Ind.  In  the  civil  war  he  was  colonel  of  the  Fourth  Indiana 
Cavalry,  and  recruited  the  147th  Indiana  Infantry.  In  early 
life  he  was  first  a  Whig,  then  a  Republican,  but  since  1871 
has  acted  with  the  Democracy.  In  1868  he  was  elected  to 
the  State  Senate, and  served  four  years;  in  1872  was  delegate 
to  the  Liberal  Republican  convention ;  in  1876  was  elected 
Lieutenant-Governor  on  the  Democratic  ticket;  in  1884 
elected  Governor  for  four  years,  and  inaugurated  Jan.  12, 
1885.     Appointed  U.  S.  minister  to  Mexico  1892. 

Gray,  John  Edward,  Ph.  D.,  F.  R.  S. :  the  son  of  S.  F. 
Gray,  a  savant  and  author;  b.  at  Walsall,  England,  in  1800; 
educated  as  a  phvsician.  Prom  1824  to  1874  he  was  promi- 
nentlv  connected  with  the  British  Museum;  was  one  of  the 
most  laborious  of  naturalists,  a  member  of  many  learned 
societies,  and  the  author  of  hundreds  of  scientific  papers  and 
of  many  valuable  catalogues.  He  publishe<l  zoological  re- 
ports or  the  expeditions  of  the  Erebus,  Terror,  Sulphur,  and 
other  historic  British  exploring  ships;  edited  Turton's 
Manual  of  Land  and  FreHli-water  ShcUax  wrote  Illusfra- 
tions  of  Indian  Zoology,  etc.   I),  in  London,  Mar.  7,  1875. 

Gray,  John  Perdue,  M.D. :  alienist;  b.  in  Half  Moon, 
Pa.,  in  1825;  graduated  in  nieilicine  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  m  1848;  was  iniiiKMliatoly  appointed  resident 
physician  at  the  Philadelphia  Hospital;  and  from  1853  till 
his  death,  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Nov,  29, 1886.  ho  was  superintend- 
ent of  the  New  York  State  Asylum  for  Lunatics.  His  serv- 
ices were  much  sought  for  the  treatment  of  severe  cases  of 
insanity  and  for  expert  testimony  in  legal  proceedings. 


Gray,  Thomas  :  poet ;  b.  in  Comhill,  London,  Dec.  26, 1716, 
the  son  of  a  scrivener  of  brutal  t-emper  and  habits ;  educatf^l 
at  Eton  and  the  Peterhouse,  Cambridge ;  traveled  in  ha!} 
and  France  (1739-41)  with  Horace  Waljxile;  took  his  leuMl 
degree  at  Cambridge  1742,  and  afterward  lived  at  the  uni- 
versity, in  which  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Modern 
History  in  1768,  but  never  actively  engaged  in  the  duties  nf 
that  position.  Gray*s  fame  rests  almost  entirely  upon  hi^ 
Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard  (1740),  which  ha^ 
given  him  a  high  position  in  English  literature.  Ho  was  a 
man  of  accurate  and  refined  U^tes.  retiring  and  sensiti\  c. 
fond  of  learning,  art,  and  philosophic  studies,  almost  effemi- 
nate in  manners,  and  his  health  was  always  delicate.  Ht« 
Eublished  Letters  are  admirable  in  style  ana  matter,  and  hi^ 
latin  verse  is  good.  The  Ode  on  a  Distant  Prospect  of  Eton 
College  (1747),  Progress  of  Poesy,  and  the  Hymn  to  Adver- 
sity (1742)  are  noteworthy  among  his  other  poems.  D.  at 
Cambridge,  July  24, 1771. 

Orayback :  See  Knot. 

Gray  Friars :  See  Franciscans. 

Grayling  [dimin.  of  gray^ :  popular  name  of  a  genus  of 
fishes  {Thymallus)  of  the  family  Scdmoni-da,  resembling  the 
trout  in  habits  and  character.     It  is  one  of  the  best  of  the 


Michigan  grayling. 

fame-fishes.  The  T,  thymallus  is  the  common  gray  line;  of 
lurope.  It  is  in  ^reat  request  for  the  table.  The  71  or*- 
tariensis  is  found  m  some  streams  of  Michigan  and  in  tht> 
head- waters  of  the  Yellowstone.  Its  peculiarly  delicate  flr>h, 
its  fastidious  voracity,  and  the  mixture  of  strength  and 
spirited  courage  with  which  it  endeavors  to  free  itself  fro?-) 
tne  hook,  form  a  combination  of  excellences  rarelv  met  vitli 
in  any  individual  fish.  It  is  closely  related  to  J*,  siqnif^r, 
a  showy  inhabitant  of  the  far  northern  waters  of  British 
America.  There  are  other  species,  chiefly  European  aij«i 
Asiatic. 
Gray  Powders  •  See  Mercury,  Medicinal  Uses  of. 

Gray*8  Peak :  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  Summit  and 
Clear  Creek  cos..  Col.;  12  miles  W.  of  Georgetown.  It 
is  14,466  feet  in  height,  and  was  named  in  honor  of  Dr.  A.sa 
Gray. 

Grayrllle:  city;  White  co.,  lU.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  10-F) ;  on  the  Wabash  river  and  the 
Clev.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.,  and  the  Peoria,  Dec.  and  Evari'^- 
ville  Railways ;  35  miles  N.  W.  of  Evansville,  Ind.  It  is  in  a 
rich  grain  region,  has  valuable  coal  deposits  near  by,  and  i> 
an  important  market  for  hard- wood  lumber.  It  has  2  hankf 
and  2  weekly  newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  1,533 ;  (1890)  l,JHn*. 

Grazalema,  |^rak-thak-la  maa :    town   of  Spain,   in    th( 

Province  of  Cadiz;  53  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Cadiz  (see  map  'f 
pain,  ref.  20-D).  It  is  peculiarly  situated  behind  Sierra  «ie 
Ronda  and  Cerro  de  St.  Christoval,  and  is  approached  of:l\ 
through  a  very  narrow  pass.    Pop.  (1887)  6,389. 

Grazzini,  graat-see'ne'e,  Antonio  Francesco :  author:  t. 
in  Florence,  Italy,  Mar.  22, 1503.  Very  little  is  known  -f 
his  personal  life,  but  in  the  history  of  Italian  literatun*  L- 
acquired  a  famous  name,  partly  as  founder  of  the  Acfa^Urui.t 
della  Crusca,  partly  by  his  poetical  works  (7>  Cene,  a  t^»i.-i  - 
tion  of  stories  in  the  manner  of  Boccaccio,  reprint.  Vat.-. 
1756),  and  a  number  of  comeiiies  {La  Gelosia,  La  Spintn:-. 
etc.).  He  was  generaliv  called  II  Lasca  or  Lki'cisivs  c» 
his  literary  friends.     D!  Feb.  18,  1583. 

Grease  wood:  \}\q  Sarcohatus  v&rmiculatus,  &  low  <].rn'*- 
of  the  family  Chenopodiacecp -,  abundant  in  the  Wo>T,rri 
plains  and  Rocky  Mountains,  in  barren  places  which  ar» 
charged  with  alkaline  salts.  Other  plants  bear  the  nanu  .  f 
greasewood,  e.  g.  Gutierrezia  euthamitp^  a  composite. 

Charles  £.  Besj^e^-. 

Great  Barrlngton:  township  (settled  1730,  incorp<>ra:-t' 
1761,  and  county-seat  till  1787);  Berkshire  co.,  Mass.    '  r 
location  of  countjr,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  2-4.' »:    - 
the  Housatonic  river  and  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  Hartford  Ua. 


900 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


peninsulas  of  that  part  of  Scotland,  that  of  Cantire  is  the  , 
most  considerable.  It  is  nearly  60  miles  in  length,  and  ter-  \ 
minates  in  the  Mull  of  Cantire.  The  eastern  coast  of  the 
Firth  of  Clyde  is  generally  level,  while  that  of  the  peninsula 
of  Galloway,  farther  S.,  is  generally  steep,  and  juts  out  in 
the  bold  Mull  of  Gallowav,  tlie  most  southerly  point  of  Scot- 
land, in  lat.  54°  38'  N.  "f  he  eastern  portion  of  the  Irish  Sea 
forms  a  vast  bay,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Galloway,  on  the  E. 
by  the  English  counties  of  Cumberland  and  Lancashire,  and 
on  the  S.  by  Wales.  Its  center  is  occupied  by  the  Isle  of 
Man.  Three  subsidiary  bays  open  into  it — viz.,  those  of  the 
Solway  Firth,  Morecambe  Say,  and  Liverpool  Bay  (with  the 
estuaries  of  Mersey  and  Dee).  They  all  abound  in  sand- 
bunks,  which  render  navigation  exceedingly  intricate.  The 
peninsula  of  Wales  has  generally  bold  and  rugged  coasts. 
Menai  Strait,  hardly  600  feet  in  width,  separates  it  from  the 
island  of  Anglesey.  The  wide  sweep  of  Cardigan  Bay  opens 
here  toward  the  W.,  and  Milford  Haven  penetrates  far  in- 
land toward  the  S.  W.  This  is  one  of  the  most  secure  har- 
bors of  the  British  islands,  though,  owing  to  its  geograph- 
ical position,  it  is  but  little  used.  Bristol  Channel  and  the 
estuary  of  the  Severn  separate  South  Wales  from  the  coun- 
ties of  Somerset  and  Devon.  The  most  important  bays 
along  it  are  those  of  Caernarvon  and  Swansea  on  the  coast 
of  Wales,  and  of  Barnstaple  on  the  coast  of  Devonshire. 
The  navigation  of  its  upper  portion  is  obstructed  by  sand- 
banks. Devon  and  Cornwall  form  a  peninsula,  tcrmmating 
in  the  Land's  End  (50'  4'  N.,  5"  42'  W.),  the  most  westerly 
point  of  England.  The  Scilly  islands  he  off  this  cape,  and 
have  proved  fatal  to  many  a  homeward-bound  merchant- 
man. The  coasts  of  this  peninsula  are  generally  steep  and 
celebrated  for  their  picturesqueness.  There  are  several  ex- 
cellent harbors,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Mount's 
Bay,  the  harbor  of  Falmouth,  an(I  that  of  Plymouth ;  the 
latter  is  protected  by  a  magnificent  breakwater,  and  the  cele- 
brated Elddystone  lighthouse  points  out  the  way  to  it.  The 
remainder  of  the  south  coast  of  England  is  generally  level. 
The  Bill  of  Portland,  a  rocky  promontory  joined  to  the 
mainland  by  the  Chesii  Bank,  bounds  the  roadstead  of  that 
name  to  the  W.  The  only  other  secure  harbors  on  the  south 
coast  are  those  of  Southampton  and  of  Portsmouth,  opposite 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  the  latter  the  most  important  naval  sta- 
tion of  Great  Britain.  Spithead  is  a  secure  roadstead  be- 
tween it  and  the  Isle  oi  Wight.  Farther  to  the  E.  the 
South  Downs  gradually  approach  the  coast  and  form  the 
bold  Beachy  Head  (532  feet).  The  coast  then  again  becomes 
level  and,  at  Dungencss,  marshy,  but  from  Sandgate  to  the 
North  Foreland  it  is  forrae<l  of  white  chalk  cliffs.  These 
**  white  cliffs  of  Old  England "  have  become  proverbial, 
though  their  extent  is  very  limited.  They  owe  their  promi- 
nence in  the  popular  estimation  principally  to  the  fact  of 
their  first  meeting  the  eye  of  a  traveler  coming  from  the 
Continent.  There  are  no  natural  harbors  along  this  coast 
(that  of  Dover  has  been  created  artificially),  but  the  road- 
stead called  the  "  Downs,"  lying  between  the  land  and  the 
Goodwin  Sands,  offers  some  shelter  to  shipping.  The  es- 
tuary of  the  Thames  is  bounded  by  low  coasts,  and  sand- 
banlcs  render  its  navigation  exceedingly  intricate.  The  es- 
tuary of  the  Medway,  which  opens  into  it,  forms  one  of  the 
most  secure  harbors,  and  has  oeen  strongly  fortified  (Chat- 
ham). 

Relief, — The  British  islands  can  not  vie  with  other  Eu- 
ropean countries  in  the  height  of  their  mountains,  but  they 
nevertheless  possess  a  variety  of  relief  which  removes  them 
far  from  the  monotonous  low  plains  of  Northern  Europe. 
England,  speaking  generally,  is  a  level  country,  especially 
toward  the  E.,  where  the  marshy  district  of  the  Fens  offers 
an  analogue  to  that  met  with  on  the  opposite  coast  of  the 
continent,  but  it  is  traversed  by  table-lands  and  ridges  of 
varying  elevations,  and  which  in  the  North  assume  the  height 
of  veritable  mountains.  Wales  and  Scotland  may  fitly  be 
described  as  mountainous  countries,  while  Ireland  presents 
itself  as  a  vast  lowland  dotted  over  by  isolated  mountain 
groups.  The  culminating  point  of  the  whole  country,  Ben 
Nevis,  attains  an  elevation  of  4,406  feet. 

Hydrography. — There  are  neither  large  rivers  nor  large 
lakes.  The  largest  lake,  Lough  Neagh  in  Ireland,  covei-s 
an  area  of  only  158  sq.  miles,  while  the  catchment  btisin  of 
the  SL'vern  extends  over  only  8,119  sq.  miles.  But  although 
the  rivers  ai*e  neither  large  nor  of  great  volume,  they  carry 
water  all  the  year  round,  and  their  estuaries  form  excellent 
harbors  and  are  of  great  use  to  navigation.  The  most  con- 
sitlerable  rivers  are  the  Tay,  Tweed,  llumber,  Ouse,  and 
Thames  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Great  Britain ;  the  Clyde, 


Mersey,  and  Severn  on  the  western  slope  of  Great  Britain ; 
I  he  Shannon,  Bann,  Suir,  Conb,  ana  Erne  in  IrelniicL 
There  is  no  other  river  draining  over  1,500  sq.  miles. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Great  Britain  is  mainly  dettT- 
mined  by  the  insular  position  of  the  country,  to  which  it 
owes  its  mildness  and  equability,  and  that  absence  of  ex- 
tremes which  distinguishes  it  from  the  climate  of  conti- 
nental countries  under  the  same  latitude.   The  Gulf  Streuir). 
above  all,  by  sending  its  warm  waters  toward  the   British 
islands,  most  potently  influences  their  temperature,  wiiii  h 
it  raises  above  that  of  the  sea-board  countries  on  the  westrm 
shores  of  the  Atlantic  having  the  same  latitude.     The  dif- 
ference between  the  annual  temperature  of  Penzance  (52'  F.  \ 
and  Unst  (45°),  the  former  in  lat  50'  11'  N.,  the  latt<>r  in 
lat.  60"  42'  N.,  amounts  to  only  7°.    In  January  it  is  only  4   : 
in  July  it  rises  to  lO*'  F.    The  potent  influence  of  the  Gulf 
Stream  is  exhibited,  moreover,  by  the  fact  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  places  on  the  west  coast  oi  Great  Britain  bein^  ab«  >ut 
one  degree  in  excess  of  that  of  places  on  the  east  coast  ha  vi  ng 
the  same  latitude.    The  mean  annual  temperature  of  £  Fin- 
land has  been  estimated  at  49'',  that  of  Scotland  at  47\  hi  <i 
that  of  Ireland  at  SO*",  these  figures  being  the  me-ans  <:»lv- 
served  at  a  large  number  of  meteorological  stations.     8.  W. 
winds  are  the  most  prevalent  throughout  the  year,  and  are 
generally  attended  with  rain.     The  rainfall  varies  exee^ii- 
mgly  according  to  locality.    In  the  greater  portion  of  En:.'- 
lancf  and  Scotland  it  does  not  exceed  30  inches  a  ye^ir.  but 
toward  the  W.  and  in  Ireland  this  amount  is  mucA  excer'il- 
ed,  and  in  some  of  the  hill  districts  which  catch  the  elim<:s 
as  they  drift  eastward,  the  amount  of  rain  is  equaled  c^i.!) 
in  tropical  countries.     At  the  Stye  Pass  in  Cumberland 
224  inches  fell  in  a  single  year.     The  maximum  rainfall  in 
Southwestern  Ireland  and  England  takes  place  in  wint*-r, 
but  the  greater  portion  of  the  country  lies  within  the  re- 
gion of  winter  rains.     Snow  falls  rarely,  except  in  the  hilW. 
where  it  remains  on  the  ground  frequently  for  three  or  mtir^ 
months.    The  mean  relative  humidity  at  most  places  exc*fed> 
80  per  cent. 

Geology. — The  geological  features  of  Great  Britain  are 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  the  whole  series  of  rett>s:- 
nized  stratified  rocks,  which  were  first  studied  here  system- 
atically, and  in  most  instances  have  become  typical  cf 
similar  series  met  with  in  other  parts  of  the  worlcL  As  a 
rule,  the  oldest  stratified  rocks  occupy  the  W.  and  N.  nf 
Ireland,  and  in  going  to  the  E.  or  S.  E.  the  more  rc-cent 
formations  are  passed  in  succession,  until  the  roost  rtx-t^nr 
of  all  are  reached,  which  form  the  marshland  along  ^oiue 
parts  of  the  east  coast.  The  Palieozoic  strata  oc-cupy 
about  one-third  of  the  entire  superficies.  Their  comparative 
sterility  is  compensated  for,  in  part,  by  the  existence  of 
mineral  treasures,  constituting  one  of  the  principal  sources 
of  Great  Britain's  eminence  as  a  manufacturing  country. 
The  oldest  rocks  of  this  series  are  met  with  in  the  Outt'r 
Hebrides  and  on  the  coast  of  Ross  and  Sutherland.  Thoy 
consist  principally  of  crystalline  gneiss,  and  hare  Kvii 
recognized  as  being  equivalent  to  Sir  W.  Logan*s  Laurtrn- 
tian  rocks  of  North  America.  They  also  constitute  nearlT 
the  whole  of  the  region  of  the  Grampians,  a  broad  belt,  in- 
cluding Strathmore  and  the  central  plain,  occupied  by  nu-m- 
bers  of  the  Carboniferous  and  Devonian  series,  sepamtii.fc: 
them  from  the  southern  hills.  The  Cambrian  rocks  <i 
Southern  Scotland,  Cumberland,  and  Wales  are  sufn^r- 
imposed  upon  them.  In  Scotland  they  consist  of  red  vim«l- 
stone  and  conglomerate,  in  England  and  Wales  of  .sxintJ- 
stone,  gritstone,  and  slates.  To  these  succeed  the  Siluritfii 
rocks,  most  fully  developed  in  Wales  and  in  the  Cunibri:i!- 
Mountains.  The  Devonian  is  most  fully  deveU>i>ed  in 
Devonshire,  but  also  occurs  in  Central  Scotland.  The  ('or- 
boniferoiis  series  occupies  a  broad  tract  extending  from  t  W 
Bristol  Channel  to  the  foot  of  the  Cheviots,  and  exrci.-N 
thence  into  Scotland.  Within  these  limits  there  are  n*  It  -^ 
than  fourteen  detached  coal-fields.  Scotland  is  equally  vn  1 
I)rovided  with  coal,  and  five  distinct  fields  occur  Ix'twinit 
the  foot  of  the  Grampians  and  the  southern  hills.  Th«^  l\  r- 
mian  strata,  consisting  of  magnesian  limestone  and  n^i 
sandstone,  occupy  a  considerable  area  in  Durham ;  n'ltl 
though  traceable  thence  as  far  as  Devon  and  Cornwall,  t  Ik y 
are  nowhere  of  great  extent.  Fine  marbles,  and  in  tht>  i\m 
latter  counties  tin  and  lead,  are  found  in  it.  The  Trin.^^.^ 
measures  are  represented  by  sandstones  and  varie|:ated  n».srlN 
They  may  l)e  traced  as  a  ribbon  from  Hartlepool  intheNfrrh 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Exe  in  the  South,  but  are  most  fu].\ 
developed  in  the  counties  of  Leicester,  Staffordshire,  War- 
wickshire, Shropshire,  and  Cheshire.    Beds  of  rock-s^t  tx*- 


902 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


A  remarkable  feature  in  the  distribution  of  the  population 
consists  in  the  large  number  of  populous  towns.  Tne  town 
population  is  more  numerous,  proportionately,  than  in  any 
other  country  of  which  we  have  trustworthy  returns.  The 
number  of  towns  of  50,000  inhabitants  and  their  population 
are  as  follows : 


CODNTRHa. 


Numbrr  of 

towoi. 


Eof^land  and  Wales. 

Scotland 

Ireland 


Totals 


62 
7 
3 


72 


lohAbiUnU. 


11,780,248 

1,398,919 

576,296 


13.755,461 


Poromlage 
toUl  populatioB. 


41 
36 
12 


87 


They  are  here  given  in  detail : 


London  (with  West  Ham).  4,435,9012 

Glasfcow 618,471 

Liverpool 517,051 

Manchester 505,843 

Birmingham 429,171 

Leeds 367,506 

Sheffield 824.243 

Edinburgh  (with  Leith) . .  333,268 

Belfast 256,950 

Dublin 245,001 

Bristol 221,665 

Bradford 216,361 

Nottingham 211,984 

Kingston-upon-Hull 199,991 

Salford 198,186 

Newcastle-on-Tyne 186,345 

Portsmouth 159,255 

Dundee 156.675 

Leicester 142.051 

Oldham 131,468 

Sunderland 130,921 

Cardiflf 128,849 

Aberdeen 123,827 

Blackburn 120,064 

Brighton 115,402 

Bolton 115,002 

Preston 107,573 

Croydon 102,697 

Norwich 100,964 

Birkenhead 99,1»1 

Huddersfleld 96,422 

Derby 94,146 

Swansea 90,428 

Ystradyfodwg 88,360 

Burnley 87,058 


Gateshead 86,709 

Plymouth 84,179 

Halifax 82.864 

Wolverhampton 82,620 

South  Shields 78,431 

Middlesborough 75,516 

Cork 75,34^ 

WalsaU 71,791 

Rochdale 71,458 

Tottenham 7l,3:« 

St.  Helens 71,288 

Stockport 70,253 

Paisley 69,295 

Aston  Manor 68,639 

York 66.984 

Southampton 65,:i25 

Greenock 68,512 

Leyton 68,106 

Willesden 61.266 

Northampton 61 ,016 

Reading 60.054 

WestBromwich 59,489 

Merthyr  Tydfil 68,080 

Ipswich 67,260 

Bury 67,206 

Wigan. 55,013 

Hanley 54,846 

Devonport 54,786 

Newport  (Mon.) 54.695 

Warrington 52,742 

Coventry 52,720 

Hastings 62,840 

Grimsby 51,876 

Bath 61,848 

Barrow-in-Furness 61 ,712 


The  annual  number  of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages  to 
1,000  living  is  as  follows  (1891)  : 


COUNTRIES. 


England  and  Wales. 

Scotland 

Ireland 


United  Kingdom 


BIrtli-nita. 

31-4 
81-2 
281 

80-4 


DaUh-frnto. 

20-8 
20-7 
18-4 

800 


M«rriage-imt«. 


7-8 
6-9 
4*5 


7-0 


It  should,  however,  bo  stated  that  the  registration  in  Ireland 
is  exceedingly  defective,  and  that  no  dependence  can  there- 
fore be  placed  upon  the  above  figures.  To  every  1,000  males 
there  are  about  1,064  females  in  the  United  Kingdom,  1,064 
in  England,  1,072  in  Scotland,  1,039  in  Ireland.  This  dis- 
parity is  due  to  the  larger  proportion  of  men  who  emigrate 
or  who  are  abroad  as  soldiers  or  mariners. 

Nationalities. — According  to  place  of  birth,  the  popula- 
tion of  the  United  Kingdom  is  distributed  as  shown  in  the 
following  table  (1881) : 


COUNTRIES. 

EnglUh. 

Sooteh. 

213,2I>4 

3,061,.W1 

20,318 

8,2J»5,103 

Iri«h. 

Natlvm 
of  Britith 
eoloniei. 

Foraifnen 

uid  bora 

at  MS. 

England  and  Wales. . 
Scotland 

21,602,105 
70,482 
67,881 

.5()6..'>10 

207,770 

6,306,757 

6.081,067 

96.467!    143.840 
10  4<W         Q  '^«A 

Ireland 

8,367 

9,054 

Totals 

21,830,528 

115  303 

162,660 

English  is  spoken  by  the  educated  classes  throughout  the 
British  islands.  Cymric  has  maintained  itself  in  Wales, 
Gaelic  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  on  the  Isle  of  Man, 
and  in  Ireland,  more  especially  in  Connaught  and  Munster. 
These  Celtic  dialects,  however,  are  gradually  losing  ground 
in  spite  of  the  efforts  made  to  keep  them  alive.  Cymric  is 
still  understood  by  950,000  people  in  Wales,  and  the  lan- 
guage is  extensively  used  in  churches  and  schools  and  in 
newspapers.  In  Scotland  (1891)  254,415  persons  still  under- 
stand Gaelic,  but  only  4^3,738  do  not  speak  English.  In  Ire- 
land (1861)  1,105,536  spoke  Irish,  in  1881  the  number  was 
949,932,  in  1891  only  680,174. 


OccupeUions  of  the  People, — The  following  table  exliil 
the  distribution  of  the  population  according  to  occupat  )• 


DIVISIONS. 


MaXe9. 

Professional  class 

Domestic  class 

Commercial  class 

A(?ricultural  class 

Industrial  class 

Indefinite  and  non-productive  classes 

Totals 

Femaiea. 

Professional  class 

Domestic  class 

Commercial  class 

Agricultural  class 

Industrial  class 

Indefinite  and  non-productive  classes 

Totals 


EogludBod 


460,965 

268,508 

960,6611 

1,818,3441 

4,975,178! 

4,656,256 


SeotlaiMl, 


65.499 
lte,29J 
126,743 
215,215 
675.964 
690.762 


12,619,902     1,799,475 


196,120 

1,646,802 

19,467 

64.840 

1,578,189 

9,980,619 


18,834.537 


Irdis 


■1. 


<l  I 

Ml  •  i 
2jn^.vi 


s-j* 


90.601 
151J278' 

57.322  r^!    •! 

256.&H^        J.,*.! 

1,437,827,    l.r;^  H 


1,936.0981    2,:v'--:.< 


Aariculture, — The  soil  of  Great  Britain  is  almost  t  xi  1m 
sively  devoted  to  the  production  of  breadstuffs  and  of  jrra--*  i 
roots,  etc.,  as  food  for  cattle.  The  principal  cereals  cu.ri 
vated  are  wheat,  barley,  and  oats.  Beans  and  peas  an  <  i 
some  importance;  turaips  and  swedes  are  the  priitrij^ 
green  crops.  Potatoes  are  relatively  most  extensively  lul' ; 
vated  in  Ireland,  where  they  constitute  the  princi[«il  f-  ! 
of  the  laboring  population.  The  cultivation  of  hr»p^  i-Vij  ►  h 
acres)  is  confined  to  England,  that  of  flax  almost  tut  in  .; 
to  Ireland.  Orchards  are  most  extensive  in  the  8.  \V.  .si  i 
S.  of  England.  Among  minor  objects  of  cultivation  nn; 
be  mentioned  rape,  saffron,  coriander,  caraway,  teasel,  nn  i 
der  and  woad,  mustard,  licorice,  camomile,  peppernui.t 
and  other  medicinal  plants,  but  none  of  these  ocvupi*  ?  i 
considerable  area.  The  beet,  which  is  used  largely  mi  •• 
Continent  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  is  use<l  in  dr.  a 
Britain  almost  entirely  as  food  for  cattle,  as  there  are  nr*  j  •'•  i 
tective  duties  which  enable  home-made  sugar  to  conij.  ri 
with  foreign  produce.  The  land  of  the  Unitetl  Kinpi  n 
available  for  agricultural  purposes  is  almost  entirely  in  u  i 
hands  of  a  smttll  number  of  landed  proprietors,*  from  \nh*-n 
it  is  leased  by  the  actual  cultivators  of  the  soil.  Fun! 
the  tenure  of  the  tenants  was  of  a  very  uncertain  nat 
and  they  could  claim  nothing  for  permanent  improvem* 
In  this  respect  a  change  for  the  better  has  taken  plaoe.  j  a- 
ticularly  in  Ireland;  even  in  Great  Britain  outg»»ing  u-u 
ants  are  compensated  for  unexhausted  improvement  >," 

The  following  are  the  leading  agricultunil  statistic^  of  !-,i 
United  Kingdom  (in  thousands  of  acres)  and  in  nuniUr^  .i 
live  stock : 


i»'.  r  I 


irir 


NATURE  OF  CROPS,  ETC 


Corn  crops 

Green  crops 

Flax 

Hops 

Bare  fallow,  uncropped 

Clover  and  sown  grasses 

Pasture  (exclusive  of  moim 

tain  heath) 

Woods  and  plantations 

Remainder 


Total  area 


Horses  (agricultural  only) 

Cattle 

Sheep 

Pigs 


1871. 

1881. 

11,833 
6,271 

174 
60 

566 
6,286 

S«,527 

2,500 

28,475 

10,655 

4,803 

154 

65 

818 

6,384 

24,763 

2,787 

27,208 

77.642 

77.642 

1,742.599 

9,816,216 

31,403.500 

4,136,616 

1,928.619 

9.905.018 

27.896,273 

8,149.173 

1892.         P^  rt:« 


9.?ie9, 

rj  ■• 

4.4b7, 

;    * 

">>■ 

<  <.- 

V      . 

5«V 

0   . 

4st 

i-  :• 

5,97:i 

1     • 

S7.r^\ 

.%-  % 

2.^i\ 

:-i  " 

26,Sai 

.'^i  : 

77.642 

n»i  ■ 

2.067.549 

11.519.417 
83.W2.Hiw 

S,a6.".K  »- 


The  "remainder"  includes  about  12,000,000  acres  of  ru  l 
pasture  land  in  Great  Britain,  besides  the  considerahlf  a 
covered  with  water  or  occupied  by  houses,  roads,  etc.  1  i 
land  under  tillage  has  decreased  about  15  percent,  ^li  : 
1871,  while  there  has  taken  place  a  corresiK>nding  iinr.  h 
in  permanent  pasture.  This  is  entirely  due  to  the  favT  ii.  i 
the  British  farmer  is  unable  to  grow  wheat  as  chea]»ly  «>  i 
can  be  grown  in  America  and  in  India,  and  consetjiut.' I 
devotes  more  attention  to  the  breeding  of  cattle.  Tho  »'^' 
mated  average  yield  per  acre  (1884-92)  was  as  f«.lIo\^^ 
Wheat,  29*5  bush. ;  barley,  33*7  bush. ;  oats,  38*5  busb. :  j    i.i 

♦  About  1876  there  were  1,178.683  freeholders  (outside  of  I^^r^l.-r.  ■  i 
of  these  8.52,438  owned  less  than  an  acre  of  land,  while  10.91 1  . .«  i 
each  1,000  acres  or  more,  or,  between  them,  72  per  cent,  of  ihf  t  u 
area  of  the  British  islands. 


904 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


▼ery  great  increase  in  the  tonnage  since  1860,  but  still  more 
remarkable  has  been  the  Increase  of  steamers,  viz.,  from 
2,000  to  7,720,  and  of  their  tonnage  from  454,327  to  6,307,- 
204.  ToNthis  fleet  must  be  added  the  colonial  marine  (14,- 
542  vessels  of  1,688,277  tons),  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
British  flag  is  represented  on  the  ocean  by  a  total  of  36,085 
vessels  of  nearly  10,000,000  tons.  The  tonnage  of  the  vessels 
which  entered  the  ports  in  1891  from  foreign  ports  was  36,- 
859,000  tons  (of  which  British,  26,637,000  tons),  and  coast- 
wise 48,833,622  tons.  The  lie;hthouses  and  light-ships  are 
managed  by  the  Trinity  Board  and  two  boards  for  Scotland 
and  Ireland.  There  are  360  shore-lights,  50  lightships,  and 
250  life-boat  stations. 

Since  1870  the  post-office  has  managed  the  telegraph-lines, 
which  were  purchased  by  the  Government  for  about  £9,000,000. 
It  likewise  manages  numerous  savings-banks,  and  grants  life- 
annuities  in  behalf  of  the  state.  In  1892  it  delivered  1,768,- 
000,000  letters,  215,000,000  post-cards,  and  708,000,000  news- 
papers and  book-mrcels  ;  issued  10,346,630  money  orders  for 
£28,429,634,  and  forwarded  69,685,480  telegraphic  messages. 

Commerce. — There  are  neither  export  nor  protective  du- 
ties, for  the  customs  duties  levied  upon  articles  which  are 
likewise  manufactured  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  bal- 
anced by  corresponding  excise  or  stamp  duties.  Probably 
no  tariff  is  so  simple  as  that  of  the  United  Kinp^om.  It 
includes  cocoa,  coffee,  chicory,  tea,  tobacco,  wine,  dried 
fruit,  beer  and  ale,  malt,  vinegar,  spirits,  plat«,  and  play- 
ing cards.  Commercial  activity  has  assumed  most  gigantic 
proportions,  for  Great  Britain  not  only  exchanges  her  own 
products  for  those  of  foreign  countries,  but  likewise  acts  as 
the  agent  for  continental  and  other  foreign  markets.  The 
extent  of  the  commercial  movement,  for  a  number  of  years, 
is  shown  in  the  following  tabular  statement : 


YEARS. 

Total  importa. 

EzporU  of  BritUi 
prodooe. 

•ad  eolonial  produce. 

1875 

£373,039.577 

£223,465,963 
223.060.446 
213,115,114 
26:^530,585 
247.235,150 
227,060.224 

£58,146,360 

1880 

1BS5 

1890 

1891 

1892 

411,229,566 
370,067,955 
420,691,997 
435,441.264 
423.802,178 

63,354,020 
58,359,194 
66,721,533 
61,878,568 
W,400,420 

These  figure.*  do  not  include  the  value  of  the  merchandise 
transship])ed  in  British  ports.    A  vast  proportion  of  the  im- 

{)orts  consists  of  articles  of  food,  condiments,  and  stimu- 
ants  (42  per  cent.),  and  of  raw  material  to  be  used  in 
manufactures  (33  per  cent.).  Manufactured  goods  consti- 
tute onlv  about  15  per  cent,  of  the  total  imports.  The  ex- 
ports of  British  produce,  on  the  other  hand,  include  83 
per  cent,  of  manufactured  goods.  The  table  below  gives 
the  imports  and  exports  from  and  to  the  principal  countries 
for  1890  and  1892,  in  thousands  of  pounds  sterling : 


DIVISIONS. 


British  poBseuiona. 

British  India,  Ceylon,  etc. . . . 

Australasia 

British  North  America 

British  West  Indies 

Cape  and  Natal 

West  Africa 

Mauritius 

Channel  islands 


Totals. 


Foreign  countries. 

Northern  Europe 

Central  Europe 

Western  Europe 

Southern  Europe 

The  Levant 

Northern  Africa 

Western  Africa 

Eastern  Africa 

Indian  seas 

South  Sea  islands 

China  and  Japan 

U.  S.  of  America 

Mexico  and  Central  America. 

Foreign  West  Indies 

South  America,  Northern  . .  . 

Pacific 

Atlantic 

Fisheries 


IMPORTS. 


1890.     189» 


41.877 

12.444 

2,989 

6,096 

1.076 

265 

059 


89,363 

30.545 

14,571 

.S.143 

5,463 

1,788 

230 

1,171 


94,562      96,274 


43.427 

69.308 

60.(H»() 

11.497 

13,197 

2,0<K) 

1,101 

941 

3,308 

51 

7,118 

97.:i57 

1,884 

320 

687 

4,.V24 

8,821 

112 


Totals I  328,463 


Grand  totals ,  421,025 


34,957 

71.532 

58,295 

9,472 

16,078 

1,801 

418 

845 

8,970 

68 

5.432 

108,200 

1,548 

179 

WW 

5,416 

8,325 

121 


327.545 


423.819 


EXPORTS. 


1890. 


87,460 

22,994 

7,228 

8,834 

9,110 

871 

820 

727 


189S. 


80,980 

19,265 

7,427 

8,108 

7,919 

1,408 

770 

270 


82.534      71.087 


13,260 

12.544 

37,«)4 

33.418 

25,169 

21,911 

12.577 

9.904 

10,157 

9.394 

1,149 

l.(Ki3 

1,610 

1.078 

1.283 

934 

2,792 

8,128 

200 

64 

13.231 

10,595 

32.077 

26,4K5 

2.<K)1 

2.128 

8.059 

2,213 

2.264 

1,732 

4.246 

4.50<) 

17,909 

14,836 

30 

40 

181,008     15,5.978 


The  following  tables  show  the  declared  real  value  of  the 
principal  articles  of  British  commerce  imported  and  ex- 
ported in  1882  and  1892 : 


PRINCIPAL  IMPORTS. 


ARTICLES. 


Orain  and  flour 

Cotton,  raw 

Suj^ar.  raw  and  refined 

Wool 

Wood  and  timber 

Tea 


1882. 


189«. 


£68.569,815 

£58.irf-  4.M 

46,654,570 

87.  K(^  •-.Vi 

85,001,317 

I9.r7i'*^r 

84,995,674 

a6.K;rr.i«*s 

17,146,809 

17,1*-' rt* 

11.048,884 

10.0t«i>J'»i 

PRINCIPAL  EXPORTS. 


ARTICLK8. 


Cotton  manufactures  and  yam 

Iron,  all  sorts 

Steel  

Woolen  and  worsted  manufactures 

Machinery 

Linen  and  jute  manufactures 

Coal,  cinders,  and  fuel 


1882. 


£75,796.205 

28,621.483 

2,976,878 

22,167,869 

0,564,616 

9,698,895 

11,988,247 


1892. 


£65.96n.74U 
19.529.-i> 

2,23:1  f^  s> 
21.95i».'^:5 
14,7»*7I*5 

8,9iJ1.4-t.'» 

i6.mi.oro 


iJ63,542    227,060 


The  value  of  dead  meat  imported  in  1892  was  £22,359,162^ 
and  of  silk  manufactures  £11,289,692. 

There  was  an  immense  increase  in  the  amount  of  p*ain 
and  flour  imported  in  the  period  between  1846  and  1*?1»2. 
In  1846  the  imports  of  grain  and  flour  retained  for  home  i.-h.- 
was  17  lb.  per  head  of  population  ;  in  1891  the  amount  ii\\\< 
retiiined  was  244  lb.  per  head.  The  principal  articles  «.n 
which  customs  are  collected  are  toba<jco,  spirits,  tea.  ani 
wine.  The  total  receipts  of  customs  in  1890-91  were  ilw,- 
753,907.  In  1890  duty  was  levied  on  goods  of  the  value  »»f 
£29,671,692,  or  about  7  per  cent,  of  the  total  imports. 

Religion. — Great  Britain  is  essentially  a  Protestant  couri- 
try,  but  in  Ireland  the  majority  are  Roman  Catholic,  E^:?J- 
lished  churches  survive  in  England  and  Scotland,  but  iii  hll 
other  respects  absolute  equality  and  liberty  in  religious  mat- 
ters prevail.  In  1892  the  Established  Church  hatl  an  t-^ti- 
mated  following  in  England  and  Wales  of  13,500,000.  uik; 
the  Roman  Catholic  1,354,000.  The  Methodist  Chun  Ije^ 
had  800,000  members,  the  Independents  360.000.  and  the 
Baptist  300,000.  The  Church  of  Scotland  had  599:531  cini- 
municants ;  all  other  Presbyterian  Churches  526.604 :  ih*^ 
Roman  Catholics  in  Scotland  numbered  326,000.  In  In- 
land the  Roman  Catholic  population  in  1891  was  3.547.:^  >7: 
the  Church  of  Ireland  (Protestant  Episcopal)  had  eoo.Ht; 
members,  and  the  Presbyterian  Churches  444,974. 

Education. — For  a  long  time  Great  Britain  might  fftiriy 
have  been  accused  of  not  providing  sufficiently  for  the  e:— 
mcntary  education  of  the  growing  population.  Sc-oiiati'l 
has  haa  a  school  law  since  1696 ;  in  Ireland  a  system  ot  lui- 
tional  education  was  inaugurated  in  1845;  but  in  Eniriar-l 
the  Government  contented  itself  with  making  pro  raf'i  .i".- 
lowances  to  such  among  the  schools  as  chose  to  subinit  t> 
certain  regulations.  A  great  step  in  advance  was  taken  .n 
1870  by  the  formation  of  school-boards.  Since  that  tin.*- 
the  illiteracy  of  the  people,  as  far  as  this  may  be  judg^^^i  --t 
from  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of  writing,  has  been  >ttaii:'N 
decreasing.  Scotland  is  the  best-educated  section  of  tt.r 
United  Kingdom,  for  in  1891  only  3*9  per  cent,  of  the  ii.'ii 
and  6*4  per  cent,  of  the  women  were  unable  to  sign  tie 
marriage  register.  In  England  the  proportions  wen*  iy\ 
and  7*3;  in  Ireland,  20*4  and  20*9  per  cent.  In  all  xh*-^- 
cases  the  proportion  of  the  illiterates  is  greater  anient;  *  li«' 
Roman  Catholics  than  among  the  Protestants.  There  wt-n? 
in  1891  throughout  the  kingdom  30,986  public  elementary 
schools;  5,587,815  children  were  present  at  the  annual  ir - 
spection,  but  the  average  attendance  throughout  the  y  ^r 
had  been  only  4,800,857.  Government  granted  (in  lx**2 
£6,263,350  toward  the  support  of  these  schools,  in  add  it.  ;i 
to  a  payment  of  £600,004  toward  the  support  of  3,477  v»- 
called  science  and  art  schools,  which  are  attended  by  neMr.y 
250.000  pupils.  An  academic  education  may  be  secun^i  mi 
sixty-eight  colleges  (1,319  professors,  22,500* students-).  ;i:i  i 
there  are  numerous  medical  and  other  profes-sional  schf-- ^. 

Social  Condition  and  Provident  Institutions. — T)ier»-  > 
no  better  standard  for  measuring  the  well-lieing  of  a  popula- 
tion than  the  quantity  of  food  consumed  by  it  in  the  cour^' 
of  a  year.  The  data  in  this  respect  are  incomplete,  but  t^-v 
enable  us  to  form  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the  t'lN 
of  the  population  live.  The  annual  consumption  perh'« 
is  about  as  follows :  Wheaten  flour,  350  lb. ;  rice,  9  lb. :  ;  - 
tatoes,  830  lb. ;  meat,  95  lb. :  game  and  poultry,  5  lb. ;  tAu 


906 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


is  not  unfairly  ascribed  to  the  general  increase  of  wealth 
and  the  beneficial  influences  of  education. 

Army. — The  maintenance  of  a  standing  army  is  dependent 
upon  an  annual  vote  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  forces 
are  recruited  by  voluntary  enlistment,  but  all  citizens  are 
nevertheless  liable  to  be  enrolled  in  the  militia.  The  men 
in  the  regular  army  are  enlisted  for  three  to  twelve  years, 
and  after  the  expiration  of  this  term  of  service  they  are  en- 
couraged to  enter  the  army  reserve.  The  number  of  re- 
cruits enlisted  in  1892  was  41,659,  of  whom  29,238  were 
natives  of  England.  The  militia  is  likewise  recruited  by 
voluntary  enlistment,  and  has  its  militia  reserve.  Its  train- 
ing generally  extends  over  four  weeks  in  the  year.  There 
are,  m  addition  to  these,  the  yeomanrjr  cavalry  and  the  vol- 
unteer corps — the  former  an  ancient  institution,  the  latter 
formed  since  1859.  The  regular  army  consists  of  81  regi- 
ments of  cavalry,  110  horse,  field,  and  mountain  batteries  of 
six  guns  each,  72  batteries  of  garrison  artillery,  72  regiments 
(148  battalions)  of  infantry,  50  companies  of  engineers,  a 
telegraph  and  a  bridging  battalion.  2  West  India  regiments 
(Negroes),  etc.  The  mflitia  includes  139  battalions  of  in- 
fantry, 32  divisions  of  garrison  artillery,  and  2  divisions  of 
engineers.  Of  yeomanry  there  are  40  regiments ;  of  volun- 
teers, 204  battalions  of  infantry,  62  brigades  of  garrison  ar- 
tillery, and  a  large  body  of  technical  troops.  To  these  have 
to  be  added  the  Indian  armv,  and  the  militia  and  volunteer 
con)S  of  the  principal  colonies. 

The  effective  strength  of  these  forces  in  the  beginning  of 
1893  was  approximately  as  follows : 

Regular  army 220,000 

Army  reserve 76.600 

Milit*ia 105.000 

Militia  reser\'e 30.400 

Yeomanry  cavalry 14,100 

Volunteers 216,000 

Native  army  of  India 162.000 

Volunteer  corps  in  India,  Ceylon,  etc 20,000 

Canada,  active  militia 39,000 

Australia,  regulars  and  volunteer  militia. .     36,000 
Cape  and  other  colonies 10,500 

Total 929,600 

Of  the  regular  array  112,000  men  are  stationed  in  the  Brit- 
ish islands,  72,000  in  India,  and  36,000  in  Egypt  and  the 
colonies. 

Navy. — The  navy  has  at  all  times  been  the  pet  of  the  nation, 
which  looks  upon  it  as  the  chief  bulwark  against  foreign  in- 
vasion. It  is,  comparatively  speaking,  a  creation  of  modem 
times.  Queen  Elizabeth  had  the  command  of  onlv  42  vessels 
of  17,000  tons;  Cromwell  left  150  vessels.  In  1863  the  navy 
consisted  of  567  steamers  (including  29  ironclads)  and  267 
sailing  vessels.  In  the  beginning  of  1894  there  are  to  be 
afloat  and  in  a  serviceable  condition  77  ironclads  of  618,500 
tons,  88  protected  vessels  of  309,915  tons,  and  336  unpro- 
tected vessels  of  198,634  tons.  Thase  last  include  10  torpedo 
cruisers,  31  torpedo  gunboats,  and  147  torpedo  boats.  In 
afldition  to  these  there  are  26  fast  merchantmen  which 
have  been  built  expressly  with  the  view  of  being  converted 
into  armed  cruisers  in  time  of  war.  The  most  powerful 
vessels  of  the  navy  are  the  Empress  of  India,  the  Royal 
Sovereign,  and  the  Resolution,  each  of  14,150  tons,  13,600 
horse-power,  armor  of  from  14  to  18  inches  in  thickness, 
armed  with  4  67-ton  and  10  quick-firing  guns,  and  steaming 
at  the  rate  of  17^  knots  an  hour.  Two  other  vessels  (Majes- 
tic and  Magnificent),  of  similar  size  but  much  greater  speed, 
have  been  placed  upon  the  stocks. 

There  were  in  commission  in  Nov.,  1892,  40  ironclads,  177 
unprotected  steamers,  26  sailing  and  35  station  vessels.  The 
navy  is  manned  by  70,500  men  (inclusive  of  14,400  marines) ; 
and  there  are  also  available  4,200  men  of  the  coast  guard 
and  25,000  of  the  naval  reserve.  The  great  dock-yards  at 
Portsmouth,  Chatham  (or  Sheemess),  Devonport,  and  Pem- 
broke employ  over  20,000  workmen.    See  Ships  of  War. 

History. — On  May  1,  1707,  the  uni(m  between  England 
and  Scotland  was  established,  and  though  the  Scotch,  at 
first,  were  highly  indignant  at  this  event,  they  soon  became 
reconciled  to  it,  and  now  look  upon  it  as  a  great  blessing. 
For  years  after  the  union,  intrigues  for  the  restoration  of 
the  Pretender  (the  representative  of  the  exiled  Stuarts) 
disturbed  the  peace  of  the  country.  Queen  Anne  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1713  by  the  Elector  of  Hanover,  who  took  the 
title  of  George  I.  The  Whigs,  led  by  Walpole,  now  regained 
the  ascendency,  and  a  rising  in  favor  of  the  Pretender,  led 


on  by  the  Earl  of  Mar  in  Scotland  and  the  Earl  of  DerwcTir 
water  in  England,  was  speedily  crushed  (1715).  Five  y»%iri 
later  a  commercial  crisis,  brought  about  by  the  South  N  j 
Bubble,  wrought  ruin  in  thousands  of  households.     G^  <  rj'i 

II.  succeeded  in  1727,  Walpole  continuing  in  power  ns  Pri: ,  i 
Minister.  He  was  forced  into  a  war  with  Spain  (1739).  h  i.-i 
had  given  offense  to  British  merchants  by  checking  t  hr  iLj- 
it  tr^e  carried  on  by  them  in  South  America.  This  war  ti-r- 
minated  ingloriously.  Soon  afterward  Great  Britain  Im-«;iti  -i 
involved  in  the  Austrian  war  of  succession.  The  hattl*-  <i 
Dettingen  (June  17,  1743)  was  won,  but  the  victory  of  »h  i 
French  at  Fontenoy  paralyzed  the  efforts  of  Great' Bri*a!j 
during  the  rest  of  the  campaign,  and  the  Peace  of  Aix-.a- 
Chapelle  (1748)  left  both  nations,  as  far  as  territorie?i  wrr^ 
concerned,  in  the  position  they  held  before  the  war.  M*  .*«n- 
while,  a  second  attempt  had  been  made  by  Prince  ('haK.i 
Edward  Stuart  to  regain  the  throne,  but  was  crushed  at  t  u-- 
loden  (1746).  During  the  Seven  Years' war  Great  Briton m 
sided  with  Prussia,  and  though  40,0(X)  men,  under  the  Dik-i 
of  Cumberland,  were  compelled  to  surrender  Hanover  t*>  r'l' 
French,  Clive  drove  the  French  from  India,  wliile  W<lfi 
conquered  Canada  (Quebec  captured  Sept.  18, 1759).   Georz' 

III.  reigned  1760-1820,  a  most  eventful  period.     A  war  wr  ' 
France  and  Spain  largely  added  to  the  extent  of  the  c(>l«  >tii-t. 
empire  (Treaty  of  Paris,  1763).    The  government  of  the  lo- 
ries caused  much  dissatisfaction,  but  it  was  allayed  by  t}. 
appointment  of  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,  as  Prime  Mini-t.  r. 
An  attempt  to  tax  the  North  American  colonies  dn»vv  th -il 
into  rebellion,  and  led  to  the  formation  of  the  U.  S.  tJi;ly  A. 
1776).    Fox,  Burke,  and  Sheridan  were  the  leadin;;  Whij 
statesmen  during  this  epoch,  but  the  foremost  position  ihu-t 
be  assigned  to  the  younger  Pitt,  who  held  office  until  h> 
death  in  1806.  In  1793  he  declared  war  against  France  *  :Mi- 
out  any  real  cause,  but  simply  because  his  sympathies  wi.>- 
anti-republican,  and  this  war  can  be  said  to  fiave  tenniiiat»  <: 
only  with  the  battle  of  Waterloo  (1815).    In  this  j)eri(Nl  le. 
the  war  with  the  U.  S.  (1812-14).    An  Irish  rebellion.  as>i>'. 
by  a  French  force,  was  an  incident  of  the  wars  with  FrarK>v 
but  Great  Britain,  though  suffering  occasional  defeats  >  \i 
land,  finally  was  victorious.    Among  the  naval  battles  w.  r. 
those  of  Cape  St.  Vincent,  Aboukir,  Trafalgar  (1805),  wh.^* 
Vittoria  and  Waterloo  proved    g^eat  victories    nn    l.Hrj'i. 
These  wars  had    increased  the  national  debt   to  an   hm- 
mense  amount,  and  led  to  great  distress  among  the  w«\rkii  ::- 
classes,  whose  discontent  it  was  endeavored  to  suppress  i\ 
severe  measures.    With  George  IV.  an  era  of  reform  j^'t  in 
Commercial   reforms  were  introduced  by   Huski^si»n  avy- 
Canning,  and  an  act  emancipating  Roman   Cathnlit-s  u;,- 
passed  in  1829.    After  the  accession  of  William  IV.  <K" 
the  British  reformers  gained  in  strength  and  a  Whig  ni  :  .- 
try  under  Earl  Grey  again  came  into  oflice,  after  an  cx« .  .- 
sion  of  more  than  fifty  years.    This  ministry  passed  th*-  tir-- 
Parliamentary  Reform  Bill  (1832),  decreed  the  aUiliti.-n  . ! 
slavery  (1834),  and  reformed  the  poor  law  and  the  nnini<  't-.-. 
corporations.    William  IV.  died  m  1837,  and  was  sutrtt  A  • 
by  Queen  Victoria.  Among  the  statesmen  who  have  sway  : 
the  destinies  of  the  country  since  her  accession,  the  n    •• 
prominent  are  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Lord  John  Russell,  tlu^  Ear 
of  Derby,  Lord  Pabnerston,  Gladstone,  Disraeli,  and  L-ri 
Salisbury;  and  for  a  further  account  of  the   hi>ti»ry  .' 
this  penod,  see  the  articles  under  these  titles.     The  i-r^n- 
ci pies  of  free  trade  had  their  most  able  advocate?*  in  < .  1- 
den  and  Bright,  who  succeeded  in  abolishing  the  c<■^^^-i:i••^^ 
(1846),   and   in   carrying  other  measures  for  the   rern-xi. 
of  restrictions  on  trade  and  commerce.    The  politieal  ir- 
stitutions  of  the  country  have  become  largely  dcni'-^-.i- 
ized,  not  only  in  consequence  of  parliamentary  refonr.  }■  :- 
passed  between  1867  and  1888,  but  also  through  Lonl  U  - 
sell's  municipal  reform  of  1835  and  Mr.  Ritchie  s  Lota!  (i-  ^- 
ernment  Act  of  1888,  which  transferred  the  local  admini-tni- 
tion  from  the  "  gentry '*  to  popularly  elected  bodies.     M'   h 
has  been  done  to  promote  education  (Foster's  Sohoi^l  A' '. 
1870),  and  the  social  reauirements  of  the  working  popul.ii  r. 
have  not  been  neglected.     Ireland  has  occupied  a  di>pr.'|  •  r- 
tionate  share  of  tiie  House  of  Parliament,  but  in  spite  of  t'  ■ 
disestablishment  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  ( 1>*^ . 
and  of  five  Land  Acts  intended  to  insure  tne  interests  of ; : 
tenants  and  to  enable  them  to  become  owners  of  tholiti'. 
they  till,  the  agitation  for  Home  Rule  {q.  v.)  is  carrii'l    'i 
as  actively  as  ever.    Of  the  many  wars  which  Great  I'r.; 
ain  has  beVn  called  upon  to  wa^  in  defense  of  tlie  n^ri'  • ' 
supposed  int-erests  oi  the  empire,  that  which  wa?  joii*  ♦ 
undertaken  with  France  in  defense  of  Turkey  (Crimean  w .' 
1854-56)  was  the  most  forinidable,  but  it  coiitribute<l  n^tn 


908 


GREAT  FALLS 


QEBAT  VALLEY 


continued  to  prevail,  notwithstanding  the  greater  distance 
which  it  is  known  the  ship  must  go  over.  Within  the  last 
few  ^ears,  however,  intelligent  navigators  have  begun  to 
substitute  the  great-circle  route  wherever  practicable.  The 
improvements  in  the  aids  to  navigation  have  removed  the 
old  difficulties.  In  addition  to  the  use  of  logarithms,  the 
tables  furnished  by  the  astronomer-royal  for  sweeping  an 
arc  of  a  circle  on  Mercator's  chart  approaching  the  projec- 
tion of  a  great  circle,  and  such  metnods  as  those  founa  in 
the  tables  of  Towson  and  others,  have  relieved  the  navi- 
gator of  the  old  tedious  processes.  The  accuracy  of  the 
star-places  in  our  nautical  almanacs,  and  the  perfection  of 
the  chronometers  of  our  day,  aid  in  determining  a  ship's 
longitude  as  closely  as  her  latitude,  and  our  increasing 
knowledge  of  ocean  meteorology  lends  a  most  valuable  as- 
sistance in  regard  to  the  winds  and  currents.  Beyond  all 
this,  the  introduction  of  ocean  steamers  has  changed  the 
whole  aspect  of  navigation.  It  is  an  age  in  which,  as  the 
eminent  hydrographer  Fitzroy  remarked,  "  to  steer  on  the 
arc  of  a  great  circle  is  much  required  since  steamers  com- 
pete so  keenly  on  the  ocean,"  valuing  everi  an  hour's  gain 
in  voyages  of  great  length.  The  routes  recommended  by 
Capt.  Maury  bstween  a  number  of  prominent  ports  are 
chiefly  great-circle  routes.  The  ^eat  steam-packets  adopt 
this  method.  For  the  introduction  of  steam  has  enabled 
the  mariner  to  shape  his  course  and  lay  the  ship's  head 
whichever  way  he  pleases,  independently,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, of  winds  or  of  deflecting  currents.  In  tne  case  of 
distant  voyages,  as  from  Great  Britain  to  Australia,  the 
great-circle  route  may  abridge  the  distance  more  than  1,000 
miles,  and  in  shorter  distances,  where  the  gain  in  distance  is 
small,  the  gain  in  time  may  be  important.  Even  for  sailing 
vessels  a  knowledge  of  great-circle  sailing  will  often  greatly 
aid  the  navigator  in  shaping  his  course.  A  striking  illus- 
tration is  offered  in  the  extreme  case  of  a  ship  sailing  from 
a  point  in  high  latitude  to  another  on  the  same  parallel 
ISO"*  distant  in  longitude.  The  great-circle  route  is  across 
the  pole,  while  the  rhumb-line  is  along  the  small  circle,  the 
parallel  of  latitude  E.  or  W.,  the  two  courses  differing  90°. 
Since  any  arc  of  a  small  circle  drawn  between  the  two 
points,  and  lying  between  the  pole  and  the  parallel,  is  less 
than  the  arc  of  the  parallel,  a  ship  sailing  on  one  of  these 
small  circles  nearly  W.  would  make  a  less  distance  than  on 
the  Mercator's  rhumb  or  parallel  due  E. 

What  seems  most  needed  for  great-circle  sailing  is  an  im- 
provement in  the  construction  of  charts.  The  present  sea- 
charts,  constructed  almost  without  exception  on  Mercator's 
projection,  do  not  show  great  circles  to  the  eye  directly. 
The  mariner  wishing  to  sail  on  one  has  to  lay  down  the  arc 
on  which  he  usually  sails  on  short  courses.  His  method  is 
to  compute  the  great^circle  course  at  least  once  a  day,  mak- 
ing allowance  in  the  intervals  for  the  change  of  azimuth. 
But  these  constructions  and  computations  constitute  a  task 
too  tedious  for  the  ordinary  navigator.  A  partial  remedy 
for  this  is  supplied  by  Chauvenet's  great  circle  protractor ; 
the  complete  remedy  would  be  the  construction  of  charts 
on  the  gnomonic  projection.  On  this  projection  the  eye  is 
supposed  to  be  at  the  center  of  the  sphere.  The  arcs  on  the 
circumference  are  on  planes  which  are  tangents  to  that  cen- 
ter. Thus  the  great  circles  are  projected  as  straight  lines. 
Charts  on  this  projection  are  as  conveniently  used  by  the 
navigator  as  those  on  Mercator's  projection.  The  Govern- 
ment of  the  IT.  S.  has  ordered  the  preparation  of  such  sea- 
charts,  under  the  direction  of  its  hydrographic  office.  For 
full  information  on  great-circle  sailing,  see  Maury's  and 
Coffin's  NaHgation  ;  Godfray  and  Fitzroy 's  pamphlets ; 
Airy  in  MoiUhly  Notices  Roy.  Astron,  Soc^  vol.  xviii. ; 
Towson's  Tables ;  Nautical  Magazine  for  1847. 

Charles  H.  Davis. 

Great  Falls :  city  (founded  by  Paris  Gibson  in  1887) ; 
capital  of  Cascade  co.,  Mont,  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Montana,  ref.  4-F);  at  the  junction  of  the  Sun  and 
Missouri  rivers,  near  the  falls  of  Missouri,  and  on  the 
G.  F.  and  Canada,  the  Gt.  Xorthern,  and  several  branch 
railways.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  rptjion,  and  near  by  are 
rich  mines  of  gold,  copper,  silver,  lead,  iron,  and  coal,  and 
quarries  of  sandstone.  It  contains  6  churches,  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building,  several  public  schools,  pul)lic  library,  6  banks,  an 
opera-house,  street  railways,  electric-light,  telephone,  water, 
and  sewage  plants,  and  2  daily  and  4  weekly  newspapers. 
An  immense  dam  at  Black  Eagle  Falls  gives  abundant 
power  for  manufacturing.  For  smelting  silver  and  copper 
there  are  3  plants  that  cost  $5,000,000.  Pop.  (1890)  3,979 ; 
(1891)  estimated,  8,000.  Editor  of  "  Daily  Leader." 


Great  Fish  Birer :  a  large  stream  in  British  America, 
flowing  some  500  miles  in  a  N.  E.  course  to  Cockbum  Hay. 
an  arm  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  is  not  navigable.  Its  mouih 
is  in  lat.  67"  8'  N.,  Ion.  94"  40'  W.  Another  river  of  ihe 
same  name  in  the  Cape  Colonv,  Africa,  rises  in  the  Snowy 
Mountains  and  enters  the  In^an  Ocean  in  lat.  33  25  Sl. 
after  a  course  of  230  miles. 

Great  Grimsbj,  grat'  grimz'bi :  parliamentary  and  munii- 
ipal  borough  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Lincoln,  on  th*- 
estuary  of  the  Humber  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  7-J).  It 
has  the  only  good  harbor,  with  the  exception  of  that  of 
Hull,  on  the  east  side  of  England.  Grimsby  is  supposed  V* 
be  the  place  where  the  Danes  landed  on  their  first  inva- 
sion of  England.  It  has  an  immense  fishing-trade,  ami  is 
connected  by  steamers  with  Baltic  ports.  The  import.^  of 
merchandise  at  thb  port  have  an  annual  value  of  abnut 
£4,500,000,  and  the  exports  £7,750,000 :  entrances  and  clear- 
ances of  merchant  marine,  about  3,500  vessels  each  annually. 
Besides  the  fisheries  the  principal  industries  are  ship-buiJd- 
ing,  flax-dressing,  and  brewing.  The  borough  returns  one 
member  to  Parliament.  Pop.  (1891)  town,  51,876;  parlia- 
mentary borough,  61»691. 

Great  Kanaw^haBirer:  a  river  in  West  Virginia:  fonn.-.l 
by  the  junction  of  Gauley  and  New  rivers.  It  is  navigakiit* 
from  its  mouth  at  Point  Pleasant  on  the  Ohio  river  to  t  ht» 
Falls,  2  miles  below  its  origin,  but  only  for  narrow  vcs-*!.-. 
The  stream  is  swift  and  narrow,  flowing  through  a  pictur- 
esque region  abounding  in  coal, salt,  and  iron.  The  rivtr 
is  navigaole  most  of  its  course  for  the  entire  year. 

Great  Manitou^lln :  an  island  belonging  to  Ontario:  in 
the  northern  end  of  Lake  Huron,  S.  of  the  North  Chan  ml : 
140  miles  long  and  of  very  irregular  outline,  especially  on  ilu- 
north  side.  It  is  well  wood^  and  contains  several  lartre 
lakes  and  several  villages.  M.  W.  IJ. 

Great  Pedee'  River:  a  river  formed  in  North  Carolina 
by  the  union  of  the  Rocky  and  the  Yadkin  rivers.  It  fliw- 
S.  S.  E.  into  South  Carolina,  and  reaches  Winyaw  Bay.  in 
its  lower  course  it  is  often  called  the  Waccamaw,  whirh  i- 
properly  the  name  of  an  affluent.  The  principal  tributa nr 
IS  the  Little  Pedee,  which  rises  by  two  main  forks  in  N.Ttlj 
Carolina.    It  is  navigable  150  miles  to  the  falls  at  Clu  rav^ . 

Great  Salt  Lake:  the  largest  lake  in  the  Great  Ba-'v 
(g.  v.),  in  Northwestern  Utah,  between  the  Rocky  Mounts  n 
svstem  and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  lake  was  examim^l  l>y 
Fremont  in  1843,  surveyed  by  Stansbury  in  184d-oO,  ar.'i 
studied  later  by  several  Government  geologists,  especially »  y 
King  and  Gilbert.  It  is  about  80  miles  long  ana  30  t«)  oO 
wide ;  it  is  a  very  shallow  sheet  of  water,  not  over  50  fe»?i  ni 
deepest,  and  less  than  20  feet  on  the  average,  lying  with  fla: 
shores  on  a  desert  plateau,  4,250  feet  alK>ve  t^e  sea.  h> 
dimensions  vary  greatly,  following  variations  in  rain f .ill. 
the  water  being  low  from  1840  to  1860,  about  8  feet  hiu:u  r 
from  1870  to  1880,  and  low  again  in  1890.  Its  area  incna- <] 
from  1.750  scj.  miles  in  1850  to  2,170  in  1869.  In  earii.r 
Pleistocene  time  the  lake  was  much  larger.  (See  Bonxev i  ll l 
Lake.)  Its  tributaries  are  the  Bear  river  from  the  N.  K^ 
Weber  from  the  E.,  and  Jordan  from  the  S.  The  lake  vrnu  ^ 
are  densely  salt,  their  specific  gravity  being  1*1  +.  The  salin*' 
contents  vary  from  14  to  22  per  cent.,  according  as  tht-  lak^ 
is  high  or  low.  The  dissolved  substances  are  chiefly  c-r,!- 
mon  salt,  of  which  the  lake  is  estimated  to  contain  4()0.in)ii,. 
000  tons,  and  of  which  some  20,000  tons  have  been  takiii 
from  it  annually.  No  fish  live  in  the  lake,  its  fauna  \n':i.c 
limited  to  a  small  brine  shrimp  {Artemia  gracilis)  and  f,'' 
larva  of  a  ^y(Fphydr a  gracilis).  A  railway  runs  fn>m  Salt 
Lake  City  to  Black  Kock  (17  miles),  an  extensive  bathing  t  j^'  a'  - 
lishraent,  visited  bj  many  persons  for  the  novelty  of  a  I'^'ri 
in  the  dense  lake,  m  which  the  body  easily  floats,  head  ar,  i 
shoulders  above  water.  W.  M.  Davi>. 

Great  Slave  Lake :  a  body  of  water  in  British  Am.-ri^  i. 
between  60**  40  and  63''  N.  lat.,  and  109"  30'  and  117  :itt»  \^ . 
Ion.  It  is  very  irregular  in  outline,  is  300  miles  in  gr^\*'  -r 
length,  5  miles  in  breadth,  abounds  in  islands,  is  frozen  i<^*  r 
for  half  the  year,  and  has  in  part  high  woody  and  nazo 
shores.  The*  rivers  Hay,  Peace,  Athabaska,  Efnglish.  Ma^  • . 
Linah,  and  other  large  streams  swell  its  waters,  which  ar\- 
discharged  into  the  Mackenzie  river. 

Great  Slave  Rivee  flows  300  miles  from  Lake  Athaba^V  -. 
to  Great  Slave  Lake.  Its  shores  are  in  part  alluvial  au.'. 
fertile.    Its  upper  course  is  broken  by  rapids. 

Great  Valley  (of  Virginia  and  Tennessee):  See  Att±- 
LACHiAN  Mountains. 


910 


GRECIAN  GAMES 


more  immediate  inspiration  from  nature.  If  the  life-like 
pods  and  heroes  would  come  to  their  walls  and  p:ables,  well ; 
if  not,  there  was  still  no  reason  why  the  adornment  by  means 
of  sharply  cut  straight  lines,  slightly  raised  small  circlfe,  lit- 
tle flattened  balls  surrounded  by  deep  grooves  and  alternating 
with  sharp  points  and  the  like-^why  such  adornment  as  that, 
or  even  the  conventional  leaf-ornament  near  it,  should  be 
mingled  with  freer  and  more  expressive  sculptured  forms. 
They  stopped  short-,  awestruck  bv  the  splendor  of  fully  de- 
veloped sculpture  of  the  human  form,  removed  by  this  awe 
of  theirs  from  all  desire  to  work  up  leafage  and  blossoms, 
birds  and  beasts,  or  even  man  in  a  more  picturesque  and 
less  purely  sculptural  treatment,  into  ornament  for  their 
simple  buildings.  To  erect  a  most  delicately  chiseled  and 
carefully  built  frame  for  sculpture  was  clearly  the  chosen 
problem  of  the  artist  in  architectural  forms,  nor  did  he  care 
much  for  any  other. 

The  free  use  of  painting  did  not  change  the  conditions 
of  the  problem  at  all,  for  it  was  used  alike  on  the  sculpture 
itself  and  on  all  parts  of  the  building.  It  may  well  be,liow- 
ever,  that  this  painting  gave  to  the  whole  composition  a 
unity  which  we  can  not  perfectly  understand.  As  we  con- 
ceive the  front  of  a  temple,  with  the  immense  group  of 
statuary,  above  life-size,  in  its  gable,  this  statuary  is  well 
set  to  be  seen,  and  is  well  framed  by  the  building ;  but  may 
not  the  painting  have  brought  all  together  into  a  greater 
harmony  and  made  it  more  perfectly  one  composition  than 
is  conceivable  without  it? 

In  these  remarks  we  have  considered  rather  the  temples 
of  Doric  style  than  the  fewer  Ionic,  or  than  the  very  few  Co- 
rinthian structures  of  true  Grecian  origin.  The  Ionic  build- 
ing seem  to  be  of  a  more  sophisticated  style,  more  self-con- 
scious, more  deliberately  architectural,  less  naif  and  sim- 
ple. The  builders  of  the  Ionic  temples,  abandonmg  in  great 
measure  paint  for  contrast  of  color  in  the  marbles  used,  as 
in  the  Erechtheion,  or  carving  moldings  into  patterns  in 
places  where  the  Doric  style  left  all  plain,  in  simple  parallel 
meml)ers.  or  working  at  the  perfecting  of  an  elaborate  capi- 
tal with  spiral  volutes,  instead  of  the  plain  round  cushion 
of  the  Doric  style,  seem  to  have  been  trying  to  make  their 
style  more  comprehensive  and  more  in  control  of  its  own 
sculpture  than  was  the  Doric. 

In  this  connection  it  is  noticeable  that  the  two  or  three 
best-known  attempts  at  sculpture  closely  allied  to  the  archi- 
tecture are  connected  with  Ionic  buildings.  The  caryatides 
of  the  Erechtheion  at  Athens,  the  columncB  codatcB  or  adorned 
columns  of  the  great  temple  at  Ephesus,  and  the  gigantic 
friezes  at  Pergamon  will  at  once  suggest  themselves.  In  the 
first  instance  draped  female  figures  serve  as  pillars,  and  carry 
on  their  heads  an  entablature  especially  designed  for  its  un- 
usual position — much  reduced  in  the  number  of  its  parts 
and  simplified.  These  figures  are  of  the  noblest  and  most 
appropriate  design,  and  are  of  the  highest  value  as  showing 
what  the  Greeks  could  have  done  with  architectural  sculp- 
ture as  distinguished  from  that  which  is  independently 
conceived.  In  the  second  instance,  human  figures  in  relief 
are  carved  upon  the  lowest  part  of  the  shafts  of  some,  not 
all,  of  the  columns  of  the  external  row — a  poor  device,  in  no 
way  worthy  of  imitation,  but  suggesting  much  as  possible. 
In  the  third  instance,  a  composition  of  the  most  original 
and  indeed  unique  character  results.  (See  Peroamon  and 
Sculpture.)  All  these  are  of  Grecian  origin  and  of  the  time 
of  Grecian  supremacy.  What  was  done  under  the  Roman 
dominion,  in  this  style  and  in  the  Corinthian,  seems  to  have 
been  a  fairly  natural  working  out  of  that  general  scheme, 
an  emancipation  of  post-and-Tintel  architecture  from  its  sub- 
servience to  sculpture.  That  this  was  done  without  the 
amazing  refinement  of  the  earlier  work  can  only  be  re- 
gretted. Epochs  of  great  architecture  have  been  few ;  the 
&reek  epoch  had  closed  before  the  Roman  demand  for  tem- 
ples began,  and  no  Romano-Greek  epoch  was  to  follow  until 
the  new  world  began  under  the  Byzantines. 

Russell  Sturgis. 

Ore^clan  Games :  contests  of  skill,  endurance,  or  strength 
among  the  ancient  Greeks.  Young  and  vigorous  societies, 
like  children  and  youth  in  general,  indulge  freely  in  play, 
and  accord  great  importance  to  sports  and  shows.  It  has 
been  argued  that  in  both  cases  the  readiness  to  expend  physi- 
cal vigor  and  mental  ingenuity  on  exercises  from  which  no 
material  benefit  is  expected  proceeds  from  a  surplus  of 
vitality.  Schiller  pointed  out  that  the  same  craving  for  re- 
lief in  action,  which  he  calls  the  sportive  instinct  {Spielirieh\ 
is  at  the  basis  of  all  art  that  is  not  purely  utilitarian.    The 


designation  of  play,  which  still  clings  to  the  most  serious 
musical  and  dramatic  performances,  tends  to  confirm  iii> 
view.  The  energv,  then,  with  which  the  ancient  Gret*k^  a> 
a  nation  applied  themselves  to  a  great  variety  of  private  and 
public  sports  may  serve  as  an  ^ditional  evidence,  if  any 
were  wanted,  of  their  exuberant  vitality.  It  is  not  neiv-^ 
sary  to  assume  that  the  popular  sports  were  instituted  ami 
fostered  because  of  incidental  benefits  supposed  to  arwr 
from  them  ;  for  sports  conducted  for  a  purpose  cease  to  U* 

{)ure  recreations,  and  so  generally  lose  their  hold  on  popu- 
arity.  Also  it  will  be  observed  that  the  arguments  ad- 
vanced by  advocates  for  the  furtherance  or  toleration  of 
particular  sports,  as  that  cock-fighting  stimulates  military 
valor  (Themistocles),  or  that  the  object  of  horse-races  is  to  iru- 

{)rove  the  breed,  are  of  a  specious  sort.  Still,  sports  so  |K>pu- 
ar  as  to  become  social  and  public  institutions  have  rarely  tn-i-n 
such  as  contemporary  public  opinion  condemned,  whati'v^r 
might  be  the  feeling  of  moralists,  philosophers,  and  leiris- 
lators. 

It  is  to  the  credit  of  the  Grecian  spirit  that  bloodshefl  an<l 
brutality  or  revolting  exhibitions  found  no  place  in  th»ir 
public  amusements,  as  was  the  case,  e.  g.,  with  the  I^tin 
and  Etruscan  peoples,  or  as  has  been  the  case  among  the 
Latin  and  Saxon  peoples,  not  to  speak   of  Africans  or 
North  American  Indians.    Yet  everytning  here  also  is  rela- 
tive.   The  same  Oriental  sense  of  dignity  which  can  not  un- 
derstand why  Europeans  should  descend  to  do  their  own 
dancing  found  the  promiscuity  of  the  Greek  arena  very 
plebeian,   and  this  feeling  was    shared   by  the  Romans. 
Again,  the  chances  of  serious  injury  and  even  death  in- 
curred voluntarily  in   the  Greek  games  make  them  nu  iv 
comparable  with    mediaeval  tourneys   than  with  mmlt>ni 
amateur  exhibitions.    Least  in  conformity  with  customa'-y 
Oriental  or  Roman  or  Christian  ideas  was  the  indiffennrV 
of  the  Greeks  to  exposure  of  the  person,  or  nudity.     Gmot 
res  est  nihil  velare.    But  so  far  from  being  a  rapidly  disar - 
pearing  relic  of  a  savage  condition,  this  indifference  wa> 
with  the  Greeks  of  classical  times  largely  an  acquire*!  one, 
due  on  the  one  hand  directly  to  the  habit  of  gymnastic  t- x- 
ercises,  and  on  the  other  to  the  great  limitation  of  int<r- 
course  between  the  sexes.    It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that 
where  now  a  change  of  clothing  is  made  for  convenience*  in 
physical  exercise,  a  Greek  would  not  have  scrupled  to  d«<it 
every  vestige  of  clothing.     And  it  must  be  rememlxTttl 
that  physical  exercises  engaged  a  thousandfold  more   i>iir- 
ticipation  and  attention  with  the  Greeks  at  large  than  anioui: 
the  modern  civilizec^^ nations.     Another  point  to  l)e  noted 
in  relation  to  Grecian  games  is  the  keen  spirit  of  rivain 
that  seems  to  have  animated  the  Greeks  in  every  sphorf*  ««f 
a(!tion.      "  Ever  to  excel  and    keep  himself    sup>erior  u> 
others"  (ai^y  itpurrt^w  kcH  tmipoxw  ^fifureu  &AXwr),  the  ad- 
monition of  the  aged  Peleus  to  his  son  Achilles  on  his  de- 
parture for  Troy,  is  the  quintessence  of  the  Greek  idea  of 
successful  living.    For  this  no  effort  was  too  intense,  no  vu- 
rifice  too  great.    Nor  was  any  activity  too  lofty  and  sacr»  d, 
or  yet  too  trifling,  to  be  subjected  to  the  rules  govenii; ,: 
competitive  contests;   so  the  chanting  of  hvmns  ti)  tiit 
gods  at  their  festivals,  instances  of  heroism  in  battle,  hon«T- 
able  political  activity  (often  honored  at  Athens  by  theawa-1 
of  a  gold  wreath  worth  1,000  drachmas).     Artistic  talent  h  1-  • 
was  enlisted  in  organized  contests;  the  musician,  the  jh^t. 
the  painter,  the  sculptor  were  pitted  against  rivals  of  th.  :r 
own  craft,  judged  by  juries  of  experts,  and  awarded  pri/t  >. 
most  commonly  of  an  honorary  rather  than  of  a  materia, 
value.   The  great  Attic  dramatists  and  their  works  were.  >*•:.. 
speak,  products  of  the  competitive  masijues  held  in  honor  f 
Bacchus.     Pindar  and  Corinna  sang  onginal  lyric  eomp  -i- 
tions  against  each  other  in  a  Boeotian  poetic  contest.    Pu  •- 
ous  tradition  recorded  a  similar  set  contest  at  Chalcis.  Ku- 
boea,  between  Homer  and  Ilesiod,  the  epic  poets.    A  ptTh  H'> 
equally  dubious  tradition  represents  the  sculptors  PhM  .? 
and  Alcamenes  as  competing  with  each  other  by  means  <  i  v 
public  exhibition  of  models  or  statues,  and  that  sueh  i^  i  - 
tests  were  not  unknown  among  sculptors  of  that  ajre  i^^:- 
tested  by  the  boast  of  Paionios,  inscribed  on  the  jKHit^-':.. 
of  his  FlyingViciory  at  Olympia,  that  "he  also  won  a  \'.  - 
tory  in  fashioning  the  finials  for  the  (great   Olymp'-vi  ' 
temple,"  as  against  the  same  Alcamenes,  probably,     'i  :  ■ 
competitive  public  exhibition  made  by  the  paintor>5  Zei.x.- 
and  Parrhasius  is  a  well-known  story.     It  is  certain  1 1  a* 
these  keen  rivalries  served  as  a  sharp  stimulus  to  the  arti-r* 
called  upon  to  compete,  and  indirectly  hastened  the  pn«i:^'  -- 
of  each  art  as  a  whole.    But  at  the  same  time  it  must  ti  t 
be  forgotten  that  the  natural  development  of  an  art  or  A 


912 


GRECIAN  MYTHOLOGY 


Two  of  the  most  interesting  points  of  a  m^hology  are 
its  cosmogony  and  its  eschatology,  or  its  doctnnes  concern- 
ing that  which  goes  before  and  that  which  follows  aft^r  life 
on  earth.  The  ideas  which  the  Greek  mythology  contains 
of  the  origin  of  the  world  are  very  remarkable,  and  their 
symbolizations  very  suggestive.  Uranus  (heaven)  and  Gaia 
or  G«a  (earth)  arose  out  of  chaos,  and  their  children  were  the 
wild  and  unruly  powers  of  nature,  the  Titans.  One  of  the 
Titans,  Cronus  (time),  who  eats  his  own  children,  slew  his 
father  and  ruled  the  world  for  some  time.  But  Uranus  had 
cursed  his  sons,  and  the  curse  was  fulfilled.  Zeus,  a  son  of 
Cronus,  rose  against  his  father,  and,  after  a  horrible  contest 
which  convulsed  the  whole  world,  he  confined  him  and  the 
other  Titans  in  Tartarus,  and  raised  his  throne  in  Olympus, 
in  the  light-region  above  the  sky.  Much  weaker  are  the  ideas 
of  the  Greek  mvthology  concerning  that  which  will  take 
place  after  death,  though  in  course  of  time  they  become 
very  elaborate.  To  the  dying  man  Hermes  came  and  led 
him  to  Hades,  the  realm  of  shadows,  where  the  deceased  live 
forever,  but  live  a  bloodless  life.  Achilles  said  of  it  that 
he  would  rather  be  a  swineherd  on  earth  than  the  king  of 
Hades.  Later,  the  poets  and  philosophers  tried  to  bring 
some  life  into  this  dead,  monotonous,  shadowy  region. 
When  the  deceased  had  paid  his  obolos,  a  small  coin 
which  his  children  or  friends  had  placed  in  his  mouth, 
Charon  would  ferry  him  over  the  Stvx,  which  flowed  be- 
tween life  and  death  and  surrounded  Hades.  Arrived  at 
the  other  side  of  the  Stvx,  he  had  to  pass  by  Cerberus  in 
order  to  gain  the  large  plain  where  Minos  sat  to  judge  the 
coming.  According  as  the  judgment  read,  he  then  turned 
either  to  the  left  into  Tartarus,  where  Tantalus,  Ixion,  and 
others  were  tortured,  or  to  the  right  into  the  Elysian  Fields, 
where  there  was  a  never-setting  sun  and  spring  twice  a 
year.  But  these  ideas  of  a  final  judgment  and  an  eternal 
punishment  or  reward  never  obtained  a  fast  hold  of  the 
conscience  of  the  Greek  people.  They  were  a  dream,  not  a 
conviction. 

From  Olympus  Zeus  rei^s  over  the  world  and  mankind. 
After  the  fall  of  Cronus  his  three  sons  divided  the  realm. 
Zeus  chose  the  upper  region,  the  heaven;  Poseidon,  the 
ocean  ;  and  Pluton,  Hades ;  the  earth  was  common  to  them 
all.  But,  in  spite  of  this  division,  Zeus  is  the  highest  ruler, 
the  king  and  mther  of  the  gods.  What  the  myths  have  to 
tell  of  him  is  mostly  love-affairs,  but  in  these  stories  court- 
ship seems  only  to  be  a  form  by  which  different  ideas,  gen- 
erally physical,  are  symbolically  represented.  Thus  he  falls 
in  love  with  lo,  the  wanderer,  tne  moon.  But  his  wife, 
Hera,  the  earth,  being  jealous,  transforms  lo  into  a  cow,  the 


crescent  resembling  a  pair  of  cow's  horns,  and  puts  Arpiis 
with  the  thousand  eyes,  the  stars,  to  watch  her.  Henur^, 
the  god  of  the  dawn  which  makes  the  stars  wane,  kilb 
Argos,  and  lo  escapes  in  the  embraces  of  Zeus,  as  the  ni>M>n 
vanishes  in  the  resplendent  light  of  the  sun.  Arouiwi  rhe 
throne  of  Zeus  stand  Poseidon,  A  poUon,  Ares,  Hepli.i'-iii>. 
Hermes,  Hera,  Pallas  Athene,  Artemis,  Aphrodite,  Ht>iia, 
and  De meter ;  in  a  somewhat  lower  sphere,  Pluton,  liecate, 
Helius,  Selene,  Dionysus,  Leto,  Persephone,  Themi>,  hi,<1 
-<Eolus;  still  lower,  the  Graces,  Muses,  Oceanids,  Nereids, 
Nymphs,  Drjrads,  and  Hamadryads ;  and  at  last,  on  the  .ut- 
skirts  of  divinity,  the  monsters,  Cerberus,  the  GorgijiLs.  the 
Harpies,  Pegasus,  Chimiera,  the  Sphinx,  the  Centaure.  and 
the  Sirens.  Such  deities  as  Ate,  Adrastea,  the  £u  men  ides, 
and  Nemesis  occupy  a  peculiar  position.  They  all  refer  to 
the  feeling  of  justice.-  Nemesis  does  not  occur  in  Hcmer. 
She  is  first  mentioned  by  Hesiod,  but  later  poets  and  [)hil  .n<> 
phers  developed  the  idea  with  a  mystic  grandeur  wiiiih 
overawed  Olvmpus  itself.  Prom  Nemesis,  the  just  measure, 
the  inevitable  consequence,  the  iron  connection  betwitn 
cause  and  effect,  no  one  was  exempted,  not  even  Zeus  him- 
self. It  is  also  very  remarkable  that  a  principle  of  eMl. 
such  as  Siva  in  the  Indian,  Ahriman  in  the  Persian,  and 
Loke  in  the  Scandinavian  mythology,  is  not  found  in  the 
Grecian.    See  Mythology. 

The  literature  of  mythology  is  vast,  and  the  chief  general 
works  are  cited  under  the  title  Mythology.  For  the  sp  *  ial 
treatment  of  Grecian  mythology,  see  Gruppe,  Die  Gritih- 
ischen  Culte  und  My  then  in  %hren  Beziehungen  zu  dm 
OrientaliscJien  Rdigionen  (Leipzig,  1887) ;  Lobeek,  At/xuf 
phamMS  sive  de  theologicB  mysticce  Grcecorum  co^ihs 
(K5nigsberg,  1829) ;  Preller,  Griechiache  MythologU  (Heriin. 
1888) ;  H.  D.  Mtiller,  Mythologie  der  OriechiscKm  Siamm^ 
(GSttingen,  1867);  Rhode,  Psuche  (Freiburg,  18(K)):  irn 
Wilamowitz,  Euripid%8  fferakles  (Berlin,  1889);  WeleMr, 
Griechiaehe  Qdtterlehre  (Gottin^en,  1863) ;  Botticher.  Ikr 
Baumkulius  der  ffellenen  (Berlm,  1856) :  Maury,  Jiist oire 
des  Religions  de  la  Grdce  antique  (Paris.  1859) ;  Pei»^ryn, 
Das  Zw5lfg5tter8V8tem  der  Griechen  und  Rdmer ;  Peteiv  (i. 
Religion  oder  Mythologie^  Theoloaie  und  GSttervtrfhrung 
der  Griechen  (Leipzig,  1870) ;  Harrison,  Myiholop  and 
Monuments  of  Ancient  Athens  (London,  1^);  F«)ri>n, 
Mitologia  Greca  (Milan,  1892) ;  Dyer,  Studies  of  tht  (ruds 
in  Greece  at  Certain  Sanctuaries  Recently  Excavated  (Lon- 
don, 1891) ;  Petiscus-Raleigh,  The  Gods  of  Olympus  (New 
York,  1892) ;  Seeman,  T?ie  Mythology  of  Greece  and  Romt 
(New  York,  1890) ;  Gayley,  Classie  Myths  in  English  Lit- 
erature (Boston,  1893).  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  SiERRtTr. 


END  OF  VOLUME  THREE.